Introduction to Psychologyt

8/6/2019 Introduction to Psychologyt

1/32

PROLOGUE

psychology is connected to both the social sciences, such as history oreconomics, and the natural sciences, such as biology and chemistry. As a

social science, psychology explores the influences of society on individualbehavior and group relationships. As a natural science, psychology looks forbiological explanations for human behavior.

THE EARLIEST EXPERIMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY IN SEVENTH CENTURY BC

A most unusual man, Psamtik I, King of Egypt. During his long reign, in thelatter half of the seventh century B.C., he not only drove out the Assyrians,revived Egyptian art and architecture, and brought about general prosperity,but found time to conceive of and conduct historys first recorded experiment inpsychology.

The Egyptians had long believed that they were the most ancient race onearth, and Psamtik, driven by intellectual curiosity, wanted to prove thatflattering belief. Like a good psychologist, he began with a hypothesis: Ifchildren had no opportunity to learn a language from older people aroundthem,they would spontaneously speak the primal, inborn language ofhumankindthe natural language of its most ancient peoplewhich, heexpected to show, was Egyptian.

To test his hypothesis, Psamtik commandeered two infants of a lower-classmother and turned them over to a herdsman to bring up in a remote area. They

were to be kept in a sequestered cottage, properly fed and cared for, but werenever to hear anyone speak so much as a word. The Greek historianHerodotus, who tracked the story down and learned what he calls the realfacts from priests of Hephaestus in Memphis, says that Psamtiks goalwas to know, after the indistinct babblings of infancy were over, what wordthey would first articulate.

The experiment, he tells us, worked. One day, when the children were twoyears old, they ran up to the herdsman as he opened the door of their cottageand cried out Becos!Since this meant nothing to him, he paid no attention,but when it happened repeatedly, he sent word to Psamtik, who at once

ordered the children brought to him. When he too heard them say it, Psamtikmade inquiries and learned that becoswas the Phrygian word for bread.He concluded that, disappointingly, the Phrygians were an older race than theEgyptians.Psamtiks hypothesis rested on an invalid assumption, and he apparentlymistook a babbled sound for an actual word. Yet we must admire him fortrying to prove his hypothesis and for having the highly original notion thatthoughts arise in the mind through internal processes that can be investigated


2/32

Why do people act and think the way they do? Why do people act differentlyin groups than they do when they are alone? How do we know what

behavior is normal and abnormal?

Studying psychology will help you understand your own behavior. You willlearn that you share behaviors with others. You will also learn that human

behavior is very complex. Your behavior is unique to you. No one else behavesexactly like you do.

Physical needs such as food and sleep are known as physiologicalneeds.Cognitiveneeds cannot be seen. They are needs that take place in our minds.Cognitive needs may be just as strong as physical needs. These two types of

needs motivate human behavior.

Psychologyis the scientific study of behavior. Psychologists study both

human and animal behavior. Some psychologists study only behaviors that canbe observed. Others study behavior that cannot be observed such as feelings,thoughts, and motives.

Aristotle (c 384-322 BC), a student of Plato, distinguished three functions of

the soul-the vegetative,concerned with basic maintenance of life; the

appetitive,concerned with motives and desires; and the rational, the governing

function located in the heart. The brain merely performs minor mechanical

processes as a gland.


3/32

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychologyisa fascinatinganddiverse fieldofstudy.

There are one hundred and

ninety-three species of monkeys

and apes. One-hundred and

ninety-two of them are covered with

hair. The exception is the naked

ape self-named, homo-sapiens.

Desmond Morris

----------------------------------------------------

Human beings, the homo sapiens, are the most developed organisms among allcreatures on this earth. Their ability to walk upright, larger brain size relative

to body weight, and the proportion of specialized brain tissues make themdistinct from other species. These features have evolved through millions ofyears and have enabled them to engage in several complex behaviors.Scientists have attempted to study the relationship of complex human behaviorwith the processes of the nervous system, particularly of the brain. They havetried to discover the neural basis of thoughts, feelings, and actions. Byunderstanding the biological aspects of human beings, you will be able toappreciate how brain, environment and behavior interact to generate uniqueforms of behavior.


4/32

FIVE CATEGORIES OF HUMAN NATURE

Consciousness. What place is given in the theoryto the fact that human beingsare aware ? Plainly anyauthor who takes the view that human freedom is real

will give a central place to consciousness, whereas theorists who emphasise thedetermining role ofsocietyor biologymay either downplayindividualawareness or tryto show that a particular personal outlook is the result ofsocietal or biological processes and is not to be regarded as primary.

The self.The importance of identity, selfhood, or the person's awareness of hisor her own characteristics is a second key question. Many social theoristsregard selfhood as merely a product of the individual's place within themultifaceted structure of their society. Indeed, it is often argued that culturesvary in whether the self has much meaning at all in the face of the wholecollectivity. A different line of argument is that, in coming to an awareness of

self, we begin to have access to some degree of choice of what kind of personwe wish to be.

The body. Biological science can be expected to stress the body as the placewhere various causal factors interact and lead the person to act and think inthe way they do. Yet there is a sociology of the body, and theories may very wellstress the way in which social and historical circumstances come to dictate theperson's view of their own body. Maybe, then, the body is best thought of as asocial construction rather than that definite object which biological scientistsclaim to be describing.

Other people. We will find that, at many points on the spectrum betweenbiological science and social theory, authors try to express the inseparability ofthe individual and the collectivity. Biologists note that human evolution hasalways been in the context of an ecology which includes, as a major part, otherpeople. So the individual's developing mental life 'presupposes' other people.Sociologists take the individual to be an intrinsic part of the culture, with theresult that the person owes their 'individual psychology' to the influence ofother members of the collectivity.

The physical world. Perhaps less obvious than the earlier questions, but equallyimportant, is the issue of how the person's relation to the physical world istheorised. For Skinner, the person has no distinct reality and must be viewedas just one element in the web of causes and effects which constitutes theobjective world as a whole. At the other extreme, the 'objective world' is itself ahuman construction. In other cultures (or simply in other people's mental life,as a result of their biography) the world is a very different place.


5/32

Three Levelsof Analysisin Psychology

The areas we might explore to answer questions about some onessuccesshis coordination and focus, his beliefs and attitudes, hisrelationships with his parents and his audiencecan be understood in terms

ofthree types of events, each of which provides a field for analysis.

In humans, the mechanismis the brain and all of the biological factors thataffect it. At this levelofthe brain, psychologists consider not only the activityof the brain but also the structure and properties of the organ itselfbraincells and their connections, the chemical soup in which they exist (includingthe hormones that alter the way the brain operates), and the genes that giverise to them.

At the next level, consider how we use the information that our brains storeand process. At this leveloftheperson, psychologists focus on the contentof

mental processes, not just the internal mechanics that are the focus at thelevel of the brain. Unlike the level of the brain, we no longer talk about thecharacteristics of brain areas or how they operate to process information;rather, we talk about mental con-tents such as beliefs (including ideas,explanations, expectations), desires (such as hopes, goals, needs), and feelings(fears, guilts, attractions, and the like).

We all live in social environmentsthat vary over time and space and that arepopulated by our friendsand professors, our parents, the other viewers in amovie theater, the other driverson a busy highway. Our lives are intertwined

with other peoples lives, and frombirth to old age, we take our cues from otherpeople around us. The relationshipsthat arise within groups make them morethan simply collections of individuals.Psychologists not only study isolatedindividuals, but also investigate the mentalprocesses and behavior of membersof groups. Members of street gangs and politicalparties both have distinctidentities based on shared beliefs and practices that arepassed on to newmembers as culture, which has been defined as the language, beliefs,values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from onegeneration to the next (Henslin, 1999). Thus, at the levelofthegroup,psychologists consider the ways that collections of people (as few as two, asmany as a society) shape individual mental processes and behavior.

Events that occur at every level of analysisbrain, person, and groupareintimately tied to conditions in the physical world. All our mental processesand behaviors take place within and are influenced by a specificphysicalenvironment.


6/32

AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY

HUMANS AND ANIMAL

Behavior is defined as any observable or measureable response by a person oranimal. The definition of psychology includes the study of all behavior,including both animal and human behavior.

HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENTOne of the questions psychology attempts to answer is whether behavior occursas a result of inherited characteristics (hereditary influences) or because ofsome effect of learning (environmental influences).

CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIUOSBehavior is often the product of a consciuos choice. Some behaviors, however,

may result from motives that are below a level of awareness. Many theoristsrefer to these motives as unconsciuos. Both conscious and unconsciousmotives may lead to responses, and psychology therfore studies both.

NORMAL AND ABNORMALPsychology studies both normal and abnormal behavior. It is often difficult todecide whether a behavior or thought pattern should be classified as normal orabnormal. The criteria used to make this decision include the level of distressor disability being experienced how maladaptive, disruptive, or harmful thebehavior is for the person or for society. Decisions of this nature may dependon the specific charecteristics of the individual or the culture in which the

individual resides.

AGE RANGEPsychology studies behavoir over the entire life span. Indeed, becausebehavour may depend on hereditary charecteristics as well as learning,psychologists are concerned with the individual from the moment of conceptionuntil death.


7/32

Theoreticalperspectivesofpsychology

There are many disciplines that study human nature. Psychology is one.Within psychology, the biological, behavioral, psychoanalytic,cognitive and

social- cultural perspectives are complementary. Each has its own purposes,questions, and limits; together they provide a fuller understanding of mind andbehavior.

We are all interested in how people act. Not only do we want to know what ishappening; quite frequently we want to know why. Although these questionsoften are answered in a rather loose or undisciplined fashion, a more rigorousbody of knowledge concerning behavior has developed. This body of knowledgeis called PSYCHOLOGY.

There is a vast field of knowledge in the realm of psychology. The knowledge ofimagination and of imagination turning into thought, the knowledge of feelingand of feeling turning into emotion, the knowledge of passion and of passionturning into expression, the knowledge of impulse and its outlet, the knowledgeof attraction and its contrary effect, the knowledge of the origin and source ofsympathy and antipathy all these belong to psychology. Thus psychology is aknowledge of perceptible things, yet not of solid things that one can touch, andthat is why it is more difficult to explain the laws of psychology in words thanthe laws of material science.


8/32

What Makes Us Human

There are at least as many answers to this provocative and searching questionas there are authors of this compendium. In the various articles you will find

suggestions that include the spirit of man, referring particularly to religion,speech and not just language, imitation and mimetics, cooking, high levels ofcognitive ability, causal belief, that humans are symbolic creatures, innatecuriosity and the desire to know, mental time travel, and the ability to readothers minds. These all have cognitive ability as a common thread and,deriving from this, high-level development of language and culturaltransmission.

Geneticdifferences

For a biologist, who is a geneticist interested in evolution, the obviousexplanation for what makes us human must lie within the genetic differencethat distinguish Homo sapiensfrom other species, especially chimpanzees. Thedata now available on DNA sequences of many species, including the completeDNA sequences of humans, chimpanzees, and several other mammalianspecies, already are enough to place Homo sapiensin the chimpanzee family,and separated even from the other great apes.

Cognitiveabilities

As It is already pointed out, a huge increase in cognitive ability is the mostobvious underlying common feature to almost all the attributes that have beensuggested to make us human. These include, in particular, language andspeech which have enabled a considerable increase in the rate and efficiency ofcultural evolution. Paleontological data clearly suggest that increasing brainsize has been a major feature of the evolution of the human brain. However, itis clear that while an increase in brain size may be a necessary requirement forincrease in cognitive abilities, it is not sufficient. There must be many increasesin the complexity of brain function, at the level of cellular changes andinterconnections, that have made the ultimate increase in cognitive abilitiespossible.

A persuasive argument, that cooking is unique to humans, It is just one of the

many consequences of increased cognitive ability. The ability to cook follows

from the discovery of how to make fire. Darwin argued that The art of making

fire ... is probably the greatest discovery, excepting language, ever made by

man (Darwin 1871 Humans unlike other primates have a belief in physical


9/32

cause and effect which enables the acquisition of new interactions and led to

technology just seems to me to be another facet of this higher level of cognitive

ability in humans as compared to chimpanzees.

A matterofdegreeandcombinations

Innate curiosity is Charles Pasternaks choice for a unique human attribute.But, as he himself admits, there is innate curiosity in animals, but not to thesame extent. He suggests a combination of four inherited attributes that makeshumans unique:

1. Bipedalism freeing the hands for other uses2. Flexible thumb a corollary of bi-pedalism3. Voice box for speech4. Increased brain size

Theappealtoanunknownphenomenon:religionandReductionism

The complexity of the human organism and its cognitive ability, reflected in thegap between the understanding of the mind as compared to the brain, leads toa natural tendency to appeal to unknown phenomena as a form of explanation.For some, this is expressed in the form of spiritualism and religious beliefs,and the mind-brain distinction is paralleled by that between soul and body.Others may argue that some as yet unknown, but perhaps eventuallyknowable, phenomenon will provide the nexus between mind and brain, and soexplain the nature of consciousness.


10/32

IS PSYCHOLOGY IMPORTANT?

The growth of the human mind

is still high adventure,in many ways the highest

adventure on earth.

Norman Cousins

Why psychology fascinates? One reason is thatpsychology is practical. It offersa vast store of information about issues that concern everyone. These issuesrange from broad social questions, such as how to reduce the incidence ofmental illness, to highly personal questions, such as how to improve your self-

control. In a sense, psychology is about you and me. Its about life in ourmodern world.

Scientific thinking is a hallmark intellectual achievement of the human species.Science involves myriad cognitive and intellectual processes, including abstractand symbolic thought; reasoning and logic; pattern recognition; planning;problem solving; creativity; hypothesis testing; mathematical, analytical, andspatial reasoning; intuitive hunches; chance associations; and the art ofcoherent and cogent verbal expression and persuasion, to mention but a few ofits qualities. Science is first and foremost a cognitive activity of the highestorder. Scientists also think and behave in social contexts; have particular

talents and aptitudes; grow up in specific households with particular familystructures and influences; have unique personalities that makescientific thought and behavior more rather than less likely; and are motivatedby curiosity, intrinsic pleasure of discovery, and the triumph of figuring outhow things work. That is, scientific behavior, interest, talent, and achievementstem from basic topics of focus in the field of psychology. Psychologicalprinciples are at work with all scientific thought and behavior. Simplyput,thereisapsychology behindscience.

The guiding assumption behind the psychology of science is that a complete

understanding of scientific thought and behavior requires a psychologicalperspective. As one prominent psychologist of science, Dean Keith Simonton,wrote in Scientific Genius:Withouttheadditionofapsychologicaldimension, I believe,itisimpossibletoappreciate fullytheessenceofthescientificimagination. Andwithoutthisappreciation,theoriginsofscience,theemergenceofnewideasaboutnaturalphenomena,mustescapeourgrasp. Psychologyismandatoryifwewishtocomprehendthescientificgeniusasthegeneratorofscience. This is what the psychology of


11/32

science is all about: to understand scientific thought and behavior we mustapply the best theoretical and empirical tools available to psychologists. Andwhat psychology has to offer the studies of science is indeed unique. Forinstance, only psychologists of science bring the experimental method (that is,random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an

independent variable) to the study ofscientific thought and behavior. Also, incontrast to the history and philosophy of science and in common with thesociology of science, psychology tests hypotheses by means of statisticalanalysis of data.

In addition to the experimental technique and hypothesis testing, psychologycan borrow from historians and examine case studies and apply principles ofbehavior gleaned from the laboratory to the analysis of great figures in science.Consider the case history of one of the best-known and most influentialscientists of all time, Charles Darwin. In The Descent of Manhe wrote: I have

no great quickness of apprehension or wit . . . my power to follow a long andpurely abstract train of thought is very limited . . . [but] I am superior to thecommon run of men in noticing things which easily escape attention, and inobserving them carefully. Darwins own self-evaluation of his strengths andweaknesses gives a glimpse into his own self-conceptclearly a psychologicalconcept. Moreover, ability with abstract thought, attention, and focus ondetails are very much psychological in nature; cognitive psychologists amongothers have much to say about these aptitudes. What precisely is theassociation between Darwins life and personality and his science?

To a psychologist of science it is obvious that scientific thought and behaviorare the outcomes of a persons cognitive style and aptitudes; affective,motivational, and developmental histories and proclivities; and their uniqueand stable personality traits and social influences. These topics, after all, arethe bread and butter of current psychological inquiry and psychologicalscience. And given the importance and uniqueness of scientific thinking andbehavior over the course of history, one would think that a large number ofpsychologists would have long ago systematically applied their theories andempirical methods to understanding science.

I ask the questions Why do humansand no other speciesdo science? andHow did we go from Australopithecus(non-homo hominid species) to earlyHomo(for example, habilis, erectus, and neanderthalensis) to living in a world ofhigh-energy subatomic particle physics, sequencing the entire human genome,being able to send space craft out of our solar system, and having machinesthat can outplay any human in the world in chess?.


12/32

Of course, an evolutionary perspective takes us on a journey that is not specificto science and scientific thinking, but rather on a journey that explores themodern human mind in general. Symbolic, abstract thought, language,literature, art, music, and other pinnacles of human cognitive and aestheticcapacities are also unique expressions of the modern human mind.

If I have done my job, then youthe readerwill come away convinced thatpsychological research and theory add a crucial and even necessaryperspective to our understanding of the scientific mind, and that other studiesof science can no longer turn a deaf ear to what psychologists of science havelearned. Psychologists of science now know too much about the nature ofscientific thinking, the developmental origins of theory construction, scientificpersonality, scientific motivation, scientific interests, and scientific creativityand achievement for these insights not to be integrated and synthesized in one

place. Science is a fascinating accomplishment of the human

mind, and so, too, is the psychology of science.


13/32

DEFINITION

Psychologyisthescientificstudyof behaviorandmentalprocesses .Human

or

Animal

Behavior is overt, manifest, obvious, and easy to study; the mental processesthat help carryout these behaviors are covert, underlying, hidden, and not easyto study. Besides behavior, what causes these behaviors to occur and themental processes involved in it is an important area of interest for apsychologist.

Psychology is the systematic, scientific study of behaviours and mentalprocesses.

Behaviour refers to observable actions or responses in both humans andanimals. Behaviours include eating, speaking,laughing,running,reading,andsleeping etc.,

Mental Processess, which are not directly observable, refer to a wide range ofcomplex processes, such as thinking, imagining, studying, and dreaming etc.,


14/32

Psychologyessentiallyhastwomaingoals.

The firstis to build a body of knowledge about people. Psychologists seek tounderstand behavior when it happens, explain why it happens, and even

predict it before it happens. Two aspects of psychology are important inachieving this goal: the conduct of psychological research and the creation oftheoretical models of behavior. Research and theory go hand in hand inpsychology.

Description : (WHAT IS HAPPENING )

This is to describe the different ways that organism behaves. In a psychologicalstudy, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately aspossible. This helps in distinguishing a particular behavior from other

behaviours. For example, the researcher may be interested in observing studyhabits among students. Study habits may consist of diverse range ofbehaviours, such as attending all your classes regularly, submittingassignments on time, planning your study schedule, studying according to theset schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc. Within a particularcategory there may be further minute descriptions. The researcher needs todescribe her/his meaning of study habits. The description requires recording ofa particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding.

Explanation : ( WHY IT IS HAPPENING)

After describing behavoiur, psychologists explain behavior or the causes of thebehavior or to know the causal factors or determinants of behavior.Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that makebehaviour occur. Also, what are the conditions under which a particularbehavior does not occur. For example, what makes some children moreattentive in the class? Why some children devote less time for study ascompared to others? Thus, this goal is concerned with identifying thedeterminants or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that led to the particularbehaviour) of the behaviour being studied so that cause-effectrelationship between two variables (objects) or events could be established.

Prediction: (WILL IT HAPPEN AGAIN)

Being able to describe and explain behavior psychologists then are able topredict behavior. If you are able to understand and describe the behavioraccurately, you come to know the relationship of a particular behaviour withother types of behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can then forecast that


15/32

under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certainmargin of error. For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able toestablish a positive relationship between the amount of study time andachievement in different subjects. Later, if you come to know that a particularchild devotes more time for study, you can predict that the child is likely to get

good marks in the examination. Prediction becomes more accurate with theincrease in the number of persons observed

Control : (HOW CAN IT BE CHANGED)

Psychologists can predict behavior, then theyoften control behavior. If you areable to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control thatbehaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control refers tothree things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, orenhancing it. For example, you can allow the number of hours devoted to

study to be the same, or you can reduce them or there may be an increase inthe study hours. The change brought about in behaviour by psychologicaltreatment in terms of therapy in persons, is a good example of control.However, the idea of control has both positive and negative sides. The positiveside is that psychologists can help people learn tocontrol undesirablebehaviours by teaching better methods of self-control and ways to deal withsituations and relationships. The negative side is the concern thatpsychologists might control peoples behaviours without their knowledge orconsent. Because many behaviours, are enormously complex, psychologistsuse a combination of different approaches to reach these goals of describe,explain, predicting, and controlling behavior.

The secondgoal of psychology involves taking that body of knowledge andapplying it to intervene in peoples lives, hopefully to make those lives better.Psychologists perform various important roles in pursuit of this goal: astherapists for individuals, families, and groups; as counselors in schools,universities, churches, and other community organizations; as trainers inbusinesses and work organizations; and as consultants for police, lawyers,courts, sport organizations, athletes, and teams. Psychologists work on thefront lines, dealing directly with people to affect their lives in a positive fashion.

The two goals of psychologycreating a body of knowledge and applying thatknowledgeare not mutually exclusive. They share a close relationship, as wellthey should. Psychologists who are on the front lines do not work in a vacuum;they take what psychology as a field has collectively learned abouthuman behavior and use that knowledge as a basis for their applications andinterventions. This learning initially comes in the form of academic training ofcounselors, therapists, and consultants as they achieve academic degrees .


16/32

Application:

The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the

lives of people. Psychological research is conducted to solve problems invarious settings. Because of these efforts the quality of life of people is a majorconcern of psychologists.


17/32

APPROACHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

An approach refers to a focus or perspective, which may use a particularresearch method or technique.

There areS

EVEN approaches recognized to understanding behavior

1. BIOLOGICAL

This approach focuses on how our genes, hormones, and nervous system

interact with our environments to influence learning, personality,

memory, motivation, emotions, and coping techniques.

2. COGNITIVE

This approach examines how we process, store, and use information and

how this information influences what we attend to, perceive, learn,

remember, behave,and feel.3. BEHAVIOURAL

This approach studies how organism learn new behaviours or modify

existing ones,depending on whether events in their environments reward

or punish these behaviours.

4. PSYCHOANALYTIC

This approach stresses the influence of unconscious fears, desires, and

motivations on thoughts, behaviours, and the development of personality

traits and psychological problems later in life.

5. HUMANISTIC

Emphasizes that each individual has great freedom in directing his or

her future, a large capacity for personal growth, a considerable amount

of intrinsic worth, and enormous potential for self-fulfillment

6. CROSS-CULTURAL

Examines the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and

differences on the psychologica and social functioning of a cultures

members.

7.THE EVOLUTIONARY

The most recent modern approach to psychology emerges out of

evolutionary theory and is called the evolutionary approach.It Studieshow evolutionary ideas, such as adaptatio and natural selection, explain

human behaviors and mental processes. Although the evolutionary

approach is relatively new, research has already examined how evolution

influences a variety of behaviors and mental processes, such as

aggression, mate selection, fears, depression, and decision making.


18/32

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Various fields of specialisation in psychology have emerged over the years.Some of these are discussed in this section.

Cognitive Psychology

Whatsthe bestwaytolearnnewinformation?Domenandwomenthinkdifferently?

HOW DO PEOPLE KNOW THINGS?

If these questions interest you, think about being a cognitive psychologist. Cognitive psychology involves how we process, store, and retrieve informationand how cognitive processes influence our behaviors.

Cognitive research includes memory, thinking, language, creativity, anddecision making. Earlier we discussed a relatively new area that combinescognitive and biological approaches and is called cognitive neuroscience.

Cognitive Psychologyinvestigates mental processes involved in acquisition,storage, manipulation, and transformation of information received from the

environment along with its use and communication. The major cognitiveprocesses are attention, perception, memory, reasoning, problem solving,decision-making and language. In order to study these cognitive processes,psychologists conduct experiments in laboratory settings. Some of them alsofollow an ecological approach, i.e. an approach which focuses on theenvironmental factors, to study cognitive processes in a natural setting.Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with neuroscientists and computerscientists.

Biological Psychology

Howdo braincellschangeduring Alzheimersdisease?Howdogenesaffectyourintelligence?

Biological Psychology focuses on the relationship between behaviour and thephysical system, including the brain and the rest of the nervous system, theimmune system, and genetics. Biological psychologists often collaborate withneuroscientists, zoologists, and anthropologists.Biological psychology or


19/32

psychobiology involves research on the physical and chemical changes thatoccur during stress, learning, and emotions, as well as how our geneticmakeup, brain, and nervous system interact with our environments andinfluence our behaviors.

Physiological psychologists or psychobiologists study the biological basis oflearning and memory; the effects of brain damage; the causes of sleep andwakefulness; the basis of hunger, thirst, and sex; the effects of stress on thebody; and the ways in which drugs influence behavior.

Neuropsychologyhas emerged as a field of research where psychologists andneuroscientists are working together. Researchers are studying the role ofneurotransmitters or chemical substances which are responsible for neuralcommunication in different areas of the brain and therefore in associatedmental functions. They do their research on people with normal functioningbrain as well as on people with damaged brain by following advanced

technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc. about which you will study later.

Experimental

Whydoesananimalpressa bartoobtain food?

Canlearningprinciples beusedtodisciplinechildren?

Tese kinds of questions interest experimental psychologists.Experimental psychology includes the areas of sensation, perception,learning, human performance, motivation, and emotion.

Developmental Psychology

Whydosome babiescrymorethanothers?Whathappenstooursexdriveasweage?Developmental pschology examines moral, social, emotional, and cognitivedevelopment throughout a persons entire life.

Developmental psychologystudies the physical, social and psychologicalchanges that occur at different ages and stages over a life-span, fromconception to old age. The primary concern of developmental psychologists ishow we become what we are. For many years the major emphasis was on

child and adolescent development. However today an increasing number ofdevelopmental psychologists show strong interest in adult development andageing. They focus on the biological, socio-cultural and environmentalfactors that influence psychological characteristics such as intelligence,cognition, emotion, temperament, morality, and social relationship.Developmental psychologists collaborate with anthropologists, educationists,neurologists, social workers, counsellors and almost every branch of knowledgewhere there is a concern for growth and development of a human being.


20/32

Social Psychology

Howdoes beinginagroupaffectones behavior?Howcanpeoplemakeagoodimpressiononothers?Social psychology involves the study of social interactions, stereotypes,prejudices, attitudes, conformity, group behaviors, aggression,and attraction.

Social psychologyexplores how people are affected by their socialenvironments, how people think about and influence others. Socialpsychologists are interested in such topics as attitudes, conformity andobedience to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful behaviour, prejudice,aggression, social motivation, inter-group relations and so on.

Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychologyexamines the role of culture inunderstandingbehaviour, thought, and emotion. It assumesthat humanbehaviour is not only a reflectionof human-biological potential but also aproduct of culture. Therefore behaviour should be studied in its socio-culturalcontext. As you will be studying in different chapters of this book, cultureinfluences human behaviour in many ways and in varying degrees.

Environmental Psychologystudies the interaction of physical factors such as

temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural disasters on human behaviour.The influence of physical arrangement of the workplace on health, theemotional state, and interpersonal relations are also investigated. Currenttopics of research in this field are the extent to which, disposal of waste,population explosion, conservation of energy, efficient use of communityresources are associated with and are functions of human behaviour.

Health Psychologyfocuses on the role of psychological factors (for example,stress, anxiety) in the development, prevention and treatment of illness. Areasof interest for a health psychologist are stress and coping, the relationship

between psychological factors and health, patient-doctor relationship and waysof promoting health enhancing factors.


21/32

Industrial/Organisational Psychology

Howcanweincreasetheproductivityofworkers?Howcanweselectemployeeswhowill besuccessful?

If you have an interest in psychology and business, you may wish to considerbecoming an industrial/organizational psychologist.Industrial/organizational psychology examines the relationships of people andtheir work environments.

Industrial/Organisational Psychologydeals with workplace behaviour, focusingon both the workers and the organisations that employ them.Industrial/organisational psychologists are concerned with training employees,improving work conditions, and developing criteria for selecting employees. Forexample, an organisational psychologist might recommend that a company

may adopt a new management structure that would increase communicationbetween managers and staff. The background of industrial andorganisational psychologists often includes training in cognitive and socialpsychology.

Clinical and Counselling Psychology

Whichtypeoftherapyismosteffective?Howdopeopledevelopphobias?

You would be asking these kinds of questions if you werea clinical or counseling psychologist.Clinical and counseling psychologyincludes the assessment and treatment of people with psychological problems,such as grief, anxiety, or stress.

Clinical and counseling psychology deals with causes, treatment andprevention of different types of psychological disorders such as anxiety,depression, eating disorders and chronic substance abuse. A related area iscounselling, which aims to improve everyday functioning by helping peoplesolve problems in daily living and cope more effectively with challengingsituations. The work of clinical psychologists does not differ from that of

counselling psychologists although a counselling psychologist sometimes dealswith people who have less serious problems. In many instances, counsellingpsychologists work with students, advising them about personal problems andcareer planning. Like clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also study thecauses, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders. How are clinicalpsychologists and psychiatrists different? A clinical psychologist has a degreein psychology, which includes intensive training in treating people with


22/32

psychological disorders. In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree withyears of specialised training in the treatment of psychological disorders. Oneimportant distinction is that psychiatrists can prescribe medications and giveelectroshock treatments whereas clinical psychologist cannot.

Educational Psychologystudies how people of all ages learn. Educationalpsychologists primarily help develop instructional methods and materials usedto train people in both educational and work settings. They are also concernedwith research on issues of relevance for education, counselling and learningproblems. A related field, schoolpsychology, focuses on designingprogrammes that promote intellectual, social, and emotional development ofchildren, including those with special needs. They try to apply knowledge ofpsychology in a school setting.

Psychometrics

Whatdocollegeentrancetestsshow?Whatcareer best fitsmyabilities?Tese questions introduce an area called psychometrics, which involvesthe construction, administration, and interpretation of psychological tests.Psychometrics focuses on the measurement of peoples abilities, skills,intelligence, personality, and abnormal behaviors.

Sports Psychologyapplies psychological principles to improve sportsperformance by enhancing their motivation. Sports psychology is a relatively

new field but is gaining acceptance worldwide.


23/32

PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK

Psychologists today work in a variety of settings where they can applypsychological principles for teaching and training people to cope effectively withthe problems of their lives. Often referred to as human service areas theyinclude clinical counselling, community, school and organisational psychology.

Clinical psychologistsspecialise in helping clients with behavioural problemsby providing therapy for various mental disorders and in cases of anxiety orfear, or with stresses at home or at work. They work either as privatepractitioners or at hospitals, mental institutions, or with social agencies. Theymay be involved in conducting interviews and administering psychological teststo diagnose the clients problems, and use psychological methods for theirtreatment and rehabilitation. Job opportunities in clinical psychology attractquite a few to this field of psychology.

Counselling psychologistswork with persons who suffer from motivational andemotional problems. The problems of their clients are less serious than those ofthe clinical psychologists. A counseling psychologist may be involved invocational rehabilitation programmes, or helping persons in makingprofessional choices or in adjusting to new and difficult situations of life.Counselling psychologists work for public agencies such as mental healthcentres, hospitals, schools, colleges and universities.

Community psychologistsgenerally focus on problems related to communitymental health. They work for mental health agencies, private organisations andstate governments. They help the community and its institutions in addressingphysical and mental health problems. In rural areas they may work toestablish a mental health centre. In urban areas they may design a drugrehabilitation programme. Many community psychologists also work withspecial populations such as the elderly or the physically or mentallychallenged. Besides the redirection and evaluation of various programmes andplans, community based rehabilitation (CBR) is of major interest tocommunity psychologists.

School psychologistswork in educational systems, and their roles varyaccording to the levels of their training. For example, some school psychologistsonly administer tests, whereas others also interpret test results to helpstudents with their problems. They also help in the formulation of schoolpolicies. They facilitate communication between parents, teachers andadministrators, and also provide teachers and parents with information aboutthe academic progress of a student.


24/32

Organisational psychologistsrender valuable help in dealing with problemsthat the executives and employees of an organisation tend to face in theirrespective roles. They provide organisations with consultancy services and

organise skill training programmes in order to enhance their efficiency andeffectiveness. Some organisational psychologists specialise in Human ResourceDevelopment (HRD), while others in Organisational Development and ChangeManagement programmes.

Types of Psychology

Academic

Abnormal psychology

Biological psychology

Cognitive psychology

Developmental psychology

History of psychology

Personality psychology

Psychological Testing

Social psychology

Professional

Clinical psychology

Counseling psychology

Educational psychology

Forensic psychology


25/32


26/32

What Psychologists Do

ClinicalpsychologistAdministers and interprets psychological tests; providespsychotherapy.

ClinicalneuropsychologistDiagnoses effects of brain damage on thoughts,feelings, and behavior, and diagnosesthe locus of damage.

CounselingpsychologistHelps people with issues that arise during everydaylife (career, marriage, family, work).

DevelopmentalpsychologistResearches and teaches the development ofmental processes and behavior with age and experience.

CognitivepsychologistResearches and teaches the nature of thinking,

memory, and related aspects of mental processes.

SocialpsychologistResearches and teaches how people think and feel aboutthemselves and other people, and how groups function.

PersonalitypsychologistResearches and teaches individual differences inpreferences and inclinations.

PhysiologicalpsychologistResearches and teaches the nature of the brainand brain/body interactions.

Human factorspsychologistApplies psychology to improve products.

Industrial/organizationalpsychologistApplies psychology in the workplace.

SportpsychologistApplies psychology to improve athletic performance.

EducationalorschoolpsychologistApplies psychology to improve cognitive,emotional, and social development of schoolchildren.


27/32

Behaviorhas threeaspects

Cognitive processesrefer to what anindividual thinks.

Emotional statesrefer to what anindividualfeels.

Actionsrefer to what anindividualdoes.

Three spheres of Psychic activity:

Cognitive sphere sensation,perception,imagination,memory,

attention, thinking,intellect.

Emotional sphereemotionalstates,relations,andreactions.

Motivational sphere wishes,attractions, wills,motives,action,

behavior,andactivity.


28/32

Knowthyself, foronceweknowourselves,wemaylearnhowtocare forourselves,otherwisewenevershall.

Socrates


29/32

Knowing ourselves is a very complicated process. This process starts from:

1.Sensation

Making Contact with the Worldaround Us

The Raw Materials of Understanding

Have you ever wondered why certain smells trigger vivid memories? Why the

moon looks larger on the horizon than when it is directly overhead? The mystery

ofhow we sense and interpret events in our environment constitutes one of the

oldest areas of study in psychology.

Sensation: Input about thephysical worldprovided byoursensoryreceptors.

The study ofsensationis concerned with the initial contact between organisms and

their physical environment. It focuses on describing the relationship between

various forms of sensory stimulation (including electromagnetic and sound waves

and physical pressure) and how these inputs are registered by our sense organs (the

eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin).

2.Perception:The FocusofOur Attention

The way we interpret sensations and organize them into meaningful experiences is

called perception.

Theprocessofselecting,organizing,andinterpretingstimuli;it includes

identification,recognition,andimagesofthestimulusin question;previousexperienceshavearole toplayinit.


30/32

3.StatesofConsciousness

Do you feel more alert and energetic in the morning or in the evening? Have you

ever daydreamed while another person was talking to you so that when they were

finished, you had no idea what they had said? Have you ever stood in front of amirror brushing your teeth while your thoughts were far away? If so, you already

know that every day, we all experience different statesofconsciousnessvarying

levels of awareness of our internal states and the world around us.

And when we go to sleep at night (perhaps to dream) or take some drug that

affects the way we feel, these changes in consciousness are even more dramatic in

scope. Being familiar with these shifts, however, doesnt necessarily help us

understand them. Can we really do two or more things at the same time?

What happens when we fall asleep? What, precisely, are dreams, and do they have

any meaning? How do various drugs affect our emotions, perceptions, and

cognition?

We all experience different states of consciousness varying levels ofawarenessof our internal states and the world around us.

4.Learning

How Weare Changed

by Experience

Is it possible to locate precisely where learning takes place in the brain?

Does watching violence on television cause children to perform violent acts?

Thelearningprocess is crucial to all organisms, including people, since it helps

us adapt to changing conditions in the world around us.

Specifically, theydefinelearningasanyrelativelypermanent changein

behavior,or behaviorpotential,produced byexperience.


31/32

5. MemoryOfThings Remembered...

and Forgotten

Can you remember your first day on campus? Your most recent visit to the dentist?

The teachers you had in grade school? Although these events and people date back

months or even years, you can probably bring vivid images of them to mind.

Similarly, have you everhad problems finding your car after parking it at a

shopping mall or forgotten someones name minutes after being introduced to the

person?

Experiences like this indicate that memoryourcognitive system forstoring

and retrieving informationis indeed, as the saying goes, a funny thing. It

allows us to retain vivid and often accurate memories of events for months,

years, or even decades. Yet just when we need it most, it seems to let us down.

Because it is clearly a crucial aspect of cognition, memoryhas long been

a topic of study in psychology.

6.Cognition

Thinking, Deciding,

Communicating

Why is it that some people are great thinkers, while others are merely average?

What happens in the brain during thought? Do animals think? These and relatedquestions have to do withcognitiona general term used to describe thinking

and many other aspects of ourhigher mental processes. Where cognition is

concerned, thinking and reasoning are only part of the picture. Have you ever

agonized over an important decision, carefully weighing the advantages and

disadvantages of potential alternatives? In all probability you have, perhaps in

terms of selecting a college, choosing a major, or deciding between courses of

action. To make the right decision you probably thought long and hard about the

various alternatives; you tried to reasonyour way to a conclusion about their

relative merits; and finally you made some sort ofdecision. We perform theseactivities many times each day, and in a variety of contexts.

Cognition:The mental activitiesassociated with thought, knowledge,and

memory.

THIS IS CALLED KNOWING OURSELVES

THE END


32/32

THE ABOVE MATERIAL IS PREPARED FOR THE M.A. FINAL

YEAR STUDENTS OF ANDHRA UNIVERSITY (DISTANCE MODE).

Introduction to Psychologyt

Documents