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Introduction to Philosophy

COURSE CODE : BPH - 2301

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1. J. P. Thiroux, Philosophy : Theory and Practice, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

2. A. Matin, An Outline of Philosophy, Mullick Brothers, Dhaka. 3. Harold Titus, Living Issues in Philosophy, New York. 4. Nigel Warburton, Philosophy : The Basics, Routledge, London. 5. E. R. Emmet, Learning to Philosophize, Penguin, London. 6. A. C. Grayling, Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 7. Honer, Hunt and Okholm, Invitation to Philosophy : Issues and Options,

Wardsworth Publishing Company, California.

8. J. O. Urmson and Jonathon Ree, The Concise Encyclopaedia of Western Philosophy and Philosophers, Routledge.

9. Anthony Kenny (edited), The Oxford Illustrated History of Western Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

10. Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

11. Ted Honderich, The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

12. Robert Audi, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

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gigx wPšÍv †_‡KB `vk©wbK wPšÍvi DrcwË

gvbyl Zvi ax-kw³ w`‡q ïay Pvicv‡ki wRwbm wb‡qB †h wPšÍv K‡i Zv bq| wewPÎ RMr

wb‡q Zvi wPšÍvi †kl †bB; Avevi GB RM‡Zi AšÍiv‡j Av‡iK RMr wb‡qI Zvi wPšÍv|

G RM‡Zi mªóv †K? g„Zzï c‡i gvbyl †Kv_vq hvq? †mLv‡b wK N‡U? BZ¨vw` AmsL¨ cÖkœ

Zvi gv_vq Av‡m Ges †m Zvi DËi Luy‡R †ei K‡i| KL‡bv †m mš‘ó nq, KL‡bv ev mš‘ó

n‡Z bv †c‡i Avevi bZzb K‡i wPšÍv K‡i| GB AZxw›`ªq mËv‡K wb‡q Zvi †h wPšÍv Zv

†_‡KI `vk©wbK wPšÍvi DrcwË n‡q‡Q|

Dcmsnvi

`vk©wbK wPšÍv we¯§q, mskq, †KŠZ‚nj, cÖ‡qvRb BZ¨vw` †h †Kv‡bv Kvi‡Y †hLv‡bB ïiæ

†nvK bv †Kb, GwU gvby‡li Rxe‡bi GKwU ¯vfvweK I ¯Ztù‚Z© w`K| ZvB Avgiv

†`L‡Z cvB, cÖwZwU wPšÍvkxj e¨w³iB †gŠwjK cÖkœvewji Rb¨ wKQy wbR¯ DËi Av‡Q, hv

wb‡q Zvi `k©b MwVZ| cÖL¨vZ `vk©wbK Avi.we. †cix e‡j‡Qb, gvbyl †Kej cÖPQbœ

`vk©wbK bq, eis GKRb AvswkK `vk©wbKI e‡U| myZivs Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi, `vk©wbK

wPšÍv †Kv‡bv AvKw¯§K ev A‡jŠwKK e¨vcvi bq, GwU gvby‡li Rxe‡bi Acwinvh© I

¯vfvweK w`K|


GmGmGBPGj c„ôv-5

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `vk©wbK wPšÍvi DrcwËi KviY¸†jv e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

msw¶ß DËig~jK cÖkœ

1| cÖvPxb wMÖK `k©‡bi DrcwË e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| fviZxq `k©‡bi DrcwËi KviY Kx?

K. eû wbe©vPbx cÖkœ

mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| cÖvPxb wMÖK `k©‡bi RbK

i) m‡µwUm

ii) †cø‡Uv

iii) †_wjm

iv) A¨vwi÷Uj

2| me©cÖ_g mskq w`‡q `vk©wbK wPšÍvi

hvÎv ïiæ K‡ib

i) †WKvU©

ii) Kv›U

iii) wnDg

iv) †eKb

3| `vk©wbK m‡µwUm wb‡R‡K cwiPq w`‡Zb

i) Ávb-‡cÖwgK e‡j

ii) Mvb-†cÖwgK e‡j

iii) cÖK…wZ-‡cÖwgK e‡j

iv) †mŠ›`h©-‡cÖwgK e‡j

4| AwaKvsk fviZxq `k©‡bi g‡Z

Rxeb

i) myLgq

ii) ytLgq

iii) Avb›`gq

iv) kvwšÍgq

L. mZ¨ n‡j ÔmÕ Ges wg_¨v n‡j ÔwgÕ wjLyb|

1| †_wj‡mi g‡Z, RM‡Zi g~j Dcv`vb gvwU|

2| †cø‡Uvi g‡Z, we¯§q †_‡K `vk©wbK wPšÍvi DrcwË n‡q‡Q|

3| †WKv‡U©i `vk©wbK wPšÍv m‡›`nvZxZ mËv‡K †K›`ª K‡i M‡o D‡V‡Q|

4| †Rgm, wDDB, wkjvi cÖgyL `vk©wb‡Ki g‡Z, †h wPšÍv Avgv‡ì Avb›` †`q Zv-B Kiv

DwPZ|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| iii) †_wjm 2| iv) †eKb 3| i) Ávb-‡cÖwgK e‡j 4| ii) ytLgq

L.

1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg


GmGmGBPGj c„ôv-6

`k©‡bi ¯iƒc

(Nature of Philosophy)

D‡Ïk¨


`k©‡bi DrcwË eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

`k©‡bi ¯iƒc eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

`k©‡bi c×wZ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

`k©‡bi ¯iƒc Rvb‡Z n‡j, Avgv‡ì cÖ_‡g Rvb‡Z n‡e `k©b Kx? Gi DrcwË †Kv_v

†_‡K, Gi êwkó¨ Kx, Gi welqe¯‘ Kx, j¶¨ Kx? `k©b kãwU g~jZ ms¯‹…Z kã, Gi

mvaviY A_© †`Lv| Ô`„kÕ avZz †_‡K `k©b k‡ãi DrcwË| `k©b ej‡Z mvaviYZ Pv¶zl

cªZ¨¶Y‡K eySvq, Z‡e GLv‡b `k©b gv‡b ZË¡-`k©b, RMr I Rxe‡bi ¯iƒc Dcjwä|

Avgiv Av‡MB †R‡bwQ, `k©b kãwUi Bs‡iwR cÖwZkã Philosophy| GwU wMÖK fvlv

†_‡K G‡m‡Q| Philos gv‡b n‡jv AbyivM (loving) Ges Sophia gv‡b n†jv Ávb

(knowledge)| myZivs Philosophy Gi eÿrcwËMZ A_© n‡PQ, Áv‡bi cÖwZ

AbyivM| Avi Áv‡bi cÖwZ hvi AbyivM Av‡Q †m-B `vk©wbK|

`k©‡bi msÁvq ejv hvq, GwU Ggb GKwU we`¨v hv Aby`vi gZev`, fvev‡eM I AÜwek¦vm

†_‡K gy³ n‡q Ávb ev m‡Zï AbymÜv‡b D`vi `„wófw½, Abya¨vb, we‡kølY I ms‡køl‡Yi

gva¨‡g mËv, RMr I Rxe‡bi mv‡_ RwoZ wPišÍb mgm¨vewji myôz, hyw³m¤§Z I `„p

Av‡jvPbv Kivi GKUv cÖ‡Póv|

`k©‡bi KwZcq êwkó¨

we¯§q †_‡K wRÁvmv Ges wRÁvmv †_‡KB `k©‡bi D™¢e Av•¶

GB wewPÎ RM‡Zi w`‡K gvbyl hLbB ZvwK‡q †`‡L ZLbB we¯§‡q Zvi gb f‡i I‡V|

Zvi g‡b †KŠZ‚n‡ji m„wó nq| Zvi g‡b bvbv iKg cÖkœ Rv‡M, GB we‡k¦i DrcwË †Kv_v

†_‡K, †Kv_vq Gi †kl, Gi †Kv‡bv mªóv Av‡Q wKbv, _vK‡j wZwb †Kgb, Zvi ¯iƒc Kx?

Avwg †K, †Kv_v †_‡K Gjvg BZ¨vw` A‡bK cÖkœ| we¯§q †_‡K gvby‡li g‡b †R‡M I‡V

Rvbvi AvKv•¶v| wePvieyw×m¤cbœ gvbyl Pvq, Zvi GB AvKv•¶v PwiZv_© Ki‡Z| Gfv‡eB

D™¢e nq `k©‡bi| GRb¨ †cø‡Uv e‡j‡Qb, Ôwe¯§qB `k©‡bi RbKÕ|

cÖK…Z m‡Zï mÜvb ev Áv‡bi A‡šlY KivB `k©‡bi g~j j¶¨

cvV 2


GmGmGBPGj c„ôv-7

cÖ‡Z¨‡KB RMr I Rxeb m¤c‡K© wKQy aviYv K‡i| wKš‘ GB aviYv me mgq h_v_© ev

m½wZc~Y© nq bv| `k©‡bi KvR n‡jv, gvby‡li GB mvaviY aviYv¸‡jv‡K wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi

gva¨‡g cix¶v K‡i RMr I Rxeb m¤c‡K© mymsnZ I mwVK Ávb cÖ vb Kiv|

ZË¡we`¨vi cÖK…wZ A‡šlY Kiv

e¯‘i ¯iƒc ev h_vh_ iƒc m¤c‡K© Ávb`vb KivI `k©‡bi KvR| `k©‡bi AšÍf©y³ ZË¡we`¨v

(Ontology) e¯‘i `ywU iƒc m¤c‡K© Av‡jvPbv K‡i| GKwU e¯‘i evwn¨K iƒc, AciwU

e¯‘i cÖK…Z ev AvšÍi iƒc| GKwU e¯‘‡K Avgiv †hfv‡e †`L‡Z cvB, Zv n‡jv e¯‘wUi

evwn¨K iƒc| e¯‘i GB iƒc‡K ejv nq Aefvm (Phenomenon) Ges e¯‘wUi cÖK…Z

iƒc‡K ejv nq AvšÍi mËv (Noumenon ev Reality)| evnïƒ‡ci AšÍiv‡j e¯‘i †h

cÖK„Z iƒc _v‡K Zv RvbvB ZË¡we`¨vi KvR| AvKvk †h bxj Zv Avgiv cÖZ¨¶ Kwi - GUv

n‡jv AvKv‡ki evwn¨K iƒc| Avi Avgiv Rvwb, cÖK…Zc‡¶ AvKv‡ki †Kv‡bv is †bB -

GwU n‡jv AvKv‡ki cÖK…Z iƒc ev AvšÍi mËv|

`k©‡bi `„wófw½ mvwe©K I mgšqag©x

`k©b Zvi Av‡jvP¨ welqe¯‘‡K wePvi K‡i GK ALÛ `„wófw½ †_‡K| wewfbœ weÁvb

cÖK…wZi wewfbœ wefvM wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i| ZvB weÁv‡bi `„wófw½ LÛ| wKš‘ `k©‡bi

KvR n†jv, wewfbœ weÁv‡bi wm×všÍ ‡jvi mylg mgšq mvab K‡i ZviB †cÖw¶‡Z RMr I

Rxe‡bi ¯iƒc e¨vL¨v Kiv|

`k©b I weÁv‡bi cv_©K¨ gvÎvMZ, ¯iƒcMZ bq

wek¦RM‡Zi wewfbœ wefvM m¤‡Ü Av‡jvPbv-chv©‡jvPbv Kv‡j, weÁvb wKQy aviYv ev

mZ¨‡K wePvi bv K‡i ¯xKvi K‡i †bq| `k©b †m¸‡jv cix¶v-wbix¶v K‡i Zv‡ì

†hŠw³KZv wePvi K‡i †`‡L| mvaviY Áv‡bi Zzjbvq ‰eÁvwbK Ávb mymsnZ I mymse×|

Avevi weÁv‡bi Zzjbvq `vk©wbK Ávb AviI mymse×, mymsnZ I c~e©vci m¤cK©hy³|

`k©b †`k, Kvj, Kvh©KviY m¤cK©, Ro, †PZbv, gb, weeZ©b, mªóv, mZ¨-wg_¨v BZ¨vw`

welq m¤ú‡K© cÖPwjZ aviYv¸‡jv wePvi K‡i G¸‡jvi †hŠw³KZv wbY©q K‡i Ges `vk©wbK

`„wófw½ †_‡K G¸‡jvi e¨vL¨v †`q|

`k©b n‡jv Rxe‡bi mgv‡jvPbv

`k©b Rxe‡bi ¯iƒc, A_© I D‡Ïk¨ wbY©q I e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z Pvq| Avgv‡ì Rxe‡bi

g~j¨veaviY Kiv `k©‡bi Ab¨Zg KvR| `k©b Rxe‡bi cig Av`k© - mZ¨, ïf I my›ì -

Gi †hŠw³KZv I ¯iƒc wePvi K‡i| ZvB `k©b‡K ejv nq, Rxe‡bi e¨vL¨v I we‡kølY|

`k©‡bi Ab¨Zg KvR n‡jv, RM‡Zi mv‡_ gvbe Rxe‡bi m¤cK© wba©viY Ges wek¦RMr

m¤‡Ü Ggb GK mymse× aviYv †`qv †h aviYvi mv‡_ gvby‡li eyw×MZ, ˆbwZK,

†mŠ›`h©MZ I ag©m¤cK©xq †PZbvi m½wZ _v‡K| GRb¨B ejv nq, `k©b n‡jv Rxe‡bi

mgv‡jvPbv|

`k©‡bi c×wZ


GmGmGBPGj c„ôv-8

`k©b wePvig~jK I c×wZg~jK (Critical & methodical)| `k©b mËv, RMr I Rxe‡bi

mv‡_ RwoZ wewfbœ cÖ‡kœi mvgwMÖKfv‡e Av‡jvPbv I g~j¨vqb Kivi †Póv K‡i| Avi G

Ki‡Z wM‡q `k©b GKw`‡K †hgb wePvig~jK, Ab¨w`‡K †Zgwb msMVbg~jK

(Constructive)| `k©‡b wewfbœ ai‡bi c×wZ - ¯Ávg~jK (Intuitive), we‡kølYx

(Analytic), wePvi-we‡kølYx (Reflective), ms‡kølK (Synthetic) BZ¨vw` c×wZi

cÖ‡qvM ‡`Lv hvq|

`k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq e¨vcK I AbšÍ

RMr I Rxe‡bi ¯iƒc Rvbvi Rb¨ `k©b cig mËv, g~j¨, Ávb, eyw×, AwfÁZv BZ¨vw`

bvbv ‡gŠwjK welq e¨vcKfv‡e Av‡jvPbv-ch©v‡jvPbv K‡i | Avi GB Av‡jvPbvq `k©b

ïay †gŠwjK aviYvi cwi®‹iY Ges †gŠwjK wek¦v‡mi mgx¶Y K‡i bv, eis ms‡køl‡Yi

gva¨‡g RMr I Rxe‡bi GKwU myôz e¨vL¨v †`qvi I g~j¨vq‡bi †Póv K‡i| `k©b ïay

ZË¡v‡jvPbv‡Z mxgve× _v‡K bv, `k©b Pvq Rxeb-RM‡Zi GKUv mvgwMÖK e¨vL¨v w`‡Z| G

Kvi‡Y ‡h †Kv‡bv MfxiZi ev †gŠwjK wRÁvmv `k©‡bi we‡eP¨ welq n‡q c‡o|

Dcmsnvi

Dc‡iv³ Av‡jvPbvi cwi‡cÖw¶‡Z ejv hvq, `k©‡bi ¯iƒc GKK_vq eY©bv Kiv m¤¢e bq|

eis mg¯Í wel‡qi mgš‡qB `k©‡bi ¯iƒc cÖKvwkZ nq|


GmGmGBPGj c„ôv-9

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `k©‡bi ¯iƒc eY©bv Kiæb|


1| `k©‡bi AvwfavwbK A_© Kx? `k©‡bi DrcwË eY©bv Kiæb|

2| `k©‡bi wZbwU êwkó¨ eY©bv Kiæb|

3| `k©‡bi c×wZ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| `k©‡bi Bs‡iwR cÖwZkã

i) Philosophy ii) Psychology iii) Physics iv) †Kv‡bvwU bq

2| Philosophy Gi AvwfavwbK A_©

i) eB Gi cÖwZ AbyivM

ii) Áv‡bi cÖwZ AbyivM

iii) Ávbxi cÖwZ AbyivM

iv) gvby‡li cÖwZ AbyivM

3| e¯‘i evB‡ii iƒc‡K ejv nq

i) Aa¨vm

ii) Avfvm

iii) Aefvm

iv) BswMZ

4| †cø‡Uv e‡jb

i) AvMÖnB `k©‡bi Rbbx

ii) †KŠZ‚njB `k©‡bi Rbbx

iii) wRÁvmvB `k©‡bi Rbbx

iv) we¯§qB `k©‡bi RbK


1| Philos k‡ãi A_© Ávb|

2| `k©b K_vwUi gv‡b ZË¡ k©b|

3| `k©‡bi `„wófw½ msKxY© I LÛ|

4| `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq e¨vcK I AbšÍ|

mwVK D³i

K.

1| i) Philosophy 2| ii) Áv‡bi cÖwZ AbyivM 3| iii) Aefvm

4| iv) we¯§qB `k©‡bi RbK

L.

1| wg 2| m 3| wg 4| m


GmGmGBPGj c„ôv-10

`k©‡bi welqe¯‘

(Subject-matter of Philosophy)

D‡Ïk¨


`k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq‡K Kq fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

wefvM¸‡jv Avevi †Kvb& †Kvb& welq wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

RMr, Rxeb I Áv‡bi wel‡q mvaviYZ Avgiv †hme aviYv ev wek¦vm Kwi Zvi †hŠw³KZv

I g~j¨veaviYB `k©‡bi KvR| Rxe‡bi wewfbœ †¶‡Î Áv‡bi m¤¢vebv, Ro, cÖvY, gb I

mªóvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ Avgiv †g‡b wb‡jI `vk©wbKiv G¸‡jvi ¯iƒc wba©vi‡Yi †Póv K‡ib| wePvi

K‡i †`‡Lb - Avgv‡ì c‡¶ KZUzKz Rvbv m¤¢e? Áv‡bi mxgv wK? Áv‡bi mZ¨Zv wK‡mi

Dci wbf©i K‡i? R‡oi mv‡_ cÖv‡Yi m¤cK© wK? mªóv Av‡Qb wK? mªóvi mv‡_ Rxe I

RM‡Zi m¤cK© wK? BZ¨vw`| myZivs `k©‡bi welqe¯‘i cwimi LyeB e¨vcK| mg¯Í wek¦B

`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi welqe¯‘| †KqvW© (Caird) e‡jb, Ògvby‡li AwfÁZvi Ggb †Kv‡bv

w`K †bB, mgMÖ wek¦mËvi g‡a¨ Ggb wKQy †bB, hv `k©‡bi AvIZvi evB‡i c‡o ev

`vk©wbK AbymÜvb Kvh© hvi w`‡K cÖmvwiZ nq bvÓ| Z‡e `k©b mvgwMÖK `„wófw½i mvnv‡h¨

Zvi Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi e¨vL¨v †`q| `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq‡K cÖavbZ wZb fv‡M fvM Kiv

hvq:

1) Awawe`¨v 2) ÁvbZË¡ I 3) g~j¨we`¨v| wb‡P G¸‡jv Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv

Awawe`¨v (Metaphysics) `k©‡bi †h kvLv †`k, Kvj, Kvh©KviY ZË¡, Ro, cÖvY, gb I mªóvi ¯iƒc wb‡q Av‡jvPbv

K‡i Zvi bvg Awawe`¨v| Awawe`¨vi Av‡jvP¨ welq‡K Avevi wZb fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq: K.

wek¦ZË¡ L. ZË¡we`¨v I M. g‡bv`k©b|

K. wek¦ZË¡ (Cosmology)

Awawe`¨vi †h kvLvq wek¦RM‡Zi cwi`„k¨gvb w`‡Ki AbymÜvb Kiv nq Zv‡K wek¦ZË¡

e‡j| †`k, Kvj, Ro, cÖvY, Kvh©KviY ZË¡, wek¦RM‡Zi DrcwË I µgweKvk, A_v©r m„wó

I weeZ©b BZ¨vw` wb‡q G kvLv Av‡jvPbv K‡i| e¯‘i cwi`„k¨gvb ev evwn¨K iƒc wb‡q

Av‡jvPbv K‡i e‡j G‡K iƒcweÁvb ev Aefvm weÁvb (Phenomenology) e‡j|

wewfbœ weÁvb GB Aefvm weÁv‡bi AšÍf©y³|

cvV 3



L. ZË¡we`¨v (Ontology)

wek¦RM‡Zi cÖK…Z mËv m¤cKx©q Av‡jvPbv‡K ZË¡we`¨v e‡j| ÔOntologyÕ kãwU wMÖK

kã ÔAbURÕ (Ontos) Ges ÔjMRÕ (Logos) ‡_‡K D™¢‚Z n‡q‡Q| ÔOntosÕ kãwUi

A_© mËv Ges ÔLogosÕ kãwUi A_© we`¨v ev weÁvb| ZvB Ontology-i A_© n‡PQ mËv

m¤cKx©q weÁvb (Science of Being)| ZË¡we`¨vq GKZ¡ev`, ˆØZev`, eûZ¡ev`,

Roev`, Aa¨vÍev` BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq| ZË¡we`¨vq wek¦RM‡Zi Avw` mËv

A_v©r mªóvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ Av‡Q wKbv, _vK‡j Zvi mv‡_ Rxe I RM‡Zi wK m¤cK© BZ¨vw` welq

Av‡jvwPZ nq|

M. g‡bv`k©b (Philosophy of Mind)

g‡bv`k©‡b cÖavbZ gb ev AvZ¥vi ¯iƒc, †`n I g‡bi m¤cK©, BPQvi ¯vaxbZv, AvZ¥vi

AgiZ¡ BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq| g‡bv`k©b mv¤cÖwZKKv‡j `k©‡bi GKwU we‡kl

kvLv wn‡m‡e cwiMwYZ n‡q‡Q|

ÁvbZË¡ (Epistemology)

`k©‡bi †h kvLv Áv‡bi ¯îƒc, DrcwË, m¤¢vebv, mxgv I h_v_©Zv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i,

Zv‡K ÁvbZË¡ e‡j| Rxeb, RMr I mªóvi ¯iƒc m¤c‡K© Ávbjvf Kivi Av‡M `vk©wbK‡K

wePvi K‡i †`L‡Z n‡e †h, h_v_© Ávb wK Ges Zv jvf Kiv Avgv‡ì c‡¶ m¤¢e wKbv?

h_v_© Ávb jv‡fi Dcvq wK? Avgiv KZUzKz Rvb‡Z cvwi? Avgv‡ì Áv‡bi DrcwË

wKfv‡e nq? h_v_© Áv‡bi kZ© wK wK? Áv‡bi mZ¨Zv Ges wg_¨vZ¡ wKfv‡e wbiƒcY Kiv

hvq? Ávb m¤cK©xq Gme wRÁvmvB ÁvbZ‡Ë¡i Av‡jvP¨ welq|

g~j¨we`¨v (Axiology)

`k©‡bi †h kvLv g~j¨veaviY I g~j¨welqK ePb wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zv‡K g~j¨we`¨v

e‡j| g~j¨welqK eP‡bi ¯iƒc, mZ¨-g½j-my›`‡ii ¯iƒc AeaviY g~j¨we`¨vi KvR|

g~j¨we`¨vi 4wU kvLv:

K. hyw³we`¨v

L. b›`bZË¡

M. bxwZwe`¨v

N. mgvR `k©b

K. hyw³we`¨v (Logic)

g~j¨we`¨vi †h kvLv m‡Zï cÖK…wZ I AvKvi wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zv‡K hyw³we`¨v e‡j|

‡ewVK hyw³ †_‡K wKfv‡e mwVK hyw³‡K c„_K Kiv hvq Zvi wewfbœ wbqg-Kvbyb

hyw³we`¨vq Av‡jvwPZ nq|

L. b›`bZË¡ (Aesthetics) g~j¨we`¨vi †h kvLv ‡mŠ›`‡h©i cÖK…wZ wbY©q K‡i Zv‡K b›`bZË¡ ev ‡mŠ›`h©we`¨v e‡j|

‡mŠ›`h©we`¨vq †mŠ›`‡h©i ¯iƒc, †mŠ›`h© wbiƒc‡Yi gvb`Û cÖf…wZ welq Av‡jvwPZ nq|

M. bxwZwe`¨v (Ethics)



g~j¨we`¨vi †h kvLv mvgvwRK e¨w³i Kj¨v‡Yi cÖK…wZ wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zv‡K

bxwZwe`¨v e‡j| bxwZwe`¨v ïf ev g½‡ji ¯iƒc, ï‡fi gvb`Û, GKK_vq gvbexq K‡g©i

fvj-g›` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i|

N. mgvR `k©b (Social Philosophy)

g~j¨we`¨vi †h kvLv mgvR Kj¨v‡Yi cÖK…wZ wbY©q K‡i Zv‡K mgvR `k©b e‡j| mvgvwRK

ixwZbxwZ, AvPvi-Abyôvb, cÖwZôvb cÖf…wZi g~‡j †Kv‡bv D‡Ïk¨, Av`k© I g~j¨ Av‡Q

wKbv- Gme welq mgvR`k©‡b Av‡jvwPZ nq|

Dcmsnvi

Dc‡iv³ Av‡jvPbvi cwi‡cÖw¶‡Z ejv hvq, `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq‡K cÖavbZ wZb fv‡M

fvM Kiv n‡jI G‡ì Avevi wewfbœ Dc-wefvM Av‡Q| Z`ycwi `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi

e¨vcKZvi Kvi‡Y wewfbœ welqwfwËK `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbv M‡o D‡V‡Q h_v- BwZnvm `k©b,

A_©‰bwZK `k©b, ivR‰bwZK `k©b, wk¶v `k©b, ag© `k©b cÖf…wZ|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `k©‡bi welqe¯‘ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| `k©‡bi welqe¯‘‡K cÖavbZ Kq fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq? `k©‡bi welqe¯‘ wn‡m‡e

Awawe`¨v Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

2| `k©‡bi welqe¯‘ wn‡m‡e g~j¨we`¨v e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

3| `k©‡bi welqe¯‘ wn‡m‡e ÁvbZË¡ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| `k©‡bi welqe¯‘‡K cÖavbZ

i) 2 fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq

ii) 3 fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq

iii) 4 fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq

iv) 5 fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq

2| hyw³we`¨v †Kv‡bv wefv‡Mi AšÍM©Z

i) Awawe`¨vi

ii) ÁvbZ‡Ë¡i

iii) g~j¨we`¨vi

iv) †Kv‡bvUviB bq

3| mgvRe× e¨w³i g½j wb‡q

Av‡jvPbv K‡i

i) hyw³we`¨v

ii) b›`bZË¡

iii) mgvR `k©b

iv) bxwZwe`¨v

4| Áv‡bi DrcwË, ¯iƒc, m¤¢vebv

BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i

i) ÁvbZË¡

ii) Awawe`¨v

iii) g~j¨we`¨v

iv) g‡bv`k©b


1| e ‘i cwi`„k¨gvb iƒc wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i ZË¡we`¨v|

2| mªóvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ Av‡Q wKbv Av‡jvPbv K‡i wek¦ZË¡|

3| Awawe`¨vi Av‡jvP¨ welq wZb fv‡M wef³|

4| g‡bv`k©b gb ev AvZ¥vi ¯iƒc, BPQvi ¯vaxbZv BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| ii) 3 fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq 2| iii) g~j¨we`¨vi 3| iv) bxwZwe`¨v 4| i) ÁvbZË¡

L. 1| wg 2| wg 3| m 4| m



`k©‡bi KvR

(Functions of Philosophy)

D‡Ïk¨


`k©‡bi KvR wK ai‡bi Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

`k©‡bi KvR‡K Kq fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq Zv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

hw` ejv nq `k©b Kx Zvn‡j Avgiv mvaviYZ ewj, `k©b n‡jv Ggb GKwU we`¨v hv RMr

I Rxe‡bi mKj †gŠwjK welq wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i| GLb ¯fveZt cÖkœ Rv‡M †h we`¨v

RMr I Rxe‡bi mKj †gŠwjK w`K wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Zvi KvR wK? Avgiv GLv‡b

`k‡©bi KvR wK ai‡bi Zv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

`k©‡bi KvR

`k©‡bi KvR‡K †gvUvgywU wZb fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq

1) Abya¨vbg~jK (Speculative)

2) mgv‡jvPbvg~jK (Critical) 3) MVbg~jK (Constructive)|

Abya¨vbg~jK (Speculative)

eyw×e„wËm¤cbœ Rxe e‡jB gvbyl wPšÍv Ki‡Z cv‡i| Avi GB wPšÍv Zvi ¯fveMZ cÖeYZv|

gvbyl hLb wek¦RM‡Zi êwPÎ¨ I wekvjZv †`L‡Z cvq ZLb we¯§‡q Zvi gb f‡i I‡V|

GB we¯§q †_‡K bvbv ai‡bi cÖkœ Zvi g‡b †R‡M I‡V| †hgb, G wek¦RM‡Zi mªóv †K, G

RMr m„wói †cQ‡b Zvi D‡Ïk¨ Kx? gvby‡li G RxebB †kl, bv wK Av‡iK Rxeb Av‡Q?

AvZ¥v wK? g„Zz¨ Kx? mgq Kx? Kvj Kx? Ro Kx? BZ¨vw` bvbv ai‡bi cÖkœ gvby‡li g‡b

Rv‡M| eyw×i gva¨‡g †m G¸‡jvi DËi wb‡RB †`qvi †Póv K‡i| †m wPšÍv K‡i, mwVK

DËi cvIqvi Rb¨ †m n‡q I‡V AviI wPšÍvkxj| Avi GB Rxeb I RM‡Zi †h eyw×m¤§Z

e¨vL¨v w`‡Z gvbyl †Póv K‡i Zv-B `k©‡bi g~jgš¿| Gw`K †_‡K wePvi Ki‡j ejv hvq,

`k©‡bi KvR n‡jv Abya¨vbg~jK|

gvbyl ïay RvMwZK êwP‡Î¨ wKsev we¯§‡q Awff‚Z nq bv, †m GB cÖkœmg~‡ni GKUv myôz I

m½wZc~Y© e¨vL¨v w`‡Z Pvq| Avi Gme cÖ‡kœi e¨vL¨v †`qvi Rb¨ †m KvÛÁv‡bi Avkªq

†bq| wKš‘ KvÛÁv‡bi c‡¶ Zv m¤¢e nq bv, eis DËi¸‡jv n‡q I‡V D™¢U, åvšÍ, wKsev

Am½Z| KviY, KvÛÁvb wb‡RB Am½wZc~Y©| Z_vwc gvbyl †_‡g _v‡K bv| KLbI †m

êÁvwbK Áv‡bi Av‡jv‡K GB mg¯Í cÖ‡kœi DËi †LuvRvi †Póv K‡i| êÁvwbK Ávb hwÌ

cvV 4



KvÛÁv‡bi †P‡q A‡bK DbœZ, Zey êÁvwbK Ávb LÛ I Ac~Y©| weÁvb cÖK…wZi GK

GKwU wefvM wb‡q wfbœ wfbœ Av‡jvPbv K‡i, ZvB RM‡Zi GKwU c~Y©v½ aviYv Avgv‡ì

w`‡Z cv‡i bv| `k©‡bi KvR n‡jv, Abya¨v‡bi gva¨‡g RM‡Zi GKwU mvgwMÖK ev c Y©v½

e¨vL¨v †`qv|

mgv‡jvPbvg~jK (Critical) `k©b me KvRB †h wPšÍv-fvebv ev Abya¨v‡bi gva¨‡g K‡i Zv bq| `k©‡bi A‡bK KvRB

mgv‡jvPbvg~jK| Rxe‡bi †gŠwjK cÖkœ m¤c‡K© †jŠwKK e¨vL¨v A‡bK mgq gvby‡li gb‡K

Zzó Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| Avevi êÁvwbK Av‡jvPbvi †¶‡ÎI wKQy aviYv‡K mZ¨ e‡j a‡i

†bqv nq| `k©b †Kv‡bv wKQy‡K wbwe©Pv‡i mZ¨ e‡j a‡i †bq bv| ZvB me wKQyB

mgv‡jvPbvi gva¨‡g hvPvB-evQvB K‡i hv MÖnY Kiv hyw³hy³ Zv-B †g‡b †bq| hyw³i

Kwócv_‡i hv cÖgvwYZ mZ¨ e‡j cÖZxqgvb nq, Zv-B †Kej `k©b mZ¨ e‡j †g‡b †bq|

Avi hv wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g mZ¨ e‡j cÖgvwYZ nq bv, Zv eR©b K‡i| Gfv‡eB `k©b

wewfbœ †gŠwjK aviYvejxi ‡hŠw³K e¨vL¨v I g~j¨vqb K‡i|

msMVbg~jK (Constructive)

LÛ LÛ mZ¨‡K mgwšZ K‡i GKwU mvgwMÖK mZ¨ Zz‡j aivI `k©‡bi KvR| `k©b ïay

Abya¨vb I mgv‡jvPbv‡ZB mxgve× _v‡K bv| `k©‡bi GKwU MVbg~jK w`KI Av‡Q|

wewfbœ †gŠwjK cÖ‡kœi DË‡ii GKUv msMVbg~jK aviYv †`qvi cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq `k©b| ZvB

ejv hvq, `k©‡bi fvÛvi n‡jv Áv‡bi GKUv c~Y© fvÛvi| `k©b ïay cwi`„k¨gvb RMr bq,

Gi AšÍiv‡j †h AZxw›`ªq RMr Av‡Q, Zvi m¤c‡K©I Av‡jvPbv K‡i| `k©b Rxe‡bi cig

Av`k© mZ¨, my›ì I g½j Gi †hŠw³KZv I ¯îƒc wePvi K‡i| mªóvi mv‡_ m„wói

m¤c‡K©i ¯iƒc wePvi K‡i| Gfv‡e `k©b RMr I Rxe‡bi GKwU mvgwMÖK iƒc Zz‡j ai‡Z

Pvq |



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `k©‡bi KvR ms‡¶‡c eY©bv Kiæb|


1| `k©‡bi Abya¨vbg~jK KvR eY©bv Kiæb|

2| Ô`k©‡bi KvR mgv‡jvPbvg~jKÕ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

3| `k©‡bi msMVbg~jK KvR eY©bv Kiæb|

K) eû wbe©vPbx cÖkœ

mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| `k©‡bi KvR Kq fv‡M wef³

i) 2 fv‡M

ii) 3 fv‡M

iii) 4 fv‡M

iv) 5 fv‡M

2| `k©b n†jv Áv‡bi GKwU

i) LÛ fvÛvi

ii) AvswkK fvÛvi

iii) Ac Y©v½ fvÛvi

iv) c Y©v½ fvÛvi

3| `k©‡bi KvR

i) Abya¨vbg~jK

ii) mgv‡jvPbvg~jK

iii) msMVbg~jK

iv) Ic‡ii me KqwU

4| `k©b Pvq

i) RMr I Rxe‡bi GKwU mvgwMÖK iƒc

Zz‡j ai‡Z

ii) eÁv‡bi ÎæwU¸‡jv Zy‡j ai‡Z

iii) KvÛÁv‡bi ev †jŠwKK Áv‡bi

AmviZv Zz‡j ai‡Z

iv) my›`‡ii cÖK…Z iƒc Zz‡j ai‡Z|

L) mZ¨ n‡j ÔmÕ Ges wg_¨v n‡j ÔwgÕ wjLyb|

1| gvbyl eyw×e„wËm¤cbœ Rxe e‡jB wPšÍv Ki‡Z cv‡i|

2| `k©b †Kv‡bv wKQy‡K wbwe©Pv‡i †g‡b †bq bv|

3| †jŠwKK e¨vL¨v memgq hyw³hy³ nq|

4| `k©b ïay cwi „k¨gvb RMr wb‡qB Av‡jvPbv K‡i|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| ii) 3 fv‡M 2| iv) c~Y©v½ fvÛvi 3| iv) Ic‡ii me KqwU 4| i) RMr I

Rxe‡bi GKwU mvgwMÖK iƒc Zz‡j ai‡Z

L) 1| m 2| m 3| wg 4| wg



`k©‡bi cÖ‡qvRbxqZv

(The Usefulness of Philosophy)

D‡Ïk¨


weÁv‡bi Ae`v‡bi †¶‡Î `k©‡bi f‚wgKv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

mvgvwRK, ivR‰bwZK I ag©xq Rxe‡b `k©b wKfv‡e cÖfve we¯Ívi K‡i Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z

cvi‡eb |

f wgKv

A‡b‡Ki aviYv `k©b D™¢U Kíbv ev ¯cœwejvm| `k©‡bi mv‡_ Rxe‡bi †Zgb †Kv‡bv

m¤cK© †bB| hv‡ì †Kv‡bv KvR †bB ZvivB `k©b PP©v K‡i| GUv Rxe‡bi †Kv‡bv mgm¨v

mvgvav‡bi †Póv K‡i bv| cÖK…Zc‡¶ G ai‡bi wPšÍv GKev‡iB Ag~jK| hv‡ì `k©b

m¤‡Ü †Kv‡bv aviYv †bB, ZvivB G ai‡bi gšÍe¨ K‡ib| `k©b A_© DcvR©‡bi †¶‡Î

mivmwi f‚wgKv iv‡L bv| Z‡e GK_v wVK Rxeb Pjvi c‡_ Gi f‚wgKv Acwimxg| wb‡P

`k©‡bi cÖ‡qvRbxqZv Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|

`k©b m‡Zï mÜvb I e¯‘mËvi †gŠwjK Ávb `vb K‡i

A‡b‡K fve‡Z cv‡ib, `k©b †Kv‡bv Ávb `vb K‡i bv, cÖK…Z mZ¨‡K Avgiv Rvb‡Z cvwi

weÁv‡bi mvnv‡h¨| wKš‘ weÁv‡bi BwZnvm Av‡jvPbv Ki‡j †`Lv hvq, weÁvbxiv †hme

†gŠwjK aviYv ev m~Î wb‡q KvR ïiæ K‡ib, †m¸‡jvi cÖK…Z ¯iƒc m¤c‡K© wePvi-

we‡kølYx Av‡jvPbv I e¨vL¨v K‡i `k©b| `vk©wbK‡ì †`qv mywPwšÍZ Abygvb, Abygvb wewa,

aviYv I cÖKí †_‡K weÁvbxiv Zv‡ì M‡elYvi DcvË I Drmvn cvb| †h †Kv‡bv

êÁvwbK Avwe®‹v‡ii ZvwË¡K wfwËg~‡j _v‡K `vk©wb‡Ki Ae`vb| weMZ wZb kZ‡Ki

weÁvb †h hvwš¿K aviYvi Dci M‡o D‡V‡Q, Zvi mªóv `vk©wbK †WKvU©|

`k©b ¯vaxb wPšÍvi c_‡K cÖmvwiZ K‡i

`k©‡bi g~j KvR Ávb I m‡Zï AbymÜvb|GRb¨ `vk©wbK‡K Av‡cvmnxbfv‡e ¯vaxb wPšÍv

Ki‡Z nq| †Kv‡bv wKQyB G‡¶‡Î Zv‡K evavi m¤§yLxb Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| cÖ‡qvR‡b

nvwmgy‡L Rxeb wemR©b w`‡ZI †m KzÚv‡eva K‡i bv| Zuv‡ì G A`g¨ hvÎv mvaviY

gvbyl‡K †hgb ¯vaxb wPšÍv Kivi Drmvn †hvMvq †Zgwb wPšÍvi c_‡KI cÖmvwiZ K‡i|

A¨vwi÷Uj e‡jb, AvB‡bi f‡q A‡bïv hv K‡i _v‡K, †¯^PQvq I mvb‡›` Zv Kivi

†cÖiYv I ¶gZv Avwg `k©b †_‡K †c‡qwQ|

`k©b mvgvwRK I ivóªxq eë¯’v‡K cÖfvweZ K‡i

cvV 5



gvby‡li `„wófw½, mvgvwRK ixwZbxwZ I ivóªxq eë¯’v G mg¯ÍB `vk©wbK wPšÍv Øviv

cÖfvweZ nq| `vk©wbK wPšÍv RMr I Rxeb m¤‡Ü gvby‡li `„wófw½ M‡o †Zv‡j| K_v,

e³…Zv I iPbvK‡g© wee„Z gZev‡ì g‡a¨ `vk©wbK wPšÍvi cÖKvk ev cÖwZdjb _v‡K|

AvR‡Ki w`‡b mvaviY †jvKI †h e‡j, gvbyl‡K †Kv‡bv Kg© wmw×i Dcvq wn‡m‡e eënvi

Kiv Pj‡e bv, miKvi mvaviY †jv‡Ki †fvU wb‡q M‡o DV‡e GiI †cQ‡b i‡q‡Q `vk©wbK

wPšÍvi cÖfve| ivóªxq bxwZi †¶‡ÎI `k©‡bi cÖfve ¯có| Av‡gwiKvi kvmbZš¿

A‡bKvs‡kB `vk©wbK Rb j‡Ki ivR‰bwZK aviYvi Ici wfwË K‡i M‡o I‡V‡Q| 1789

wLª÷v‡ã gvbe-gyw³i evYx wb‡q †h divwm wecøe n‡qwQj, Zvi g~‡j `vk©wbK iæ‡kvi

Ae`vb Ab¯xKvh©|

`k©b mf¨Zvi KvVv‡gv wbg©vY K‡i

RMr I Rxe‡bi cÖwZ we‡kl `„wófw½ GKwU we‡kl mf¨Zvi KvVv‡gv ˆZwi K‡i| Avi

RMr I Rxe‡bi cÖwZ we‡kl `„wófw½ `k©bB M‡o †Zv‡j| `k©b hZ ewjô I D`vi nq,

mf¨ZvI ZZ ewjô I D`vi nq| `vk©wbK wPšÍvi AMÖMwZi gvbB GKwU we‡kl mf¨Zvi

DrKl© ev gn‡Ë¡i gvb m Pbv K‡i| †h †`‡ki `vk©wbK wPšÍv hZ DbœZ †m †`‡ki

mf¨ZvI ZZ DbœZ|

`k©b ag©xq †eva I bxwZ‡eva RvMÖZ K‡i

mªóv m¤‡Ü aviYv, bxwZ‡eva meB `vk©wbK wPšÍvi Dci wfwË K‡i M‡o I‡V| GKwU

we‡kl †`‡ki ag© I ˆbwZKZv ‡mB †`‡ki we‡kl `k©‡bi cÖfve cÖKvk K‡i| Roev`x

`k©‡bi †`‡ki †jvK ¯vfvweKfv‡e ag© wel‡q bvw¯ÍK Avi bxwZi e¨vcv‡i myLev`x nq| †h

†`‡ki `k©b Aa¨vÍev`x †m †`‡ki gvbyl mvaviYZ ag© wel‡q Avw¯ÍK Avi bxwZi wel‡q

êivMëv`x nq|

`k©b gvby‡li `„wófw½ D`vi K‡i

RMr I Rxe‡bi †hme †gŠwjK cÖkœ m¤c‡K© `k©b Abya¨vb K‡i wKsev we‡kølY K‡i,

†m¸‡jvi `vk©wbK Reve ev mgvavb weÁv‡bi gZ wbwðZ bq| †Kbbv hLbB `vk©wbK

mgm¨vi P‚ovšÍ mgvavb cvIqv hvq ZLbB Zv weÁv‡bi AšÍf©y³ n‡q hvq| `k©b †hme

m‡›`n I cÖkœ DÌvcb K‡i, †m¸‡jvi P‚ovšÍ DËi me© v w`‡Z bv cvi‡jI Avgv‡ì

wPšÍvkw³i cÖmvi NUvq Ges Kzms¯‹vi †_‡K gyw³ cvIqvi c_-wb‡`©k K‡i| Abya¨v‡bi

d‡j msKxY©Zv I e¨w³¯v_© †_‡K gy³ n‡q gvbyl D`vi I gnr gvbwmKZvi AwaKvix nq|

`vk©wbK wPšÍv gvby‡li eyw×‡K wbg©j I gvwR©Z K‡i

wewfbœ mgm¨vi wewfbœ w`K m¤‡Ü `k©b gvbyl‡K mRvM K‡i †Zv‡j| PU K‡i †Kv‡bv

wel‡qi wm×všÍ †bqv DwPZ bq -GUv `k©‡bi wk¶v| wb‡g©vn gb wb‡q mg¯Í wKQy wePvi

Ki‡Z n‡e| hyw³i Kwócv_‡i hv mZ¨ e‡j cÖgvwYZ n‡e Zv-B †Kej MÖnY Ki‡Z n‡e|

†Kv‡bv DPQ¡vm ev fvecÖeYZv †hb `„wó‡K AvPQbœ Ki‡Z bv cv‡i †mw`‡K me© v mRvM

_vK‡Z n‡e| GiKg „wófw½ Øviv mgv‡Ri Amvg¨, Am‡šÍvl I AmvgÄm¨ ` i K‡i

g½jgq mgvR M‡o †Zvjv m¤¢e|



`k©b cÖK…Z MYZš¿ cÖwZôvq mnvqZv K‡i

gvbyl hLb hyw³i Av‡jv‡K Rxeb cwiPvwjZ K‡i ZLb Ab¨vq †jvf I ¶gZv we Ív‡ii

†Póv Zvi _v‡K bv| †jvf I ¶gZv we¯Ív‡ii †Póv †_‡KB hy× ev msNvZ m„wó nq| mv_©K

MYZš¿ cÖwZôvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb Av‡eMnxb I c¶cvZnxb `„wófw½| †`‡ki Kj¨vY-AKj¨vY

m¤‡Ü mwVK aviYv _vK‡jB †Kej †evSv hvq, †Kv‡bv `‡ji gva¨‡g †`k-RbZvi DcKvi

m¤¢e| GRb¨B †nvqvBU‡nW e‡j‡Qb, mvaviY wk¶vq hZw`b ch©šÍ `vk©wbK `„wófw½ bv

_vK‡e ZZw`b mv_©K MYZvwš¿K mgvR M‡o DV‡e bv|

`k©b g‡b Avb‡›ì mÂvi K‡i

`vk©wbK wPšÍv ‡_‡K Avgiv Avb›` cvB| gvbyl eyw×e„wËm¤cbœ Rxe| ZvB †m AÁZvi

AÜKv‡i _vK‡Z cQ›` K‡i bv Zv‡K Ávb-eyw×i Av‡jv‡K c_ Pj‡Z Pvq| GB c_ Pjvq

Zvi KZUzKy jvf n‡e †mUv eo K_v bq, G‡Z Zvi AvZ¥v Avbw›`Z nq, wPË Z…wß jvf

K‡i, g‡bi ¶zav ‡g‡U| wP‡Ëi cÖkvwšÍi Rb¨B gvbyl mZ¨ mÜv‡bi †Póv K‡i| êlwqK

†jvK‡ì g‡Z, G n‡jv AKv‡Ri KvR| wKš‘ Gfv‡eB Avwe®‹…Z n‡q‡Q weÁv‡bi we¯§qKi

welq¸‡jv| †h `vk©wbK cÖK…Z mZ¨ AbymÜvb K‡ib wZwb mÜvb K‡iB Avb›` cvb| GB

wPšÍv ev AbymÜvb wbR¯ g~‡j¨ g~jëvb|

Dcmsnvi

AvcvZ`„wó‡Z g‡b nq, `k©b Avgv‡ì ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b †Zgb †Kv‡bv f‚wgKv iv‡L bv|

wKš‘ GKUz LuywU‡q †`L‡jB †evSv hvq, `k©b Avgv‡ì Rxe‡bi mv‡_ IZ‡cÖvZfv‡e Rwo‡q

Av‡Q| e¨w³MZ, mvgvwRK, ivR‰bwZK, ag©xq cÖwZwU †¶‡Î Gi cÖ‡qvRbxqZv Acwinvh©|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `k©‡bi cÖ‡qvRbxqZv e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| `k©b wKfv‡e mvgvwRK I ivóªxq eë¯’v‡K cÖfvweZ K‡i?

2| `k©b wKfv‡e ag©‡eva I bxwZ‡eva‡K RvMÖZ K‡i?

3| `k©b wKfv‡e cÖK…Z MYZš¿ cÖwZôvq mnvqZv K‡i?


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| cÖK…Z mZ¨‡K Avgiv Rvb‡Z cvwi

i) weÁv‡bi mvnv‡h¨

ii) BwZnv‡mi mvnv‡h¨

iii) mvwn‡Zï mvnv‡h¨

iv) `k©‡bi mvnv‡h¨

2| `k©‡bi g~j KvR n‡jv

i) Ávb I m‡Zï AbymÜvb

ii) KweZv †jLv

iii) nvwmgy‡L Rxeb wemR©b †`qv

iv) Kíbvi RM‡Z nvwi‡q hvIqv|

3| MZ wZb kZ‡Ki weÁvb †h hvwš¿K

aviYvi Dci M‡o D‡V‡Q Zvi cÖe³v

i) jK

ii) Kv›U

iii) †WKvU©

iv) †eKb

4| mv_©K MYZvwš¿K mgvR Movi Rb¨

cÖ‡qvRb

i) BwZnvm cvV

ii) A_©bxwZ m¤c‡K© mwVK aviYv

iii) wk¶vq `vk©wbK „wófw½

iv) mvwnZ¨ cvV|


1| `k©b I a‡g©i g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv m¤cK© †bB|

2| `k©b mf¨Zvi KvVv‡gv wbg©vY K‡i|

3| `k©b gvby‡li `„wófw½ msKxY© K‡i|

4| divwm wecø‡ei g~‡j iæ‡kvi Ae`vb Ab¯xKvh©|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| iv) `k©‡bi mvnv‡h¨ 2| i) Ávb I m‡Zï AbymÜvb 3| iii) †WKvU©

4| iii) wk¶vq `vk©wbK `„wófw½

L.

1| wg 2| m 3| wg 4| m



`k©‡bi wewfbœ msÁv

(Different Definitions of Philosophy)

D‡Ïk¨


wewfbœ `vk©wb‡Ki †`qv `k©‡bi msÁv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

wewfbœ msÁv †_‡K mwVKZi msÁvwU wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

`k©b Kv‡K e‡j? G wel‡q `vk©wbKMY m¤ú~Y©fv‡e GKgZ n‡Z cv‡ibwb| ZvB wewfbœ

`vk©wbK `k©‡bi wfbœ wfbœ msÁv cÖ vb K‡i‡Qb| GB msÁv¸‡jv †_‡K Avgiv `k©‡bi

GKwU mvgwMÖK iƒc jvf Ki‡Z cvwi| wb‡P `vk©wbK‡ì wewfbœ msÁv Zz‡j aiv n†jv

`k©‡bi msÁv : †cø‡Uv

†cø‡Uv e‡jb, kvk¦Z I e¯‘ ¯îƒ‡ci Ávbjvf KivB `k©‡bi j¶¨ (Philosophy aims at the knowledge of the eternal, of the essential nature of things.) |

`k©‡bi msÁv : A¨vwi÷Uj

A¨vwi÷Uj e‡jb, mËv ¯iƒcZ hv Ges GB ¯iƒ‡ci A½xf‚Z †hme êwkó¨, Zvi

AbymÜvb K‡i †h weÁvb Zv-B n‡jv `k©b (Philosophy is the science which investigates the nature of being as it is in itself and the attributes which belong to it in virtue of its own nature.)|

`k©‡bi msÁv : †n‡Mj

†n‡Mj e‡jb, kvk¦‡Zi, Ck¦‡ii ¯iƒ‡ci Ges Ck¦‡ii ¯iƒc †_‡K wbM©Z wRwb‡mi ÁvbB

n‡jv `k©b (Philosophy is the knowledge of that which is eternal, of what God is and what flows out of his nature.)|

`k©‡bi msÁv : eªvWwj

eªvWwj e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv wbQK Aefv‡mi cwie‡Z© ev¯Íe mËv Rvbvi cÖ‡Póv

(Philosophy is an attempt to know reality as against mere appearance.)|

Dc‡iv³ msÁv¸‡jv †_‡K †evSv hvq, †cø‡Uv, A¨vwi÷Uj, †n‡Mj I eªvWwj `k©b‡K

Awawe`¨vi mv‡_ Awfbœ g‡b K‡i‡Qb| Awawe`¨v `k©‡bi GKwU Acwinvh© kvLv| wKš‘

`k©b I Awawe`¨v GK bq| Awawe`¨vi gZ `k©‡bi AviI A‡bK kvLv Av‡Q| ïay GKUv

cvV 6



kvLv‡K m¤c~Y© `k©b e‡j AwfwnZ Ki‡j `k©b m¤‡Ü AZ¨šÍ msKxY© aviYv nq| myZivs

`k©‡bi GB msÁv¸‡jv‡K mwVK e‡j †g‡b ‡bqv hvq bv|

`k©‡bi msÁv : †Kvu‡Z

†Kvu‡Z e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv mKj weÁv‡bi weÁvb (Philosophy is the science of all sciences.)|

`k©‡bi msÁv : cjmb

cjmb e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv mg¯Í êÁvwbK Áv‡bi mgwó (Philosophy is the sumtotal of all scientific knowledge.)|

`k©‡bi msÁv : fz›U

fz›U e‡jb, wfbœ wfbœ weÁv‡bi jä Ávb‡K GKwU mymvgÄm¨ mgMÖZvq GKxKiYB `k©b

(Philosophy is the unification of all knowledge obtained by the special sciences in a consistant whole.)|

`k©‡bi msÁv : †¯cÝvi

nve©vU †¯cÝvi e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv cwic~Y© HKë× Ávb -`k©‡bi mvgvb¨xKiY¸‡jv

weÁv‡bi e¨vcKZg mvgvb¨xKiY¸‡jv‡K Dcjwä K‡i Ges Zv‡ì HKë× K‡i

(Philosophy is completely unified knowledge -the generalisations of philosophy comprehending and consolidating the widest generalisations of science.)|

†Kuv‡Z, cjmb, fz›U I †¯cÝvi `k©b‡K wewfbœ weÁv‡bi GKxf‚Z iƒ‡ci mv‡_ Awfbœ g‡b

K‡ib| wKš‘ Zv MÖnY‡hvM¨ bq| KviY wewfbœ weÁv‡bi Ávb‡K GKÎxKi‡Yi Rb¨ mg¯Í

weÁv‡bi Ávb _vKv Avek¨K, hv GKRb `vk©wb‡Ki c‡¶ m¤¢e bq| ZvQvov êÁvwbK

wm×všÍ m¤c Y©iƒ‡c e`‡j †h‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ `vk©wbK wm×všÍ m¤c Y©iƒ‡c e`‡j hvq

bv| myZivs wewfbœ weÁv‡bi GKxf‚Z iƒc `k©b -GK_v ejv hvq bv|

`k©‡bi msÁv : KvÈ

KvÈ e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv Ávb m¤cK©xq weÁvb I Zvi mgv‡jvPbv (Philosophy is the science and criticism of cognition.)|

`k©‡bi msÁv : wdK‡U

wdK‡U e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv Áv‡bi weÁvb (Philosophy is the science of knowledge.)|

Kv›U I wdK‡U `k©b‡K Ávbwe`¨vi mv‡_ Awfbœ g‡b K‡ib| Ávbwe`¨v `k©‡bi GKwU kvLv

gvÎ| Zuv‡ì GB msÁv `k©b‡K AZ¨šÍ msKxY© K‡i Zz‡j‡Q| Z‡e Giƒc msÁvq ¯có

n‡q D‡V‡Q †h, Ávb-weÁv‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq bq, GUv `k©‡biB Av‡jvP¨ welq|

`k©‡bi msÁv : gviwfb

gviwfb e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv m‡Zï cÖwZ AbyivM - Áv‡bi Ggb c~Y© fvÛvi me mZ¨ hvi

AšÍfz©³ Ges hv‡Z me mZ¨ GK gnvb ALÛZv ev Z‡š¿i g‡a¨ myweb¨¯Í (Philosophy is



love for the truth -the complete body of knowledge that includes in it all truths -all truths organised into one great system.)|

gviwf‡bi GB msÁvq `k©‡bi †¶‡Î mZ¨ jv‡fi ¸iæZ¡ h_v_©fv‡e ¯xK…wZ jvf K‡i‡Q|

wKš‘ m‡Zï cÖwZ ¸iæZ¡ w`‡Z wM‡q `k©b †h my›ì I ïf wb‡qI Av‡jvPbv K‡i, Zv‡K

D‡c¶v Kiv n‡q‡Q| GLv‡b mKj m‡Zï GK gnvb ALÛZvi K_v ejv n‡q‡Q hv m¤¢e

bq|

`k©‡bi msÁv : I‡qevi

I‡qevi e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv cÖK…wZ m¤c‡K© mvgwMÖK gZ A‡šlY Ges e¯‘i mvwe©K e¨vL¨v

`v‡bi cÖ‡Póv (Philosophy is the search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at a universal explanation of things.)|

I‡qev‡ii GB msÁvq, RMr I Rxe‡bi e¨vL¨v †h `k©‡bi KvR, GK_v ¯xK…Z n‡q‡Q|

wKš‘ g~j¨veaviYI †h `k©‡bi ¸iæZ¡c Y© KvR GK_v ¯xK…Z nqwb| Zuvi msÁvwU AwZ

msKxY©Zv †`v‡l `yó| myZivs GB msÁvI Avgv‡ì Kv‡Q MÖnY‡hvM¨ bq|

`k©‡bi msÁv : †hŠw³K cÖZ¨¶ev`

†hŠw³K cÖZ¨¶ev`xiv e‡jb, `k©b n‡jv fvlvi ‡hŠw³K we‡kølY ev mgv‡jvPbv

(Philosophy is critique of Language.)|

†hŠw³K cÖZ¨¶ev`x‡ì g‡Z, `k©‡b GZw`b †hme mgm¨v wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡q‡Q

†m¸‡jv mwZ¨Kv‡ii †Kv‡bv mgm¨v bq, QÙ-mgm¨v gvÎ (pseudo-problem)| †hgb, ªe¨

wK, mªóv wK, AvZ¥v wK, e ‘ vZš¿ ev` I fveev‡ì g‡a¨ †Kvb&Uv wVK? cÖf…wZ cÖkœ ev

mgm¨v QÙ-mgm¨v gvÎ|

†hŠw³K cÖZ¨¶ev`xiv cÖZ¨¶ev`x e‡j hv mvaviY cÖZ¨‡¶ cvIqv hvq bv Zvi Aw¯ÍZ¡

¯xKvi K‡ib bv| weavZv, AvZ¥v cÖf…wZ mvaviY cÖZ¨‡¶i AZxZ, †mRb¨ Zuv‡ì g‡Z

G¸‡jv Aw¯ÍZ¡nxb| myZivs Gme wb‡q Av‡jvPbv A_©nxb|

†hŠw³K cÖZ¨¶ev`x‡ì g‡Z, Awawe`¨vq †h mg¯Í mgm¨v wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq Zv

cÖZ¨‡¶i wfwË‡Z Av‡jvP¨ bq e‡j AjxK, cÖK…Z mgm¨v bq| c~e©eZ©x `vk©wbKiv G

welqwU Dcjwä Ki‡Z cv‡ibwb, Zvi KviY fvlvMZ RwUjZv| Avgiv Ggbfv‡e fvlv

ˆZwi K‡iwQ †h, ¸Y (iƒc, im, MÜ) wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z †M‡j `ªeëvPK †Kv‡bv kã

Avgiv eënvi Kwi| †hgb, iƒc ej‡Z †M‡jB Avgiv †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv `ª‡eï (dzj,

†Uwej) iƒc †evSvB| Avm‡j `ªe¨ e‡j wKQy †bB| GUv Avgv‡ì fvlvi m„wó| Zuv‡ì g‡Z,

Awawe`¨vi mgm¨v¸‡jvi g~jB n‡jv GB fvlvRwbZ weåvwšÍ| `k©‡bi KvR GB mg¯Í

mgm¨vi mgvav‡bi †Póv bq, eis fvlvi we‡kølY I mgv‡jvPbv hv‡Z †evSv hv‡e G¸‡jv

†Kv‡bv mgm¨vB bq| GKK_vq, fvlvi we‡kølY I mgv‡jvPbvB `k©‡bi KvR|



wfU‡Mb÷vBb e‡jb, `k©‡bi KvR wPwKrmvg~jK (therapeutic) -fvlvi mgv‡jvPbv Øviv

Avgv‡ì weåvwšÍ `~i Kiv Ges Z_vKw_Z `vk©wbK mgm¨v¸‡jvi g~j DrcvUb Kiv|

Dcmsnvi

GB Av‡jvPbv †_‡K Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi †h, `k©‡bi me©Rbxb †Kv‡bv msÁv †bB| cÖ‡Z¨K

`vk©wbK Zuvi wbR¯ `„wó‡KvY †_‡K Gi msÁv cÖ vb K‡i‡Qb| Z‡e Gme msÁv

me©RbMÖvn¨ bv n‡jI G‡Kev‡i mwVK bq e‡j Dwo‡q †`qv hvq bv| †Kbbv G¸‡jv

`k©‡bi †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv êwkó¨ wb‡`©k K‡i|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| †hŠw³K cÖZ¨¶ev`x‡ì g‡Z, `k©‡bi msÁv I KvR wK?


1| †cø‡Uv wKfv‡e `k©‡bi msÁv w`‡q‡Qb| Zuvi msÁvwU wK mwVK?

2| nve©vU †¯cÝvi `k©‡bi †h msÁv w`‡q‡Qb Zv wK Avcwb mwVK g‡b K‡ib? Avcbvi

gZvg‡Zi mc‡¶ hyw³ w`b|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| Ò`k©b n†jv Ávb m¤cK©xq weÁvb I

Zvi mgv‡jvPbvÓ msÁvwU w`‡q‡Qb

i) Kv›U

ii) †cø‡Uv

iii) †Kuv‡Z

iv) fz›U

2| wdK‡Ui g‡Z

i) `k©b n‡jv mg¯Í êÁvwbK Áv‡bi

mgwó

ii) `k©b n‡jv mKj weÁv‡bi weÁvb

iii) kvk¦Z I e¯‘ ¯iƒ‡ci Ávbjvf

KivB `k©‡bi j¶¨

iv) `k©b n‡jv Áv‡bi weÁvb

3| `k©b‡K wewfbœ weÁv‡bi GKxf‚Z

iƒc g‡b K‡ib

i) Kv›U I wdK‡U

ii) †Kuv‡Z I cjmb

iii) †cø‡Uv I A¨vwi÷Uj

iv) †n‡Mj I eªvWwj

4| I‡qev‡ii msÁvwU

i) mwVK

ii) AwZ msKxY©Zv †`v‡l yó

iii) AwZ e¨vcKZv †`v‡l yó

iv) †Kv‡bvwUB bq


1| gviwf‡bi g‡Z, `k©b n‡jv mg¯Í êÁvwbK Áv‡bi mgwó|

2| fz‡›Ui msÁvwU me‡P‡q MÖnY‡hvM¨|

3| I‡qev‡ii g‡Z, `k©b n‡jv cÖK…wZ m¤c‡K© mvgwMÖK gZ A‡šlY Ges e¯‘i mvwe©K

e¨vL¨v `v‡bi cÖ‡Póv|

4| wfU‡Mb÷vBb e‡jb, `k©‡bi KvR wPwKrmvg~jK|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| i) Kv›U 2| iv) `k©b n‡jv Áv‡bi weÁvb 3| ii) †Kuv‡Z I cjmb

4| ii) AwZ msKxY©Zv †`v‡l yó

L. 1| wg 2| wg 3| m 4| m



BDwbU - 2

`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ

(Methods of Philosophy)

`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbv I AbymÜv‡bi Rb¨ †h cÖYvjx ev cš’v Aej¤b Kiv nq Zv‡K

`vk©wbK c×wZ e‡j| †`k-Kvj‡f‡` wewfbœ `vk©wbK `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbv I A‡šlvi Rb¨

wewfbœ c×wZ AbymiY K‡ib| eZ©gvb BDwb‡U wewfbœ `vk©wbK c×wZi ‰ewkó¨ Zz‡j aiv

n‡e| KwZcq `vk©wbK c×wZi cwiPq beg BDwb‡UI eY©bv Kiv n‡q‡Q| †h †Kv‡bv

Áv‡bi kvLv ev welq AvqË Ki‡Z n‡j Zvi c×wZmg~n m¤‡Ü mg¨K aviYv jvf Kiv

cÖ‡qvRb|

GB BDwb‡U †gvU QqwU cvV i‡q‡Q

`vk©wbK c×wZ

(Philosophical Methods) Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ : wbwe©Pviev`

(Methods of Approach: Dogmatism)

Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ : wePviev`

(Methods of Approach: Criticism)

AbymÜvb c×wZ : we‡kølYx c×wZ

(Methods of Investigation: Analytic Method)

AbymÜvb c×wZ : ¯Ávg~jK c×wZ

(Methods of Investigation: Intuitive Method)

AbymÜvb c×wZ : Øvw›ØK c×wZ

(Methods of Investigation: Dialectic Method)



`vk©wbK c×wZ

(Philosophical Methods)

D‡Ïk¨


`vk©wbK c×wZi ¯iƒc e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

`vk©wbK c×wZi mv‡_ êÁvwbK c×wZi cv_©K¨ wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

`vk©wbK c×wZi ‡kªYxwefvM D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

c~e©eZ©x BDwbU n‡Z Avgiv `vk©wbK mgm¨vi GKwU †gvUvgywU cwiPq jvf K‡iwQ| eZ©gvb

cv‡V Avgiv Gme mgm¨v wKfv‡e Av‡jvPbv Kiv hvq ev mgvavb Kiv hvq Zv wb‡q

Av‡jvPbv Kie| wKfv‡e A_©vr †Kv‡bv& c×wZ‡Z `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbv-AbymÜvb Kiv n‡e

Ges Kiv m½Z †m m¤‡Ü `vk©wbKMY ¯vfvweKfv‡e GKgZ bb| ¯’vb-Kvj-cvÎ‡f‡`

wewfbœ `vk©wbK I `vk©wbK m¤úÖ vq wewfbœ cÖKvi `vk©wbK c×wZ Aej¤b K‡i‡Qb|

`k©‡bi BwZnvm †_‡K †evSv hvq, `vk©wbK c×wZ wba©vi‡Yi †¶‡Î we‡klZ ag©wek¦vm,

hy‡Mi †gRvR I mgKvjxb wPšÍv-ixwZ cªf‚Z cÖfve †d‡j‡Q|

`vk©wbK c×wZ

`k©‡bi c×wZ n‡jv wePvi-we‡kølYg~jK| †Kv‡bv aviYv (ideas), cÖZ¨q (concepts) ev

mgm¨v (problems)-†K wewfbœ AwfÁZv I mvgwMÖK cUf‚wgi Av‡jv‡K hyw³wPšÍvi wbqg

I †KŠk‡ji mvnv‡h¨ wePvi-we‡kølY KivB `k©‡bi c×wZ| Avi GB wePvi- we‡køl‡Yi

gva¨‡g `vk©wbK mgm¨vi ¯iƒc ev Zvrch© D`&NvUb KivB `k©‡bi KvR|

`vk©wbK c×wZ I êÁvwbK c×wZ

weÁvb c×wZ wn‡m‡e mvaviYZ cix¶Y I ch©‡e¶YwfwËK Av‡ivnx Abygvb ev

mvaviYxKiY (generalisation) bxwZ AbymiY K‡i| mg¯Í cÖK…wZK weÁv‡bi †¶‡Î

AbymÜv‡bi GB c×wZ AbymiY Kiv nq|

wKš‘ `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq cÖavbZ KZK¸‡jv cÖZ¨q e‡j G‡Z weÁv‡bi Dc‡iv³ c×wZ

Abym„Z n‡Z cv‡i bv| `k©‡b RMr I Rxe‡bi wfwË¯’vbxq ev †gŠwjK cÖZ¨qmg~n (basic or fundamental or structural concepts of life and the universe)-‡K mvgwMÖK

`„wó‡KvY I cUf‚wg n‡Z wePvi-we‡kølY Kiv nq Ges Gm‡ei Zvrch© wbY©q Kiv nq| Avi

GmeB Kiv nq hyw³wPšÍv (reasoning) Z_v eyw×e„wËi (intellect) mvnv‡h¨|

cvV - 1



Avgiv Rvwb, MwY‡ZI gbbvÍK ev †eŠw×K (intellectual) c×wZ Abym„Z nq| Ae‡ivnx

Abygvb (deductive inference) ev mvaviYxKi‡Yi gva¨‡gB MvwYwZK m Î I

wm×všÍmg~n M‡o D‡V, G‡¶‡Î Av‡ivnx Abygvb Abycw¯’Z| KwZcq `vk©wbK g‡b K‡ib,

MvwYwZK GB c×wZB n‡jv `vk©wbK c×wZ|

`k©‡bi BwZnvm †_‡K Rvbv hvq †h, `vk©wbK w¯ú‡bvRvi g‡Zv †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK

`k©‡b R¨vwgwZK c×wZ (geometrical method) AbymiY K‡ib| AvaywbK `k©‡bi

RbK †WKv‡U©i `vk©wbK wPšÍv-cÖYvjxI wQj Ae‡ivnvÍK Z_v gbbvÍK| Z‡e `k©‡bi

BwZnvm †_‡KB cwi®‹vi n‡q I‡V †h, `k©‡b MvwYwZK ev R¨vwgwZK c×wZi eënvi

mv_©KZv jvf K‡iwb| `k©‡bi †¶‡Î eëüZ kã, aviYv ev cÖZ¨q cÖvqkB MvwYwZK

¯úóZv I FRyZv eRvq ivL‡Z cv‡i bv| wewfbœ `vk©wbK KL‡bv KL‡bv GKB kã wewfbœ

A‡_© eënvi K‡ib| ZvQvov MvwYwZK wm×všÍ wbðqvÍK| c¶všÍ‡i, `k©‡bi wm×všÍ

m¤¢ve¨gvÎ| GRb¨ MwY‡Zi wbðqvÍK Ae‡ivnx c×wZ `k©‡bi †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡Z cv‡i

bv| hw` G c×wZ eëüZ nZ, Z‡e `k©‡bi wm×všÍI wbðvqvÍK nZ|

`vk©wbK c×wZi †kªYxwefvM (Classification of Philosophical Methods) Ávb jv‡fi

mvg_© , Áv‡bi DcKiY I mxgv cÖf…wZ wePvi-we‡kølY bv K‡i A‡bK `vk©wbK `vk©wbK

Av‡jvPbvq AMÖmi n‡q‡Qb| A‡b‡K Avevi `vk©wbK mgm¨v mgvav‡bi c ‡e© Dc‡iv³

ÁvbZvwË¡K welqmg~n wb‡q cÖ_‡g Av‡jvPbv K‡ib| AZtci `vk©wbK mgm¨vq eªZx nb|

`vk©wbK A‡šlvq cÖe„Ë nIqvi cÖvi‡¤¢ ÁvbZ‡Ë¡i cÖwZ `vk©wb‡Ki GB †h `„wófw½ Zvi

Dci wfwË K‡i mKj `vk©wbK gZev`‡K `yB fv‡M fvM Kiv hvq : wbwe©Pvix gZev` I

wePviev`x gZev`| GKBfv‡e, Gme gZev` cÖwZôvi c×wZmg~n‡K h_vµ‡g wbwe©Pviev`x

c×wZ I wePviev`x c×wZ e‡j AvL¨vwqZ Kiv nq|

`vk©wbK mgm¨v mgvavb ev AbymÜv‡bi †¶‡Î ‡hme c×wZ AbymiY Kiv nq †m¸‡jv‡K

we‡kølYx c×wZ, ¯Ávg~jK c×wZ, Øvw›ØK c×wZ cÖf…wZ c×wZ‡Z wef³ Kiv hvq|

cieZ©x cvVmg~‡n Avgiv wewfbœ cÖKvi c×wZ wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kie|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `vk©wbK c×wZi ¯iƒc e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| `vk©wbK I êÁvwbK c×wZi cv_©K¨ D‡jøL Kiæb|

2| `vk©wbK c×wZi †kªYxwefvM Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

K) mZ¨ n‡j ÔmÕ Ges wg_¨v n‡j ÔwgÕ wjLyb|

1| w¯ú‡bvRv `k©‡b R¨vwgwZK c×wZ AbymiY K‡ib|

2| ‡WKv‡U©i `vk©wbK wPšÍv-cÖYvjx wQj Ae‡ivnvÍK|

3| mKj `vk©wbK gZev`‡K wbwe©Pviev`x I wePviev`xiƒ‡c fvM Kiv hvq|

4| cÖvK…wZK weÁv‡bi c×wZ n‡jv gyL¨Z Av‡ivnvÍK|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| m 2| m 3| m 4| m



Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ: wbwe©Pviev`

(Methods of Approach: Dogmatism)

D‡Ïk¨


wbwe©Pviev‡ì msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB gZev‡ì êwkó¨ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB gZev‡ì Abymvix Kviv Zv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB gZev‡ì ÎæwU¸‡jv wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

mvaviYZ wbwe©Pviev` ej‡Z †evSvq, †Kv‡bv wKQy hyw³ mgv‡jvPbv e¨wZ‡i‡KB MÖnY Kiv|

Avgv‡ì Áv‡b Bw›`ª‡qi ¶gZv KZUzKz, wKfv‡e Ávbjvf Kiv hvq, Áv‡bi mxgv KZ` i

BZ¨vw` bv †R‡b `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbv ïiæ Kivi bvg wbwe©Pviev`| GB `„wófw½ ev gZev‡ì

Abymvixiv KZUzKz Rvbv hvq Zv wePvi bv K‡iB ZË¡wRÁvmv ïiæ K‡i †`b| ZvB Gu‡ì‡K

wbwe©Pviev`x `vk©wbK ejv nq|

wbwe©Pviev` : msÁv I êwkó¨

Áv‡bi m¤¢vebv, kZ©, mxgv I êaZv m¤ú‡K© †Kv‡bv Av‡jvPbv bv K‡iB `vk©wbK

ZË¡v‡jvPbv Kivi †h c×wZ Zv‡KB wbwe©Pviev` (Dogmatism) e‡j| wbwe©Pviev`xiv

wb‡R‡ì Abym„Z Av‡jvPbv-c×wZi Kvh©KvwiZv, Dc‡hvwMZv I †hŠw³KZv wePvi bv K‡iB

ZË¡v‡jvPbv ïiæ K‡i †`b| Zuviv webv wePv‡iB †Kv‡bv GKwU c×wZ‡K h_v_© c×wZiƒ‡c

MÖnY K‡ib Ges †m Abyhvqx wb‡R‡ì `vk©wbK gZev` e¨vL¨v K‡ib| Zuviv KZK¸‡jv

bxwZ ev mZ¨‡K ¯Ztwm× I ¯ZtcÖgvwYZ e‡j ¯xKvi K‡i ‡bb Ges Zvi †_‡K Ab¨vb¨

wm×v‡šÍ DcbxZ nb| Avevi GB wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨Zv †h hvPvB Kivi cÖ‡qvRb Av‡Q Zv Zuviv

g‡b K‡ib bv| cÖvPxb `vk©wbK †cø‡Uv I AvaywbK cvðvZ¨ `k©‡bi RbK †WKvU© aviYv

K‡ib †h, KZK¸‡jv ¯Ztwm× aviYv ev bxwZ †_‡K Ab¨vb¨ aviYv ev bxwZ‡Z DcbxZ

nIqv hvq| †WKv‡U©i g‡Z, Ck¦i KZ¸‡jv AšÍi aviYv (innate ideas) R‡b¥i mg‡qB

Avgv‡ì g‡b gyw`ªZ K‡i †`b| G¸‡jv wbf©yj Ges G¸‡jvi wfwË‡Z Avgiv †hme m‡Z¨

DcbxZ nB, †m¸‡jv h_v_©| Avevi †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK g‡b K‡ib, gvby‡li g‡bi

MVb GgbB †h, KZ¸‡jv mZ¨ †m ¯vfvweKfv‡eB wek¦vm K‡i Ges †m¸‡jv‡K ¯Ztwm×

g‡b K‡i Ges ZviB wfwË‡Z RMr m¤ú‡K© Ávbjvf K‡i| AÜwek¦vm, g‡Zi †Muvovwg,

Aby`vi `„wófw½, AvßevK¨‡K cÖgvwYZiƒ‡c MÖnY Kivi cÖeYZv wbwe©Pviev`x `k©‡bi

êwkó¨|

cvV - 2



wbwe©Pviev` : AwfÁZvev`, eyw×ev` I ¯Ávev`

wbwe©Pviev` cÖvPxb `k©‡b cÖ_g †`Lv hvq| cÖvPxb wMÖK `vk©wbKiv RM‡Zi m„wó m¤ú‡K©

wewfbœ gZev` Dc¯’vcb K‡ib| wKš‘ Gme gZev‡ì g~‡j i‡q‡Q AÜwek¦vm| Áv‡bi

m¤¢ve¨Zv ev Zvi mxgv KZ` i G cÖkœ Zuv‡ì g‡b Av‡mwb| BD‡iv‡c ga¨hy‡M `vk©wbK

wPšÍvi †¶‡Î †h MwZnxbZv I wbw®ŒqZv j¶ Kiv hvq Zvi g~‡j i‡q‡Q AÜwek¦vm, ag©

m¤úKx©q †Mvuovwg, Kzms¯‹vi I kv¯ ev‡Kï Dci GKvšÍ wbf©iZv| AvaywbK BD‡ivcxq

`k©‡bi g‡aÏ wbwe©Pviev`x `„wófw½ j¶¨ Kiv hvq| †eKb, jK, evK©wj, wnDg cÖgzL

AwfÁZvev`xiv (Empiricists) webv wePv‡iB ¯xKvi K‡i wb‡q‡Qb †h, AwfÁZvB Ávb

jv‡fi GKgvÎ Dcvq; Aciw`‡K †WKvU©, w¯ú‡bvRv, jvBewbR cÖgyL eyw×ev`xiv

(Rationalists) webv wePv‡iB ¯xKvi K‡i wb‡q‡Qb †h, KZK¸‡jv ¯Ztwm× aviYv ev

bxwZ †_‡K Ae‡ivn c×wZi gva¨‡g ZË¡Ávb jvf Kiv hvq| evM©‡mvu cÖgyL ¯Ávev`xiv

(Intuitionists) ¯Áv‡K Ávb jv‡fi GKgvÎ Dcvq e‡j g‡b K‡ib| Zuv‡ì gZevÌ

wbwe©Pviev`x gZev`|

wbwe©Pviev` : Kv‡›Ui AwfgZ

Kv‡Èi g‡Z, eyw×i cÖK…wZ I mxgv‡iLv wba©viY bv K‡iB †Kv‡bv welq m¤‡Ü eyw×i

mvnv‡h¨ Rvbvi `vwe KivB wbwe©Pviev`| KvÈ mKj eyw×ev`x †hgb-†WKvU©, w¯ú‡bvRv,

jvBewbR I Dj&d‡K wePviwehy³ `vk©wbK e‡j AwfwnZ K‡i‡Qb| KviY Zuviv AÜfv‡e

¯xKvi K‡i wb‡q‡Qb †h, eyw× w`‡q Avgiv AvZ¥v, wek¦ I mªóv m¤‡Ü mg¨K Ávbjvf

Ki‡Z cvwi| wKš‘ Zuviv KL‡bv G cÖkœ DÌvcb K‡ibwb, eyw× Øviv Avgiv KZUzKz Rvb‡Z

cvwi? eyw×i cwiwa KZUzKz? Zuviv eyw×i cwiwa m¤‡Ü Av‡jvPbv bv K‡iB eyw×RvZ Ávb

Av‡jvPbv ïiæ K‡i‡Qb|

mgv‡jvPbv

wbwe©Pviev` bvbvfv‡e mgv‡jvwPZ n‡q‡Q :

1. `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbv-c×wZ hw` wePv‡ii Dci cÖwZwôZ bv n‡q AÜwek¦vm, †Mvuovwg,

¯Ztwm× aviYvi Dci cÖwZwôZ nq, Zvn‡j †m c×wZ KLbI `vk©wbK‡K Zvi Afxó

j‡¶¨ †cŠu‡Q w`‡Z cv‡i bv| h_v_© Ávb ev mZ¨‡K jvf KivB `k©‡bi j¶¨| GKgvÎ

wePv‡ii mvnv‡h¨B mZ¨‡K Rvbv †h‡Z cv‡i| wePvi bv K‡i hw` KZK¸‡jv bxwZ‡K

¯Ztwm× a‡i Zvi †_‡K Ae‡ivn c×wZi gva¨‡g wewfbœ wm×všÍ MÖnY Kiv nq Zvn‡j

h_v_© Ávb jv‡fi m¤¢vebv m¤ú‡K© mskq †`Lv w`‡e|

2. Ávbwe`¨v `k©‡bi Acwinvh© A½we‡kl| Ávbwe`¨vi Av‡jvPbv Qvov `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbv

KLbI c Y©Zv jvf Ki‡Z cv‡i bv, Zv KvíwbK Av‡jvPbvq ch©ewmZ nq| h_v_© Áv‡bi

kZ© ev DcKiY¸‡jv Ges Áv‡bi m¤¢vebv I mxgv m¤ú‡K© Ávb bv _vK‡j †Kv‡bv e¯‘i

h_v_© wePvi Kiv m¤¢e bq| R‡b¥i mg‡q mªóv †Kv‡bv& †Kv‡bv& aviYv gvby‡li g‡b gyw`ªZ

K‡i †`b wKsev gvbyl ¯vfvweKfv‡e †Kv‡bv& †Kv‡bv& m‡Z¨ wek¦vm K‡i †mme aviYv ev

mZ¨ wbiƒcY Kiv m¤¢e bq| ZvQvov G wel‡q me `vk©wbK GKgZI bq|



3. wbwe©Pviev`x `vk©wbKiv mK‡jB wbR wbR gZev‡ì †kªôZ¡ m¤ú‡K© wbwðZ| wKš‘

wbi‡c¶ wePv‡ii gva¨‡gB gZev‡ì †kªôZ¡ cÖgvwYZ nq| Avi G wePviB `k©‡bi cÖvY|

wbwe©Pviev`xiv A‡bï gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv K‡ib, wKš‘ wb‡Ri gZev` Av‡jvPbv-

ch©v‡jvPbv QvovB webv wePv‡i mywbwðZ e‡j a‡i †bb|

Dcmsnvi

wbwe©Pviev` webv wePv‡i GKwU gZev`‡K †g‡b †bq Ges Zv‡K me©Rbxb I kvk¦Z e‡j

g‡b K‡i| wKš‘ `k©‡bi wPivPwiZ †h cÖ_v Zvi mv‡_ G gZev` Lvc Lvq bv| `k©‡b

me©Rbxb I kvk¦Z mZ¨ e‡j wKQy †bB| †Kv‡bv gZev`B mgv‡jvPbvi E‡aŸ© bq| GLv‡b

mZ¨ I Ávb DfqB mv‡c¶ Ges Zv †`k I Kv‡ji cwieZ©‡bi mv‡_ cwieZ©bkxj|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖk

1| wbwe©Pviev` mgv‡jvPbvmn Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| wbwe©Pviev‡ì msÁv w`b|

2| cvuP Rb wbwe©Pviev`x `vk©wb‡Ki bvg wjLyb|

3| wbwe©Pviev‡ì êwkó¨ Kx?

4| wbwe©Pviev` m¤ú‡K© Kv‡›Ui AwfgZ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1) wbwe©Pviev` GKwU

i) RbwcÖq gZev`

ii) GK‡c‡k gZev`

iii) DrK…ó `vk©wbK gZev`

iv) †Kv‡bvUvB bq

2) wbwe©Pviev‡ì Avwef©ve N‡U

i) cÖvPxbKv‡j

ii) ga¨hy‡M

iii) AvaywbK hy‡Mv

i) †Kv‡bvUvB mwVK bq

3) wbwe©Pviev`x `vk©wbKe„›` n‡jb

i) Kv›U, iv‡mj, †n‡Mj

ii) jK, †WKvU©, w¯ú‡bvRv

iii) evKwj, Kv›U, wnDg

iv) Djd, iv‡mj, Kv›U

4| wbwe©Pviev`xiv GKwU gZev`

cÖ v‡bi c ‡e© gZev`wUi †hŠw³KZv

i) wePvi K‡i

ii) e¨vL¨v Kiv

iii) cÖgvY K‡i

iv) †Kv‡bvUvB K‡i bv


1| cÖvPxbKv‡ji `k©‡b me©cÖ_g wbwe©Pviev` †`Lv hvq|

2| AwfÁZvev` wbwe©Pviev‡ì AšÍfz©³ bq|

3| GKgvÎ wbwe©Pviev‡ì gva¨‡gB cÖK…Z Ávbjvf Kiv m¤¢e|

4| wbwe©Pviev‡ì g~‡j i‡q‡Q AÜwek¦vm, Kzms¯‹vi, ag© m¤úKx©q †Mvuovwg, kv¯ ev‡Kï

Dci wbf©iZv|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| ii) GK‡c‡k gZev` 2| i) cÖvPxbKv‡j 3| ii) jK, †WKvU©, w¯ú‡bvRv

4| iv) †Kv‡bvUvB K‡i bv

L. 1| m 2| wg 3| wg 4| m



wePviev`

(Criticism)

D‡Ïk¨


wePviev‡ì msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ wn‡m‡e wePviev` e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKvwbwe©Pviev‡ì wecixZ c×wZB n‡jv wePviev`| wbwe©Pviev` webv wePv‡i GKwU

gZev`‡K MÖnY K‡i; c¶všÍ‡i, wePviev` wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g GKwU gZev`‡K MÖnY

K‡i| wePviev‡ì g~jK_v n‡jv, †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK mgm¨v Av‡jvPbvi c~‡e© H mgm¨vwU

†Kv‡bv& c×wZ‡Z Av‡jvPbv Kiv h_vh_ n‡e Zv we‡ePbv Kiv| cÖK…Z `vk©wbK mgm¨v

Av‡jvPbvi c ‡e© Aek¨B †`L‡Z n‡e H wel‡q Ávb AvniY Kiv m¤¢e wKbv? A_ev H

mgm¨vwU mgvavb†hvM¨ wKbv?

wePviev` (Criticism)

Áv‡bi m¤¢vebv, kZ©, mxgv I êaZv m¤ú‡K© h_vh_fv‡e Av‡jvPbv K‡i `vk©wbK

ZË¡v‡jvPbvi †h c×wZ Zv‡K wePviev` (Criticism) e‡j| wePvig~jK `„wófw½ `vk©wbK

Av‡jvPbvi GKwU D‡jøL‡hvM¨ êwkó¨| GB wePvig~jK `„wófw½ Kg-†ewk mKj mg‡q

`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvq Dcw¯’Z wQj| wMÖK `k©b, fviZxq `k©b cÖf…wZ cÖvPxb `vk©wbK

Av‡jvPbvq Avgiv GB êwkó¨ †`L‡Z cvB| GwU c Y©Zv jvf K‡i AvaywbK `k©‡b,

Kv‡›Ui nv‡Z| Kv›U Zuvi weL¨vZ MÖš’ ÔCritique of Pure ReasonÕ G e‡jb, cÖ_‡g

mivmwi mgm¨v wb‡q Av‡jvPbv bv K‡i mgm¨vwU †h c×wZ‡Z Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡”Q ev n‡e

†mB c×wZi ¶gZv ev h_v_©Zv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv cÖ‡qvRb Ges †mfv‡eB wZwb

Av‡jvPbv K‡i Áv‡bi DrcwËwelqK gZev` ÔwePviev`Õ cÖ vb K‡ib|

wnD‡gi `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvB Kv›U‡K GB c×wZ AbymiY Kivi Rb¨ †cÖiYv †`q| GRb¨

Kv›U e‡jb, wnDgB Avgv‡K wbwe©Pviev‡ì wb`ªv (dogmatic slumber) †_‡K RvMwiZ

K‡ib| Z‡e †h hyw³i gva¨‡g wnDg mskqev‡` DcbxZ nb †mB hyw³ Kv‡›Ui g‡Z

ÎæwUgy³ bq| Kv›U Dcjwä K‡ib †h, wnD‡gi gZev‡ì g~‡j i‡q‡Q wePv‡ii Afve,

Áv‡bi we‡køl‡Yi Afve| Kv›U †`‡Lb †h, Áv‡bi kZ© `yÕiKg -AwfÁZv I wePvieyw×|

AwfÁZvB Ávb jv‡fi GKgvÎ Drm bq| Áv‡bi GKwU gvÎ DcKiY‡KB GKgvÎ

DcKiY g‡b K‡i wnDg fzj K‡i‡Qb| h_v_© Ávb AwfÁZv I eyw× G `y‡qi ms‡hv‡Mi

dj| cÖ‡Z¨K e ‘i †hgb Dcv`vb I AvKvi _v‡K, wVK †Zgwb Áv‡biI Dcv`vb I

AvKvi Av‡Q| Zuvi g‡Z, `k©‡bi h_vh_ c×wZ n‡jv cÖwZwôZ Ávb wb‡q ïiæ K‡i

wePv‡ii Øviv †mB bxwZ¸wj wbiƒcY Kiv, hv †mB Ávb‡K m¤¢e K‡i Zz‡j‡Q| Áv‡bi

cvV - 3



we‡kølY K‡i Kv›U †hgb GKw`‡K Áv‡bi Drm m¤ú‡K© bZzb Z_¨ cÖKvk K‡ib, †Zgwb

Áv‡bi mxgvI wb‡`©k K‡ib|

AvaywbK wPšÍvi AMÖ Z †eKb (1561-1626), c~e©aviYv ev Kzms¯‹vi eR©b K‡i mZ¨

mÜv‡bi †Póv K‡ib| Avi AvaywbK `k©‡bi RbK †i‡b †WKvU© (1596-1650), mg¯Í c~e©

aviYv I wek¦v‡mi weiæ‡× Zuvi c×wZMZ mskq (methodic doubt) cÖ‡qvM K‡ib| jK

Zuvi ÔAn Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingÕ (1690) MÖ‡š’ e‡jb, Avgiv

ÁvbMZ mgm¨v‡KB cÖ_g e¨vcKfv‡e Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev| AvaywbK `k©‡bi D‡jøL‡hvM¨

êwkó¨ n‡jv cÖvwaKvi we‡ivax mwePvi `„wófw½ ev †gRvR| we‡kl K‡i Kv‡›Ui mgq

†_‡K AvaywbK `k©‡b c×wZZvwË¡K AvMÖnB cÖvavb¨ †c‡q G‡m‡Q| c×wZZvwË¡K AbymÜvb

n‡jv Aek¨¤¢vexfv‡e we‡kølYg~jK; Avi G Kvi‡Y c×wZZvwË¡K Av‡jvPbvB AvaywbK

Kv‡ji we‡kølYx `k©‡bi weivU Ask Ry‡o i‡q‡Q|

mgv‡jvPbv

1. Kv›U h_v_©B e‡jb, myk„•Lj Awawe`¨K eë¯’vi (System) Rb¨ wePviev` n‡jv

cÖ‡qvRbxq c~e©-cÖ ‘wZ| `k©b †h‡nZz m‡›`nvZxZ Áv‡bi mÜvb K‡i †m‡nZz Gi `„wófw½

Z_v Av‡jvPbv-c×wZ wePvig~jK nIqvB ¯vfvweK| G Kvi‡Y wbwðZ K‡i ejv hvq †h,

wePviev` wbwe©Pviev‡ì †P‡q DËg|

2. wePviev` †h‡nZz †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK mgm¨v Av‡jvPbvi c~‡e© H mgm¨v msµvšÍ gZev`,

wek¦vm ev ms¯‹v‡ii mwePvi g~j¨vqb K‡i Ges welqwU wK c×wZ‡Z I †Kv‡bv& cwi‡cÖw¶‡Z

Av‡jvPbv Kiv h_vh_ n‡e Zv wb‡q wPšÍvfvebv K‡i †m‡nZy GB gZev` g~j `vk©wbK

mgm¨vi Zzjbvq c×wZZvwË¡K Av‡jvPbvq mvaviYZ e¨vc„Z n‡q c‡o| AwZ wePviev`x

`„wófw½i Kvi‡Y AvaywbK `k©‡b c×wZZvwË¡K Av‡jvPbvB †ewk „ó nq|

Dcmsnvi

wePviev` n‡jv `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi Ggb GKwU c×wZ ev `„wófw½ hv `vk©wbK mgm¨v

Av‡jvPbvi c~‡e© Zvi mxgv, kZ© I êaZv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i| †Mvov‡ZB hv‡Z Mj` bv

†_‡K hvq Ges h_vh_fv‡e mZ¨ mÜvb Kiv hvq, †mRb¨ wePviev‡ì GB cÖwµqv

wbtm‡›`‡n Zvrch©c~Y© I `k©bm¤§Z|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ wn‡m‡e wePviev` Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| wePviev‡ì msÁv w`b|

2| wbwe©Pviev‡ì mv‡_ wePviev‡ì cv_©K¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| wePvig~jK `„wófw½ Kg-‡ewk †`Lv

hvq

i) cÖvPxb hy‡M

ii) ga¨hy‡M

iii) AvaywbK hy‡M

iv) mKj hy‡M

2| wePviev` c~Y©Zv jvf K‡i

i) wnD‡gi nv‡Z

ii) Kv‡›Ui nv‡Z

iii) †Kuv‡Zi nv‡Z

iv) j‡Ki nv‡Z

3| `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi D‡jøL‡hvM¨

êwkó¨ n‡jv

i) wbwe©Pvi „wófw½

ii) wePvig~jK `„wófw½

iii) mskqg~jK `„wófw½

iv) me¸‡jv

4| wbwe©Pviev‡ì wb`ªv †_‡K Kv›U‡K

RvMwiZ K‡ib|

i) †WKvU©

ii) wnDg

iii) jK

iv) †eKb


1| wbwe©Pviev‡ì weiæ× gZev` n‡jv wePviev`|

2| wePvig~jK `„wófw½ Avgiv me©cÖ_g †`L‡Z cvB AvaywbKKv‡j|

3| Áv‡bi we‡kølY K‡i Áv‡bi mxgv wb‡`©k K‡ib wnDg|

4| AvaywbK `k©‡bi D‡jøL‡hvM¨ êwkó¨ n‡jv cÖvwaKvi we‡ivax mwePvi `„wófw½|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| i) cÖvPxb hy‡M 2| ii) Kv‡›Ui nv‡Z 3| ii) wePvig~jK „wófw½ 4| ii) wnDg

L.

1| m 2| wg 3| wg 4| m



AbymÜvb c×wZ : we‡kølYx c×wZ

(Methods of Investigation: Analytic Method)

D‡Ïk¨


we‡kølYx c×wZ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB c×wZi cÖe³v Kviv Ges Zuv‡ì D‡Ïk¨ wK Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f~wgKv

mv¤úÖwZKKv‡j A‡bK `vk©wbK `k©‡bi cÖPwjZ c×wZi mgv‡jvPbv K‡i e‡jb, `vk©wbK

Av‡jvPbvi Avmj c×wZ n‡jv we‡kølYx c×wZ| wbi‡c¶ I h_v_© Ávb jv‡fi Rb¨

`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvq we‡kølY Avek¨K| we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g `vk©wbK mgm¨vi Av‡jvPbv

K‡ib e‡j Gme `vk©wbK‡K ejv nq we‡kølYx `vk©wbK| wb‡P we‡kølYx c×wZ Av‡jvPbv

Kiv n‡jv|

we‡kølYx c×wZ (Analytic Method)

mv¤úÖwZKKv‡j GK`j `vk©wbK MZvbyMwZK `vk©wbK c×wZ¸‡jvi Zxeª mgv‡jvPbv K‡ib|

Gme `vk©wb‡Ki g‡Z, we‡kølYB `vk©wbK AbymÜv‡bi h_v_© c×wZ| Zuviv g‡b K‡ib †h,

`vk©wbK cÖkœvejxi we‡kølY QvovI Gme cÖ‡kœi DËi wn‡m‡e †hme mvaviY wek¦vm I

`vk©wbK gZev` Dc¯’vcb Kiv nq †mm‡eiI we‡kølY Kiv ìKvi| †Kej wek¦v‡mi Dci

wfwË K‡i A_©vr hvPvB bv K‡i †Kv‡bv wKQy MÖnY Kiv DwPZ bq| wbQK wek¦vm I

cÖvwaKvi ev AvßevK¨ `vk©wbK m‡Z¨ DcbxZ nIqvi cÖK…Z c_ bq| G gZev‡ì

Abymvixiv n‡jb g~i, wfU‡Mb÷vBb, wkøK, Gqvi cÖgyL `vk©wbKe„›`|

we‡kølYx `vk©wbK g~ i fvlvi mvaviY eënvi A_©vr fvlv-we‡kølY Ges kã I aviYvi

we‡køl‡Yi Dci ¸iæZ¡ Av‡ivc K‡ib| wfU‡Mb÷vBb A_©nxbZv DÑvU‡bi Dci A_v©r †h

fvlvMZ fzj eySveywS Ab_©K `vk©wbK mgm¨vi m„wó K‡i, Zv ` i Kivi Dci ¸iæZ¡

†`b| wkøK I Gqvi c` I aviYvi we‡kølY I ¯úóxKi‡Yi Dci ¸iæZ¡ Av‡ivc K‡ib|

Zuviv we‡køl‡Yi aviv m¤ú‡K© wfbœ wfbœ gZ †cvlY Ki‡jI we‡kølY‡KB `k©‡bi Avmj

c×wZ e‡j g‡b K‡ib|

aviYvMZ we‡kølY, †hŠw³K we‡kølY, cÖKí I Bw½Zc~Y© mgvav‡bi cix¶Y, cÖgvY I

mZ¨welqK welqvejxi hvPvBKiY BZ¨vw` we‡kølYx cÖwµqvi AšÍf©y³| aviYvMZ

we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g ev‡K¨ eëüZ c` I aviYvi Ø¨_©KZv I A¯úóZv ~i K‡i welqe¯‘‡K

mnR‡eva¨ I ¯úó Kiv nq| †hŠw³K we‡køl‡Y, †nZzev‡Kï h_v_©Zv, hyw³ I cÖgv‡Yi

wbf©i‡hvM¨Zv BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq| cÖKí I Bw½Zc~Y© mgvav‡bi cix¶‡Yi

cvV - 4



†¶‡Î, cÖKí I Bw½Zc~Y© mgvavb mwVK wKbv, Ab¨ †Kv‡bv wek¦v‡mi mv‡_ G¸‡jv

m½wZc~Y© wKbv BZ¨vw` Av‡jvPbv Kiv nq| cÖgvY I mZ¨welqK welqvejxi hvPvBKi‡Yi

gva¨‡g welqvejxi h_v_©Zv wbiƒcY Kiv nq|

mgv‡jvPbv

`k©‡b DÌvwcZ cÖkœ I wek¦v‡mi hvPvBKi‡Y we‡køl‡Yi f‚wgKv AZ¨šÍ ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| wKš‘

`k©b‡K †Kej cÖkœ I wek¦v‡mi wePvig~jK cix¶Y ev we‡kølY wn‡m‡e g‡b Ki‡j `k©b

m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c bT_©K I aŸsmvÍK e‡j MY¨ n‡e| `k©b †Kej we‡kølYg~jK AbymÜvb bq,

Abya¨vbg~jK (speculative) AbymÜvbI| `k©b RMr I Rxeb m¤Üxq †gŠwjK cÖkœvejxi

m`yËi †ei Kivi †Póv K‡i| myZivs we‡køl‡Yi mv‡_ mv‡_ Abya¨vb I ms‡køl‡Yi

cÖ‡qvRbxqZv‡K ¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq|

Dcmsnvi

`k©‡b we‡køl‡Yi g~j¨ Acwimxg| `k©‡b Av‡jvP¨ welqvejxi Ø¨_©KZv I A¯úóZv‡K

we‡køl‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ `~i K‡i G¸‡jv‡K cwi®‹vi I cwiùzU Kiv hvq| `k©‡bi AwaKvsk

mgm¨vB N‡U fvlvi RwUjZvi Kvi‡Y| we‡kølYx `vk©wbKiv we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g GB

RwUjZv ~i K‡i `k©b‡K mnR I cÖvÄj K‡i‡Qb|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| we‡kølYx c×wZ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| we‡kølYx c×wZi Abymvix Kviv Ges Zuv‡ì e³e¨ wK?

2| `vk©wbK AbymÜv‡bi c×wZ wn‡m‡e we‡kølYx c×wZ wK h_v_©? Avcbvi gZvgZ w`b|

K) eû wbev©Pbx cÖkœ

mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| we‡kølYx c×wZi Abymvix

`vk©wbKe„›`

i) cÖvPxb hy‡Mi

ii) AvaywbK hy‡Mi

iii) ga¨hy‡Mi

vi) mv¤úÖwZK Kv‡ji

2| we‡kølYx c×wZi Abymvix n‡jb

i) †cø‡Uv

ii) gyï

iii) †n‡Mj

vi) Kv›U

3| we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z `vk©wbK AbymÜv‡bi c×wZ n‡jv

i) ¯Ávg~jK c×wZ

ii) ms‡kølYg~jK c×wZ

iii) wePvig~jK c×wZ

vi) we‡kølYg~jK c×wZ


1| g~ i fvlv we‡kølY Ges kã I aviYvi we‡køl‡Yi Dci ¸iæZ¡ †`b|

2| wfU‡Mb÷vBb c` I aviYvi we‡kølY I ¯úóxKi‡Yi Dci ¸iæZ¡ †`b|

3| we‡kølYx c×wZ ÎæwUnxb|

4| `k©‡b we‡køl‡Yi ¸iæZ¡ Acwimxg|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| vi) mv¤úÖwZK Kv‡ji

2| ii) g~ i

3| vi) we‡kølYg~jK c×wZ

L.

1| m 2| wg 3| wg 4| m



¯Ávg~jK c×wZ

(Intuitive Method)

D‡Ïk¨


¯Ávg~jK c×wZ wK Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB c×wZi ÎæwU¸†jv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ m¤‡Ü `vk©wbK evM©‡mvu m¤ú~Y© wfbœ gZ †cvlY K‡ib| Zuvi

g‡Z, cigZË¡ eyw×MÖvn¨ bq| myZivs eyw×ev` KLbB `vk©wbK c×wZ n‡Z cv‡i bv|

evM©‡mvui g‡Z, cigZË¡‡K Rvbvi GKgvÎ Dcvq n‡jv ¯^Áv| wb‡P Zuvi GB ¯Ávg~jK

c×wZ Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|

¯Ávg~jK c×wZ (Intuitive Method)

¯Áv n‡jv †Kv‡bv iKg wePvi-eyw×i mnvqZv bv wb‡q GKwU e¯‘‡K mivmwi gb w`‡q

cÖZ¨¶ Kiv| ¯Áv n‡jv mv¶vr cÖZxwZ| evM©‡muvi g‡Z, cigZË¡ MwZkxj| wZwb cÖvY-

cÖevn (Elan Vital) -‡K cigZË¡ e‡j g‡b K‡ib| GB cÖvY-cÖevn ALÛ I AwefvR¨|

KLbI Avevi GB cÖvY-cÖevn‡K wZwb wbZ¨ engvb Kvj-cÖevn e‡j AwfwnZ K‡i‡Qb|

Kvj-cÖevn KLbI iæ× nq bv, Aweivg e‡qB P‡j| Zuvi g‡Z, Kvj‡K AZxZ, eZ©gvb

Avi fwel¨r Ggb K‡i fvM Kiv hvq bv| Kvj-cÖev‡ni †Kv_vI †Q` †bB, weivg †bB|

GLv‡b AZxZ eZ©gv‡b G‡mB Avevi fwel¨‡Zi w`‡K Qy‡U Pj‡Q| AwekªvšÍ PjvB n‡”Q

GB cÖvY-cÖev‡ni ixwZ| myZivs MwZ Avi PjvB n‡”Q we‡k¦i GKgvÎ mZ¨|

evM©‡mvui g‡Z, eyw× w`‡q KLbB mZ¨‡K Rvbv hvq bv| eyw× w`‡q Avgiv †h Ávb cvB Zv

ePbvÍK (propositional)| ePb Qvov eyw× w`‡q †Kv‡bv Ávb n‡Z cv‡i bv| cÖwZwU ePb

Avevi `yÕfv‡M wef³ : D‡Ïk¨ (subject) I we‡aq (predicate)| eyw× w`‡q †h ÁvbB

†nvK bv †Kb Zv D‡Ïk¨-we‡aqvÍK n‡e| A_©vr eyw×i mnvqZvq Ávbjvf Ki‡Z †M‡jB

D‡Ïk¨ I we‡a‡qi we‡f` m„wó Ki‡Z n‡e| evM©‡muvi g‡Z, cigZË¡ ev mËvi g‡a¨

we‡f` m¤¢e bq; ZvB eyw× w`‡q cigmËv‡K Rvbv KLbB m¤¢e bq|

cÖ‡Z¨K eP‡bi D‡Ïk¨ I we‡aq `yB-B mvgvb¨ aviYv ev m¤úÖZ¨q (concept)| wewfbœ e¯‘

†`‡LB Zv‡ì m¤‡Ü Avgiv mvgvb¨ aviYv MVb Kwi| ÔQvÎÕ GKwU mvgvb¨ aviYv| GB

aviYvq wewfbœ ev¯Íe Qv‡Îi †Kv‡bv êwP‡Îï cwiPq cvIqv hvq bv| myZivs mvgvb¨ aviYv

†Kv‡bv wKQyyiB cÖv‡Yi cwiPq w`‡Z cv‡i bv| myZivs eyw× w`‡q †h Ávb nq Zv‡Z mËvi

cÖv‡Yi cwiPq cvIqv hvq bv|

cvV - 5



evM©‡muvi g‡Z, MwZkxj †Kv‡bv e¯‘‡K eyw× MwZkxj wn‡m‡e Rvb‡Z cv‡i bv| eyw× hLbB

†Kv‡bv wKQy‡K Rv‡b ZLbB Zv w¯’wZkxj n‡q hvq| myZivs cigZË¡ MwZkxj nIqvq eyw×

w`‡q Zv‡K Rvbv hvq bv| Zuvi g‡Z, GKgvÎ †evwa ev ¯Áv‡ZB (intuition) GB Z‡Ë¡i

cÖKvk cwic~Y© I wbfz©j nq| ¯Áv ej‡Z wZwb GK iK‡gi eyw×mÄvZ mg‡e`bv‡K

(intellectual sympathy) †evSvb| ¯Áv w`‡q cigmËvi AšÍ‡i cÖ‡ek K‡i, Zvi mv‡_

GKvÍ n‡q, Zvi gwngv Dcjwä Kiv hvq| ¯Áv A‡bKUv Abyf‚wZi e¨vcvi| GB Abyf‚wZ

w`‡qB cigmËvi ¯iƒc Dcjwä Kiv hvq|

mgv‡jvPbv

evM©‡muvi GB `vk©wbK c×wZ bvbvfv‡e mgv‡jvwPZ n‡q‡Q:

1) ¯Áv ev Abyf‚wZ e¨w³MZ e¨vcvi| †mRb¨ Zv e¨w³†f‡` wfbœ n‡e| d‡j ¯Áv Øviv

jä Ávb wewfbœ †¶‡Î wewfbœ iK‡gi n‡e|

2) ¯Ávi gva¨‡g hv Rvbv hvq Zv hw` fvlvq cªKvwkZ bv nq, Z‡e Zvi †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK

Av‡jvPbvB n‡Z cv‡i bv| Ávb‡K fvlvq cÖKvk Ki‡Z eP‡bi Avkªq wb‡Z nq| eP‡bi

Avkªq wb‡q †h Ávb nq Zv eyw×RvZ Ávb| myZivs eyw×i mvnvh¨ bv wb‡j †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK

Av‡jvPbv m¤¢e bq|

3) ¯ÁvB hw` `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi GKgvÎ c×wZ nq, Z‡e weÁv‡bi mv‡_ `k©‡bi m¤úK©

nxb n‡q c‡o| KviY weÁvb n‡jv wePvi-eyw×i c×wZ| myZivs ¯Áv‡K h_v_© `vk©wbK

c×wZ wn‡m‡e MY¨ Kiv hvq bv|

Dcmsnvi

¯Ávg~jK c×wZ eyw×‡K ev` w`‡q GKgvÎ ¯^Áv‡K cigZ‡Ë¡i ¯iƒc wbY©‡qi Rb¨ MÖnY

K‡i‡Q| wKš‘ eyw×i mnvqZv e¨ZxZ †Kv‡bv DcjwäB Ávb n‡Z cv‡i bv| evM©‡muvi g‡Z,

cigZË¡ ¯Ávjä| Z‡e GK_v ej‡jI `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvq eyw×i cÖ‡qvRbxqZv wZwb

A¯xKvi K‡ibwb| Zuvi ÔCreative Evolution’ MÖš’wU‡Z wZwb ¯úóZtB e‡j‡Qb, ¯Ávi

cÖgv‡Yi Rb¨ eyw× ev wePv‡ii Øvi¯’ nIqv ìKvi| myZivs †Kv‡bv Ae¯’v‡ZB `vk©wbK

Av‡jvPbvq eyw×‡K D‡c¶v Kiv hvq bv|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| ¯Ávg~jK c×wZwU mgv‡jvPbvmn Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| evM©‡muvi g‡Z, we‡k¦i GKgvÎ mZ¨ wK?

2| ¯Ávg~jK c×wZi mgv‡jvPbv Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| ¯Ávg~jK gZev‡ì cÖe³v

i) †cø‡Uv

ii) Kv›U

iii) nem&

vi) evM©‡muv

2| evM©‡muvi gZvbymv‡i `vk©wbK AbymÜv‡bi c×wZ n‡jv

i) wePvig~jK

ii) Z_¨g~jK

iii) ¯Ávg~jK

vi) Av`k©g~jK

3| evM©‡muv ¯Áv ej‡Z †evSvb

i) Abyf‚wZ‡K

ii) AwfÁZv‡K

iii) eyw×mÄvZ mg‡e`bv‡K

vi) eyw×‡K


1| evM©‡muvi g‡Z cigZË¡ MwZkxj|

2| evM©‡muvi g‡Z cigZË¡ eyw×MÖvn¨|

3| evM©‡muv cÖvY-cÖevn‡K cigZË¡ e‡j g‡b K‡ib|

4| nve©vU †¯úÝvi ¯Ávg~jK c×wZi Abymvix|

mwVK DËi

K) 1| iv) evM©‡muv 2| iii) ¯Ávg~jK 3| iii) eyw×mÄvZ mg‡e`bv‡K

L) 1| m 2| wg 3| m 4| wg



Øvw›ØK c×wZ

(Dialectic Method)

D‡Ïk¨


Øvw›ØK c×wZ wK Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB c×wZi Abymvix Kviv Zv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB c×wZi †`vl-ÎæwU eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

gvbyl cÖK…Z mZ¨‡K Rvb‡Z Pvq| GUv Zvi ¯fve Ges G‡Z †m Avb›` cvq | GB mZ¨‡K

Rvbvi Rb¨ Zv‡K GKwU †KŠkj ev c×wZ Aej¤b Ki‡Z nq| hy‡M hy‡M gvbyl GKB

†KŠkj ev cš’v Aej¤b K‡ibwb| wewfbœ mg‡q wewfbœ `vk©wbK mZ¨‡K Rvbvi Rb¨ wewfbœ

c×wZ Aej¤b K‡i‡Qb| GB c×wZ¸‡jvi ga¨ †_‡K Avgiv GLb Øvw›ØK c×wZ wb‡q

Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

Øvw›ØK c×wZ (Dialectic Method)

Dialectic (Wvqv‡jK&wUK) kãwU D™¢‚Z n‡q‡Q Bs‡iwR Dialogue (WvqvjM) kã †_‡K|

Dialogue Gi evsjv A_© n‡jv msjvc ev `yÕR‡bi g‡a¨ K‡_vcK_b| Dialectic

K_vwUi mvaviY A_© n‡jv, †Kv‡bv GKwU wel‡qi mc‡¶ I wec‡¶ K_vevZ©vi gva¨‡g

Av‡jvPbv Kiv| Dialectic Gi evsjv gv‡b n‡jv Øvw›ØK| Øvw›ØK kãwU G‡m‡Q Ø›Ø

†_‡K| Ø›Ø A_© we‡iva| GKB wel‡q `ywU ci¯úi we‡ivax gZev‡ì D™¢e n‡jB GB

we‡iva †`Lv hvq| GB c×wZi D‡Ïk¨ n†jv we‡ivwaZvi gva¨‡gB mZ¨‡K wbiƒcY Kiv|

GB c×wZ Áv‡bi ci¯úi we‡ivwaZv cÖ k©b K‡i AviI DbœZ I e¨vcK Ávbjvf Ki‡Z

Pvq| Øvw›ØK c×wZ m`_©K (Positive) I bT_©K (Negative) `yÕiK‡giB n‡Z cv‡i|

Avgiv †n‡Mj‡K m`_©K Ges m‡µwUm I Kv›U‡K bT_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZ AbymiY Ki‡Z

†`wL|

m`_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZ (Positive Dialectical Method)

Rvg©vb `vk©wbK †n‡Mj m`_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZ cÖeZ©b K‡ib| Zuvi g‡Z, Øvw›ØK c×wZ

Avkªq K‡iB Pig mZ¨ jvf Kiv hvq| ci¯úi we‡ivax aviYv¸†jvi g‡a¨ HK¨ cÖwZôvi

cÖwµqvi bvgB Øvw›ØK cÖwµqv (Dialectical Process)| ev` (Thesis), cÖwZev` (Anti-Thesis) I m¤v` (Synthesis) GB wZbwU wg‡jB Øvw›ØK cÖwµqvi Îqx (Triad) MwVZ

nq| wKš‘ m¤v` ev mgš‡q G‡mB GB cÖwµqv †_‡g hvq bv| cÖ_g ev‡ii mgšq Avevi

wØZxq ev‡ii ev` AvKv‡i Av‡m| GB ev‡ì Avevi cÖwZev` m„wó nq| Gfv‡e Øvw›ØK

cÖwµqv cig mËvi (Absolute Spirit) aviYvq bv †cŠuQv ch©šÍ Pj‡Z _v‡K|

cvV - 6



mvaviYZ gvbyl aviYv K‡i †h, `ywU wecixZ g‡Zi g‡a¨ GKUv‡K Aek¨B Z¨vM Ki‡Z

n‡e| †n‡Mj gvby‡li G mvaviY aviYv e`‡j w`‡q †`Lv‡jb †h, we‡iva mgš‡qiB

c~e©vfvmgvÎ|

†n‡Mj †`Lv‡jb †h, gvby‡li wPšÍv ev Áv‡bi MwZ I cwiYwZ Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡ZB GwM‡q

hvq| Zuvi g‡Z, RxevZ¥vi †PZbvq †h Ávb ev AwfÁZvi cÖKvk cvIqv hvq Zv Am¤ú~Y©

I AvswkK Ávb| wKš‘ GB Am¤ú~Y© I AvswkK Áv‡bi AMÖMwZ wba©vwiZ nq mgMÖ Áv‡bi

ev AwfÁZvi wµqvi Øviv, mgMÖ Ávb cÖwZwU AvswkK Áv‡bi g‡a¨ myß Ae¯’vq wbwnZ

_v‡K Ges Áv‡bi AMÖMwZ wbav©iY K‡i| †h‡nZz mgMÖ AwfÁZv cÖwZwU we‡kl ev

AvswkK AwfÁZvi g‡a¨ wµqv K‡i Ges †Kv‡bv AvswkK AwfÁZv mgMÖ AwfÁZv‡K

cwic Y©fv‡e cÖKvk Ki‡Z cv‡i bv Ges Zv Zvi c‡¶ m¤¢eI bq, †m Kvi‡YB gvby‡li

Ávb ev AwfÁZv Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡Z AMÖmi nq|

†n‡M‡ji g‡Z, Øvw›ØK c×wZ †h ïay gvby‡li wPšÍvi c×wZ, Zv bq; GUv mgMÖ RM‡Zi

c×wZ| RoRMr, RxevZ¥v, BwZnvm, bxwZ, ag© me wKQyiB µ‡gvbœwZ N‡U P‡j‡Q Øvw›ØK

c×wZ‡Z| Øvw›ØK weeZ©b mgMÖ RM‡Zi wbqg| mgawg©Zv (homogeneity) , cv_©K¨

(heterogeneity) I GKxKiY (integration) GB cÖwµqvi gva‡gB RM‡Zi weeZ©b

I AMÖMwZ nq| RxeRMr GB c×wZ Abymv‡i cigmËv †_‡KB cÖKvwkZ n‡q Zv‡ZB

Aew¯’Z Av‡Q Ges cigmËvi mv‡_ wgwjZ nevi Rb¨ GwM‡q P‡j‡Q| †h Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡Z

wPšÍvi †¶‡Î AMÖMwZ Av‡m ‡mB Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡ZB mËv (reality)-i cwiYwZ N‡U|

myZivs wPšÍvi µgweKvk AbymiY K‡i mËvi µgweKvk Abyaveb Kiv hvq| GB c×wZi

gva¨‡gB cigmËv wb‡R‡K cÖKvk I cwi‡k‡l Dcjwä K‡ib| GB cigmËv wb‡Ri g‡a¨

†h we‡iva wbwnZ Av‡Q †m¸‡jv‡K cÖKvk K‡ib Ges †m¸‡jv‡K D”PZi mgš‡qi gva¨‡g

GKxf‚Z K‡ib|

RxevZ¥v GB cigvZ¥viB LÛ iƒc, †mRb¨ RxevZ¥vi AMÖMwZi c×wZI Øvw›ØK c×wZ|

Øvw›ØK c×wZB RM‡Zi AMÖMwZi KviY| Ø›Ø ev we‡iva bv _vK‡j RMr APj n‡q †hZ|

bT_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZ (Negative Dialectical Method)

bT_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡K LÛb-ixwZI ejv nq| wMÖK `vk©wbK m‡µwUm I Rvg©vb `vk©wbK

Kv›U GB c×wZ AbymiY K‡ib| m‡µwUm GB c×wZ AbymiY K‡i †mvwd÷‡ì gZev`

LÛb Ki‡Zb| wZwb K‡_vcK_‡bi ga¨ w`‡q we‡ivax g‡Zi AšÍwe©‡iva cÖgvY Ki‡Zb|

`k©‡bi BwZnv‡m GB c×wZ m‡µUxq c×wZ (Socratic Method) bv‡g cwiwPZ| GB

c×wZ GKw`‡K †hgb LÛ‡bi c×wZ, Aciw`‡K †Zgwb cÖgv‡Yi c×wZ| `ywU ci¯úi

weiæ× g‡Zi g‡a¨ GKwU åvšÍ cÖgvwYZ n‡j, AciwU mZ¨ n‡Z eva¨| Gfv‡eB GB c×wZ

AmZ¨‡K LÛb K‡i mZ¨‡K cÖwZwôZ K‡i| KvÈI GB c×wZ AbymiY K‡i †`Lvb †h,

mªóv, AvZ¥v, RMr cÖf…wZ aviYvi g‡a¨ AšÍwe©‡iva Av‡Q| G¸‡jv †hgb Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj e‡j

cÖgvY Kiv hvq †Zgwb Avevi Aw¯ÍZ¡nxb e‡jI cÖgvY Kiv hvq|



mgv‡jvPbv

1) weiæ× aviYvi mgš‡q A‡bK mgq DbœZZi aviYv jvf Kiv hvq, G wel‡q m‡›`n

†bB| wKš‘ me©ÎB Zv m¤¢e bq| Roev`x‡ì g‡Z, RoB cigZË¡; fveev`x‡ì g‡Z,

gbB cigZË¡| Roev`x‡ì g‡Z, ÔgbÕ Ro †_‡K Ges fvee`x‡ì g‡Z, ÔRoÕ gb ‡_‡K

D™¢‚Z| GB ci¯úi weiæ× aviYvi mgšq wKfv‡e m¤¢e? Zv Avgiv eyS‡Z cvwi bv|

2) †n‡Mj Zuvi Øvw›ØK c×wZi e¨vcK cÖ‡qvM K‡i‡Qb| wPšÍvi †¶‡Î †h c×wZ Dc‡hvMx

Zv †h Rxe‡bi I Z‡Ë¡i †¶‡ÎI GKBfv‡e Dc‡hvMx n‡e GgbUv wbwðZ K‡i ejv hvq

bv| myZivs GB c×wZi mvnv‡h¨ wPšÍvi µgweKv‡ki Ávb m¤¢e n‡jI cigZ†Ë¡i Ávb

jvf Kiv bvI †h‡Z cv‡i|

Dcmsnvi

GB Av‡jvPbv †_‡K Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi †h, Øvw›ØK c×wZi gva¨‡g Avgiv A‡bK mgq

A‡bK DbœZ aviYv jvf Kwi| Z‡e G c×wZ me©‡¶‡Î †hgb cÖ‡qvM Kiv hvq bv †Zgwb

me©‡¶‡Î mwVK aviYvI w`‡Z cv‡i bv|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `vk©wbK AbymÜv‡bi c×wZ wn‡m‡e Øvw›ØK c×wZ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| m`_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZ ms‡¶‡c eY©bv Kiæb|

2| bT_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZ ms‡¶‡c eY©bv Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| Øvw›ØK c×wZ wef³

i) yÕfv‡M

ii) Pvi fv‡M

iii) wZb fv‡M

vi) cvuP fv‡M

2| m`_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZi cÖe³v

i) wgj

ii) m‡µwUm

iii) Kv›U

vi) †n‡Mj

3| bT_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZ‡K ejv nq

i) LÛb ixwZ

ii) Av‡jvPbvi ixwZ

iii) mgšq ixwZ

vi) we‡ivax ixwZ

4| bT_©K Øvw›ØK c×wZi Abymvix

i) m‡µwUm

ii) Kv›U

iii) †n‡Mj

vi) m‡µwUm I Kv›U


1| Dialectic K_vwUi mvaviY A_© n‡jv, †Kv‡bv GKwU wel‡qi mc‡¶ I wec‡¶

K_vevZ©vi gva¨‡g Av‡jvPbv Kiv|

2| †n‡M‡ji g‡Z, ci¯úi we‡ivax aviYv¸‡jvi g‡a¨ HK¨ cÖwZôvi cÖwµqvi bvgB

Øvw›ØK cÖwµqv|

3| †n‡M‡ji g‡Z, cigvZ¥v RxevZ¥vi LÛ iƒc |

4| †n‡M‡ji g‡Z, Ø›Ø ev we‡iva bv _vK‡j RMr APj n‡q †hZ|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| i) yÕfv‡M 2| vi) †n‡Mj 3| i) LÛb ixwZ 4| vi) m‡µwUm I Kv›U

L) 1| m 2| m 3| wg 4| m



BDwbU - 3

`k©b I Ab¨vb¨ welq

(Philosophy and Other Pursuits)

`k©‡bi cwiPq I cÖ‡qvRbxqZv AviI cwi®‹vifv‡e Avgiv Rvb‡Z cvi‡ev, hw` Avgiv

GwU‡K Ab¨vb¨ welq ev ÁvbkvLvi mv‡_ Zzjbv Kwi| eZ©gvb BDwb‡U KwZcq

¸iæZ¡c~Y© ÁvbkvLv ev wel‡qi mv‡_ `k©‡bi wK mv`„k¨ I êmv`„k¨ i‡q‡Q Zv wPwýZ

Kiv n‡q‡Q| G Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbvi †¶‡Î `k©‡bi wePviev`x `„wó‡KvY I

c×wZMZ ¯vZš¿ we‡klfv‡e j¶Yxq|

GB BDwb‡U †gvU PviwU cvV i‡q‡Q

`k©b I KvÛÁvb

(Philosophy and Common Sense)

`k©b I weÁvb

(Philosophy and Science)

`k©b I ag©

(Philosophy and Religion)

`k©b I mvwnZ¨

(Philosophy and Literature)



`k©b I KvÛÁvb

(Philosophy and Common Sense)

D‡Ïk¨


KvÛÁv‡bi msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

`k©‡bi mv‡_ KvÛÁv‡bi mv`„k¨ I ‰emv`„k¨ wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

RMr I Rxe‡bi wewfbœ mgm¨v wb‡q `vk©wbKMY †hgb wPšÍv K‡ib mvaviY gvbylI †Zgwb

wPšÍv K‡ib| Z‡e `vk©wb‡Ki gZ mvaviY gvby‡li wPšÍv AZUv Mfxi, myk„•Lj I hyw³hy³

bq| mvaviY gvby‡li wPšÍvi Drm n‡jv DËivwaKvi, wek¦vm, mvgvwRK I ag©xq Abykvmb|

mvaviY gvby‡li GB †h wPšÍv Zv‡KB ejv nq KvÛÁvb| GLv‡b Avgiv `k©‡bi mv‡_

KvÛÁv‡bi m¤úK© Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

`k©b

`k©‡bi Bs‡iwR cÖwZkã Philosophy, hvi AvwfavwbK A_© n‡jv Áv‡bi cÖwZ AbyivM|

`k©b Pvq wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g RMr, Rxeb I cigmËvi ¯iƒc e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z| ZvB

`k©‡bi msÁvq ejv hvq, `k©b n‡jv Rxe‡bi †gŠwjK wRÁvmv ev mgm¨vmg~‡ni †hŠw³K I

c×wZMZ wePvi-we‡kølY ev Av‡jvPbv|

KvÛÁvb (Common Sense)

mvaviY KvR Pvjv‡bvi ÁvbB KvÛÁvb| mvaviY ‡jvK GB Áv‡bi gva¨‡gB ˆ`bw›`b Kg©

m¤úv`b K‡i| KvÛÁvb ej‡Z †evSvq, †jŠwKK Ggb me mvaviY aviYv I wek¦vm hv

Avwe®‹vi, AR©b I i¶v Kiv †Kv‡bv e¨w³i Ici GKKfv‡e wbf©i K‡i bv| mgv‡Ri

mvaviY gvbyl ag©, mgvR, ivóª, HwZn¨ cÖf…wZ †_‡K GwU †c‡q _v‡K Ges mij wek¦v‡m

†g‡b †bq| Kvwbsnvg e‡jb, ÔÔ†Kv‡bv gvbe‡Mvôx †h gZev`wU‡K wePvi-we‡kølY QvovB

MÖnY K‡i Zv‡K KvÛÁvb e‡j|ÕÕ

`k©b I KvÛÁv‡bi mv`„k¨

1) `k©b I KvÛÁvb DfqB Pvq Rxe‡bi wewfbœ mgm¨vi mgvavb Ki‡Z|

2) `k©b I KvÛÁvb DfqB Ávbmswkøó|

3) KvÛÁvb I `vk©wbK Ávb DfqB mgq I m¤úÖ vq‡f‡` wfbœ n‡Z cv‡i|

4) KvÛÁv‡bi gva¨‡gB hvÎv ïiæ nq `vk©wbK Áv‡bi| wewfbœ mgm¨v KvÛÁv‡bi gva¨‡g

aiv co‡j `vk©wbK Zv myk„•Ljfv‡e Av‡jvPbv-ch©v‡jvPbv K‡ib|

cvV - 1



`k©b I KvÛÁv‡bi êmv`„k¨

1) `vk©wbK Ávb D`vi I wbi‡c¶; KvÛÁvb Aby`vi I c¶cvZ †`v‡l yó|

2) `vk©wbK Ávb wePvi-we‡kølYg~jK I mvgÄm¨c~Y,© Aciw`‡K, KvÛÁvb wePvi-

we‡kølYnxb, m½wZnxb I A‡MvQv‡jv|

3) `k©b wePvi-we‡kølY I hyw³ w`‡q Zvi mgm¨vi mgvavb Ki‡Z Pvq| wKš‘ KvÛÁvb

AÜwek¦v‡mi gva¨‡g Zvi mgm¨vi mgvavb †c‡q mš‘ó nq|

4) `k©b ¯vaxb wPšÍv‡K DrmvwnZ K‡i; Aciw`‡K, KvÛÁvb ag©xq, mvgvwRK, ivóªxq

cÖf…wZ m~Î †_‡K DËivwaKvim~‡Î cÖvß| GLv‡b ¯vaxb wPšÍvi AeKvk †bB|

5) `vk©wbK Ávb cwiPvwjZ nq mywbw`©ó j¶¨ AR©‡b; Aciw`‡K, KvÛÁvb j¶¨nxb I

AvcwZK|

6) `vk©wbK Ávb wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi Ici cÖwZwôZ e‡j wbf©i‡hvM¨| Aciw`‡K, wePvi-

we‡kølY I mZ¨Zvi †Kv‡bv gvb`‡Ûi Ici cÖwZwôZ bv nIqvq KvÛÁvb wbf©i‡hvM¨

bq|

7) `vk©wbK Ávb mshZ, mvgÄm¨c~Y© I c×wZMZ| Aciw`‡K, KvÛÁvb AmshZ,

mvgÄm¨nxb I Ac×wZMZ|

Dcmsnvi

`k©‡bi cÖavb j¶¨ n‡jv cÖK…Z m‡Zï AbymÜvb| `k©‡bi c×wZ n‡”Q wbi‡c¶ ch©‡e¶Y

I †hŠw³K wPšÍv| `vk©wbK Ávb mvgÄm¨c~Y© I c×wZMZ| ZvB G Ávb KvÛÁvb †_‡K

DbœZZi| Z‡e Rvbvi †¶‡Î KvÛÁvb n‡jv gvby‡li mnR, ¯vfvweK I cÖv_wgK gva¨g|

Gw`K †_‡K ejv hvq, KvÛÁvb n‡jv `vk©wbK Áv‡bi wfwË I cw_K…r¯iƒc| KvÛÁv‡bi

gva¨‡gB m~wPZ nq cieZ©xKv‡ji DbœZ wPšÍv I mymse× `vk©wbK Awfhvb| GB Áv‡bi

gva¨‡gB `vk©wbK jvf K‡ib Zuvi wePvi-we‡kølY I cix¶v-wbix¶vi g~j Dcv`vb| ZvB

ejv hvq, KvÛÁvb I `vk©wbK Ávb ci¯úi Nwbô m¤ú‡K© m¤úwK©Z|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| KvÛÁvb wK? `k©‡bi mv‡_ KvÛÁv‡bi m¤úK© Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| KvÛÁv‡bi mv‡_ `k©‡bi mv`„k¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

2| KvÛÁv‡bi mv‡_ `k©‡bi cvuPwU cv_©K¨ D‡jøL Kiæb|

3| `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi ‡¶‡Î KvÛÁv‡bi f‚wgKv e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| KvÛÁvb cvIqv hvq

i) DËivwaKvi m~‡Î

ii) `vk©wbK wPšÍv †_‡K

iii) †hŠw³K wPšÍv †_‡K

vi) e¨w³MZ wPšÍv †_‡K

2| KvÛÁvb n‡jv

i) AZxw› ªq Ávb

ii) MvwYwZK Ávb

iii) †hŠw³K Ávb

vi) mvaviY †jv‡Ki mvaviY Kg©

m¤úv`‡bi Ávb

3| Ò†Kv‡bv gvbe †Mvôx †h gZev`

wePvi-we‡kølY QvovB MÖnY K‡i Zv‡K

KvÛÁvb e‡jÓ -G Dw³wU K‡ib

i) KvÈ

ii) Kvwbsnvg

iii) †cø‡Uv

vi) A¨vwi÷Uj

4| KvÛÁvb

i) c×wZMZ

ii) A‡MvQv‡jv

iii) we‡kølYg~jK

vi) †hŠw³K


1| KvÛÁv‡bi mv‡_ `k©‡bi †Kv‡bv m¤úK© †bB|

2| KvÛÁvb KLbI cwiewZ©Z nq bv |

3| KvÛÁvb `vk©wbK Áv‡bi †P‡q DbœZZi|

4| `vk©wbK Ávb mshZ, mvgÄm¨c~Y© I c×wZMZ|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| i) DËivwaKvi m~‡Î 2| vi) mvaviY †jv‡Ki mvaviY Kg© m¤úv`‡bi Ávb

3| ii) Kvwbsnvg 4| ii) A‡MvQv‡jv

L)

1| wg 2| wg 3| wg 4| m



`k©b I weÁvb

(Philosophy and Science)

D‡Ïk¨


weÁvb I `k©‡bi msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

weÁvb I `k©‡bi mv`„k¨ I ‰emv`„k¨ wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKvc~‡e© weÁvb I `k©‡bi g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv cv_©K¨ Kiv n‡Zv bv| me cÖvK…wZK weÁvbB

wQ‡jv cÖvK…wZK `k©b| cieZx©Kv‡j cÖvK…wZK weÁvb m¤‡Ü gvby‡li Ávb hZ †e‡o‡Q

ZZB Zv `k©b †_‡K Avjv`v n‡q c„_K c„_K weÁvb wn‡m‡e cÖwZôv jvf K‡i‡Q|

c`v_©we`¨v, imvqbwe`¨v, g‡bvwe`¨v BZ¨vw` A‡bK ¯Zš¿ weÁvbB wKQy w`b Av‡M `k©‡bi

AšÍfz©³ wQj| G †_‡K †evSv hvq, `k©b I weÁv‡bi g‡a¨ m¤úK© Lye Mfxi| `k©b I

weÁv‡bi m¤úK© Av‡jvPbvi c~‡e© Avgv‡ì Rvbv ìKvi `k©b I weÁvb Kv‡K e‡j?

`k©b RMr I Rxe‡bi ¯iƒc e¨vL¨v I Zvi g~j¨ AeaviYB `k©‡bi KvR|

weÁvb weÁvb A_© we‡kl Ávb| cÖ‡Z¨K weÁvb cÖK…wZi GKwU wbw`©ó kvLv m¤ú‡K©

Avgv‡ì mywbw`©ó, mywbwðZ I wbfz©j Ávb `vb K‡i| e¯‘ m¤ú‡K© Avgv‡ì Bw›`ªqMÖvn¨

AwfÁZvB weÁv‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq| Avi weÁv‡bi c×wZ n†jv, ch©‡e¶Y, cix¶Y I

Av‡ivn c×wZ| `k©‡bi mv‡_ weÁv‡bi wgj¸‡jv †Kv_vq Zv Avgiv GLb †`L†ev|

`k©b I weÁv‡bi mv`„k¨

1) `k©b I weÁvb Df‡qiB j¶¨ RMr I Rxe‡bi inm¨ DÑvUb Kiv| RwUj welq‡K

mnR Kiv, `y‡e©va¨ welq‡K mnR‡eva¨ Kiv, ARvbv‡K Rvbv| myZivs RMr I Rxe‡bi

e¨vL¨vZv wn‡m‡e `vk©wbK I weÁvbx GKB c‡_i hvÎx|

2) weÁv‡bi b¨vq `k©bI AwfÁZvi RMr wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i; AwfÁZvjä NUbvejxi

g‡a¨ c~e©vci m¤úK© Avwe®‹vic~e©K Zv‡ì myweb¨¯Í K‡i Zvi mymvgÄm¨, HKë× I

myk„•Lj weeiY †`q|

3) weÁvb mvaviY Ávb‡K mymsnZ, mymse× I myweb¨¯Í K‡i, d‡j Zv êÁvwbK Áv‡bi

¯Í‡i DbœxZ nq| Avi GB mKj êÁvwbK Ávb myweb¨¯Í n‡j Zv `k©‡bi ¯Í‡i †cuŠQvq|

GRb¨ `k©b‡K mKj weÁv‡bi weÁvb ejv nq|

4) `k©b I weÁvb Df‡qi i‡h‡Q Áv‡bi cÖwZ Mfxi AbyivM Ges mZ¨ AbymÜv‡bi B”Qv|

`k©b I weÁvb †h g~jZ GK Zv †evSv‡Z wM‡qB Kvwbsnvg e‡jb, ÒmvaviY Ávb †_‡K

cvV - 2



weÁv‡b Avm‡Z †M‡j Avgiv †hgb †Kv‡bv bZzb iv‡R¨ cÖ‡ek Kwi bv; Abyiƒcfv‡e,

weÁvb †_‡K `k©‡b Avm‡Z n‡j Avgiv Avgv‡ì AwfÁZvi RMZ‡K Qvwo‡q hvB bvÓ|

`k©b I weÁv‡bi g‡a¨ †hgb wgj Av‡Q †Zgwb AwgjI Av‡Q| wb‡P G‡ì g‡a¨

D‡jøL‡hvM¨ ‰emv`„k¨¸‡jv Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv :

`k©b I weÁv‡bi êmv`„k¨

1) weÁvb Av‡jvPbvi myweavi Rb¨ RMr I Rxeb‡K K‡qKwU fv‡M fvM K‡i Av‡jvPbv

K‡i| wKš‘ `k©b Rxeb I RMZ‡K mvgwMÖKfv‡e Av‡jvPbv K‡i| ZvB êÁvwbK `„wó

n†jv LÛ| ag©, ˆbwZKZv I †mŠ›`h© m¤úKx©q †Kv‡bv Av‡jvPbv weÁvb K‡i bv, wKš‘

G¸‡jv `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi ewnf‚©Z bq|

2) weÁvb weÁv‡bi cÖK…wZ wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i bv| weÁv‡bi cÖK…wZ wb‡q `k©b Av‡jvPbv

K‡i| `k©b Zvi wb‡Ri cÖK…wZ wb‡qI Av‡jvPbv K‡i Ges GwU Zvi ¸iæZ¡c~Y© Av‡jvP¨

welq|

3) weÁvb Zvi Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi e¨vL¨vi Rb¨ KZK¸‡jv ¯Ztwm× mZ¨ I bxwZ‡K webv

wePv‡i †g‡b †bq; †hgb - cÖK…wZi wbqgvbyewZ©Zv bxwZ, Kvh©KviY bxwZ| wKš‘ `k©b Av‡M

†_‡K bxwZ ev mZ¨‡K webv wePv‡i ¯xKvi K‡i †bq bv, Dciš‘ weÁv‡bi ¯Ztwm× mZ¨ ev

webv wePv‡i ¯xK…Z bxwZ¸†jvi h_vh_ wePvi K‡i|

4) e¯‘i ¯iƒc we‡kølY KivB weÁv‡bi KvR| c„w_ex‡Z †Kv‡bv GKUv we‡kl e¯‘i ¯’vb I

g~j¨ Kx? G Av‡jvPbv †Kv‡bv weÁvbxB mvaviYZ K‡ib bv| wKš‘ e¯‘i ¯iƒc I g~j¨

wbY©q - `wyUB `k©‡bi KvR| `vk©wbK g‡b K‡ib, †Kv‡bv GKUv e¯‘i g~j¨ wbY©q bv Kiv

n‡j Zvi cwic~Y© e¨vL¨v †`qv nq bv|

5) êÁvwbK e¨vL¨v mvaviYZ me©RbMÖvn¨| wKš‘ wewfbœ `vk©wbK wfbœ wfbœ `„wó†KvY †_‡K

wfbœ wfbœ e¨vL¨v †`b| ZvB `k©‡bi e¨vL¨v ev wm×všÍ me©RbMÖvn¨ bq|

6) weÁvb I `k©‡bi c×wZi g‡aÏ cv_©K¨ Av‡Q| weÁvb NUbv ch©‡e¶Y-cix¶Y K‡i,

Zvi msÁv I eY©bv †`q Ges †m¸‡jv we‡kølY I †kªYxfz³ K‡i Ges Kvh©KviY m¤úK©

wbY©q K‡i KZ¸‡jv mvaviY wbq‡gi mvnv‡h¨ e¨vL¨v K‡i| `k©‡bi c×wZ n‡jv eyw×i

mvnv‡h¨ Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi wePvi-we‡kølY Kiv| A‡bK Bw›`ªqvZxZ welq wb‡qI `k©b

Av‡jvPbv K‡i, †h¸‡jv cÖZ¨¶ ev cix¶Y Kiv hvq bv|

`k©b I weÁvb ci¯úi cwic~iK



`k©b weÁv‡bi Dci A‡bK †¶‡Î wbf©i K‡i| `k©b n‡jv mg¯Í RM‡Zi mvgwMÖK

Av‡jvPbv| Avi GK GKwU weÁvb cÖK…wZi GK GKwU wefvM wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Ges

`k©‡bi gvjgkjv †hvMvq| `k©b wewfbœ wefv‡Mi êÁvwbK wm×všÍ ‡jv‡K GKxf‚Z I

mymse× K‡i Ges cÖK…wZi wewfbœ wefv‡Mi g‡a¨ †h ms‡hvM Av‡Q Zv‡K e¨vL¨v K‡i| Z‡e

GLv‡bB `k©‡bi Av‡jvPbv mxgve× _v‡K bv| wewfbœ weÁvb †_‡K cÖvß DcKi‡Yi Dci

wfwË K‡i RMr I Rxe‡bi bZzb e¨vL¨vI †`q| ZvQvov †Kv‡bv GKwU weÁv‡bi mv‡_

Aci GKwU weÁv‡bi wgj bvI _vK‡Z cv‡i| †hgb- cÖvK…wZK weÁvb¸‡jv‡Z gvby‡li

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZvi ¯xK…wZ †bB| wKš‘ bxwZwe`¨vi wfwË n‡jv gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv|

`k©b wek¦RMr m¤ú‡K© mymse× aviYvi mvnv‡h¨ GB AmvgÄm¨Zv `~i Kivi †Póv K‡i|

GKK_vq, `k©b Rxeb-RM‡Zi mvgwMÖK Av‡jvPbvq weÁv†bi wbðqZvg~jK Z_¨, DcvË

eënvi K‡i; ZvB weÁvb Qvov `k©b n‡q c‡o AšÍtmvik~b¨|

weÁvbI `k©‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i| wewfbœ weÁvb `k©‡bi ØvivB e¨vL¨vZ, myweb¨¯Í I

GKxf‚Z nq| `k©b weÁv‡bi ¯xKvh© mZ¨¸†jv wePvi K‡i Zvi †hŠw³KZv wba©viY K‡i|

weÁvb cÖK…wZi GK GKwU wefvM m¤ú‡K© LÛ LÛ Ávb `vb K‡i| ZvB cÖK…wZi wewfbœ

wefv‡Mi mvgwMÖK Ávb jv‡fi Rb¨ weÁvbx‡K `k©‡bi Ici wbf©i Ki‡Z nq| weÁvb

RM‡Zi `„k¨gvb iƒc wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i| ZvB weÁvbx‡K RM‡Zi AšÍwb©wnZ D‡Ïk¨,

Zvrch© I j¶¨ Rvbvi Rb¨ `k©‡bi Dci wbf©i Ki‡Z nq|

Aa¨vcK Weber Zuvi ÔHistory of Philosophy’ MÖ‡š’ e‡jb, ÔÔ`k©b Qvov weÁvb n†jv

HK¨ Qvov mgwógvÎ, AvZ¥vnxb †`n; weÁvb Qvov `k©b n‡jv †`nnxb AvZ¥v, wbQK KweZv

Ges g~jZ ¯cœ †_‡K Gi we‡kl wKQy cv_©K¨ †bBÕÕ|

Dcmsnvi

`k©b I weÁvb DfqB Pvq RMr I Rxe‡bi inm¨ DÑvUb Ki‡Z| Df‡qi m‡Zï cÖwZ

Mfxi AbyivM i‡q‡Q Ges Dfq Ávb‡K mymse×, mymsnZ I myweb¨¯Í Ki‡Z Pvq| Z‡e

`k©b cÖK…wZ‡K mvgwMÖKfv‡e Av‡jvPbv K‡i; Avi weÁvb Av‡jvPbv K‡i LÛ LÛfv‡e|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `k©b I weÁv‡bi cv_©K¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| `k©b I weÁv‡bi mv`„k¨ ev wgj¸†jv Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

2| `k©b I weÁv‡bi msÁv w`b|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| weÁv‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq

i) ag©

ii) ˆbwZKZv

iii) mvgvwRKZv

iv) cÖK…wZ

2| `k©‡bi mv‡_ weÁv‡bi m¤úK©

i) mvgvb¨

ii) †bB

iii) Mfxi

iv) †Kv‡bvUvB wVK bq

3| `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq

i) AwfÁZvi RMr

ii) e ‘ RMr

iii) AZxw›`ªq RMr

iv) Bw›`ªq Ges AZxw›`ªq RMr

4| `k©b I weÁv‡bi j¶¨

i) GK

ii) wfbœ

iii) wecixZ

iv) †Kv‡bvUvB bv


1| weÁvb Pvq AZxw›`ªq welq‡K Rvb‡Z|

2| `k©b Rxe‡bi †Kv‡bv w`K‡KB D‡c¶v K‡i bv|

3| `k©b I weÁvb G‡K Ac‡ii Dci wbf©ikxj|

4| `k©‡bi wm×všÍ me©Rbxb|

mwVK DËi

K.

1. iv) cÖK…wZ 2. iii) Mfxi 3. iv) Bw›`ªq Ges AZxw›`ªq RMr 4. i) GK

L.

1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg



`k©b I ag©

(Philosophy and Religion)

D‡Ïk¨


a‡g©i msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

ag© I `k©‡bi cv_©K¨ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

ag© I `k©‡bi wgj¸‡jv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

`k©b I ag© DfqB Pvq RMr I Rxe‡bi inm¨ Rvb‡Z, cÖK…Z mZ¨‡K AbymÜvb Ki‡Z|

hwÌ Df‡qi D‡Ïk¨ GK, Z_vwc AbymÜv‡bi c×wZ Avjv`v| avwg©K Pvq cig mËvi

mv‡_ ms‡hvM ¯’vcb Ki‡Z, Avi `vk©wbK Pvq cig mËv m¤ú‡K© cÖK…Z Ávbjvf Ki‡Z|

`k©b Zvi AbymÜv‡bi c×wZ wn‡m‡e †e‡Q wb‡q‡Q wePvieyw×‡K, Avi ag© †e‡Q wb‡q‡Q

wek¦vm‡K| avwg©‡Ki e³e¨ n‡jv Ôwek¦v‡m wgjvq †Lv`v Z‡K© eû ` iÕ| ag© I `k©‡bi

m¤úK© Av‡jvPbvi Av‡M Avgiv G‡ì msÁv w`†ev|

ag©

ag© A_© aviY Kiv| G n‡jv Ggb GK A`„k¨ kw³i Dci AvZ¥mgc©Y I Mfxi wek¦vm hv

gvby‡li Rxeb I wbqwZ‡K wbqZB wbqwš¿Z K‡i Ges hvi mv‡_ †cÖ‡gi eÜ‡b Ave×

nIqvi Rb¨ gvby‡li i‡q‡Q GKvšÍ Kvgbv| AwZcÖvK…wZK kw³i Dci wbf©ikxjZvi

Abyf‚wZB a‡g©i cÖvY|

`k©b

`k©b ej‡Z Avgiv Ggb GK we`¨v‡K eywS, hv m‡Zï AbymÜv‡b fvev‡e‡Mi cwie‡Z©

D`vi `„wófw½, Abya¨vb, we‡kølY I ms‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g mËv, RMr I Rxe‡bi m‡½ RwoZ

mgm¨vejxi myôz, hyw³m¤§Z I M p Av‡jvPbv Kivi cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq| GLb Avgiv `k©‡bi

mv‡_ a‡g©i wgj¸†jv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

`k©b I a‡g©i mv`„k¨

1) Df‡qi D‡Ïk¨ RMr I Rxe‡bi inm¨ D‡b¥vPb K‡i mZ¨ AbymÜvb Kiv|

2) DfqB cig mËv, cig g~j¨, g½j BZ¨vw` wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i| `k©b I ag© DfqB

cig mËvi cÖwZ gvby‡li g‡bvfve wb‡`©k K‡i| a‡g©i g‡bvfve e¨³ nq Dcvmbv, cÖv_©bv,

AvPiY BZ¨vwì gva¨‡g; Avi `k©‡bi g‡bvfve e¨³ nq †eŠw×K Dcjwäi gva¨‡g| wek¦

RM‡Zi g~‡jï Dr‡mi cÖwZ a‡g©i g‡bvfve n‡jv eënvwiK Ges Av‡eMg~jK; Avi

cvV - 3



`k©‡bi KvR H Dr‡mi msÁv I e¨vL¨v †`qv| †R.wm. wdfvi (J.C. Feaver) e‡jb,

Ô†h‡nZz a‡g©i KvR g~j¨‡K e¨vL¨v I cÖwZôv Kiv, †m‡nZz ag© I `k©b ci¯úi wbf©ikxjÕ|

3) `k©b I a‡g©i Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qI wgj i‡q‡Q| mªóv I mªóvi m„wóKvh©, RM‡Zi mv‡_

mªóvi m¤úK©, mªóvi mv‡_ Rxe‡bi m¤úK©, mªóv‡K Rvbvi Dcvq, AvZ¥v, AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡,

ciKvj BZ¨vw` wb‡q DfqB Av‡jvPbv K‡i|

`k©b I a‡g©i êmv`„k¨

`k©b I a‡g©i g‡a¨ A‡bK wel‡q wgj _vK‡jI êmv`„k¨ ev cv_©KÏ Av‡Q A‡bK

wel‡q| †hgb-

1) `k©‡bi D‡Ïk¨ n‡jv Áv‡bi cÖwZ AbyivM Ges Zvi cwiYwZ wn‡m‡e eyw×i cwiZ…wß I

gvbwmK kvwšÍ jvf| Avi a‡g©i D‡Ïk¨ n‡jv kvwšÍ jvf, cig mËvi (mªóvi) mv‡_ GKvÍZv

weavb I †gv¶ jvf|

2) `k©b I a‡g©i c×wZ Avjv`v| `k©‡bi c×wZ n‡jv wePvieyw× I we‡kølY| Avi a‡g©i

c×wZ n‡jv cÖZ¨¶ Abyf‚wZ (intuition)|

3) `k©b n‡jv cig mËvi Ávb; Avi ag© n‡jv cig mËvi mv‡_ ms‡hvM ¯’vc‡bi Ávb|

4) `k©b n‡jv ÁvbPP©v, Avi ag© n‡jv RxebPP©v| ZvB `k©‡bi †Kv‡bv AvbyôvwbKZv †bB,

wKš‘ a‡g©i AvbyôvwbKZv Av‡Q Ges Abyôvb ev` w`‡j a‡g©i A½nvwb nq|

5) `k©‡bi mZ¨ e¨w³wbi‡c¶ I me©Rbxb, Avi a‡g©i mZ¨ e¨w³MZ| avwg©K mZ¨‡K

†R‡bB Lykx nb bv; mZ¨‡K ü`‡qi mg¯Í AvKywZi g‡a¨ GKvšÍfv‡e Avcbvi K‡i †c‡Z

Pvb|

6) a‡g©i GKUv ˆbwZK wfwË Av‡Q| KZK¸‡jv ˆbwZK wbqg cÖvq cÖ‡Z¨K a‡g©iB

A½we‡kl| wKš‘ a‡g©i gZ †Kv‡bv ˆbwZK wfwË `k©‡bi †bB|

7) `k©‡bi KvR n‡jv eyw×wfwËK, Avi a‡g©i KvR n‡jv wek¦vmwfwËK| wek¦vm a‡g©i

mvie¯‘| ag© ZvB wek¦vm I Abyf‚wZi ZxeªZvq gwngvwšZ; Avi `k©b wek¦vm I Abyf‚wZ

weewR©Z †hŠw³K wPšÍvfvebv|

Z‡e `k©b I a‡g©i g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ _vK‡jI Giv ci¯úi ci¯ú‡ii cwic~iK| Df‡qi KvR

gvby‡li †KŠZ‚nj `~i Kivi Rb¨ wek¦RM‡Zi inm¨ D‡b¥vPb Kiv| GB inm¨‡K D‡b¥vPb

Ki‡Z ev mZ¨‡K Rvb‡Z `k©b a‡g©i wfwË A_©vr mij wek¦vm‡K bó bv K‡i A‡bK mgq

a‡g©i wfwË‡K g~j¨vq‡bi gva¨‡g AviI gReyZ K‡i †Zv‡j| Avi ag©I `k©‡bi mskq I

we‡kølYvÍK hyw³ hLb gvbyl‡K cig mËvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ m¤ú‡K© mw›`» K‡i †Zv‡j, ZLb

gvby‡li g‡b wek¦vm‡K cÖwZwôZ K‡i| hyw³wePv‡iI hLb mgvavb †g‡j bv ZLb wek¦vmB



gvbyl‡K w¯’i iv‡L| Z‡e †eKb e‡jb, ÒGK_v mZ¨ †h, mvaviY `k©b gvby‡li gb‡K

bvw¯ÍKZvi w`‡K wb‡q †h‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ `k©‡bi MfxiZv gvby‡li gb‡K a‡g©i w`‡K †U‡b

wb‡q hvqÓ| myZivs †Mvuovwgnxb ag© I cÖK…Z `k©‡bi g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv we‡iva †bB|

Dcmsnvi

`k©b I ag© DfqB BnRMr, ciRMr, AvZ¥v, AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡, c„w_ex m„wói inm¨

BZ¨vw`‡K Rvb‡Z Pvq| mªóv‡K Rvb‡Z Pvq, cÖK…Z mZ¨‡K †c‡Z Pvq| DfqB mgv‡Ri

gvby‡li myL-kvwšÍ I g½‡ji Rb¨ KvR K‡i|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `k©b I a‡g©i m¤úK© Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| `k©b I a‡g©i wgj¸‡jv Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

2| a‡g©i msÁv w`b|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1) a‡g©i g~j D‡Ïk¨ n‡jv

i) mªóv‡K Rvbv

ii) mªóvi mv‡_ ms‡hvM ¯’vcb Kiv

iii) A_© cvIqv

iv) Ávb AR©b Kiv

2) `k©b n‡jv

i) ÁvbPP©v

ii) RxebPP©v|

iii) iƒcPP©v|

iv) †Kv‡bvUvB bv|

3) `k©b I a‡g©i g‡a¨

i) †Kv‡bv wgj †bB

ii) c×wZMZ wgj Av‡Q

iii) Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi A‡bK wgj Av‡Q

iv) †Kv‡bv cv_©K¨ †bB

4) `k©‡b Rvbvi c×wZ n‡jv

i) wePvieyw×

ii) Ab f‚wZ

iii) wek¦vm

iv) †Kv‡bvUvB bv

L.

mZ¨ n‡j ÔmÕ Ges wg_¨v n‡j ÔwgÕ wjLyb|

1| a‡g©i mZ¨ me©Rbxb, Avi `k©‡bi mZ¨ e¨w³MZ|

2| `k©b n‡jv wek¦vm I Abyf‚wZ weewR©Z wPšÍvfvebv|

3| Mfxi `k©b gvbyl‡K Avw¯ÍKZvi w`‡K †U‡b †bq|

4| `k©b Pvq mªóvi mv‡_ ms‡hvM ¯’vcb Ki‡Z, Avi ag© Pvq gvby‡li mv‡_ ms‡hvM ¯’vcb

Ki‡Z|

mwVK DËi

K.

1. ii) mªóvi mv‡_ ms‡hvM ¯’vcb Kiv 2) i) ÁvbPP©v

3) iii) Av‡jvP¨ wel‡qi A‡bK wgj Av‡Q 4) i) wePvieyw×

L. 1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg



`k©b I mvwnZ¨

(Philosophy and Literature)

D‡Ïk¨


mvwnZ¨ Kv‡K e‡j ej‡Z cvi‡eb|

mvwn‡Zï mv‡_ `k©‡bi m¤úK© eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

Ab¨vb¨ eënvwiK we`¨vi †P‡q mvwn‡Zï mv‡_ `k©‡bi m¤úK© A‡bK †ewk ¸iæZ¡c~Y© I

`„wó AvKl©K| mvwn‡Zï D‡Ïk¨ `yÕai‡bi n‡Z cv‡i: GKwU n†jv wPËwe‡bv`b, AciwU

n‡jv wk¶v`vb| Z‡e wPËwe‡bv`bB mvwn‡Zï †¶‡Î †ewk cÖvavb¨ cvq| Aciw`‡K,

`k©‡bi KvR n‡”Q RMr-Rxe‡bi Mfxi mZ¨‡K DÑvUb Kiv| GB mZ¨ mÜv‡bi †¶‡Î,

`k©‡b wPËwe‡bv`‡bi ev fvev‡e‡Mi my‡hvM †bB| `k©b PvwjZ nq wePvi-we‡kølYx wPšÍvi

Øviv| ZvB `k©b I mvwn‡Zï g‡a¨ A‡bK cv_©K¨ i‡q‡Q| `k©b I mvwn‡Zï m¤úK©

Av‡jvPbvi c~‡e© Avgv‡ì `k©b I mvwnZ¨ Kx? Zv Rvbv ìKvi|

`k©b

RMr I Rxe‡bi ¯iƒc e¨vL¨v Ges Zvi g~j¨ AeaviYB `k©‡bi KvR| GB KvR Ki‡Z

`k©b cwiPvwjZ nq wePvieyw× Øviv|

mvwnZ¨

wPšÍvaviv I Kíbvi myweb¨¯Í I mycwiKwíZ wjwLZ iƒc‡K mvwnZ¨ e‡j| mvwnwZ¨K Zvi

mvwnZ¨ iPbvq hZUv bv nq ev¯Íeev`x Zvi †P‡q A‡bK †ewk nq Av‡eM ev KíbvcÖeY|

ZvB †ewkifvM †¶‡Î mvwnZ¨ Avgv‡ì Avb›` †`q, †Kv‡bv Z_¨ †`q bv| mvwnwZ¨K

gyL¨Z †Kv‡bv wKQy wk¶v †`qvi †P‡q gb‡K DÏxwcZ I Avbw›`Z Kivi †Póv K‡ib|

mvwnZ¨‡K ejv nq Rxe‡bi `c©Y , mZ¨Zvi `c©Y bq| mvwn‡Zï gyL¨ KvR n‡jv AZxZ I

eZ©gv‡bi ¯§iYxq AwfÁZv‡K Dc¯’vcb Kiv| Mfxi myL-`yt‡Li Awe¯§iYxq êwk‡óï

ga¨ w`‡q Rxe‡bi †h wPÎ dz‡U I‡V Zv cvV‡Ki Kv‡Q Zz‡j aiv| Rxe‡bi mdjZv I

e¨_©Zv, †mŠ›`h© I K`h©Zv, gnË¡ I ¯’‚jZv Zz‡j aiv| †m Rxeb‡K e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cv‡i,

‰ewk¦K `„wófw½ Dc¯’vcb Ki‡Z cv‡i; wKš‘ Zvi c×wZ wePvig~jK nIqvi cÖ‡qvRb †bB|

KviY †m P‚ovšÍ m‡Zï mv‡_ gzL¨Z m¤ú„³ bq| †m ïay e‡j, wKfv‡e Abyfe Kiv hvq,

wKfv‡e e¯‘ Zvi Kv‡Q aiv †`q| G Kvi‡Y mvwnwZ¨‡Ki †jLv RbMY †ewk c‡o I cQ›`

K‡i|

cvV - 4



`k©b I mvwn‡Zï mv`„k¨

`k©‡bi mv‡_ mvwn‡Zï wgj¸‡jv †Kv_vq Zv Avgiv GLb Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev :

1) `k©b I mvwnZ¨ DfqB cÖavbZ RMr I Rxeb m¤úKx©q welq wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i Ges

e¨w³, mgvR, ivóª, wek¦vm, gZv`k© BZ¨vwì ¯iƒc e¨vL¨v I mgv‡jvPbv K‡i|

2) `k©b I mvwnZ¨ DfqB cÖ‡Póv Pvjvq cÖK…Z mZ¨‡K Avwe®‹vi Ki‡Z| Z‡e mvwn‡Zï

mZ¨ e¨w³‡Kw›`ªK|

`k©b I mvwn‡Zï êmv`„k¨

`k©‡bi mv‡_ mvwn‡Zï wKQy wel‡q wgj _vK‡jI A‡bK wel‡q cv_©K¨ i‡q‡Q|

1) `k©b I mvwn‡Zï Av‡jvP¨ welq GK n‡jI Zv‡ì Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ wfbœ| `k©b

AMÖmi nq †hŠw³K wPšÍv I m~² wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g; Avi mvwnZ¨ AMÖmi nq Kíbv,

Abyfe ev ü`qv‡e‡Mi gva¨‡g|

2) `k©b wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g mvaviY wPšÍv RM‡Zi ¯’‚jZv, RoZv I Kzms¯‹vi‡K `~i

K‡i gvbyl‡K cÖK…Z Ávb w`‡Z Pvq| Avi mvwnZ¨ gvby‡li Rxe‡bi AwfÁZv, wek¦vm I

Abyf‚wZi mywbcyY wPÎ Zz‡j a‡i| Avi GRb¨B mvwnZ¨‡K Rxe‡bi `c©Y ejv nq|

3) `k©b ev¯Íe Ávb I Z_¨ cÖ vb K‡i| wKš‘ mvwnwZ¨‡Ki Av‡jvP¨ welq A‡bK †¶‡ÎB

Aev¯Íe I Z_¨nxb nq| †hgb mvwn‡Z¨ A‡bK f‚‡Zi Mí, iv¶‡mi Mí _v‡K| G¸‡jv

Avgv‡ì Avb›` †`q, wKš‘ G¸‡jv †hgb Aev¯Íe †Zgwb Z_¨nxb|

4) mvwnwZ¨‡Ki cwiPq Zvi cÖKv‡ki gvayh© I ¯”QZvq, Avi `vk©wb‡Ki cwiPq Zvi wPšÍvi

†gŠwjKZvq I hyw³i Abe`¨Zvq|

5) mvwnwZ¨K we‡klZ Kwe wek¦ gv‡S ïay my›ì‡K Lyu‡R †eovb Ges RM‡Zi me©Î

my›ì‡K †`L‡Z cvb| Zvi †Pv‡L my›ìB mZ¨ Avi mZ¨B my›ì| Avi `vk©wbK mZ¨,

my›ì I g½j‡K mgwšZ Ki‡Z Pvb| m‡Zï cwic~Y© iƒc Zvi Kv‡Q ïay my›ì bq, g½jI

e‡U|

`k©b I mvwnZ¨ ci¯úi cwic~iK

`k©b I mvwn‡Zï g‡a¨ bvbviƒc cv_©K¨ _vKv m‡Ë¡I G‡K Ac‡ii cwic~iK| `k©‡bi

mnvqZvq mvwnZ¨ †hgb mg„× n‡q I‡V †Zgwb mvwn‡Zï mnvqZvq `k©b n‡q I‡V cÖvÄj

I mnR‡eva¨| cvðvZ¨ †`‡ki mvwnZ¨ GZ mg„× Zvi g~j KviY n‡jv, Zv‡ì mvwnZ¨

`vk©wbK wPšÍvi cÖfv‡e cÖfvevwšZ| †hgb, `v‡šÍ Zuvi ÔwWfvBb K‡gwWÕ (Divine Comedy)-†Z RM‡Zi Dcv`vb, gvby‡li DrcwË I fvM¨, cv‡ci D™¢e I wbe„wË wb‡q

Av‡jvPbv K‡i‡Qb| Zuvi GB Av‡jvP¨ welq m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡cB `vk©wb‡Ki| Avevi †Kej

`vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvi †cÖw¶‡ZI †h GKUv DbœZ mvwnZ¨ M‡o DV‡Z cv‡i Zvi cÖK…ó cÖgvY

n‡jv, †cø‡Uvi Ôw` wicvewjKÕ (The Republic) ev iv‡m‡ji Ôwn÷ix Ad I‡q÷vb©

wd‡jvmwdÕ (History of Western Philosophy)|



Dcmsnvi

`k©‡bi mv‡_ mvwn‡Zï †h wgj Zv n‡jv Av‡jvP¨ welq Ges mZ¨ AbymÜv‡bi †¶‡Î|

Avi g~j cv_©K¨ n†jv, c×wZMZ cv_©K¨| mvwnZ¨ I `k©‡bi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ _vK‡jI G‡K

Ac‡ii cwic~iK| KviY `k©‡bi mnvqZvq mvwnZ¨ nq mg„×, Avi mvwn‡Zï mnvqZvq

`k©b nq cÖvÄj I mnR‡eva¨|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `k©b I mvwn‡Zï m¤úK© Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| mvwn‡Zï msÁv w`b|

2| mvwn‡Zï mv‡_ `k©‡bi mv`„k¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

K.. eû wbe©vPbx cÖkœ

mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| mvwnZ¨‡K ejv nq

i) Rxe‡bi `c©Y

ii) Áv‡bi `c©Y

iii) g‡bi `c©Y

iv) wPšÍvi `c©Y

2| `vk©wb‡Ki cwiPq

i) fve gvay‡h©

ii) fve MfxiZvq

iii) hyw³i `„pZvq

iv) ¯”QZvq

3| mvwn‡Zï mv‡_ `k©‡bi wgj i‡q‡Q

i) fvefw½‡Z

ii) Av‡jvPbvi c×wZ‡Z

iii) Z_¨ cÖ v‡b

iv) Av‡jvP¨ wel‡q

4| mvwnwZ¨‡Ki Kv‡Q

i) me wKQyB mZ¨

ii) me wKQyB wg_¨v

iii) hv my›ì ZvB mZ¨

iv) hv hyw³hy³ ZvB mZ¨


1| `k©b‡K Rxe‡bi `c©Y ejv nq|

2| mvwnZ¨ `k©b‡K mg„× K‡i|

3| `k©‡bi mv‡_ mvwn‡Zï †Kv‡bv wel‡qB wgj †bB|

4| mvwnZ¨ Rxe‡bi wPÎ gvby‡li mvg‡b Zz‡j a‡i|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| i) Rxe‡bi `c©Y 2| iii) hyw³i `„pZvq

3| iv) Av‡jvP¨ wel‡q 4| iii) hv my›ì ZvB mZ¨

L.

1| wg 2| m 3| wg 4| m|



BDwbU - 4

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv

(Freedom of Will)

c~e©eZ©x wZbwU BDwb‡U Avgiv h_vµ‡g `k©‡bi cÖK…wZ I cwimi, Zvi c×wZ Ges

wewfbœ wel‡qi mv‡_ Zvi cvi¯úwiK m¤úK© Rvbvi †Póv K‡iwQ| eZ©gvb BDwb‡U

Avgiv GKwU ¸iæZ¡c~Y© `vk©wbK mgm¨v wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev| gvby‡li B”Qv ¯vaxb

bv wbqwš¿Z?

gvby‡li Rxeb Kg©gq| GB K‡g©i †¶‡Î gvby‡li KZUzKz ¯^vaxbZv i‡q‡Q? wewfbœ

K‡g©i g‡a¨ wKsev `ywU we‡ivax K‡g©i g‡a¨ †h †Kv‡bv GKwU‡K wbe©vPb Kivi

¯vaxbZv e¨w³i i‡q‡Q wKbv? Ab¨K_vq, Kg© wbe©vPb ev evQvB-Gi †¶‡Î gvby‡li

B”Qv ¯vaxb wKbv? G GK m½Z cÖkœ| K‡g©i †cQ‡b gvby‡li †h B”Qv mwµq _v‡K Zv

¯vaxb bv n‡j gvby‡li Kv‡Ri fvj-g›` g~j¨vqb Kiv hvq bv| B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv bv

_vK‡j gvbyl‡K kvw¯Í ev cyi¯‹vi †Kv‡bvwUB †`qv m¤¢e bq| B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv msµvšÍ

D‡jøL‡hvM¨ `vk©wbK gZev`¸‡jv G BDwb‡U Av‡jvwPZ n‡q‡Q|


A`„óev`

(Fatalism)

wbqš¿Yev`

(Determinism)

Awbqš¿Yev`

(Indeterminism)

¯wbqš¿Yev`

(Self-Determinism)



A „óev`

(Fatalism)

D‡Ïk¨


A`„óev` we ÍvwiZfv‡e eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB gZev‡ì ÎæwUmg~n D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úKx©q mgm¨vwU `k©‡bi GKwU ¸iæZ¡c~Y© I wPËvKl©K mgm¨v|

ˆ`bw›`b cÖ‡qvRb wgUv‡Z Avgiv KZ KvR Kwi| GB KvR Avgiv †¯‹”Qvq Kwi, bv eva¨

n‡q Kwi, Zv GK RwUj cÖkœ| ¯vaxbZv ej‡Z cÖK…Zc‡¶ wK †evSvq Ges †m A‡_© gvbyl

KZUzKz ¯vaxb? G wb‡q `vk©wbKMY GKgZ n‡Z cv‡ibwb| d‡j bvbv gZev‡ì D™¢e

n‡q‡Q| B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úKx©q gZev` wn‡m‡e Avgiv 4wU gZev` cvB :

1) A`„óev` (Fatalism)

2) Awbqš¿Yev` (Indeterminism)

3) wbqš¿Yev` (Determinism) I

4) ¯wbqš¿Yev` (Self-Determinism)

A`„óev` (Fatalism)

†h gZev` A`„ó ev fv‡M¨ wek¦vm K‡i Zv‡K A`„óev` ejv nq| G gZvbymv‡i, hv wKQy

N‡U Zv meB c~e©wba©vwiZ| †Kv‡bv NUbv‡K cwieZ©b Kivi ¶gZv gvby‡li †bB| G

gZev‡ì g~j e³e¨ n‡jv, hv nevi Zv n‡eB, gvby‡li c‡¶ Zv cÖwZ‡iva Kiv m¤¢e bq|

GB gZev`, gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv cy‡ivcywi A¯xKvi K‡i| ïay gvby‡li B”QvB bq,

cÖK…wZi g‡a¨ Ggb wKQyB †bB hvi ¯vaxbZv GB gZev` ¯xKvi K‡i| ZvB DBwjqvg

†Rgm& GB gZev`‡K K‡Vvi wbqš¿Yev` e‡j AwfwnZ K‡ib|

A`„óev` g~jZ GKwU ag©ZvwË¡K gZev`| ag©-wek¦vmx gvbyl g‡b K‡i, Zvi Kg© c~e©-

wba©vwiZ hv j•Nb Kiv hvq bv| GB Aj Nbxq Kg© fvM¨ ev A`„ó bv‡g AwfwnZ|

fviZxq `k©‡bi ÔˆèÕ Ges gymwjg `k©‡bi ÔZK`xiÕ GB fvM¨ ev A`„ó A‡_©B eëüZ

nq|

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv : Rvevwiqv I Kv`vwiqv m¤úÖ vq

gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv Av‡Q wKbv? G wb‡q gymwjg `k©‡bi `yB m¤úÖ vq Rvevwiqv I

Kv`vwiqv‡ì g‡a¨ Zxeª weZK© †`Lv hvq| Rvevwiqv‡ì g‡Z, ZK`xi A_©vr fvM¨

c~e©wba©vwiZ| Zuviv gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv cy‡ivcywi A¯xKvi K‡ib| Zuv‡ì g‡Z, Avjøvn&

cvV - 1



me© kw³gvb Ges mgMÖ c„w_exi GKgvÎ kvmK| Avjøvn&i B”Qvi evB‡i mmxg gvby‡li

¯Zš¿ B”Qv e‡j wKQy †bB, _vK‡Z cv‡i bv| Zuv‡ì g‡Z, Avjøvn& †¯^”QvPvix kvmK|

Zuv‡ì g‡Zi we‡ivwaZv K‡i Kv`vwiqv m¤úÖ vq e‡jb, gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv Av‡Q Ges

GB ¯vaxbZv Av‡Q e‡jB gvby‡li K‡g©i wePvi n‡e| Avjøvn& †¯^”QvPvix kvmK bb| wZwb

b¨vqwePviK|

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv : cvðvZ¨ ag© `k©b

cvðvZ¨ ag© `k©‡bI A`„óev‡ì †Rvi mg_©b j¶¨ Kiv hvq| K¨vjwfbcš’xiv wek¦vm K‡i,

Ck¦i me wKQyi P‚ovšÍ KZ©v Ges gvbyl Zuvi Dci m¤ú~Y©fv‡e wbf©ikxj| GRb¨B gvby‡li

DwPZ me© v Ck¦‡ii `qv I KiæYv jv‡fi †Póv Kiv|

mgv‡jvPbv

1) A`„óev` `k©‡bi BwZnv‡m KLbB Zvrch©c~Y© I cÖfvekvjx gZev` wn‡m‡e cÖwZôv

cvqwb| GwU g~jZ GKwU ag©ZvwË¡K gZev` ev RbwcÖq †jvKR wek¦vm| GKwU wm×všÍ

MÖn‡Yi †¶‡Î wm×všÍ MÖnYKvixi PvwiwÎK êwkó¨ ¯vfvweKfv‡e cÖfve †dj‡Z cv‡i| ZvB

e‡j Zv‡K A`„‡ói wjLb e‡j AwfwnZ Kiv hvq bv| G‡K wbqš¿Y ev AvZ¥wbqš¿Y ejv

†h‡Z cv‡i| GwU e¯‘Z GKwU ’‚j I Pig gZev`|

2) ag©ZvwË¡K A`„óev` Hkx mËvi ï×Zv ev c~Y©Zv A_©vr mªóvi me©ÁZv I me©kw³gËvi

GKwU i¶v KeR wn‡m‡e D™¢‚Z n‡q‡Q| GwU hyw³ w`‡q †evSv‡Z Pvq †h, gy³ ev ¯vaxb

mmxg mËvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ Avek¨Kxqfv‡e mªóvi me©kw³gËv‡K Le© K‡i| Z‡e GB hyw³ h_vh_

bq, †Kbbv GwU gvby‡li `vwqZ¡kxjZvi cÖwZ ag© †h ¸iæZ¡ Av‡ivc K‡i‡Q Zv bm¨vr K‡i

†`q|

3) me wKQyB c~e©wba©vwiZ, Ab¨K_vq †Kv‡bv KvRB gvby‡li wbR¯ cwiKíbv, D‡`¨vM I

kª‡gi dmj bq, GwU my¯úó hyw³ w`‡q A`„óev` cÖwZcv`b Ki‡Z cv‡iwb| GwU

cy‡ivcywiB GKwU wek¦vm| ‡bwZevPK GB wek¦vm gvby‡li AwfcÖvq I m„RbkxjZv‡K

A¯xKvi K‡i Zvi Rxeb‡K A_©nxb K‡i †Zv‡j|

Dcmsnvi

A`„óev` GKwU ÎæwUc~Y© gZev`| G gZev` gvby‡li Kg©¯ú„nv bó K‡i| gvby‡li wb‡Ri

†`vl mªóvi Dci Pvcv‡bvi g‡bvfve ˆZwi K‡i| mªóv‡K †¯”QvPvix Awe‡ePK kvm‡K

cwiYZ K‡i| GB gZev‡ì Abymvix n‡q gvbyl w¯’i e‡m _vK‡j GK mgq c„w_exB APj

n‡q hv‡e| myZivs GB gZev` †g‡b †bqv hvq bv|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| A`„óev` mgv‡jvPbvmn e¨L¨v Kiæb|


1) A`„óev‡ì g~j e³e¨ Kx?

2) A`„óev‡ì mg_©K Kviv?

3) gymwjg `k©‡b Kviv A`„óev‡` wek¦vmx? Zuv‡ì e³e¨ Kx?


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úKx©q gZev`

i) yÕwU

ii) wZbwU

iii) GKwU

iv) PviwU

2| A`„óev`x‡ì g‡Z

i) gvbyl c~Y© ¯vaxb

ii) gvbyl wKQyUv ¯vaxb

iii) gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv †bB

iv) †Kv‡bvwUB wVK bq

3| B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úKx©q mgm¨vwU Avgiv †`L‡Z cvB

i) cvðvZ¨ `k©‡b

ii) fviZxq `k©‡b

iii) gymwjg `k©‡b

iv) me KqwU‡Z


1| B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úKx©q mgm¨vwU cÖ_g †`Lv hvq gymwjg `k©‡b|

2| A`„óev†ì g~j e³e¨ n†jv gvbyl c~Y© ¯vaxb|

3| DBwjqvg †Rgm& A`„óev`‡K K‡Vvi wbqš¿Yev` e‡j AwfwnZ K‡ib|

4| Rvevwiqv‡ì g‡Z, Avjøvn& b¨vq wePviK|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| iv) PviwU

2| iii) gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv †bB

3| iv) me KqwU‡Z

L. 1| wg 2| wg 3| m 4| wg



wbqš¿Yev` (Determinism)

D‡Ïk¨


wbqš¿Yev` eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

wbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ hyw³¸†jv wK Zv Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|

wbqš¿Yev‡ì ÎæwU¸‡jv wK Zv wb‡ ©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

wbqš¿Yev` B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úKx©q gZev`| GB gZev` Abymv‡i, gvby‡li B”Qvi †Kv‡bv

¯vaxbZv †bB| gvby‡li B”Qv ev K‡g©i †cQ‡b KviY i‡q‡Q| myZivs gvby‡li B”Qv n‡jv

Zvi c~e©eZx© Kvi‡Yi dj| Avi GB KviY gvbwmK, cÖvK…wZK, †fŠwZK (physical) †h

†Kv‡bv ai‡bi n‡Z cv‡i| GB KviY gvby‡li Rvbv _vK‡Z cv‡i, Avevi bvI Rvbv

_vK‡Z cv‡i| ¯vaxb ev KviYnxb KvR AKíbxq|

wbqš¿Yev` : msÁv

†h gZev` Abymv‡i, gvby‡li B”Qv ev K‡g©i †Kv‡bv ¯vaxbZv †bB Ges cÖwZwU Kg©B

†Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv KviY Øviv wbqwš¿Z Zv‡K wbqš¿Yev` e‡j| GB wbqš¿Y gvby‡li

ÁvZmv‡iI n‡Z cv‡i, Avevi AÁvZI _vK‡Z cv‡i| wbqš¿Yev`xiv Zv‡ì gZev` bvbv

w`K †_‡K mg_©b Kivi †Póv K‡i‡Qb| Zv‡ì g‡Z, gvby‡li B”Qv †h m¤ú~Y©fv‡e wbqwš¿Z

Zv g‡bvweÁvb (Psychology ), Awawe`¨v (Metaphysics) I ag©ZË¡ (Theology) -

Gi w`K †_‡K †`Lvb †h‡Z cv‡i| wb‡P Zv‡ì hyw³¸‡jv Zz‡j aiv n‡jv|

g‡bvweÁv‡bi w`K †_‡K wbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ hyw³

†¯”QvK…Z Kv‡h©i gb¯ÍË¡

gvbyl †¯”Qvq †h mg¯Í KvR K‡i Zv Zvi D‡Ïk¨ I evmbvi Øviv wbqwš¿Z nq| †Kv‡bv

GK we‡kl gyn~‡Z© e¨w³i g‡a¨ wewfbœ D‡Ïk¨ I evmbvi D™¢e nq| G mg¯Í D‡Ïk¨ I

evmbv GK mv‡_ c~iY Kiv m¤¢e bq| d‡j evmbvi g‡a¨ Ø›Ø ïiæ nq Ges ‡h evmbv

me‡P‡q ¸iæZ¡c~Y© I cÖ‡qvRbxq ZvB gvbyl mdj Kivi †Póv K‡i| †Kv‡bv GKwU evmbvi

¸iæZ¡ wewfbœ k‡Z©i Dci wbf©i K‡i, †hgb- e¨w³i cvwicvwk©¦K Ae¯’v, e¨w³i PwiÎ,

eskMZ cÖe„wË, e¨w³i ˆ`wnK MVb BZ¨vw`| evmbvi Gme kZ© hw` cwi®‹vifv‡e Rvbv

hvq, Zvn‡j mn‡RB gvby‡li Kvh©µg m¤‡Ü wbfz©jfv‡e fwel¨`&evYx Kiv hvq| gvby‡li

mg¯Í KvRB Gme kZ© Øviv wbqwš¿Z| AZGe, gvby‡li Kv‡Ri †Kv‡bv ¯vaxbZv †bB|

gvby‡li Kvh©µg m¤‡Ü fwel¨`&evYx

gvbyl fwel¨‡Z wK Ki‡e Zv †KD †KD Av‡M †_‡KB wbfz©jfv‡e e‡j w`‡Z cv‡i| gvby‡li

Kvh©µ‡gi fwel¨`&evYx m¤¢e e‡jB Ki-†Kvôx wePv‡ii c×wZ cÖPwjZ Av‡Q| hw` Av‡M

cvV - 2



†_‡KB gvby‡li Kvh©µg m¤‡Ü fwel¨`&evYx Kiv hvq, Z‡e Kv‡R gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv ¯xKvi

Kiv hvq bv| gvby‡li hw` B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv _vKZ, Z‡e †m fwel¨‡Z wK Ki‡e Zv Av‡MB

ejv †hZ bv| myZivs gvby‡li B”Qvi †Kv‡bv ¯vaxbZv †bB|

g‡bvweÁvbx w¯‹bv‡ii gZev`

g‡bvweÁvbx w¯‹bv‡ii g‡Z, gvby‡li ¯vaxbZvi aviYv Aev¯Íe I Am¤¢e| gvbyl hv‡K

¯vaxb B”Qv e‡j Abyfe I cÖPvi K‡i, Zv wbQK GKwU Aa¨vm (illusion) êB Avi wKQy

bq| gvbyl hv wKQy K‡i Zvi meB c~e©wbw`©ó n‡q Av‡Q, A_ev †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv evn¨

DÏxcK Øviv wbqwš¿Z n‡q P‡j‡Q|

Awawe`¨vi w`K †_‡K wbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ hyw³

K. Awawe`¨vq Kvh©KviY m¤úK©‡K GKwU mvwe©K m¤úK© (universal relation) ejv nq|

Kvh©KviY ZË¡vbymv‡i cÖ‡Z¨K Kv‡h©i KviY _v‡K, KviY Qvov †Kv‡bv Kvh© msMwVZ nq bv|

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv ¯xKvi Ki‡j B”Qviƒc Kvh© †Kv‡bv KviY QvovB N‡U, Zv ¯xKvi Ki‡Z

nq| wKš‘ Kvh©KviYZË¡ mZ¨ e‡j GK_v ¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv| myZivs B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv

A¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq|

L. Roev`x‡ì g‡Z, c„w_exi me wKQyB hvwš¿Kfv‡e N‡U| cÖ‡Z¨K cwieZ©‡bi c~e©ve¯’v

c‡ii Ae¯’v‡K wbqwš¿Z K‡i| GB wbqš¿‡Yi †Kv‡bv e¨wZµg nq bv| myZivs Roev`x‡ì

g‡Z, B”Qvi ¯vaxbZvi K_v fvevB hvq bv|

M. m¨vi AvBRvK wbDUb e‡jb, mgMÖ cÖK…wZ wbqwš¿Z n‡”Q cÖvK…wZK wbqg Øviv, †hgb-

gva¨vKl©Y wbqg| myZivs ¯vaxbZv e‡j wKQy †bB| eo †_‡K ïiæ K‡i m ²KYv ch©šÍ

meB c`vw_©K ¯fv‡ei| Avi GRb¨B G¸‡jvi me Kg©KvÛ I MwZcÖK…wZ wbqwš¿Z nq

†Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv c`vw_©K wbqg ev NUbvi Øviv| ¯iƒ‡ci w`K †_‡K gvbylI c`vw_©K|

myZivs gvbyl Ges Zvi ˆ`wnK, ˆRweK, gvbwmK cÖf…wZ mKj Kg©KvÛ c`vw_©K wbq‡gi

A_©vr cÖvK…wZK wbq‡gi Aaxb| gvby‡li ¯vaxbZvi aviYv ZvB Aa¨vm Qvov wKQy bq|

ag©Z‡Ë¡i w`K †_‡K wbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ hyw³

ag©Z‡Ë¡i g‡Z, mªóv me©Á I me©kw³gvb| mªóv hw` me©Á nb, Z‡e wZwb gvby‡li me

KvRB Av‡M Rvb‡Z cv‡ib| wZwb hw` gvby‡li me KvRB Av‡MB Rv‡bb, Zvn‡j gvby‡li

Kv‡Ri †Kv‡bv ¯vaxbZv _vK‡Z cv‡i bv| hw` gvby‡li Kv‡R ¯vaxbZv _vK‡Zv, Z‡e mªóv

Av‡MB Zv Rvb‡Z cvi‡Zb bv| Avevi †h‡nZz mªóv me©kw³gvb †m‡nZz wZwbB gvby‡li

mg¯Í KvR wbqwš¿Z K‡ib| hw` wZwb gvby‡li mg¯Í KvR wbqwš¿Z bv Ki‡Z cv‡ib, Z‡e

Zv‡K me©kw³gvb ejv hvq bv| AZGe, mªóv‡K me©Á I me©kw³gvb e‡j ¯xKvi Ki‡j

gvby‡li K‡g©i ¯vaxbZv A¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq|

mgv‡jvPbv

wbqš¿Yev`xiv Zv‡ì gZev‡ì mg_©‡b bvbv hyw³ DÌvcb Ki‡jI Zv‡ì gZev`

bvbvfv‡e mgv‡jvwPZ n‡q‡Q :



1) †¯”QvK…Z Kv‡Ri †h g‡bv‰eÁvwbK e¨vL¨vi Dci wbqš¿Yev` cÖwZwôZ Zv wbqš¿Yev`

cÖgvY K‡i bv| †¯”QvK…Z KvR evmbvi ¸iæZ¡ w`‡qB wbqwš¿Z nq| wKš‘ evmbvi ¸iæZ¡

m¤ú~Y©fv‡e e¨w³i ØvivB wbqwš¿Z nq, evB‡ii †Kv‡bv kw³ Øviv bq| myZivs e¨w³i Kv‡R

e¨w³i Aek¨B ¯vaxbZv Av‡Q|

2) wbqš¿Yev‡ì Kvh©KviY wbq‡gi hyw³wU m‡šÍvlRbK bq| Avgiv hw` Kvh©Kvi‡Yi

aviYv‡K fvjfv‡e we‡kølY Kwi, Zvn‡j †`L‡Z cve †h, Kvh©KviY wbq‡gi g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv

evaëvaKZv †bB, eis cÖK…wZi g‡a¨ †h wbqgvbyewZ©Zv †`Lv hvq, Zvi mv‡_ gbb

¯vaxbZvi †Kv‡bv we‡iva †bB|

3) mªóvi me©ÁZv I me©kw³gËv wbqš¿Yev` cÖgvY K‡i bv| mªóv me©Á| gvby‡li me

B”QvB wZwb Rv‡bb| wKš‘ wZwb Rv‡bb e‡jB gvby‡li B”Qv wbqwš¿Z K‡ib, Zv bq| †m›U

Ugvm e‡jb, ¯§„wZ‡Z Avgiv †hgb AZxZ‡K Rvwb, wKš‘ Zv wbqwš¿Z Kwi bv, †Zgwb mªóv

gvby‡li me KvRB Rv‡bb, wKš‘ wbqš¿Y K‡ib bv| mªóv me©kw³gvb| wZwb B”Qv Ki‡jB

gvby‡li KvR wbqš¿Y Ki‡Z cv‡ib, wKš‘ mvaviYZ wZwb Zv K‡ib bv| ¶gZv _vKv m‡Ë¡I

¶gZvi eënvi bv Kiv, ¶gZvev‡bi gnË¡ m~wPZ K‡i| myZivs mªóv me©Á I me©kw³gvb

e‡jB †h wbqš¿Yev` MÖnY Ki‡Z n‡e, Ggb †Kv‡bv evaëvaKZv †bB|

Dcmsnvi

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤ú‡K© wbqš¿Yev‡ì e¨vL¨v m‡šÍvlRbK bq| G gZev` MÖnY Ki‡j

agx©q I ˆbwZK Av`‡k©i †Kv‡bv g~j¨ _v‡K bv| agx©q I ˆbwZK Av`‡k©i g~j¨ bv _vK‡j

RM‡Z †Kv‡bv k„•LjvB eRvq _vKZ bv Ges eûKvj c~‡e©B RMr †_‡g †hZ|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK

cÖkœ 1| wbqš¿Yev` mgv‡jvPbvmn e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| wbqš¿Yev‡ì msÁv w`b|

2| wbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ g‡bvweÁv‡bi hyw³¸†jv Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

3| wbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ agx©q hyw³wU e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| wbqš¿Yev`xiv Zv‡ì gZev‡ì

mg_©‡b

i) yÕai‡bi hyw³ †`b

ii) wZb ai‡bi hyw³ †`b

iii) Pvi ai‡bi hyw³ †`b

iv) †Kv‡bv hyw³ †`bwb

2| Kvh©KviY gZvbymv‡i

i) cÖwZwU Kv‡Ri †cQ‡b KviY _v‡K

ii) KviY QvovB KvR msMwVZ nq

iii) Kvh©KviY m¤úK© n‡jv Avgv‡ì

g‡bi aviYv

iv) Dc‡ii me KwUB wVK

3| Ògvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZvi aviYv

Aa¨vm Qvov Avi wKQyB bqÓ K_vwU

e‡jb

i) Ugvm

ii) wbDUb

iii) evK©wj

iv) wnDg

4| wbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ ag©ZvwË¡K hyw³

n‡jv

i) fwel¨`&evYx Kiv hvq e‡j gvby‡li

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv †bB

ii) cÖwZwU Kv‡Ri KviY Av‡Q, ZvB

B”QviI KviY Av‡Q

iii) cÖwZwU Ae¯’v Zvi c~e©ve¯’v Øviv

wbqwš¿Z

iv) mªóv me©Á I me©kw³gvb e‡j

gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv †bB


1| wbqš¿Yev` B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv ¯xKvi K‡i bv|

2| wbqš¿Yev` GKwU m‡šÍvlRbK gZev`|

3| g‡bvweÁvbx w¯‹bv‡ii g‡Z, gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZvi aviYv Aev¯Íe I Am¤¢e|

4| evmbvi ¸iæZ¡ m¤ú~Y©fv‡e evB‡ii kw³ Øviv wbqwš¿Z|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| ii) wZb ai‡bi hyw³ †`b 2| i) cÖwZwU Kv‡Ri †cQ‡b KviY _v‡K

3| ii) wbDUb 4| iv) mªóv me©Á I me©kw³gvb e‡j gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv †bB

L) 1| m 2| wg 3| m 4| wg



Awbqš¿Yev` (Indeterminism)

D‡Ïk¨

GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb

Awbqš¿Yev‡ì msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB gZev‡ì hyw³¸†jv wK wK Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB gZev‡ì ÎæwU¸‡jv wK wK Zv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

Awbqš¿Yev` Abymv‡i, B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv Av‡Q| gvbyl †Kv‡bv evn¨kw³ Øviv cwiPvwjZ bq|

cÖvK…wZK NUbvejx Kvh©KviY wbqg Øviv cwiPvwjZ| wKš‘ gvby‡li Kvh©Kjvc hvwš¿K

Kvh©KviY wbq‡gi Aaxb bq| KviY gvbyl h‡š¿i b¨vq wbðj I A‡PZb bq| gvbyl mPj

I m‡PZb| myZivs †Kv‡bv evn¨kw³ gvby‡li KvR‡K wbqwš¿Z Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|

Awbqš¿Yev` : msÁv

†h gZev` Abymv‡i gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv Av‡Q Ges Zvi Kg© wbe©vP‡b †Kv‡bv wbqš¿Y

†bB Zv‡K Awbqš¿Yev` e‡j| G gZev` Abymv‡i, gvby‡li B”Qvkw³ gy³| gvbyl

mvgvwRK Rxe| mvgvwRK cwi‡e‡k †m hLb wewfbœ cwiw¯’wZi m¤§yLxb nq, ZLb †m Zvi

¯vaxb B”Qvkw³ cÖ‡qvM K‡i Zvi Rb¨ Dc‡hvMx cwiw¯’wZ †e‡Q †bq| wm×všÍ MÖn‡Yi

†¶‡Î gvbyl Zvi cvwicvwk¦©K Ae¯’v I Ab¨vb¨ NUbvi Øviv A‡bKUv cÖfvweZ nq, wKšÍ

ZvB e‡j gvby‡li †Kv‡bv B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv †bB, Zv bq|Awbqš¿Yev`xiv Zv‡ì gZev‡ì

mg_©‡b wKQy hyw³ Zz‡j a‡ib; wb‡P Zv Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|

AwfÁZvwfwËK hyw³

K. KvR Kivi mgq AvZ¥m‡PZb n‡j Avgiv †h ¯vaxb Zv eyS‡Z cvwi| hLb †Kv‡bv

KvR Ki‡Z PvB ZLb wK Kie Zv Avgiv ¯vaxbfv‡eB wVK Kwi| myZivs Avgv‡ì

AvZ¥m‡PZbZv Avgv‡ì K‡g©i ¯vaxbZviB mv¶¨ enb K‡i|

L. GKwU gvbyl me mgq GKB iK‡gi AvPiY K‡i bv| A‡bK mgq †`Lv hvq, Zvi †h

KvRwU Kiv DwPZ wQj †m †mB KvRwU bv K‡i Ab¨ GKwU KvR K‡i‡Q| GLv‡bB Zvi

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv cÖKvk cvq| we‡ivwaZvi †ejvq GB ¯vaxbZv D‡Ïk¨ wbev©P‡bi †¶‡Î

cÖKU nq| ZvB †Kv‡bv e¨w³ `ywU we‡ivax Kv‡Ri m¤§yLxb n‡j, PwiÎ Abyhvqx Zvi †h

KvRwU Kivi K_v †m KvRwU bv K‡i, KZ©e¨‡ev‡a DØy× n‡q Ab¨ KvRwU K‡i| GKwU

Kv‡Ri cÖwZ Zxeª AvKv•¶v _vKv m‡Ë¡I Ab¨ GKwU KvR Kivi gv‡bB n‡jv, wbe©vPb Kivi

gZ ¯vaxbZv Zvi i‡q‡Q| A_v©r gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv Av‡Q|

cvV - 3



Awawe`¨K hyw³

K. c`v_©weÁv‡b wn‡mbevM©-Gi Awbqš¿Y bxwZ RMr I gvby‡li ¯vaxbZvi cÖvPxb Ø›Ø‡K

A‡bKvs‡k `~i K‡i‡Q| †h weÁvb cÖK…wZi wewfbœ gZev‡` gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv‡K GZw`b

a‡i A¯xKvi K‡i‡Q, †mB weÁvbB cÖK…wZi wewfbœ NUbv I gvby‡li g‡a¨ wKQy ¯vaxbZvi

K_v ¯xKvi K‡i‡Q|

L. Kvh©KviY Z‡Ë¡i mv‡_I Awbqš¿Yev‡ì †Kv‡bv we‡iva †bB| Awbqš¿Yev` gvby‡li

B”Qv AKvi‡Y D™¢‚Z nq, Ggb K_v e‡j bv| Awbqš¿Yev`x‡ì g‡Z, e¨w³ PwiÎB e¨w³i

B”Qv wbqwš¿Z K‡i| myZivs e¨w³ PwiÎB e¨w³i B”Qvi KviY| ZvB ejv hvq, Kvh©KviY

Z‡Ë¡i mv‡_ Awbqš¿Yev‡ì †Kv‡bv we‡iva †bB| eis Awbqš¿Yev` Kvh©KviY wbq‡gi

mv‡_ m½wZc~Y©|

M. DBwjqvg †Rg‡m&i g‡Z, gvby‡li A‡bK KvR Ggb †h, G¸‡jv m¤‡Ü Av‡MB wKQy ejv

hvq bv| AYy-cigvYyi MwZcÖK…wZ, Kvh©KviY Avgv‡ì Kv‡Q hZUzKz ¯úó, gvby‡li KvR I

AvPiY †m iKg bq Ges G m¤ú‡K© Av‡MB wKQy ejvi Dcvq †bB| G †_‡K †evSv hvq

†h, gvby‡li Kg©KvÛ c~e©-wbqwš¿Z bq; eis gvbyl wb‡RB wb‡Ri K‡g©i ¯vaxb KZ©v Ges

†m Kvi‡YB Zvi cÖwZwU K‡g©i Rb¨ †m wb‡RB `vqx|

ˆbwZK hyw³

Awbqš¿Yev`xiv e‡jb, B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv ¯xKvi bv Ki‡j ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi †Kv‡bv A_©B

_v‡K bv| Kv‡›Ui g‡Z, mvg‡_© i g‡a¨B gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv wbwnZ i‡q‡Q| †Kv‡bv e¨w³

hw` KvD‡K †Rvi K‡i †Kv‡bv KvR Ki‡Z eva¨ K‡i, Zvn‡j †m Kv‡Ri Rb¨ †Kv‡bv

ˆbwZK `vwq‡Z¡i cÖkœB I‡V bv| wKš‘ †Kv‡bv KvR hw` e¨w³i mvg_© I mv‡aï g‡a¨ _v‡K

Ges KvRwU †m †¯”Qvq K‡i, Zvn‡j H KvRwUi `vq-`vwqZ¡ H e¨w³i Dci eZ©vq|

myZivs ˆbwZK †PZbv I ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi Zvrch© i¶vi Rb¨ B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv ¯xKvi Ki‡Z

nq|

agx©q hyw³

K. gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZvnxbZv mªóvi b¨vqwePvi‡Ki aviYv‡K ¶zYœ K‡i| KviY ‡h KvR

e¨w³i wb‡Ri B”Qvq N‡Uwb, †m Kv‡Ri Rb¨ Zv‡K kvw¯Í †`qv b¨vqwePvi‡K cÖwZôv K‡i

bv| gyZvwhjviv hyw³ †`b †h, gvby‡li hw` B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv bv _v‡K, Zvn‡j Avjøvn&

gvbyl‡K Zvi g›` Kv‡Ri Rb¨ kvw¯Í w`‡Z cv‡ib bv| Avjøvn& †h‡nZz gvbyl‡K fvj Kv‡Ri

cyi¯‹vi Ges g›` Kv‡Ri kvw¯Íi cÖwZkÖywZ w`‡q‡Qb, †m‡nZz †Kv‡bv&wU fvj I †Kv‡bv&wU g›`

Zv wbe©vPb Kivi ¶gZvI gvbyl‡K w`‡q‡Qb| myZivs gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv i‡q‡Q|

L. mªóvi me©ÁZv I me©kw³gËv gvby‡li ¯vaxbZvi we‡ivax bq| mªóv me©Á, gvby‡li me

B”QvB wZwb Rv‡bb| wKš‘ wZwb Rv‡bb e‡jB gvby‡li B”Qv wbqš¿Y K‡ib bv| †m›U Ugvm

e‡j‡Qb, ¯§„wZ‡Z Avgiv †hgb AZxZ‡K Rvwb, wKš‘ Zv wbqš¿Y Kwi bv, †Zgwb mªóv

gvby‡li me KvRB Rv‡bb, wKš‘ wbqwš¿Z K‡ib bv| mªóv me©kw³gvb| wZwb B”Qv Ki‡jB

gvby‡li KvR wbqš¿Y Ki‡Z cv‡ib| wKš‘ mvaviYZ wZwb Zv K‡ib bv| ¶gZv _vKv



m‡Ë¡I ¶gZvi eënvi bv Kiv, ¶gZvev‡bi gnË¡ m wPZ K‡i| mªóvi c‡¶ †mRb¨B

wbqš¿‡Yi ¶gZv _vKv m‡Ë¡I wbqš¿Y bv KivB ¯vfvweK| myZivs mªóv me©Á I me©kw³gvb

e‡j gvby‡li B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv _vK‡e bv, Zv bq|

mgv‡jvPbv

Awbqš¿YevÌ bvbvfv‡e mgv‡jvwPZ n‡q‡Q :

1) Awbqš¿Yev` GKwU Pig I GK‡c‡k gZev`| Pig ¯vaxbZv †¯”QvPvwiZvi

bvgvšÍigvÎ| †¯”QvPvwiZv D”Q„ LjZvi m Pbv K‡i| D”Q„ LjZv †KDB mg_©b Ki‡Z

cv‡ib bv| myZivs Awbqš¿Yev` †g‡b †bqv hvq bv|

2) Awbqš¿Yev` Kvh©KviY Z‡Ë¡i we‡ivax| Awbqš¿Yev` B”Qviƒc Kv‡h©i †Kv‡bv KviYB

¯xKvi K‡i bv| wKš‘ Kvh©KviY ZË¡ mvwe©K e‡jB mvaviYZ M„nxZ nq| myZivs

Awbqš¿Yev` hyw³hy³ bq|

3) Awbqš¿Yev` ¯xKvi Ki‡j †Kv‡bv ˆbwZK wePviB m¤¢e nq bv| †Kv‡bv gvby‡li KvR

hw` †mB gvbyl wbqwš¿Z bv K‡i , Z‡e †mB Kv‡Ri Rb¨ Zv‡K `vqx Kiv hvq bv|

Dcmsnvi

Awbqš¿Yev` m‡šÍvlRbK gZev` bq| Avgiv hw` Avgv‡ì †Kv‡bv B”Qv‡K wbqwš¿Z

Ki‡Z bv cvwi Zvn‡j †mB B”Qvi Rb¨ Avgv‡ì‡K kvw¯Í ev cyi¯‹vi †`qv hvq bv| Gi

d‡j ˆbwZK Rxeb Am¤¢e n‡q c‡o|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| Awbqš¿Yev` mgv‡jvPbvmn e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| Awbqš¿Yev‡ì msÁv w`b|

2| Awbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ AwfÁZvwfwËK hyw³wU e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

3| Awbqš¿Yev‡ì c‡¶ Awawe`¨K hyw³ wK wK?


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| Awbqš¿Yev‡ì mg_©‡b †h mg¯Í

hyw³¸†jv †Ìqv n‡q‡Q Zv‡K fvM Kiv

hvq

i) `yÕfv‡M

ii) wZb fv‡M

iii) Pvi fv‡M

iv) cvuP fv‡M

2| Awbqš¿Yev‡ì AwfÁZvwfwËK hyw³

Abymv‡i

i) AvZ¥m‡PZbZvB gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv

wb‡`©k K‡i

ii) AwfÁZvB gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv wb‡`©k

K‡i

iii) eyw×B gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv wb‡`©k K‡i

iv) wPšÍvB gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv wb‡`©k K‡i

3| DBwjqvg †Rg‡mi g‡Z

i) gvby‡li K‡g©i KZ©v Avjøvn

ii) gvby‡li K‡g©i KZ©v Zvi evev-gv

iii) gvby‡li K‡g©i KZ©v Zvi wk¶K

iv) gvby‡li K‡g©i KZ©v ‡m wb‡R

4| ÔÔmvg‡_¨©i g‡a¨B gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv

wbwnZÕÕ Dw³wU K‡i‡Qb

i) †m›U Ugvm

ii) Kv›U

iii) DBwjqvg †Rgm&

iv) wn‡mbevM©


1| Awbqš¿Yev` GKwU me©RbMÖvn¨ gZev`|

2| Awbqš¿Yev` Abymv‡i gvbyl c Y© ¯vaxb|

3| Awbqš¿Yev` Abymv‡i ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi Zvrch© i¶vi Rb¨ B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv ¯xKvi

Ki‡Z nq|

4| gyZvwhjv‡ì g‡Z Avjøvn& †¯”QvPvix kvmK|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| ii) Pvi fv‡M 2| i) AvZ¥m‡PZbZvB gvby‡li ¯vaxbZv wb‡`©k K‡i

3| iv) gvby‡li K‡g©i KZ©v ‡m wb‡R 4| ii) Kv›U

L) 1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg



¯wbqš¿Yev`

(Self-Determinism)

D‡Ïk¨


¯wbqš¿Yev` e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e †Kv‡bv gZev` m‡šÍvlRbK Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z

cvi‡eb|

f wgKv

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e A`„óev`, wbqš¿Yev` I Awbqš¿Yev` GK‡c‡k

I DMÖ gZev`| wbqš¿Yev` †hgb c~Y© wbqš¿‡Yi K_v e‡j †Zgwb Awbqš¿Yev` c~Y©

¯vaxbZvi K_v e‡j| G yÕGK‡c‡k gZev‡ì mgš‡q M‡o I‡V‡Q ¯wbqš¿Yev`|

¯wbqš¿Yev` (Self-Determinism) ¯wbqš¿Yev`x‡ì g‡Z, A‡bï wb‡`©k Øviv cwiPvwjZ bv n‡q wb‡Ri wb‡`©‡k cwiPvwjZ

nIqvi bvgB ¯vaxbZv|

wbqš¿Yev`xiv gvby‡li ¯vaxb B”Qv I ¯vaxb wbe©vPb ¶gZv A¯xKvi K‡ib| Avi

Awbqš¿Yev`xiv wbqwZ ev c~Y© wbqš¿‡Yi aviYv A¯xKvi K‡ib| G‡ì Kv‡iv aviYvB mwVK

bq| cÖK…Zc‡¶ gvby‡li B”Qv G‡Kev‡i ¯vaxb, GK_v †hgb ejv hvq bv, Avevi gvby‡li

B”Qvi †Kv‡bv ¯vaxbZv †bB, GK_vI ejv hv‡e bv| cÖK…Z mZ¨ Avm‡j G `yÕg‡Zi

mgš‡qB M‡o I‡V|

Avgv‡ì B”Qv Avgv‡ì Pwi‡Îi Øviv wbqwš¿Z n‡q _v‡K, GUv wVKB| Z‡e G wbqš¿Y

evB‡ii †Kv‡bv kw³i Øviv nq bv, eis Avgv‡ì ¯^-wbqš¿‡Yi ØvivB n‡q _v‡K| Avgv‡ì

B”Qv evB‡ii kw³ Øviv wbqwš¿Z n‡q _v‡K, K‡Vvi wbqš¿Yev`x‡ì GK_v m¤ú~Y© mZ¨ bq,

eis Avgv‡ì B”Qv Avgv‡ì Pwi‡Îi ØvivB wbqwš¿Z n‡q _v‡K, hvi †cQ‡b GKUv D‡Ïk¨

Av‡Q| wbe©vPb ev cQ‡›ì KvR D‡Ï‡kï Øviv wbqwš¿Z n‡q _v‡K, GUv wVKB, wKš‘

D‡Ïk¨ Avevi Avgv‡ì AvZ¥vi ØvivB wbe©vwPZ n‡q _v‡K|

Aciw`‡K, B”Qvi c~Y© ¯vaxbZv Kvh©KviY wbqg we‡ivax| Avgiv hw` DMÖ Awbqš¿Yev`

Abymv‡i gvby‡li Kg© ev AvPiY‡K Kvh©KviY wbqg ewn©f‚Z e‡j g‡b Kwi, Zvn‡j Zv †h

Kv‡iv Øviv msNwUZ n‡q‡Q, Zv A¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq| Avi Zv-B hw` Kiv nq Zvn‡j

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZvi Avi †Kv‡bv AeKvkB _v‡K bv| myZivs Kvh©KviY wbqg A¯xKvi Kiv

hvq bv| Kvh©KviY wbq‡gi Aax‡bB B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤¢e| Avgv‡ì Kg© ev AvPiY

cvV - 4



KviYwenxb bq eis Avgiv wb‡RivB Avgv‡ì Kg© I AvPi‡Yi KviY| K‡g© wb‡R‡ì

KZ…©Z¡ A¯xKvi Ki‡j ˆbwZK wePvi Am¤¢e n‡q c‡o| †Kv‡bv gvby‡li KvR hw` †mB

gvbyl wbqwš¿Z bv K‡i, Z‡e †mB Kv‡Ri Rb¨ Zv‡K `vqx Kiv hvq bv| †h Kv‡Ri Rb¨

†m `vqx bq, †mB Kv‡Ri fvj-g›` w`‡q †mB gvby‡li fvj-g›` wePvi Kiv hvq bv|

myZivs †Kv‡bv KvR ˆbwZK e‡j we‡ewPZ n‡e ZLbB hLb H Kv‡Ri KZ©v n‡e e¨w³

wb‡R|

ˆbwZK Rxeb †h ev¯Íe Ges ˆbwZK `vwq‡Z¡i Rb¨ ¯vaxbZv †h Acwinvh©, G aviYv

wbqš¿Yev‡` D‡cw¶Z| ˆbwZK Kv‡Ri Rb¨ †hgb ¯vaxbZv cÖ‡qvRb †Zgwb wbqš¿YI

cÖ‡qvRb, hv D‡cw¶Z Awbqš¿Yev‡`| gvby‡li KvR h‡_”Q ev ˆ¯iag©x n‡Z cv‡i bv|

Zv‡K Aek¨B wbqwš¿Z n‡Z nq wKQy ˆbwZK wbqg-wewa Øviv| myZivs gvbyl GKw`‡K

†hgb ¯vaxb Aciw`‡K †Zgwb wbqwš¿Z| gvbyl ¯vaxb G A‡_© †h, †m ¯wbqwš¿Z, A_©vr †m

†Kv‡bv evn¨kw³ Øviv wbqwš¿Z bq| Avevi gvbyl wbqwš¿Z G A‡_© †h, Zvi Kg© I AvPiY

h‡_”Q ev ˆ¯iag©x bq, eis G¸‡jv Zvi B”Qv, wePvi I PwiÎ Øviv wbqwš¿Z|

gvbyl AvZ¥m‡PZb Rxe| †m cÖÁv I †gavkw³i AwaKvix| ZvB Zvi AvZ¥-wbqš¿YvwaKvi

Z_v ¯vaxbZv i‡q‡Q| Z‡e G ¯vaxbZv n‡jv AvZ¥-wbqš¿Y, AvZ¥-cÖKvk I AvZ¥-Dbœq‡bi

¯vaxbZv| ¯vaxbZv _vKvi Rb¨B Zvi mKj Kg©Kv‡Ûi `vwqZ¡ Zv‡KB enb Ki‡Z nq|

Dcmsnvi

B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úK©xq gZev`¸‡jvi g‡a¨ ¯wbqš¿Yev`B m‡šÍvlRbK gZev`| KviY G

gZev` ¯xKvi Ki‡j Kvh©KviY wbq‡gi †hgb e¨vNvZ N‡U bv †Zgwb gvby‡li Kg© I

AviPY ˆ¯iag©x e‡jI we‡ewPZ nq bv| ˆbwZK `„wó‡KvY †_‡K wePvi Ki‡jI ¯vaxbZv

m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e ¯wbqš¿Yev` GKwU MÖnY‡hvM¨ gZev` |



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e ¯wbqš¿Yev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| ¯wbqš¿Yev` Kvh©KviY wbq‡gi mv‡_ m½wZc~Y© wK?

2| ˆbwZKZvi cwi‡cÖw¶‡Z ¯wbqš¿Yev` wK MÖnY‡hvM¨?

3| Ô¯wbqš¿Yev` MÖnY‡hvM¨ gZev`Õ- gšÍe¨ Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| ¯wbqš¿Yev` GKwU

i) m‡šÍvlRbK gZev`

ii) Am‡šÍvlRbK gZev`

iii) GK †c‡k gZev`

iv) DMÖ gZev`

2| ¯wbqš¿Yev` MwVZ n‡q‡Q

i) A`„óev` I wbqš¿Yev‡ì mgš‡q

ii) A`„óev` I Awbqš¿Yev‡ì mgš‡q

iii) wbqš¿Yev` I Awbqš¿Yev‡ì

mgš‡q

iv) wbqš¿Yev` I ¯wbqš¿Yev‡ì

mgš‡q

3| ¯wbqš¿Yev` †g‡b wb‡j gvby‡li

`vq-`vwqZ¡ eZ©vq

i) Avjøvni Ici

ii) A‡bï Ici

iii) Zvi wb‡Ri Ici

iv) evev gv‡qi Ici

4| ¯wbqš¿Yev` Abymv‡i gvby‡li

¯vaxbZv

i) c~Y©

ii) GKUz bv

iii) AvswkK

iv) Dc‡ii me KqwU

N) mZ¨ n‡j ÔmÕ Ges wg_¨ n‡j ÔwgÕ wjLyb|

1| ¯wbqš¿Yev` wbqš¿Yev‡ì Aci bvg|

2| ¯wbqš¿Yev` Abymv‡i gvby‡li K‡g© KZ©v †m wb‡R|

3| ¯wbqš¿Yev` GKwU DMÖ gZev`|

4| ¯wbqš¿Yev` wbqš¿Yev` I Awbqš¿Yev‡ì mgš‡q MwVZ|

mwVK DËi

K.

1| i) m‡šÍvlRbK gZev` 2| iii) wbqš¿Yev` I Awbqš¿Yev‡ì mgš‡q

3| iii) Zvi wb‡Ri Ici 4| iii) AvswkK

L) 1| wg 2| m 3| wg 4| m



BDwbU - 5

gb ev AvZ¥v

(Mind or Soul)

¯§„wZ (memory)-i m¤¢eciZv, B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv, †`n-g‡bi m¤Ü, gb ev AvZ¥vi

AgiZ¡ cÖf…wZ ¸iæZ¡c~Y© mgm¨v m¤‡Ü ¯úó aviYv †c‡Z n‡j ¯qs gb ev AvZœv-i

¯iƒc Rvbv Avek¨K| hwÌ Avgiv ninv‡gkv gb ev AvZ¥v kãwU eënvi Kwi,

Z_vwc Gi mwVK A_© Avgv‡ì Kv‡Q cwi®‹vi bq| gb ev AvZ¥v Kx? ZvB GK m½Z

`vk©wbK cÖkœ ev mgm¨v|

fviZxq `k©‡b gb I AvZ¥vi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Kiv nq| gb n‡jv hô Bw›`ªq hvi gva¨‡g

Avgiv AšÍ ©k©b (introspection) Kwi| A_©vr wewfbœ gvbwmK Ae¯’v¸‡jv‡K Rvwb|

c¶všÍ‡i, AvZ¥v n‡jv KZ©v, ÁvZv I †fv³v; whwb Kg© K‡ib, welq Rv‡bb Ges myL-

`ytL †fvM K‡ib|

cvðvZ¨ `k©‡b gb I AvZ¥vi g‡a¨ me© v cv_©K¨ ¯xKvi Kiv nqwb| mindÕ, ‘soulÕ, ‘selfÕ cÖf…wZ kã¸‡jv cÖvqkt mgv_©K wn‡m‡e eëüZ nq|

eZ©gvb BDwb‡U Avgiv gb ev AvZ¥v msµvšÍ gZev`¸‡jv Rvbvi †Póv Kie|

GB BDwb‡U †gvU wZbwU cvV i‡q‡Q

gb m¤úK©xq gZev`

(Theories of Mind)

gb m¤úK©xq gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv

(Criticism of the Theories of Mind)

gb m¤úKx©q gZev` : AvaywbK gZ

(Theories of Mind: Modern Views)



gb m¤úK©xq gZev`

(Theories of Mind)

D‡Ïk¨


gb m¤úK©xq wewfbœ gZev` e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

gb m¤úKx©q gZev`¸†jvi cv_©K¨ †`Lv‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b Avgiv gb ev AvZ¥v m¤ú‡K© bvbviKg K_v ewj| wKš‘ cÖK…Zc‡¶ gb

Avm‡j wK, Zv Avgiv Rvwb bv| cÖvPxbKvj †_‡KB `vk©wbKMY gb m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbv-

ch©v‡jvPbv K‡i‡Qb| Kv‡iv g‡Z, gb GKwU Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨; Kv‡iv g‡Z, gb mZZ

cwieZ©bkxj cÖwµqvi aviv; Kv‡iv g‡Z, gb GKUv AZxw›`ªq I mwµq mËv; Kv‡iv g‡Z,

gb Awebk¦i; Kv‡iv g‡Z, bk¦i| cÖK…Zc‡¶ g‡bi mwVK msÁv †`qv m¤¢e bq| Z‡e gb

m¤ú‡K© GUzKz ejv hvq †h, gb n‡jv Ggb wKQy hv wb‡Ri Ae¯’v I wµqv¸‡jv m¤ú‡K©

m‡PZb| gb m¤ú‡K© Avgiv †h mg¯Í gZev` cvB Zvi cÖavb cÖavb gZev`¸‡jv GLv‡b

Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jv|

`ªe¨ gZev` (Substance Theory)

G gZev` Abymv‡i, gb n‡”Q GKUv Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨| Ro `ªe¨‡K †hgb cÖvK…wZK ev

†fŠwZK ¸Yvejxi Avavi e‡j aiv hvq, †Zgwb gb‡KI g‡bve„wËi ev gvbwmK

cÖwµqv¸†jvi Avavi e‡j aiv hvq| gb †h‡nZz GKwU Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨, †m‡nZz Ava¨vwZ¥K

GB `ª‡eï mv‡_ Ro mËvi †gŠwjK cv_©K¨ we`¨gvb| gb ev AvZ¥v †`nwbf©i mËv bq,

g„Zzï ci we‡`nx Ae¯’vq GB g‡bi Aw¯ÍZ¡ _v‡K| †cø†Uv, A¨vwi÷Uj, †WKvU©, jK,

evK©wj cÖgyL GB gZev‡ì Abymvix|

cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev` (Empirical Theory)

`vk©wbK wnDg GB gZev‡ì GKRb ewjô cÖe³v| cÖZ¨¶ev`x‡ì g‡Z, gvbe g‡bi

†¶‡Î ci¯úi m¤Ühy³ gvbwmK Ae¯’vi cvi¤úh© j¶¨ Kiv hvq| ¯§„wZ AZxZ gvbwmK

Ae¯’vi cÖwZiƒ‡ci mvnv‡h¨ Avgv‡ì gvbwmK Ae¯’v¸‡jvi g‡a¨ GKwU mv`„‡kï m¤Ü

¯’vcb K‡i| Kíbv GB c‡_ AMÖmi n‡q mv`„k¨‡K ¯’vwqZ¡ ‡`q| A_v©r ¯§„wZ‡Z hv‡K

m`„k e‡j Rvbv hvq, Kíbvq Zv‡K ¯’vqx ev GK e‡j g‡b nq| Z`ycwi Avgv‡ì gvbwmK

Ae¯’v¸‡jv Kvh©KviY m¤‡Üi Øviv ci¯úi m¤Ühy³| Avgv‡ì gy`ªY¸‡jv

(impressions) Z`bymvix aviYvi (ideas) m„wó K‡i| GB aviYv¸‡jv Avevi Ab¨

gy`ª‡Yi m„wó K‡i| GKwU wPšÍv Ab¨ wPšÍv‡K AbymiY K‡i, Zv Avevi Ab¨ wPšÍv‡K AbymiY

K‡i| G‡¶‡ÎI ¯§„wZB ¸iæZ¡c~Y© f~wgKv cvjb K‡i| ¯§„wZi wfwË‡Z Avgv‡ì gvbwmK

cvV - 1



Ae¯’v¸‡jv Kíbvq Abyl‡½i wbqg (Laws of Association) Øviv Ave× nq| e¯ÍZ

Avgiv †hLv‡b ci¯úi m¤Ühy³ gvbwmK Ae¯’vi cvi¤úh© eZ©gvb ‡mLv‡b Zv‡ì g‡a¨

¯’vwqZ¡ ev Zv`vÍ (personal identity) m¤Ü Av‡ivc Kwi| g‡bi Zv`vÍ ev AwfbœZv

Avgv‡ì Kíbv, Gi †Kv‡bv ZvwË¡K wfwË †bB|

Avw½K gZev` (Organic Theory)

Kv›U GB gZev‡ì cÖe³v | GB gZvbymv‡i, gbB wew”Qbœ ms‡e`b (sensation )-Gi

g‡a¨ †hvMm Î ¯’vcb K‡i Zv‡ì HKë× K†i †Zv‡j| Z‡e gb †Kv‡bv Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨

bq ev wew”Qbœ cwieZ©bkxj ms‡e`‡bi mgwóI bq| gb‡K wbw®Œq `ªe¨ ejv hvq bv, KviY

gb gvbwmK e„wË¸‡jvi wbw®Œq AvavigvÎ bq| Ávb, Abyf‚wZ I B”Qv †KejgvÎ gb‡K

Avkªq K‡i _v‡K bv| gb ev AvZ¥v n‡jv wPšÍv, Abyf‚wZ I B”Qv cÖf…wZ gvbwmK cÖwµqvi

AwZwi³ GK ms‡kølYg~jK HK¨weavqK cÖwµqv, hv wewQbœ ms‡e`b¸‡jv‡K HKë× K‡i

AwfÁZv†K m¤¢e K‡i †Zv‡j| A_©vr g‡bi wµqvkw³i Rb¨B Ávb, B”Qv cÖf…wZi D™¢e

N‡U|

Kv‡›Ui g‡Z, GB gZev‡ì `ywU w`K i‡q‡Q| GKwU m`_©K Ges AciwU bT_©K| m`_©K

w`K †_‡K wZwb e‡jb †h, gb Gme gvbwmK cÖwµqvi AwZwi³ Ggb GK AZxw›`ªq mËv,

hv Ava¨vwZ¥K `ª‡eï g‡Zv wbw®Œq bq, eis hv mwµq Ges hvi KvR n‡jv wewfbœ ms‡e`b

ev gvbwmK cÖwµqvi g‡a¨ HK¨ ¯’vcb Kiv| bT_©K w`K †_‡K wZwb e‡jb †h, gb GKwU

Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨ ev KZK¸‡jv cÖZ¨¶Y ev ms‡e`‡bi mgwó bq| Kv‡›Ui g‡Z, gb hw`

wbw®Œq mËv nq, Zvn‡j †m g‡bi c‡¶ wewfbœ AwfÁZv ev ms‡e`‡bi g‡a¨ †hvMm Î

¯’vcb Kiv m¤¢e bq| Avevi gb hw` ïay wew”Qbœ ms‡e`‡bi mgwó nq, Zvn‡j wewQbœ

ms‡e`‡bi gva¨‡g cy‡ivcywi Ávb jv‡fi c_ myMg n‡q I‡V bv| Zuvi g‡Z, ÁvZv KLbI

†Áq n‡Z cv‡i bv|

Roev`x gZev` (Materialistic Theory) Roev`xiv Aa¨vÍ `ªeïƒ‡c g‡bi Aw¯ÍZ¡ ¯xKvi K‡ib bv| Z‡e †PZbvi mËv ¯xKvi K‡ib|

gb ev †PZbv Ro †_‡KB D™¢‚Z|

wMÖK Roev`x †W‡gvwµUvm (Democritus)-Gi g‡Z, gb m~² Ro cigvYyi Øviv MwVZ|

nv·wj (Huxley)-i g‡Z, gb n‡jv gw¯Í‡®‹i Dce¯‘ (epiphenomenon)| `ywU KwVb

e¯‘i Nl©‡Yi d‡j †hgb Av‡jvi †iLv †ewi‡q Av‡m †Zgwb gw¯Í‡®‹i †Kv‡li AbeiZ

Nl©‡Yi d‡j †PZbvi DrcwË| †PZbv gw¯Í®‹ †_‡K Drcbœ n‡jI gw¯Í®‹ ev †`n‡K wbqwš¿Z

Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| †PZbv †R¨vwZg©Û‡ji gZ gw¯Í®‹‡K wN‡i i‡q‡Q| †PZbv Dce¯‘, †Kbbv

R‡oi †PZbvi †Kv‡bv e¯ÍymËv †bB, RoB cÖK…Z e¯Í, R‡oiB mËv Av‡Q| RoB ‰PZ‡bï

KviY| ne&m (Hobbes)-Gi g‡Z, gb n‡jv gw¯Í‡®‹i MwZ|

Roev`x‡ì g‡Z, Ro Avi g‡bi cv_©K¨ n‡jv gvÎvMZ, Avm‡j Ro Avi gb GKB| gb

R‡oi ¸Ywe‡kl|



D‡b¥lev` (Emergence Theory )

GB gZev` Abymv‡i, cÖvY I ˆPZb¨ GKwU D‡b¥wlZ ¸Y | Ro †_‡KB Rx‡ei D™¢e nq|

wKš‘ Rx‡e cÖvYiƒc bZzb ¸Y cvIqv hvq| GB bZzb ¸Y R‡o †bB, gb cÖvY †_‡KB

Av‡m| wKš‘ g‡bi ¯Í‡i ˆPZbïƒc GK bZzb ¸‡Yi D™¢e nq| GB ¸Y g‡bi Dcv`vb,

cÖv‡Yi bq| GB gZev` Abymv‡i, gb gw¯Í‡®Œi msMV‡bi †kl cwiYvg bq, gb D‡b¥wlZ

nq| G gZvbymv‡i, weeZ©‡bi cÖ‡Z¨K ¯Í‡i Ggb GKwU bZzb My‡Yi Avwef©ve N‡U hv

c ‡e©i ¯Í‡i wQj bv| Rxe†`n‡K Avkªq K‡i g‡bi cÖKvk NU‡jI gb ˆRweK Ae¯’vi

cybwe©b¨v‡mi RwUj iƒc gvÎ bq| gb n‡jv GK bZzb mËv hvi g‡a¨ bZzb ¸Y I kw³i

Avwef©ve N‡U, hv c~e©eZx© ˆRweK Ae¯’vi g‡a¨ wQj Abycw¯’Z| Zv‡ì g‡Z, gb n‡jv

bZzb ¯Í‡ii GK bZzb mËv, hvi wbR¯ êwkó¨ Av‡Q|

Dcmsnvi

gb Avm‡j Kx? Zvi m‡šÍvlRbK DËi †Kv‡bv gZev`B w`‡Z cv‡iwb| wewfbœ `vk©wbK ev

`vk©wbK m¤úÖ vq g‡bi wfbœ wfbœ aviYv ev gZev` cÖ vb K‡i‡Qb| Zv‡ì GB aviYv ev

gZev` bvbvfv‡e mgv‡jvwPZ n‡q‡Q| AvaywbK `vk©wbKMY Avevi gb m¤ú‡K© bZzb bZzb

gZ cÖ vb K‡i‡Qb|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| gb m¤úK©xq gZev`¸‡jv eY©bv Kiæb|


1| gb m¤úK©xq `ªe¨ gZev` eY©bv Kiæb|

2| g‡bi ¯iƒc m¤úKx©q gZev` wn‡m‡e cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

3| g‡bi ¯iƒc m¤úKx©q gZev` wn‡m‡e D‡b¥lev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

4| gb m¤úK©xq Roev`x gZev` eY©bv Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| ªe¨ gZev` Abymv‡i gb n‡jv

i) GKwU Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨

ii) wewfbœ ms‡e`‡bi mgwó

iii) Ro e¯‘

iv) GKwU D‡b¥wlZ ¸Y

2| †cø‡Uv, A¨vwi÷Uj, †WKvU© cÖgyL

`vk©wbK gb m¤ú‡K©

i) D‡b¥lev†ì Abymvix

ii) Avw½K gZev‡ì Abymvix

iii) Roev`x gZev‡ì Abymvix

iv) `ªe¨ gZev‡ì Abymvix

3| Avw½K gZev‡ì cÖe³v

i) jK

ii) wnDg

iii) Kv›U

iv) nem&

4| ÔÔgb Ro ¸Ywe‡klÕÕ -e³e¨wU

i) Roev`x‡ì

ii) Avw½Kev`x‡ì

iii) cÖZ¨¶ev`x‡ì

iv) D‡b¥lev`x‡ì


1| gb n‡jv Ggb wKQy hv wb‡Ri Ae¯’v I wµqv m¤ú‡K© m‡PZb|

2| wnDg cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev‡ì GKRb cÖe³v|

3| ne‡m&i g‡Z Ôgb n‡jv Rxe‡bi MwZÕ|

4| D‡b¥lev` Abymv‡i gb n‡jv Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| i) GKwU Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨ 2| iv) ªe¨ gZev‡ì Abymvix

3| iii) Kv›U 4| i) Roev`x‡ì

L) 1| m 2| m 3| wg 4| wg



gb m¤úK©xq gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv

(Criticism of the Theories of Mind)

D‡Ïk¨


gb m¤úK©xq gZev`¸‡jvi ÎæwU-wePz¨wZ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

c~e©eZ©x cv‡V Avgiv gb m¤úK©xq †h mg¯Í gZev` Av‡jvPbv K‡iwQ GB cv‡V Zvi ÎæwU-

wePy¨wZmg~n Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

`ªe¨ gZev` : mgv‡jvPbv

1) `ªe¨ gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv K‡i wnDg e‡jb, AwfÁZvq hv cvIqv hvq bv Zvi Aw¯ÍZ¡

¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv| Avgv‡ì AwfÁZvq Avgiv †Kv‡bv Aa¨vÍ `ª‡eï mv¶vr cvB bv|

myZivs Gi Aw¯Í‡Z¡i †Kv‡bv cÖgvY †bB| AšÍ ©k©‡b Avgiv †KejgvÎ KZK¸‡jv wew”Qbœ

gvbwmK cÖwµqv, †hgb- aviYv, Abyf‚wZ, B”Qv BZ¨vw` cÖZ¨¶ Kwi| GB cwieZ©bkxj

gvbwmK cÖwµqvi mgwó n‡jv gb| GB ci¯úi wew”Qbœ cwieZ©bkxj ms‡e`b ev gvbwmK

cÖwµqvi Avov‡j †Kv‡bv w¯’i AcwiewZ©Z Aa¨vÍ `ª‡eï Aw¯’Z¡ †bB|

2) `ªe¨ gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv K‡i Kv›U e‡jb, AvZ¥v‡K Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨ ej‡j AbyccwËi

DrcwË nq| hLb Avgiv AvZ¥v‡K mijZv, AgiZv, †`n wehy³Zv (separability from

body) cÖf…wZ ¸Yhy³ Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨ e‡j fvwe ZLb AvZ¥v Áv‡bi welq n‡q hvq|

Ggwb K‡i cÖ‡Z¨‡KB AvZ¥v‡K Áv‡bi wel‡q cwiYZ K‡i| wKš‘ AvZ¥v ÁvZv| myZivs Zv

Ab¨vb¨ e¯‘i gZ †Áq ev Áv‡bi welq n‡Z cv‡i bv| Kv‡RB AvZ¥v m¤‡Ü †Kv‡bv ¸YB

cÖ‡hvR¨ n‡Z cv‡i bv| myZivs AvZ¥v e‡j †Kv‡bv Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨ †bB|

cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev` : mgv‡jvPbv

1) Kv›U cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv K‡i e‡jb, wew”Qbœ Abyfe Avgv‡ì Áv‡bi

welq| A_v©r Avgv‡ì wew”Qbœ Abyfe¸‡jv Avgiv Rvb‡Z cvwi| gb ÁvZv, Áv‡bi welq

bq| A_v©r gbB Abyfe¸‡jv‡K Rv‡b| myZivs cÖZ¨¶ev`x wnDg †h e‡j‡Qb, AvZ¥v ev

gb wew”Qbœ Abyf‡ei mgwógvÎ-Zv n‡Z cv‡i bv|

2) Kv›U e‡jb, g‡bi hw` †Kv‡bv ¯iƒcMZ HK¨ bv _v‡K Z‡e cÖZ¨wfÁv

(recognition)-I n‡Z cv‡i bv| c~e©ÁvZ AwfÁZv‡K c~e©ÁvZ e‡j Rvbvi bvgB

cÖZ¨wfÁv| †h †g‡qwU‡K Avwg Kvj †`‡LwQ, Zvui aviYv Avgvi g‡b AweK…Zfv‡e bv

_vK‡j, AvR Avevi Zvu‡K †`L‡j Kvj‡Ki †g‡qwU e‡j wPb‡Z cviZvg bv|

3) wnDg AvZ¥v ev g‡bi ¯îƒcMZ †Kv‡bv HK¨ ¯xKvi K‡ibwb| wZwb g‡bi HK¨‡K

Kíbv e‡j D‡jøL K‡i‡Qb Ges m¥„wZi mvnv‡h¨ e¨w³i AwfbœZv (personal identity)

cvV - 2



e¨vL¨v K‡i‡Qb| wKš‘ e¨w³i HK¨ bv _vK‡j ¯§„wZ m¤¢e bq| myZivs m¥„wZi mvnv‡h¨

e¨w³i HK¨ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z †M‡j PµK †`v‡li D™¢e nq|

Avw½K gZev` : mgv‡jvPbv

1) Kv‡›Ui g‡Z, ÁvZvgb Áv‡bi welq †_‡K ¯Zš¿| gb ci¯úi AbyfeivwRi cðvrw¯’Z

GK HK¨weavqK cÖwµqvwe‡kl| wKš‘ AbyfeivwRi wew”QbœZv †_‡K wehy³ GB HK¨

cÖwµqv GKwU ˆbqvwqK Ag~Z© aviYvgvÎ, ev¯Íe e¨vcvi bq| wew”QbœZvi ga¨ w`‡q †h HK¨

cÖwZwôZ nq ZvB ev¯Íe| †n‡Mj AvZ¥v‡K GiKg GK HK¨ e‡jB g‡b K‡i‡Qb|

Avgv‡ì aviYv, G wel‡q †n‡M‡ji e³e¨B MÖnY‡hvM¨|

2) Kv›U Aefvm I e ‘ ¯iƒ‡ci g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ K‡i‡Qb| Zvui g‡Z, AvZ¥v ev gb Áv‡bi

cÖv¸ßKiYwe‡kl| cvigvw_©K AvZ¥v KLbB mvaviYfv‡e Rvbv hvq bv| Avgv‡ì g‡b nq,

AvZ¥v ev gb‡K Zvi wewfbœ Aefv‡mi gva¨‡g Rvbv hvq| wewfbœ e¯‘Áv‡bi HK¨ g‡bi

H‡KïB cÖKvk| myZivs wewfbœ e¯‘Áv‡bi g‡a¨B gb‡K Rvbv hvq|

Roev`x gZev` : mgv‡jvPbv

1) †PZbv Ro †_‡K D™¢‚Z, GB gZev` ¯xKvi Kiv P‡j bv| A‡PZb Ro †_‡K †PZbvi

DrcwË KLbI m¤¢e n‡Z cv‡i bv| Ro †PZbvi m¤ú~Y© wecixZag©x| †PZbv Av‡Q e‡jB

Ro‡K Rvbv m¤¢e nq, bZzev Ro Ro‡K Rvb‡Q GB wm×všÍ ¯^-we‡ivax|

2) Roev`x‡ì g‡Z, gb n‡jv gw¯Í‡®‹i Dce¯‘| wKš‘ gb ev †PZbv‡K hw` gw¯Í‡®‹i

Dce¯‘ g‡b Kiv nq, Zvn‡j g‡bi c‡¶ ¯vaxbfv‡e KvR Kivi B”Qv Ges †`n‡K

wbqwš¿Z Kivi †Kv‡bv ¶gZv _v‡K bv| A_P gb †h †`n‡K wbqš¿Y K‡i G n‡jv mv¶vr

cÖZxwZi ev Dcjwäi welq, hv‡K †Kv‡bv g‡ZB A¯xKvi Kiv P‡j bv|

3) gw¯Í‡®‹i wµqv I gvbwmK wµqv wbweo m¤úK©hy³| wKš‘ Zvi wfwË‡Z gb‡K gw¯Í‡®‹i

wµqv g‡b Kivi †Kv‡bv hyw³m½Z KviY †bB| Roev`xiv g‡bi wµqvi HK¨ I

avivevwnKZv‡K e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cv‡ibwb|

D‡b¥lev` : mgv‡jvPbv

1) Ro †_‡K cÖvY, cÖvY †_‡K g‡bi D‡b¥l nq| wKš‘ †Kb Ro †_‡K cÖvY Ges cÖvY †_‡K

g‡bi D‡b¥l n†jv Zvi †Kv‡bv m`yËi D‡b¥lev`xiv w`‡Z cv‡ibwb| Avi ZvB GB gZev`

hyw³MÖvn¨ bq|

2) Ro †_‡K cÖvY, cÖvY †_‡K g‡bi D‡b¥l N‡U| A_©vr D‡b¥l me© v AMÖmigvb Ges

DbœZ iƒ‡ci m„wó K‡i| wKš‘ †Kb GwU cðv`&Mvgx bq ev AveZ©bkxj bq, Zvi h_v_©

e¨vL¨v G gZev`xiv w`‡Z cv‡ibwb|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev` I Avw½K gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbvg~jK g~j¨vqb Kiæb|


1| ªe¨ gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv wjLyb|

2| Roev`x gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv wjLyb|

3| D‡b¥lev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv wjLyb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| ÒAwfÁZvq hv cvIqv hvq bv, Zvi

Aw¯ÍZ¡ ¯xKvi Kiv hvq bvÓ G K_vwU

e‡jb

i) jK

ii) evK©wj

iii) wnDg

iv) Kv›U

2| †Kv‡bv& gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv K‡i

Kv›U e‡jb, G gZev` ¯xKvi Ki‡j

AbyccwËi DrcwË nq

i) `ªe¨ gZev`

ii) cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev`

iii) Avw½K gZev`

iv) D‡b¥l gZev`

3| †Kvb& gZev` †g‡b wb‡j PµK

†`v‡li D™¢e nq

i) cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev`

ii) ªe¨ gZev`

iii) Roev`x gZev`

iv) D‡b¥l gZev`

4| Avgv‡ì gbB wew”Qbœ

Abyfe¸†jv‡K Rv‡b- †Kv‡bv& gZev‡ì

mgv‡jvPbv K‡i Kv›U G K_v e‡jb

i) ªe¨ gZev`

ii) Roev`x gZev`

iii) D‡b¥l gZev`

iv) cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev`


1| Kv›U e‡jb, AvZ¥v‡K Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨ ej‡j AbyccwËi DrcwË nq|

2| ¯§„wZi mvnv‡h¨ e¨w³i HK¨‡K e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z †M‡j PµK †`v‡li D™¢e nq|

3| c~e©ÁvZ AwfÁZv‡K c~e©ÁvZ e‡j Rvbvi bvgB cÖZ¨wfÁv|

4| Kv‡›Ui g‡Z cvigvw_©K AvZ¥v mvaviYfv‡eB Rvbv hvq|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iii) wnDg 2| i) ªe¨ gZev`

3| i) cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev` 4| iv) cÖZ¨¶ev`x gZev`

L) 1| m 2| m 3| m 4| wg



gb m¤úKx©q gZev` : AvaywbK gZ

(Theories of Mind: Modern Views)

D‡Ïk¨


gb m¤úK©xq AvaywbK gZ¸‡jv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

AvaywbK gZ¸‡jv Zzjbv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

AvaywbK gZ¸‡jvi ÎæwUmg~n eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

gb wK Zv wb‡q `vk©wbKMY GKgZ n‡Z cv‡ibwb| cÖvPxbKv‡j †hgb g‡bi ¯iƒc m¤ú‡K©

`vk©wbKMY wewfbœ gZev` cÖ vb K‡i‡Qb, AvaywbKKv‡jI `vk©wbKMY bvbv iKg gZev`

†cvlY K‡ib| Kv‡iv g‡Z, gb n‡jv AvPi‡Yi mgwó; Kv‡iv g‡Z, gb n‡jv m¤ú~Y©fv‡e

welqMZ; Kv‡iv g‡Z, gb n‡jv †PZb KZ©v| wb‡P gb m¤úKx©q AvaywbK gZmg~n


AvPiYev` (Behaviourism)

GB gZvbymv‡i, Rxe‡`n Ges Zvi AvPi‡Yi AwZwi³ g‡bi †Kv‡bv Aw¯ÍZ¡ ¯xKvi Kiv

hvq bv| Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªeïƒ‡c g‡bi †h aviYv Zv Avgv‡ì KwíZ aviYv| evB‡ii cwi‡ek

Rxe‡`‡n †h cÖwZwµqvi m„wó K‡i †mB cÖwZwµqvi mgwóB n‡jv gb| †PZbvi †Kv‡bv

Aw¯ÍZ¡ †bB| gvbwmK cÖwµqv Avm‡j ˆ`wnK cÖwµqv| gb‡K †h‡nZz cÖZ¨¶ Kiv hvq bv ev

¯úk© Kiv hvq bv, †m Kvi‡Y g‡bi aviYv AjxK Qvov Avi wKQyB bq|

AvPiYev`x `vk©wbK †Mvwôi †bZv g‡bvweÁvbx IqvUmb g‡b K‡ib, g‡bvweÁv‡bi

Av‡jvPbvi welq †`‡ni cÖwZwµqv ev AvPiYgvÎ| ewnwe©‡k¦i wewfbœ D‡ËRbvi wewfbœ

ˆ`wnK cÖwZwµqvi mgwói bvgB gb| ˆPZb¨ e‡j wKQy †bB| ˆPZ‡bï wewfbœ Ae¯’v I

cÖwµqv e‡j hv cwiwPZ, Avm‡j Zv †`‡niB wewfbœ AvPiYgvÎ| g‡bvweÁvbx cvfjf

wewfbœ cix¶vi ga¨ w`‡q AvPiYev`x‡ì e³e¨ cÖwZwôZ Kivi †Póv K‡i‡Qb|

AvPiYev`x‡ì g‡Z, gvbwmK wµqv¸‡jv †`n-h‡š¿i wewfbœ wµqvgvÎ|

mgv‡jvPbv

1) AvPiYev`xiv gb ej‡Z †`‡ni AvPiYB †ev‡Sb| Zvu‡ì g‡Z, †`‡ni eënvi ev

AvPiY Qvov ˆPZb¨ e‡j wKQy †bB| Avgv‡ì g‡b nq, †`‡ni AvPiY‡K AvPiY e‡j

Rvb‡Z †M‡j ˆPZ‡bï Aw¯ÍZ¡ ¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq| myZivs ˆPZ‡bï Aw¯ÍZ¡ wKQy‡ZB

A¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv|

cvV - 3



2) gb ÁvZv, wKš‘ Áv‡bi welq bq| †h Rv‡b Zv‡KB e‡j gb| AvPiYev`xiv e‡jb,

†`‡ni AvPiYB gb| †`‡ni AvPiY Áv‡bi welq| myZivs Áv‡bi welq †h †`‡ni AvPiY

Zv wK K‡i ÁvZv gb n‡Z cv‡i? Zv ¯úó bq|

be¨-ev¯Íeev`x‡ì gZ (Neo-Realists’ View)

G gZvbymv‡i, gb m¤ú~Y©fv‡e welqMZ| mvaviYZ Avgiv gb ej‡Z welqx (subject) eywS| wKš‘ be¨-ev¯Íeev`x‡ì g‡Z, Áv‡bi wel‡qi GK we‡kl MÖš’bB gb| GB

gZev`x‡ì Ab¨Zg †nvë e‡jb, gb ¯œvqyZ‡š¿i ms‡¶vfwbw`©ó we‡k¦i GKwU Askwe‡kl|

e¯‘i m‡½ øvqzZ‡š¿i mwbœKl© n‡jB †mB e¯‘ Ab¨me e¯‘ †_‡K Avjv`v n‡q hvq| GB e¯‘B

Áv‡bi welq, Avi GB e¯‘B gb ev ˆPZb¨| myZivs Zv‡ì g‡Z, Áv‡bi welq Qvov welqx

gb e‡j wKQy †bB; Áv‡bi welqB gb ev ˆPZb¨|

mgv‡jvPbv

Avgiv Áv‡bi †¶‡Î welq (object) I welqx (subject) GB `yB fvM ¯xKvi Kwi|

hLb ewj, ÔAvwg Av¸b RvwbÕ, ZLb ÔAvwgÕ welqx Avi ÔAv¸bÕ welq| Avwg Avi Av¸b

†h GK bq GK_v mevB ¯xKvi Ki‡eb| wKš‘ be¨-ev¯Íeev`xiv welq I welqxi cv_©K¨

¯xKvi K‡ib bv| Zvu‡ì g‡Z, GB we‡kl †¶‡Î Avwg I Av¸b GKB e¯‘|

e¨w³Z¡ev`x gZev` (Personalistic Theory)

†n‡Mj GB gZev‡ì cÖe³v| Zuvi gZvbymv‡i, gb GK †PZb KZ©v, †h me welq Rv‡b

Ges me wKQyi Ici wµqv K‡i| G gZvbymv‡i, gb †Kv‡bv Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨ bq, Avevi

wew”Qbœ AbyfeivwRi mgwógvÎI bq| gb‡K wew”Qbœ AbyfeivwRi HK¨weavqK ï×

cÖwµqvI ejv hvq bv| GK HK¨weavqK cÖwµqv-m¤Ü Abyf‡ei bvgB gb| GB

HK¨weavqK cÖwµqv ci¯úi wew”Qbœ Abyfe¸‡jv‡K GKÎ K‡i A½v½x m¤úK©hy³ e¨w³Z¡

ev gb M‡o †Zv‡j| gb ev e¨w³‡Z¡i HK¨ wewfbœ Abyf‡ei êwP‡Îï ga¨ w`‡qB jvf Kiv

hvq| Abyf‡ei êwPÎ¨-wehy³ HK¨ †Kv‡bv e¯‘i ZË¡ bq, GUv g‡bi aviYvgvÎ|

Abyf‡ei wewfbœZv I wew”QbœZvi g‡a¨ †h HK¨ cvIqv hvq, ZvB RxešÍ HK¨| wewfbœ

Abyf‡ei ga¨ w`‡qB e¨w³ Zvi GB RxešÍ HK¨ Lyu‡R cvq| AvZ¥vi HK¨ wew”Qbœ Abyf‡ei

A½v½x m¤úK©mÄvZ HK¨| myZivs e¨w³Z¡ev` Abymv‡i, gb ev AvZ¥v GK mwµq MwZkxj

†f`cyó HK¨ZË¡ we‡kl| AwfÁZv hZB e„w× cvq, GB HK¨ ZZB mg„× I cyó n‡q

I‡V| c~Y© e¨w³ mg¯Í eZ©gvb I m¤¢ve¨ Abyf‡ei HK¨ m Pbv K‡i| GB H‡Kï AvIZv

†_‡K †Kv‡bv AbyfeB ev` c‡o bv| Avgiv mvaviY mmxg gvbyl GB HK¨‡K Av`k©iƒ‡c

MÖnY K‡iwQ| wb‡R‡ì Rxe‡b GB Av`k© HK¨‡K ax‡i ax‡i jvf Kivi †PóvB Avgv‡ì

mvabv| mªóv ev Ck¦iB cig e¨w³| KviY ev¯Íe I m¤¢ve¨ mg¯Í iK‡gi Abyf‡ei HK¨

GKgvÎ Ck¦‡iB m¤¢e| cÖ‡Z¨K gvby‡li g‡a¨B KZK¸‡jv Abyf‡ei HK¨ j¶¨ Kiv hvq|

e¨w³gvby‡li GB HK¨ cig e¨w³‡Z¡i Pig H‡Kï cÖKvkgvÎ|



mgv‡jvPbv

†n‡M‡ji gZevÌ m‡šÍvlRbK bq, KviY Zvui gZev` Ges Ab¨vb¨ fveev`x `vk©wbK‡ì

gZev` AvaywbK me©vZ¥vev‡ìB c~e©aŸwb| ZvQvov †n‡M‡ji gZev‡` ejv n‡q‡Q, gb

Ag~Z© GKZ¡ ev AwfbœZv bq, ev Ag~Z© eûZ¡ ev wewfbœZv bq, eis G n‡”Q eû‡Z¡i g‡a¨

GKZ¡ ev wewfbœZvi g‡a¨ AwfbœZv| GLv‡b cÖkœ n‡”Q, GKZ¡ I eû‡Z¡i hw` hyw³m½Z

we‡ivwaZv ¯xKvi Kiv nq, Zvn‡j GB GKZ¡ wKfv‡e eûZ¡‡K Avkªq K‡i Dcjä nq Zv

wePvimv‡c¶|

Dcmsnvi

gb m¤úK©xq AvaywbK gZev`¸‡jvI bvbvfv‡e mgv‡jvwPZ n‡q‡Q| GB gZev`¸‡jvi

g‡a¨ †n‡M‡ji e¨w³Z¡ev` A‡c¶vK…Z m‡šÍvlRbK gZev` e‡j A‡b‡K g‡b K‡ib| wKš‘

Zuvi gZevÌ cy‡ivcywi MÖnY‡hvM¨ bq|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| g‡bi ¯iƒc m¤ú‡K© AvaywbK gZ ev gZev`¸‡jv mgv‡jvPbvmn e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| g‡bi ¯iƒc m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e AvPiYev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| g‡bi ¯iƒc m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e e¨w³Z¡ev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| gb m¤úK©xq AvaywbK gZev`

wn‡m‡e Avgiv cvB

i) ywU gZev`

ii) wZbwU gZev`

iii) PviwU gZev`

iv) GKwU gZev`

2| AvPiYev‡ì cÖe³v n‡jb

i) Kv›U

ii) evK©wj

iii) IqvUmb

iv) †WKvU©

3| be¨-ev¯Íeev` Abymv‡i

i) Áv‡bi welqB gb

ii) gb GK †PZb KZ©v

iii) AvPi‡Yi mgwóB n‡jv gb

iv) cÖÁvB n‡jv gb

4| e¨w³Z¡ev‡ì cÖe³v n‡jb

i) ivBj

ii) †n‡Mj

iii) wnDg

iv) Kv›U


1| g‡bi ¯iƒc m¤ú‡K© AvaywbK hy‡Mi `vk©wbKMY GK gZ cÖKvk K‡ib|

2| AvPiYev`x‡ì g‡Z, Ôgb wew”Qbœ AbyfeivwRi Pig HK¨weavqK cÖwµqvwe‡kl|Õ

3| be¨-ev¯Íeev` GKwU me©Rb¯xK…Z gZ|

4| e¨w³Z¡ev` Abymv‡i, gb Ggb GK †PZb KZ©v †h me welq Rv‡b Ges me wKQyi

Ici wµqv K‡i|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| ii) wZbwU gZev` 2| iii) IqvUmb

3| i) Áv‡bi welqB gb 4| ii) †n‡Mj

L) 1| wg 2| wg 3| wg 4| m



BDwbU - 6

†`n I g‡bi m¤úK©

(Relation Between Body and Mind)

Avgiv mn‡R eyS‡Z cvwi, †`n I g‡bi g‡a¨ Nwbô m¤úK© i‡q‡Q| †`n ev kixi my¯’

_vK‡j gb cÖdzjø _v‡K; †`n Amy¯’ n‡j gb `ye©j ev welYœ n‡q c‡o| GKBfv‡e gb

cÖdzjø _vK‡j †`‡ni Kg©¶gZv ev‡o; gb welYœ ev `yt‡L fvivµvšÍ n‡j †`‡ni

Kg©¶gZv K‡g ev e¨vnZ nq| gw¯Í‡®‹ ¸iæZi AvNvZ †c‡j gvby‡li †PZbvkw³ †jvc

cvq; Avevi `ytL-‡e`bvq gvby‡li †PvL w`‡q cvwb S‡i| e¯‘Zt mvaviY AwfÁZv,

e¨vwaweÁvb (Pathology), eë‡”Q`we`¨v (Anatomy) I kvixiwe`¨v

(Physiology)-i mnvqZvq †`n-g‡bi wbweo m¤ú‡K©i K_v mn‡R Rvbv hvq| wKš‘

cÖkœ n‡jv, GB m¤ú‡K©i ¯iƒc ev cÖK…wZ wK? wKfv‡e †`n-g‡bi GB m¤úK© N‡U?

wewfbœ `vk©wbK wewfbœfv‡e GB m¤ú‡K©i ¯iƒc e¨vL¨v K‡ib| Avgiv eZ©gvb BDwb‡U

†`n-g‡bi m¤úK© msµvšÍ `vk©wbK gZev`¸‡jv ms‡¶‡c Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

GB BDwb‡U †gvU `ywU cvV i‡q‡Q

†`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK gZev`mg~n

(Theories Concerning the Relation Between Body and Mind) †`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv

(Criticism of Theories of Relation Between Body and Mind)



†`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK gZev`mg~n

(Theories Concerning the Relation Between Body and Mind)

D‡Ïk¨


†`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK gZev`mg~n Kx Kx Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

GB gZev`mg~‡ni g~j e³e¨ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

†`n I g‡bi g‡a¨ Kx m¤úK©? †`n n‡jv Ro c`v_©, Avi gb n‡jv †PZbag©x| wKš‘

cÖvZ¨wnK Rxe‡b Avgiv †`n I g‡bi wbweo m¤úK© †`L‡Z cvB| kixi Amy¯’ n‡j gb

Lvivc _v‡K, Avevi g‡b Avb›` _vK‡j ˆ`wnKfv‡e Zvi cÖKvk N‡U| Avevi µz× n‡jI

KZK¸‡jv ˆ`wnK cwieZ©‡b Zvi cÖKvk N‡U| myZivs mvaviYfv‡e Avgiv †`L‡Z cvB †h,

†`n I g‡bi g‡a¨ GKUv wbweo m¤úK© we`¨gvb| GB m¤úK© †Kgb G wb‡q `vk©wbKMY

wfbœ wfbœ gZev` †cvlY K‡ib| Avgiv G cv‡V †`n I gb m¤úK©xq GB gZev`¸‡jv

Av‡jvPbv Kie|

wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev` (Interactionism)

GB gZev‡ì g~j e³e¨ n‡jv, †`n I g‡bi g‡a¨ Kvh©KviY m¤úK© eZ©gvb| mgq mgq

ˆ`wnK cÖwµqv gvbwmK cÖwµqvi KviY| Avevi A‡bK mgq gvbwmK cÖwµqv ˆ`wnK

cÖwµqvi KviY| gb I †`n Kvh©KviYiƒ‡c ci¯ú‡ii Dci wµqv-cÖwZwµqv K‡i _v‡K|

†WKvU© GB gZev‡ì mg_©K| Zuvi g‡Z, †`n I gb ci¯úi we‡ivax `ªe¨| †`n A‡PZb

Ro, hvi mviag© n‡jv we¯Í…wZ; gb m‡PZb `ªe¨, hvi mviag© n‡jv †PZbv| ‡`n wbw®Œq, gb

mwµq| †`n hvwš¿K wbq‡gi Aaxb, gb D‡Ïk¨ Øviv wbqwš¿Z| †Kv‡bv wel‡q GB `yB

`ª‡eï wgj †bB| †`n I gb mªóvi m„ó, wKš‘ GB `yB `ªe¨ ci¯úi wbi‡c¶|

†WKv‡U©i g†Z, Áv‡bi †¶‡Î †`n g‡bi Dci Ges K‡g©i †¶‡Î gb †`‡ni Dci cÖfve

we¯Ívi K‡i| gw¯Í‡®‹i †K›`ª ’‡j Aew¯’Z cvBwbqvj MÖwš’ (Pineal gland) †`n I g‡bi

ms‡hvM¯’j| GB MÖwš’i gva¨‡g †`n I g‡bi wµqv-cÖwZwµqv mvwaZ nq|

cÖ‡qvR‡b n¯Í‡¶cev`/Dcj¶ev` (Occasionalism)

¸u‡qwj (Geulinex) I gv‡jeªvÂ (Malebranche) cÖ‡qvR‡b n¯Í‡¶cev‡ì cÖeZ©K|

GB gZvbymv‡i, †`n I gb m¤ú~Y© wfbœ nIqvq Zv‡ì g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv wµqv-cÖwZwµqv n‡Z

cv‡i bv| hLbB †`n ev g‡b cwieZ©b †`Lv hvq, ZLbB gb ev †`‡n Abyiƒc cwieZ©b

mva‡bi Rb¨ mªóvi n¯Í‡¶‡ci cÖ‡qvRb †`Lv †`q| n¯Í‡¶‡ci cÖ‡qvRb †`Lv w`‡jB mªóv

cvV - 1



gvbwmK cwieZ©‡bi Abyiƒc ˆ`wnK cwieZ©b ev ˆ`wnK cwieZ©‡bi Abyiƒc gvbwmK

cwieZ©b mvab K‡ib| myZivs cÖ‡qvRb Abymv‡i mªóvi n¯Í‡¶‡ci d‡jB ˆ`wnK I

gvbwmK cÖwµqvi wbweo m¤úK© †`L‡Z cvIqv hvq|

mgvšÍivjev` (Parallelism)

G gZev` Abymv‡i, †`n I gb `ywU c„_K mËv n‡jI Zviv mgvšÍivjfv‡e Df‡qB mwµq|

Zv‡ì g‡a¨ †Kv‡bviƒc Kvh©KviY m¤úK© †bB| †`n I gb G‡K Ac‡ii Dci cÖfve

we¯Ívi K‡i bv| Z‡e †Kv‡bv gvbwmK wµqv msNwUZ n‡j Zvi Abyl½x wn‡m‡e ˆ`wnK

wµqvI N‡U _v‡K| G gZev` Abymv‡i, `ywU mgvšÍivj mij‡iLvi b¨vq †`n I gb

ci¯úi mgvb ` i‡Z¡ †_‡K mgvb MwZ‡Z cwiewZ©Z n‡Z cv‡i|

`vk©wbK w¯ú‡bvRv wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev` I Dcj¶ev‡ì †`vl-ÎæwU ` i Kivi Rb¨

mgvšÍivjev` cÖeZ©b K‡ib| G gZvbymv‡i, †`n I gb `ywU ¯Zš¿ `ªe¨ bq, Giv GKB

`ªe¨‡K †evSvi ywU wfbœ Dcvq, GKB `ª‡eï `ywU wfbœcÖKvk| mªóv GKgvÎ `ªe¨| wZwb

AbšÍ ¸Ym¤úbœ| GB AbšÍ ¸‡Yi g‡a¨ gvby‡li gb gvÎ `ywU‡K Rvb‡Z cv‡i, GKwU †`n

ev we¯Í…wZ, AciwU gb ev wPšÍb| GB `ywU ¸‡Yi g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv mvaviY j¶Y †bB| hwÌ

G `ywU ¸Y GKB `ª‡eï, ZeyI G‡ì g‡a¨ cvi¯úwiK cÖfve †bB| KviY ‰PZb¨ R‡oi

Dci Ges Ro ˆPZ‡bï Dci †Kv‡bv cÖfve we¯Ívi Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|

Dce¯‘ev` (Epiphenomenalism)

Roev`x‡ì g‡a¨ we‡kl GK †Mvôx GB gZev‡ì mg_©K| GB Roev`x `vk©wbKe„›`

gb‡K †`n †_‡K c„_K e‡j g‡b K‡ib Ges †`n I g‡bi g‡a¨ Kvh©KviY m¤úK© Av‡Q

e‡j g‡b K‡ib| wKš‘ Zv‡ì g‡Z, GB Kvh©KviY m¤úK© GKvwfgyLx| Zv‡ì g‡Z, gb

ev ˆPZb¨ gw¯Í‡®‹i wµqvi cwiYwZ, †h‡nZz †`nB g‡bi KviY | wKš‘ gvbwmK cÖwµqv

gw¯Í‡®‹i cÖwµqv A_v©r ˆ`wnK cÖwµqv Drcbœ Ki‡Z cv‡i bv|

Gme Roev`x‡ì g‡Z, RoB n‡jv cigZË¡| Zv‡ì g‡Z, R‡oi †hgb mËv Av‡Q, g‡bi

†Zgb †Kv‡bv e¯‘mËv †bB| Zv‡ì g‡Z, gb ev ˆPZb¨ n‡jv Dce¯‘, RoB n‡jv cÖK…Z

e¯‘| gb ev ˆPZb¨ gw¯Í‡®‹i wµqv‡K cÖfvweZ K‡i bv, gb n‡jv K‡qK ai‡bi gw¯Í‡®‹i

wµqvi GK ai‡bi wbw®Œq mnMvgx| gb ev ˆPZb¨ n†jv, kix‡ii ev gw¯Í‡®‹i wµqvi Qvqv|

gvbyl‡K ev` w`‡q †hgb gvby‡li Qvqvi †Kv‡bv wbR¯ mËv †bB, gvby‡li Rb¨B gvby‡li

Qvqv, †Zgwb gw¯Í‡®‹i wµqvi Rb¨B gb ev ˆPZ†bï Aw¯ÍZ¡| gvby‡li MwZB Qvqvi MwZi

KviY, Qvqvi MwZ gvby‡li MwZi KviY n‡Z cv‡i bv|

D‡b¥lev` (Emergence Theory)

GB gZev`xiv †`n I gb‡K m¤ú~Y© wecixZ e‡j g‡b K‡ib bv| D‡b¥lev`x‡ì g‡Z,

Awfe¨w³ (evolution) cÖwµqvq †`n †_‡K cÖvY, Avi cÖvY †_‡K g‡bi D™¢e nq|

nvB‡Wªv‡Rb Avi Aw·‡Rb wgwj‡q †h cvwb nq Zvi wccvmv wgUv‡bvi ¶gZv _v‡K| GB

¶gZv nvB‡Wªv‡Rb ev Aw·‡Rb Kv†iv †bB| †Zgwb †`n †_‡KB cÖvY, Avi cÖvY †_‡KB



gb| wKš‘ cÖv‡Yi ¯Í‡i ÔRxebÕ Avi g‡bi ¯Í‡i ÔˆPZb¨Õ e‡j Ggb `ywU ¸Y D‡b¥wlZ nq hv

h_vµ‡g †`n I cÖv‡Yi _v‡K bv| †`n †_‡KB cÖvY Avi cÖvY †_‡KB ˆPZ‡bï D‡b¥l

n‡q‡Q e‡j †`‡ni m‡½ g‡bi m¤úK© AZ¨šÍ wbweo|

c~e©-cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev` (The Theory of Pre-established Harmony)

GB gZev‡ì cÖe³v n‡jb Rvgv©b `vk©wbK jvBewbR| Zvui g‡Z, †`n I gb DfqB

wPrcigvYy ev gbvW (Monad)-Gi m„wó| c~e©-cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev` Abyhvqx, m„wói mg‡q

gbv‡Wi gbvW Z_v mªóv †`n I g‡bi gbv‡Wi g‡a¨ Ggb GK k„•Ljv cÖwZwôZ K‡i‡Qb

†h, †Kv‡bv iKg gvbwmK ev ˆ`wnK cwieZ©b NU‡j Abyiƒc ˆ`wnK ev gvbwmK cwieZ©b

¯Ztù~Z©fv‡eB N‡U|

Dcj¶ev` Abymv‡i, hLb †`‡ni †Kv‡bv cwieZ©b N‡U ZLb g‡b Ges g‡b hLb †Kv‡bv

cwieZ©b N‡U ZLb †`‡n Abyiƒc cwieZ©b mªóv msNwUZ K‡ib| wKš‘ jvBewb‡Ri c~e©-

cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev` Abymv‡i, mªóvi AweiZ n¯Í‡¶‡ci †Kv‡bv cÖ‡qvRb †bB| †`n I

gb‡K `ywU Nwoi mv‡_ Zzjbv Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| Nwo `ywU ˆZix nevi mgq G‡ì KvuUv¸‡jv

Ggbfv‡e wgwj‡q †`qv n‡q‡Q †h, cvi¯úwiK wµqv-cÖwZwµqv QvovI Df‡qi KvuUv me© v

GKB mgq wb‡`©k K‡i| Abyiƒcfv‡e, ˆ`wnK cÖwµqv I gvbwmK cÖwµqv ci¯ú‡ii Dci

†Kv‡bv cÖfve we Ívi bv K‡iI m½wZ i¶v K‡i P‡j‡Q|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| †`n I g‡bi m¤Ü m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev` I mgvšÍivjev`

e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| †`n I g‡bi m¤Ü m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e Dcj¶ev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| †`n I g‡bi m¤Ü m¤úK©xq gZev` wn‡m‡e D‡b¥lev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev‡ì cÖe³v

i) jK

ii) evK©wj

iii) wnDg

iv) †WKvU©

2| ÔÔhLbB gb ev †`‡n cwieZ©b †`Lv

†`q ZLbB Abyiƒc cwieZ©‡bi Rb¨

mªóvi n¯Í‡¶‡ci cÖ‡qvRb nqÕÕ- GwU

†Kv‡bv& gZev‡ì g~j e³e¨

i) wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev`

ii) Dcj¶ev`

iii) mgvšÍivjev`

iv) D‡b¥lev`

3| mgvšÍivjev‡ì g~j e³e¨ n†jv

i) †`n I g‡bi g‡a¨ Kvh©KviY m¤úK©

eZ©gvb

ii) cÖ‡qvR‡b mªóv n¯Í‡¶c K‡ib

iii) †Kv‡bv gvbwmK wµqv msNwUZ n‡j Zvi

Abyl½x wn‡m‡e ˆ`wnK wµqvI N‡U

iv) gb ev ˆPZb¨ gw¯Í‡®‹i wµqvi

cwiYwZ

4| jvBewbR †Kvb& gZev‡ì cÖe³v


ii) mgvšÍivjev`

iii) D‡b¥lev`

iv) c~e©-cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev`


1| wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev‡ì g~j e³e¨ n†jv, ÔÔ`ywU Nwo †hgb cvi¯úwiK wµqv-cÖwZwµqv

QvovI me© v GKB mgq wb‡`©k K‡i, †Zgwb †`n I gb ci¯ú‡ii Dci cÖfve we¯Ívi bv

K‡iI m½wZ i¶v K‡i P‡j|ÕÕ

2| mgvšÍivjev‡ì cÖe³v wgj|

3| D‡b¥lev` Abymv‡i †`n †_‡K cÖvY, Avi cÖvY †_‡K g‡bi D™¢e n‡q‡Q e‡j G‡ì

m¤úK© AZ¨šÍ wbweo|

4| Dce¯‘ev` Abymv‡i, mªóvi n¯Í‡¶‡cB †`n I g‡bi cwieZ©b N‡U|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iv) †WKvU© 2| ii) Dcj¶ev` 3| iii) †Kv‡bv gvbwmK wµqv msNwUZ n‡j

Zvi Abyl½x wn‡m‡e ˆ`wnK wµqvI N‡U 4| iv) c~e©-cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev`

L) 1| wg 2| wg 3| m 4| wg



†`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK gZev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv

(Criticism of Theories of Relation Between Body and Mind)

D‡Ïk¨


†`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK gZev` mg~‡ni fzj-ÎæwU eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

c~e©eZ©x cv‡V Avgiv †`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK cÖavb cÖavb gZev`mg~n Av‡jvPbv

K‡iwQ| GB cv‡V Avgiv D³ gZev`mg~‡ni fzj-ÎæwU¸‡jv Kx? Zv Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev`

1) †WKvU© †`n I g‡bi cvi¯úwiK wµqv-cÖwZwµqv ¯xKvi K‡i‡Qb| wKš‘ wZwb g‡b

K‡ib, †`n I gb m¤ú~Y©fv‡e wfbœ| m¤ú~Y© wfbœ †`n I g‡bi g‡a¨ wK K‡i wµqv-

cÖwZwµqv n‡Z cv‡i, Zv Avgiv eywS bv| hw` †`n I g‡bi g‡a¨ m¤ú~Y© wµqv-cÖwZwµqv

¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq, Z‡e Zv‡ì m¤ú~Y© wfbœ ejv hvq bv| m¤ú~Y© wfbœ †Kv‡bv `yB e ‘i g‡a¨

wµqv-cÖwZwµqv n‡Z cv‡i bv|

2) †WKv‡U©i wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev`, kw³i Awebk¦iev` bvgK êÁvwbK gZev‡ì we‡ivwaZv

K‡i| kw³i Awebk¦iev` Abymv‡i, kw³i iƒcvšÍi NU‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ Zvi †Kv‡bv n«vm-

e„w× †bB| GK ai‡bi kw³ Avi GK ai‡bi kw³‡Z, †hgb DËvc Av‡jv‡K iƒcvšÍwiZ

n‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ GB ai‡bi iƒcvšÍ‡ii †¶‡Î kw³i †Kv‡bv nªvm-e„w× N‡U bv| A_P

†WKv‡U©i gZvbyhvqx gb hw` †`‡ni Dci wµqv K‡i Zvn‡j RM‡Z ˆ`wnK ev †fŠZkw³

wKQyUv n‡jI e„w× cvq| GKBfv‡e, †`n g‡bi Dci wµqv Ki‡j A_©vr ˆ`wnK kw³

gvbwmK kw³‡Z iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡j RM‡Z wKQyUv n‡jI ˆ`wnK ev †fŠZkw³ n«vm cvq|

Dcj¶ev`

1) Dcj¶ev` †`n I g‡bi m¤úK© m¤‡Ü †Kv‡bv êÁvwbK e¨vL¨v w`‡Z cv‡i bv| cÖwZ

c‡` mªóvi n Í‡¶‡ci d‡j †`n I g‡bi cvi¯úwiK m¤úK© ’vwcZ nq, GK_v‡K †Kv‡bv

hyw³ w`‡q cÖwZwôZ Kiv nq wb| cÖ‡qvR‡b n¯Í‡¶c ev Dcj¶ev` gvb‡Z n‡j hyw³

wemR©b w`‡q fw³g~jK wek¦v‡m Av¯’v ¯’vcb Ki‡Z nq| `k©‡b fw³g~jK wek¦v‡mi †Kv‡bv

¯’vb †bB| myZivs Dcj¶ev‡ì we‡kl †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK g~j¨ _vK‡Z cv‡i bv|

2) †`n I gb hw` `ywU ci¯úi weiæ× `ªe¨ nq, Zvn‡j mªóv wKfv‡e GB `yB weRvZxq

`ª‡eï g‡a¨ m¤úK© ¯’vcb K‡ib Zv †evaMg¨ bq| mªóv‡K cigvZ¥viƒcx GK Aa¨vÍ

mËviƒ‡c Kíbv Kiv nq| Avgv‡ì B”Qv Dcj‡¶ we‡`nx mªóvB hw` Avgv‡ì evû‡K E‡aŸ©

D‡ËvwjZ Ki‡Z mg_© nb, Zvn‡j B”QvB Zv m¤úv`‡b e¨_© nq †Kb, Zv †evaMg¨ bq|

cvV - 2



mgvšÍivjev`

1) †hLv‡b ˆPZb¨ †mLv‡b we¯Í…wZi Aw¯ÍZ¡ Ges †hLv‡b we¯Í…wZ †mLv‡bB ˆPZ‡bï Aw¯ÍZ¡-

GB welqwUi mc‡¶ Avgv‡ì cÖvZ¨wnK AwfÁZvi †Kv‡bv cÖgvY cvIqv hvq bv| we¯Í…wZ

_vK‡jI cÖ¯Íi L‡Û Avgiv †Kv‡bv ˆPZ‡bï Aw¯ÍZ¡ †`wL bv|

2) mgvšÍivjev` †`‡ni Zzjbvq g‡bi DrKl© ¯xKvi K‡i bv| cÖwZwU ˆ`wnK NUbvi

c~e©eZ©x KviY hw` Ab¨ †Kv‡bv ˆ`wnK NUbv nq, Zvn‡j g‡bi mnvqZv QvovI ˆ`wnK

wµqv m¤úbœ n‡Z cv‡i, GB wm×všÍB †g‡b wb‡Z nq| wKš‘ ev¯Í‡e Avgiv †`wL, †`n‡K

g‡bi wbqš¿Y ¯xKvi K‡i wb‡Z nq| Kv‡RB †`n I gb GKB ¯Í‡ii AšÍM©Z, Giv

ci¯ú‡ii mgvšÍivj, GB wm×všÍ †g‡b †bqv KwVb n‡q c‡o| ZvQvov, g‡bi mnvqZv

QvovB hw` †`n Kvh©-m¤úv`b Ki‡Z cv‡i Zvn‡j gvbwmK kw³ weKv‡ki †Kv‡bv cÖ‡qvRb

Av‡Q e‡jI g‡b nq bv|

Dce¯‘ev`

1) Dce¯‘ev`x‡ì g‡Z, gb n‡jv gw¯Í‡®‹i Dce¯‘| wKš‘ gb ev †PZbv‡K hw` gw¯Í‡®‹i

Dce¯‘ g‡b Kiv nq Zvn‡j g‡bi c‡¶ ¯vaxbfv‡e KvR Kivi B”Qv I †`n‡K wbqwš¿Z

Kivi †Kv‡bv ¶gZv _v‡K bv| A_P gb †h B”Qv I †`n‡K wbqwš¿Z K‡i AwfÁZvi

mvnv‡h¨ Zv Rvbv hvq| myZivs gb‡K gw¯Í‡®‹i Dce¯‘ MY¨ Kiv hvq bv|

2) GB gZev` gb‡K †`‡ni Dce¯‘ MY¨ Kiv‡Z †`n ev R‡oi Zzjbvq gb‡K bxPz ¯Í‡ii

g‡b K‡i| wKš‘ gb ev ˆPZ‡bï mvnv‡h¨B Ro ev †`n‡K Rvbv m¤¢e nq| g‡bi mvnv‡h¨B

†Kv‡bv gZev‡ì mZ¨-wg_¨v wePvi Kiv m¤¢e nq| Zvn‡j gb‡KB cigZË¡ e‡j ¯xKvi

Ki‡Z nq Ges Ro ev †`‡ni Zzjbvq gb‡K D”P ¯Í‡ii mËv e‡j g‡b Ki‡Z nq|

3) Dce¯‘ev` g‡bi Dci †`‡ni cÖfve ¯xKvi K‡i, wKš‘ †`‡ni Dci g‡bi †Kv‡bv

cÖfve ¯xKvi K‡i bv| Avgv‡ì g‡b nq, †`‡ni Dci g‡bi cÖfve A¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv|

Ggb A‡bK gnvZ¥vB Av‡Qb hviv g‡bi †Rv‡i †`‡n †Rvi cvb| mvaviY †jv‡Ki †P‡q

Zv‡ì Kg©¶gZv A‡bK †ewk| myZivs †`‡ni Dci g‡bi cÖfve‡K A¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv|

D‡b¥lev`

1) D‡b¥lev`xiv gb‡K †`‡ni Zzjbvq D”P ¯Í‡ii mËviƒ‡c MY¨ Kivq GB gZev‡ì

hyw³MÖvn¨Zv Ab¨ gZev‡ì Zyjbvq GKUz †ewk| wKš‘ Awfe¨w³ cÖwµqvi we‡kl GK ¯Í‡i

†`n †_‡K gb ev ˆPZ‡bï D‡b¥l wK Kvi‡Y n‡jv Zvi †Kv‡bv m‡šÍvlRbK e¨vL¨v

D‡b¥lev`xiv †`qvi †Póv K‡ibwb| Gi d‡j gZev`wU cy‡ivcywi hyw³MÖvn¨ n‡q I‡Vwb|

2) R‡oi Zzjbvq cÖvY D”P ¯Í‡ii mËv, cÖv‡Yi Zzjbvq gb D”P ¯Í‡ii mËv e‡j

D‡b¥lev`xiv g‡b K‡ib| wKš‘ cÖv‡Yi g‡a¨ gb ev ˆPZb¨ cÖ”Qbœfv‡e bv _vK‡j Zv

wKfv‡e D‡b¥wlZ n‡Z cv‡i? †K GB D‡b¥l-cÖwµqv‡K mvwaZ K‡i, Zvi †Kv‡bv

m‡šÍvlRbK e¨vL¨v D‡b¥lev`xiv †`bwb|



c~e©-cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev`

1) †`n I g‡bi m½wZ i¶vi Rb¨ jvBewbR Dcj¶ev`x‡ì gZ mªóvi mvnvh¨ MÖnY

K‡i‡Qb, hv Avgv‡ì Kv‡Q hyw³hy³ g‡b nq bv| mªóvi mvnv‡h¨ †`n I g‡bi m¤‡Üi

e¨vL¨v weÁvbm¤§Z bq|

2) jvBewb‡Ri g‡Z, †Kv‡bv wPrcigvYy Ab¨ wPrcigvYyi Dci cÖfve we¯Ívi Ki‡Z cv‡i

bv| A_P mªóv‡K †`n I g‡bi wPrcigvYyi g‡a¨ m½wZ ¯’vcb Ki‡Z n‡j Zv‡ì Dci

cÖfve we¯Ívi Ki‡Z nq|

3) mªóvi AweiZ m½wZmvab gZev‡ì Zzjbvq jvBewb‡Ri c~e©-cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev`

m‡šÍvlRbK g‡b n‡Z cv‡i| wKš‘ `vk©wbK wePv‡i GB gZev` m‡šÍvlRbK bq|

Dcj¶ev‡` †h AcÖvK…wZK NUbv wbqZ msNwUZ n‡”Q ejv n‡q‡Q, jvBewb‡Ri g‡Z Zv

AZx‡Z GKevi gvÎ msNwUZ n‡qwQj| `yB gZev‡ì g‡a¨ GB n‡jv cv_©K¨|

Dcmsnvi

†`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK gZev`mg~‡ni mgv‡jvPbv †_‡K Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi †h, GB

gZev`¸‡jvi †Kv‡bvwUB m‡šÍvlRbK bq|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev` I mgvšÍivjev‡ì mgv‡jvPbvg~jK g~j¨vqb Kiæb|


1| Dcj¶ev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv wjLyb|

2| Dce¯‘ev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv wjLyb|

3| D‡b¥lev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv wjLyb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| †`n I g‡bi m¤úK©welqK †Kv‡bv&

gZev` †g‡b wb‡j kw³i

Awebk¦iZvev` A¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq


ii) Dcj¶ev`

iii) mgvšÍivjev`

iv) D‡b¥lev`

2) `vk©wbK gZev` n‡qI hyw³‡K

wemR©b w`‡q fw³g~jK wek¦v‡m †Kv‡bv&

gZev` Av¯’v ’vcb K‡i


ii) Dcj¶ev`

iii) mgvšÍivjev`

iv) Dce¯Íev`

3| †Kv‡bv& gZev` †g‡b wb‡j g‡bi

†`n I B”Qv‡K wbqš¿Y Kivi ¶gZv

A¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq


ii) Dcj¶ev`

iii) mgvšÍivjev`

iv) Dce¯‘ev`

4| AcÖvK…wZK NUbv wbqZ msNwUZ

n‡”Q Avi AcÖvKw…ZK NUbv AZx‡Z

GKevi gvÎ msNwUZ n‡qwQj -

mgv‡jvPK‡ì g‡Z GB cv_©KÜzKz

†Kv‡bv& `ywU gZev‡ì g‡a¨ j¶Yxq

i) Dcj¶ev` I c~e©-cÖwZwôZ

k„•Ljvev‡`

ii) wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev` I

mgvšÍivjev‡`

iii) Dcj¶ev` I mgvšÍivjev‡`

iv) Dcj¶ev` I Dce¯‘ev‡`


1| Dce¯‘ev` †`‡ni Dci g‡bi cÖfve A¯xKvi K‡i|

2| c~e©-cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev` me©Rb¯xK…Z gZev`|

3| Dcj¶ev` †`n I g‡bi m¤ú‡K©i weÁvbm¤§Z e¨vL¨v w`‡q‡Q|

4| mgvšÍivjev` †`‡ni Zzjbvq g‡bi DrKl© ¯xKvi K‡i bv|

mwVK DËi

K) 1| i) wµqv-cÖwZwµqvev` 2) ii) Dcj¶ev` 3| iv) Dce¯‘ev`

4| i) Dcj¶ev` I c~e©-cÖwZwôZ k„•Ljvev‡`

L) 1| m 2| wg 3| wg 4| m



BDwbU - 7

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡

(Immortality of the Soul)

AvZ¥v giYkxj bv Agi? †`n webv‡ki mv‡_ mv‡_ wK AvZ¥viI webvk N‡U? G GK

Zvrch©c~Y© wRÁvmv| ‡`k-Kvj‡f‡` wewfbœ `vk©wbK g‡bi ¯’vwqZ¡ ev AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡

m¤‡Ü wewfbœ hyw³ I gZev` cÖ vb K‡ib| eZ©gvb BDwb‡U Avgiv AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡

msµvšÍ D‡jøL‡hvM¨ hyw³ I gZev`mg~n Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|


AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Awawe`¨K hyw³

(Metaphysical Arguments for the Immortality of Soul)

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ˆbwZK hyw³

(Moral Arguments for the Immortality of Soul)

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ag©ZvwË¡K hyw³

(Theological Arguments for the Immortality of Soul)

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© we‡kølYx gZ

(Analytic Views on the Immortality of Soul)



AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Awawe`¨K hyw³

(Metaphysical Arguments for the Immortality of Soul)

D‡Ïk¨


AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤úK©xq Awawe`¨K hyw³ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤úK©xq Awawe`¨K hyw³i mgv‡jvPbv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

†Kv‡bv& †Kv‡bv& `vk©wbK G hyw³ I gZev‡` wek¦vmx Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

AvZ¥v giYkxj bvwK Agi? GB cÖkœ wb‡q `vk©wbK‡ì g‡a¨ gZ‡f` Av‡Q| ZvB AvZ¥v ev

g‡bi AgiZ¡ wb‡q wewfbœ hyw³ I gZev‡ì D™¢e n‡q‡Q| Avgiv GLv‡b AvZ¥v ev g‡bi

AgiZ¡ m¤úK©xq Awawe`¨K hyw³ wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Awawe`¨K hyw³ (Metaphysical Arguments for the Immortality of Soul) cÖvPxb wMÖK `vk©wbK m‡µwUm AvZ¥vi AgiZvq wek¦vmx wQ‡jb, hwÌ G m¤ú‡K© wZwb

we‡kl wKQy e‡jbwb| g„Zzï mg‡q wZwb Zuvi ¯Rb‡ì D‡Ï‡k e‡jwQ‡jb, Ò`ytL K‡iv

bv| g‡b †i‡Lv g„Zz¨ †Kej Avgvi †`n‡KB webvk Ki‡e AvZ¥v‡K bqÓ|

†cø‡Uv Zuuvi Ôwd‡WvÕ I ÔG‡cvjwRÕ MÖ‡š’ AvZ¥vi AgiZv m¤ú‡K© wek` Av‡jvPbv K‡i‡Qb|

Zuvi g‡Z, c„w_ex‡Z AvZ¥vi AvMgb N‡U‡Q ¯^M©‡jvK †_‡K cZ‡bi d‡j| G Rxe‡b

†mŠ›`h© Ae‡jvK‡bi mgq Avgiv myLvbyf‚wZi mv‡_ mv‡_ GKwU cÖ”Qbœ †e`bv Abyfe Kwi|

GB †e`bvi KviY n‡jv, c„w_ex‡Z AvMg‡bi Av‡M AvZ¥v †mŠ›`h© Ae‡jvKb K‡i †h wø»

Avb›`vbyf‚wZ †cZ cvw_©e RM‡Z †m †mB Abyf‚wZ cvq bv| ZvB cvw_©e †mŠ›`h© cÖZ¨¶

Kivi mv‡_ mv‡_ Zvi †mB cyi‡bv Abyf‚wZ †R‡M I‡V A¯úó †e`bvi AvKv‡i| †mŠ›`h© I

ï‡fi cÖwZ Avgv‡ì †h ¯vfvweK AvKl©Y, †cø‡Uvi g‡Z, GUv AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡ wek¦v‡mi

GKwU †Rviv‡jv wfwË|

†cø‡Uvi g‡Z, AvZ¥v GKwU Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨we‡kl| †Kv‡bv Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨B †hŠwMK n‡Z

cv‡i bv| myZivs AvZ¥v GK Av‡hŠwMK (simple) `ªe¨, hv KL‡bv wewkøó n‡Z cv‡i bv|

hv wewkøó n‡Z cv‡i bv Zvi webvk †bB| myZivs AvZ¥v Agi|

A¨vwi÷Uj AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡ wek¦vmx| Zuvi g‡Z, AvZ¥v ïay Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨B bq, eis

AvZ¥v n‡jv †`‡ni mvsMVwbK kw³ I †`‡ni AvKvi| AvZ¥vi mviag© n‡jv eyw×| eyw×

`yÕai‡bi: 1) mwµq I 2) wbw®Œq| wbw®Œq eyw× ‡`‡ni mv‡_ mv‡_ aŸsm n‡q hvq, Avi

cvV - 1



mwµq eyw× Agi| A¨vwi÷Uj e¨w³MZ AgiZvq wek¦vmx bb, Zuvi g‡Z, mwµq eyw× cig

mËvi mv‡_ GKvKvi n‡q hvq| AvZ¥v †h‡nZz Ava¨vwZ¥K mËv, †m‡nZz AvZ¥v Awebk¦i,

kvk¦Z I Agi|

evK©wji g‡Z, AvZ¥v AwefvR¨, Awewgkª I we‡`nx Ges Gi we¯Í…wZ †bB| AvZ¥v †h‡nZz

Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨, †m‡nZz AvZ¥v Awebk¦i I Agi|

jvBewb‡Ri g‡Z, AvZ¥v Zvi ¯vfvweK cÖK…wZ‡ZB Agi| †h‡nZz AvZ¥v Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨

†m‡nZz AvZ¥v Agi|

†n‡Mj I be¨ †n‡Mjxqvbiv AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡ wek¦vmx| Zv‡ì g‡Z, mmxg AvZ¥vi G

RM‡Z wbw`©ó ¯’vb I KZ©e¨ i‡q‡Q, wKš‘ GB mmxg AvZ¥v GB ¯í¯’vqx RM‡Z Zvi c~Y©

KZ©e¨ mgvß Ki‡Z cv‡i bv, ZvB g„Zzï ciI wb‡Ri Aw¯ÍZ¡ eRvq †i‡L cwic~~Y©Zv jvf

Ki‡Z cv‡i|

`vk©wbK iæ‡kvI AvZ¥vi AgiZvq wek¦vmx| wZwb Zuvi eÜz fj‡Uqvi‡K †jLv GK wPwV‡Z

e‡jb, ÒG Rxe‡b Avwg GZ †ewk `ytL-Kó †fvM K‡iwQ †h, ci‡jv‡Ki cÖZ¨vkv bv K‡i

cvwi bv| Awawe`¨vi †Kv‡bv K‚Uhyw³ AgiZ¡ I Ck¦‡ii Aw¯ÍZ¡ m¤‡Ü Avgvi g‡b GZUzKz

mskq m„wó Ki‡Z cvi‡e bv| Avwg Rvwb, Avwg wek¦vm Kwi, G Avwg cÖZ¨vkv Kwi Ges

Rxe‡bi †kl wbtk¦vm ch©šÍ Avwg G wek¦v‡m AUj _vK‡ev|Ó

gvwU©wbD AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡ wek¦vmx| wZwb e‡jb, kw³i Awebk¦i bxwZ †_‡K AvZ¥vi AgiZv

cÖgvY Kiv hvq| g„Zz¨ kw³i iƒcvšÍigvÎ| hw` G bxwZ ïaygvÎ ˆ`wnK kw³i †¶‡Î

cÖ‡hvR¨ nq, Zvn‡j gb †`n †_‡K ¯vaxb| †`‡ni aŸsm cÖvwßi ciI g‡bi Aw¯ÍZ¡ _vK‡Z

cv‡i| Avevi hw` G bxwZ gvbwmK kw³i †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨ nq, Zvn‡j g„Zzï m‡½ gb

aŸsmcÖvß nq bv| A_©vr ˆ`wnK kw³i gZ gvbwmK kw³iI webvk N‡U bv Ges †Kv‡bv bv

†Kv‡bv AvKv‡i Gi Aw¯ÍZ¡ wVK _v‡K|

AvaywbKKv‡j Ava¨vwZ¥K M‡elYvi d‡j †hme Z_¨ DÑvwUZ n‡q‡Q, Zv AvZ¥vi AgiZv

m~Pbv K‡i| Aa¨vcK DBwjqvg KKm&-Gi gZ weL¨vZ imvqbweÌ ¯xKvi K‡i‡Qb †h,

e¨w³we‡kl‡K gva¨giƒ‡c eënvi Ki‡j ci‡jvKMZ AvZ¥v GB RM‡Zi gvby‡li mv‡_

K_v e‡j| d‡j AvZ¥v †h Agi Zv-B cÖgvwYZ nq|

mgv‡jvPbv

1) AvZ¥vi AgiZv m¤‡Ü †cø‡Uvi cÖgvY Zuvi AvZ¥v m¤Üxq we‡kl aviYvi Dci cÖwZwôZ|

GB we‡kl aviYv hw` wg_¨v nq, Z‡e Zuvi cÖgv‡YiI †Kv‡bv g~j¨ _v‡K bv| AvZ¥v‡K

Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨ ejv hvq bv| myZivs †cø‡Uvi hyw³ MÖnY‡hvM¨ bq|



2) A¨vwi÷Uj, †WKvU©, evK©wj, jvBewbR, †n‡Mj I †n‡Mjcš’x‡ì gZevÌ †cø‡Uvi

b¨vq AvZœv m¤Üxq we‡kl aviYvi Dci cÖwZwôZ| GB we‡kl aviYv hw` mZ¨ bv nq

Zvn‡j Zv‡ì gZev‡ìI †Kv‡bv g~j¨ _v‡K bv| e¯‘Z aviYvcÖm Z †Kv‡bv gZev`‡K

wbwðZ ev mwVK ejv hvq bv| G‡ì †KDB AvZ¥vi aviYv‡K hyw³ w`‡q cÖwZwôZ K‡ibwb|

myZivs Zv‡ì gZev` MÖnY‡hvM¨ bq|

3) gvwU©wbD-Gi gZev` Dcgvi Dci cÖwZwôZ| Dcgv KL‡bv †Kv‡bv welq‡K

m‡›`nvZxZfv‡e cÖgvY K‡i bv| kw³i wbZ¨Zv bxwZi m‡½ Dcgvq AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡

wbwðZfv‡e cÖgvY Ki‡Z n‡j, cÖ_‡g hyw³ w`‡q cÖgvY Ki‡Z n‡e AvZ¥v GKwU kw³|

Dcmsnvi

G Av‡jvPbv †_‡K Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi †h, AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ msµvšÍ Awawe`¨K hyw³ ev

gZev` AwaKvsk †¶‡Î aviYv ev Dcgvi Dci cÖwZwôZ| †h gZev` aviYv I Dcgvi

Dci cÖwZwôZ †m gZev` m¤ú‡K© wbwðZiƒ†c wKQy ejv hvq bv|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Awawe`¨K gZev`wU mgv‡jvPbvmn Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© †cø‡Uvi gZev` Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

2| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© A¨vwi÷Uj, †WKvU© I evK©wji gZev` Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

3| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© iæ‡kvi e³e¨ Zz‡j aiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb

1| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤úK©xq Awawe`¨K

gZev` AwaKvsk †¶‡Î cÖwZwôZ

i) aviYvi Ici

ii) hyw³i Ici

iii) Av‡e‡Mi Ici

iv) Abyf wZi Ici

2| ÔAvZ¥vi mviag© n‡jv eyw×Õ- Dw³wU

i) m‡µwU‡mi

ii) †cø‡Uvi

iii) A¨vwi÷U‡ji

iv) †WKv‡U©i

3| evK©wj e‡jb

i) AvZ¥v Zvi ¯vfvweK cÖK…wZ‡ZB Agi

ii) †PZbv AvZ¥vi cÖavb ag©

iii) AvZ¥v n‡jv †`‡ni mvsMVwbK kw³

I †`‡ni AvKvi

iv) AvZ¥v AwefvR¨, Awewgkª, we‡`nx

Ges Gi we¯Í…wZ †bB

4| Kvi gZev` Dcgvi Dci cÖwZwôZ

i) †cø‡Uvi

ii) gvwU©wbDi

iii) evK©wji

iv) jvBewb‡Ri


1| m‡µwUm AvZ¥vi AgiZvq wek¦vmx wQ‡jb bv|

2| †cø‡Uvi g‡Z, AvZ¥v GKwU Ava¨vwZ¥K `ªe¨we‡kl|

3| A¨vwi÷Uj eyw×‡K wZb fv‡M fvM K‡ib|

4| iæ‡kv e‡jb, ˆ`wnK kw³i gZ gvbwmK kw³i webvk N‡U bv Ges †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv

AvKv‡i Gi Aw¯ÍZ¡ wVK _v‡K|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| i) aviYvi Ici 2| iii) A¨vwi÷U‡ji 3| iv) AvZ¥v AwefvR¨, Awewgkª,

we‡`nx Ges Gi we¯Í…wZ †bB 4| ii) gvwU©wbDi

L) 1| wg 2| m 3| wg 4| wg



AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ˆbwZK hyw³

( Moral Arguments for the Immortality of Soul)

D‡Ïk¨


AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡welqK ˆbwZK hyw³ wek`fv‡e eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡welqK ˆbwZK hyw³ g~j¨vqb Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡welqK hyw³¸‡jvi g‡a¨ ˆbwZK hyw³ GKwU D‡jøL‡hvM¨ hyw³| GB hyw³i

cÖe³v Rvg©vb `vk©wbK Bgvby‡qj Kv›U| Zuvi g‡Z, ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi †Kv‡bv g~j¨ _v‡K bv,

hw` AvZ¥v Agi bv nq| GB c„w_ex‡Z kvwšÍ-k„•Ljv eRvq ivL‡Z n‡j AvZ¥v‡K Aek¨B

Agi n‡Z n‡e| Avgiv GLb AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤úK©xq ˆbwZK hyw³wU Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ˆbwZK hyw³ (Moral Arguments for the Immortality of Soul) AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ˆbwZK hyw³ : Kv›U

Kv›U (1724-1804) AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡‡K ˆbwZKZvi ¯xKvh© mZ¨ wn‡m‡e MY¨ K‡ib| Kv›U

e‡jb, AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ mvaviYfv‡e cÖgvY Kiv hvq bv| wKš‘ ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi Zvrch©

e¨vL¨v Kivi Rb¨ AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ ¯xKvi K‡i wb‡Z nq| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Kv›U `yÕwU

ˆbwZK hyw³ cÖ vb K‡i‡Qb :

1) b¨vqwePvig~jK hyw³

AvZ¥v hw` Agi bv nq Zvn‡j b¨vqcivqYZvi †Kv‡bv g~j¨ _v‡K bv| ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi

GKUv g~j¨ Av‡Q| d‡j †h fvj KvR K‡i Zvi cyi¯‹vi Ges †h Lvivc KvR K‡i Zvi

kvw¯Í nIqv DwPZ| wKš‘ ev¯Íe Rxe‡b Avgiv mvaviYZ †`wL †h fvj KvR K‡i †m Kó

cvq, Avi †h Lvivc KvR K‡i †m my‡L _v‡K| Gme we‡ivwaZv `~i Kivi Rb¨ ciKvj

e‡j GKUv RvqMv _vKv ìKvi, †hLv‡b c~Yëvbiv cyi¯‹…Z Ges cvcxiv kvw¯Í cv‡e| Avi

GRb¨ AvZ¥v‡K Aek¨B Agi n‡Z n‡e|

2) ˆbwZK Av`k©g~jK hyw³

Kv‡›Ui g‡Z, ˆbwZK Rxeb n‡”Q Av`k©‡K cvIqvi Rb¨ GKUv Ø›Ø ev msMÖvg| wKš‘ G

Av`k©‡K G Rxe‡b m‡šÍvlRbKfv‡e cvIqv m¤¢e nq bv| wZwb e‡jb, gvby‡li ˆRweK

mËv (sensibility) hLb m¤ú~Y©fv‡e †eŠw×K mËvi (rationality) wbqg †g‡b P‡j

ZLbB ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi Av`k© c Y©Zv jvf K‡i| †eŠw×K mËvi mv‡_ gvby‡li ˆRweK

mËvi GB m½wZ jvf gvby‡li ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi Av`k©| GB Av`k© GK Rxe‡b ev¯Í‡e

cvV - 2



cwiYZ Kiv hvq bv| GB Av`k© ev¯Íevq‡bi Rb¨ Rb¥-Rb¥všÍ‡ii mvabv ìKvi| myZivs

GB ˆbwZK Av`‡k©i ev¯ÍeZv cÖwZcv`‡bi Rb¨ AvZ¥vi AgiZv ¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq| AvZ¥v

hw` Agi bv nZ Z‡e ˆbwZK Rxeb wbi_©K n‡q coZ| AvZ¥vi AgiZv ¯xKvi Ki‡jB

ˆbwZK Av`k© †h ev¯ÍevwqZ Kiv m¤¢e Zv ¯xKvi Kiv hvq, Avi Zv bv gvb‡j ˆbwZK

Av`‡k©i †Kv‡bv A_© _v‡K bv| †h ˆbwZK Av`k©‡K ev¯ÍevwqZ Kiv hvq bv Zvi †Kv‡bv

g~j¨ †bB| myZivs ˆbwZK Av`‡k©i mv_©KZv cÖwZcbœ Kivi Rb¨ AvZ¥vi AgiZv ¯xKvi

Ki‡Z nq|

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ˆbwZK hyw³ : †m_ I ndwWs

†Rgm †m_ (James Seth) e‡jb, ˆbwZK Av`k© n‡jv Amxg Ges G RMr n‡jv mmxg|

mmxg RM‡Z Amxg Av`‡k©i ev¯Íevqb m¤¢e bq| ˆbwZK Av`‡k©i ev¯Íevq‡bi Rb¨ Amxg

mg‡qi cÖ‡qvRb| ZvB AvZ¥v‡KI Amxg A_©vr Agi n‡Z n‡e| ndwWs (Hoffding) Zuvi

g~‡jï wbZ¨Zv bxwZ Abymv‡i e‡jb †h, Avgiv G Rxe‡b †h g~j¨ ev gvb AR©b Kwi Zv

ˆbwZK µgeÜ‡b msiw¶Z _v‡K, Gi †Kv‡bv aŸsm †bB| Gme g~j¨‡K enb Kivi Rb¨

g„Zzï ciI gvbevZ¥v‡K Agi n‡q _vK‡Z nq| A_©vr AvZ¥v Agi|

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ˆbwZK hyw³ : gvwU©wbD

gvwU©wbD (Martineau)I AvZ¥vi AgiZvi mc‡¶ ˆbwZK hyw³ w`‡q‡Qb| Zuvi Ô÷vwW

Ad wiwjwRqbÕ (Study of Religion ) MÖ‡š’ wZwb e‡jb, gvbevZ¥vi MV‡bi Avmj

cÖK…wZ †_‡K Gi Agi‡Z¡i †ek KZK¸‡jv Bw½Z cvIqv hvq| G¸‡jv‡K wZwb wZb fv‡M

fvM K‡ib: 1| eyw×i Bw½Z ev fwel¨ØvYx (Vaticinations of intellect) 2| we‡e‡Ki

Bw½Z ev fwel¨ØvYx (Vaticinations of conscience ) I 3| D‡Ø‡Mi Bw½Z ev

fwel¨ØvYx (Vaticinations of suspense)

1) eyw×i Bw½Z ev fwel¨ØvYx

eyw×¦i fwel¨ØvYx Abymv‡i, eyw×i DbœwZ AvZ¥vi DbœwZ; †Kbbv eyw× AvZ¥vi mvimËv| G

Rxe‡b †`k I Kv‡ji mxgve×Zvi g‡a¨ eyw×i DbœwZ n‡Z cv‡i bv, †`k I Kv‡ji MwÛ

AwZµg Ki‡Z cvi‡jB eyw×i DbœwZ jvf m¤¢e nq| ZvB g„Zzï gva¨‡g GB mmxg c„w_ex

†_‡K gyw³jvf K‡i eyw× DbœwZi kx‡l© †cŠuQv‡Z cv‡i| Avi GRb¨ AvZ¥v‡K Agi n‡Z

n‡e|

2) we‡e‡Ki Bw½Z ev fwel¨ØvYx

G Bw½Z Abymv‡i, Avgv‡ì we‡eK ˆbwZK cÖMwZi Rb¨ Avkv-AvKv•¶vq cwic~Y©| wKš‘

cÖMwZ GKUv Amxg c×wZiB Bw½Z †`q| Avgiv cÖMwZi hZB DbœZ ¯Í‡i DwV, ZZB

Avgiv Av`k©‡K c~Y©fv‡e ev¯Íevq‡bi w`‡K avweZ nB| ˆbwZK cÖMwZi D”P ¯Í‡i †cuŠuQvi

Rb¨ we‡e‡Ki GB †h AvKv•¶v Zv †_‡K cÖgvwYZ nq †h, g„Zzï ciI AvZ¥v Zvi

Aw¯ÍZ¡‡K eRvq †i‡L ˆbwZK Av`k©‡K DbœZfv‡e jvf Ki‡Z cv‡i| ZvB AvZ¥v Agi|

3) D‡Ø‡Mi Bw½Z ev fwel¨ØvYx



G Bw½Z ˆbwZKZvc~Y© KvR I my‡Li m½wZi K_v e‡j| wKš‘ G Rxe‡b G m½wZ m¤¢eci

n‡q I‡V bv e‡j ciKv‡ji Aw¯ÍZ¡ ¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq, †hLv‡b Gi m½wZ weavb m¤¢e|

myZivs AvZ¥v Agi|

e¨w³MZ AgiZ¡ n‡”Q ˆbwZKZvi GKUv cÖ‡qvRbxq kZ©| ˆbwZK Rxeb n‡jv e¨w³

Rxeb| †Kv‡bv e¨w³ Zvi e¨w³MZ Rxe‡bB ˆbwZK Av`k©‡K Dcjwä K‡i _v‡K| hw`

e¨w³i ˆbwZK AvZ¥v Amxg AvZ¥v mªóvi mv‡_ wg‡j hvq, Z‡e Zvi ˆbwZK Rxeb ‡jvc

cvq| ˆbwZK Rxeb cÖvK…wZK Rxeb ev Hk¦wiK Rxe‡bi mv‡_ wg‡k †h‡Z cv‡i bv|

mgv‡jvPbv

‰bwZK Rxe‡bi Zvrch© i¶vi Rb¨ AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡i cÖ‡qvRb| wKš‘ †Kv‡bv wRwb‡mi

cÖ‡qvRb n‡jB †h Zv Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj Zv cÖgvwYZ nq bv| ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi Rb¨ AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡

ìKvi ev DwPZ, wKš‘ ev¯Íe Avi DwPZ GKK_v bq| Avgvi 100 UvKvi Lye cÖ‡qvRb,

Zvi gv‡b G bq †h, Avgvi c‡K‡U 100 UvKv Av‡Q|

ˆbwZK hyw³i cÖe³v‡ì e³e¨ n‡”Q, ˆbwZK Av`k© Amxg, mmxg Rxe‡b Zv ev Íevqb

Kiv m¤¢e bq| mmxg Rxe‡b GUv m¤¢e bq e‡jB AvZ¥v Amxg Rxeb cv‡e Zv wbwðZ K‡i

ejv hvq bv| ZvQvov, Aa¨vcK eªW e‡jb, myL-kvwšÍ n‡jv g‡bv‰`wnK e¨vcvi| myZivs

†`n Qvov myL jvf yiƒn e¨vcvi|

Dcmsnvi

GK_v wVK, gvby‡li myk„•Lj I kvwšÍc~Y© Rxe‡bi Rb¨ AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡i cÖ‡qvRb| AvZ¥v

hw` Agi bv nq, Zvn‡j hviv ciKv‡j fvj dj jv‡fi Avkvq A‡bK g›` KvR †_‡K

weiZ _v‡K Ges fvj KvR K‡i, Zviv wbiærmvwnZ n‡q co‡e| ZvQvov, mevB hw`

wbwðZ Rv‡b †h, G c„w_exB †kl, Zvn‡j gvby‡li g‡a¨ cvIqvi AvKv•¶v †e‡o hv‡e,

`v½v-nv½vgv †e‡o hv‡e, c„w_ex n‡q hv‡e AkvwšÍ‡Z c~Y©| myZivs c„w_ex‡Z kvwšÍ-k„•Ljv

eRvq ivLvi Rb¨ Avgv‡ì AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡ wek¦vm Kiv DwPZ| wKš‘ Gn‡jv wek¦vm ev

JwP‡Zï e¨vcvi| hyw³ w`‡q cÖwZwôZ bv n‡j †Kv‡bv wek¦vm ev g‡Zi `vk©wbK ¸iæZ¡

†bB|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤úK©xq ˆbwZK hyw³wU e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡i mc‡¶ Kv‡›Ui b¨vqwePvig~jK hyw³wU e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ cÖm‡½ Kv‡›Ui ˆbwZK Av`k©g~jK hyw³wU e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

3| AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡i mc‡¶ gvwU©wbDi AwfgZ D‡jøL Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ˆbwZK

hyw³wU cÖ vb K‡ib

i) †n‡Mj

ii) Kv›U

iii) †Rgm †m_

iv) ndwWs

2| gvwU©wbD gvbevZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡i †h

Bw½Z †`b Zv‡K fvM Kiv nq

i) `yB fv‡M

ii) wZb fv‡M

iii) Pvi fv‡M

iv) Qq fv‡M

3| ÒRxe‡bi g~j¨ enb Kivi Rb¨

g„Zzï ciI gvbevZ¥v Agi n‡q _v‡KÓ-

Dw³wU K‡ib

i) Kv›U

ii) ndwWs

iii) gvwU©wbD

iv) †Rgm †m_

4| ˆRweK mËv hLb †eŠw×K mËvi

wbqg †g‡b P‡j ZLbB ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi

Av`k© c~Y©Zv jvf K‡i, K_vwU e‡jb

i) Kv›U

ii) †n‡Mj

iii) ndwWs

iv) †Rgm †m_


1| Kv›U AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡‡K ˆbwZKZvi ¯xKvh© mZ¨ e‡j MY¨ K‡ib|

2| †Rgm †m_ e‡jb, ˆbwZK Av`k© n‡jv mmxg, Avi G RMr n‡jv Amxg|

3| ndwWs e‡jb, ˆbwZK Rxe‡bi Rb¨ AvZ¥vi AgiZvi †Kv‡bv cÖ‡qvRb †bB|

4| gvwU©wbD Zuvi Ô÷vwW Ad wiwjwRqbÕ MÖ‡š’ gvbevZ¥vi AgiZv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡ib|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| ii) Kv›U 2| ii) wZb fv‡M

3| ii) ndwWs 4| i) Kv›U

L) 1| m 2| wg 3| wg 4| m



AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ag©welqK hyw³

( Theological Arguments for the Immortality of Soul )

D‡Ïk¨


AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ag©welqK hyw³ wek`fv‡e eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

cÖavb cÖavb ag© ‡jvi AvZ¥v m¤úK©xq aviYv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cv‡eb|

f‚wgKv

AvZ¥vi AgiZv m¤ú‡K© ag©xq hyw³ wewfbœ a‡g©i Dci wfwË K‡i M‡o D‡V‡Q| c„w_exi

†ekxifvM a‡g©B GKRb me©gq ¶gZvi AwaKvix mËvi K_v‡K ¯xKvi Kiv n‡q‡Q| whwb

GB c„w_exi mKj gvby‡li K‡g©i djvdj wePvi Ki‡eb Ges gvbyl‡K †mB djvdj †fvM

Ki‡Z n‡e| Avi GB djvdj †fvM Kivi Rb¨ gvby‡li AvZ¥v‡K Aek¨B Agi n‡Z

n‡e|

AvZ¥vi AgiZv m¤ú‡K© agx©q hyw³ (Theological Arguments for the Immortality of Soul ) Bûw` ag©

c„w_exi cÖavb ag© ‡jvi g‡a¨ Bûw` a‡g©B cÖ_g e¨w³MZ Agi‡Z¡i K_v ejv nq| Aek¨

Bûw` wPšÍvi cÖ_g c‡e© ci‡jv‡Ki †h wPÎ Zz‡j aiv n‡qwQj Zv n‡jvci‡jvK bq,

Bn‡jvKB Dc‡fvM¨; Avi hZUzKz m¤¢e G Rxeb‡K Dc‡fvM KivB gvby‡li Kvg¨| g„Zzï

cicv‡i i‡q‡Q †kIj; ILv‡b kvwšÍi †hgb †Kv‡bv eë¯’v †bB, Dc‡fvM Kivi g‡ZvI

wKQy †bB| cieZ©x‡Z ejv nq, g„Zzï ci ci‡jv‡K e¨w³i cybiæÌvb n‡e Ges KzYëvbiv

jvf Ki‡eb Ck¦‡ii mvwbœa¨| Bûw` cqM¤iiv AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ I Avb›`Nb cvi‡jŠwKK

Rxe‡bi †h Avk¦vm †`b Zv †_‡KB Bûw` `k©‡b M‡o I‡V AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡welqK gZev`|

wLª÷ ag©

wLª÷ ag© g‡Z, †`nvemv‡bi ciI AvZ¥v Agi _v‡K| G ag© g„Zzï c‡iI e¨w³ Zvi

e¨w³‡Z¡i hveZxq êwkó¨mn Agi _v‡K Ges Ck¦‡ii mv‡_ wgj‡bi my‡hvM jvf K‡i|

AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡i Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb ˆbwZK w`K †_‡K mr I ïf cvw_©e Rxeb| hviv mr I

ïf Rxe‡bi cyi¯‹vi¯iƒc AgiZ¡ jvf K‡ib, Zv‡ì Rb¨ g„Zz¨ GKwU AvcwZK

NUbvgvÎ| g„Zy¨‡Z Bn‡jvK I ci‡jv‡Ki g‡a¨ †hvMm Î ¯’vwcZ nq Ges cyYëvbiv

ci‡jv‡K Zv‡ì ¯KxqZv I ¯vZš¿ wb‡q †eu‡P _v‡Kb|

cvV - 3



Bmjvg

Bmjvg ag© Abymv‡i, AvZ¥v Agi| wKš‘ †`‡ni g„Zz¨ gvbe RvwZi Awfbœ I Aj•Nbxq

wbqwZ| KziAvb kix‡d AvZ¥v‡K Avjøvn&i GKUv Av‡`k e‡j AwfwnZ Kiv n‡q‡Q| Òej,

AvZ¥v n‡jv, Avgvi cÖfzi Av‡`‡ki g‡a¨ GKwUÓ - Avj KziAvb| Bmjvg ag© Abymv‡i,

g„Zzï ci AvZ¥v †eu‡P _vK‡e Ges †kl wePv‡ii w`b Zvi c~‡e©i †`n aviY Ki‡e| Avjøvn&

mK‡ji cÖwZ c~Y© b¨vq I mywePvi Ki‡eb| cÖ‡Z¨‡K wbR wbR K‡g©i dj †fvM Ki‡e|

cvcxiv †`vh‡Li Av¸‡bi `ytmn hš¿Yv Ges cyY¨vZ¥viv †e‡n‡¯Íi AbšÍ myL †fvM Ki‡e|

GRb¨B AvZ¥v‡K Agi n‡Z n‡e|

wn›`y I †eŠ× ag© : Kg©ev`

wn›`y I †eŠ× a‡g© AvZ¥vi AgiZv m¤ú‡K© Kg©ev‡ì K_v ¯xKvi Kiv n‡q‡Q| Kg©ev`

Abymv‡i, GK Rb‡gi Avb›`-welv‡ì djvd‡ji †cÖw¶‡Z cieZ©x evi gvbyl‡K Avevi

c„w_ex‡Z wd‡i Avm‡Z nq| Kg©ev‡ì g~j e³e¨ n‡jv Ô†hgb Kg© †Zgb djÕ| cyYëvb

AvZ¥v wbe©vb ev gyw³ jvf K‡i| wKš‘ †h AvZ¥v cvcx Zvi wbe©vY jvf bv nIqv ch©šÍ cybt

cybt R‡b¥i gva¨‡g Kg©dj †fvM Ki‡Z nq| myZivs AvZ¥v Agi|

mgv‡jvPbv

1) Bûw`, wLª÷vb, Bmjvg cÖf…wZ a‡g© ciKv‡ji K_v ejv n‡q‡Q A_©vr g„Zzï gva¨‡g

†`‡ni Aemvb NU‡e, Avi AvZ¥v ciKv‡j wPiKvj †eu‡P _vK‡e| Gi †Kv‡bv aŸsm †bB|

a‡g©i GB gZ hyw³i gva¨‡g cÖwZwôZ bq| ZvB AvZ¥v †h Agi Zv wbwðZ K‡i ejv hvq

bv|

2) Kg©ev‡ì weiæ‡× GKwU Awf‡hvM n†jv, c~e©eZ©x Rxe‡bi Kg©d‡ji cyi¯‹vi ev

wZi¯‹vi A_©en n‡e ZLbB, hLb mswkøó e¨w³i g‡b c~e©eZ©x Rxe‡bi my¯úó ¯§„wZ A¶zYœ

_vK‡e| c~e©R‡b¥i gvbyl‡K cieZ©x Rxe‡b cï wn‡m‡e cvwV‡q kvw¯Í †`qv djcÖm~ n‡e

ZLbB hLb †mB cÖv³b gvbylwU Zvi c~e©eZ©x gvbexq Rxe‡bi ¯§„wZPviY K‡i eZ©gvb

cvkweK Rxe‡b AatcZ‡bi Rb¨ gg©‡e`bv I Acgvb‡eva Ki‡e| wKš‘ c~e©eZ©x Rxe‡bi

†Kv‡bv ¯§„wZ ev †PZbvm¤úbœ e¨w³i mv¶vr cvIqv hvq bv|

Dcmsnvi

ag©welqK hyw³wU g~jZ M‡o D‡V‡Q ag©wek¦v‡mi Dci wfwË K‡i| c„w_exi cÖavb cÖavb

ag© ‡jv AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡ wek¦vmx| cÖvq mKj a‡g©B GK me©gq mËvi K_v Ges gvby‡li

†`nvemv‡bi c‡i cvw_©e K‡g©i `vq-`vwqZ¡ AvZ¥v‡K enb Ki‡Z n‡e e‡j ¯xKvi Kiv

nq| cvw_©e Rxe‡bi K‡g©i `vwqZ¡ AvZ¥v‡K enb Ki‡Z n‡e -GB ¯xK…wZ gvby‡li cvw_©e

Rxeb‡K myk„•Lj I kvwšÍc~Y© K‡i †Zv‡j| myZivs hyw³-Z‡K©i gva¨‡g AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ hw`

¯xK…Z bvI nq Z_vwc Gi eënvwiK g~j¨ A‡bK|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤úK©xq ag©welqK hyw³wU e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Bûw` a‡g©i gZvgZ eY©bv Kiæb|

2| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Bmjvg a‡g©i gZvgZ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

3| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Kg©ev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© ag©xq hyw³

M‡o D‡V‡Q

i) cÖK…wZi Dci wfwË K‡i

ii) gyw³i Dci wfwË K‡i

iii) ag©wek¦v‡mi Dci wfwË K‡i

iv) ˆbwZKZvi Dci wfwË K‡i

2| Òg„Zzï gva¨‡g Bn‡jvK I

ci‡jv‡Ki g‡a¨ †hvMm~Î ¯’vwcZ

nq Ges c~Yëvbiv ci‡jv‡K

Zv‡ì ¯KxqZv I ¯vZš¿ wb‡q

†eu‡P _v‡KÓ - e³e¨wU

i) Bûw` a‡g©i

ii) Lªxóvb a‡g©i

iii) Bmjvg a‡g©i

iv) wn›`y a‡g©i

3| Òej, AvZ¥v n‡jv Avgvi cÖfzi

Av‡`‡ki g‡a¨ GKwU|Ó - Dw³wU Kiv

n‡q‡Q

i) ZvIiv‡Z

ii) hvey‡i

iii) BwÄ‡j

iv) †KviAv‡b

4| Kg©ev‡ì g~j e³e¨ n‡jv

i) †hgb Kg© †Zgb dj

ii) †hgb KzKzi †Zgb gy¸i

iii) †hgb I¯Ív` †Zgb wkl¨

iv) †hgb ¸o †Zgb wgwó

N) mZ¨ n‡j ÔmÕ Ges wg_¨v n‡j ÔwgÕ wjLyb|

1. c„w_exi cÖavb ag©¸‡jvi g‡a¨ Bmjvg a‡g©B me©cÖ_g e¨w³MZ AgiZvi K_v ejv nq|

2. Bûw` ag© Abyhvqx, g„Zzï cicv‡i i‡q‡Q †kIj|

3. wLª÷ ag© Abyhvqx, AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡i Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb ˆbwZK w`K †_‡K mr I ïf cvw_©e

4. Rxeb|

5. wn›`y I †eŠ× ag© Abyhvqx, †Kej cvcx AvZ¥vB wbe©vY jvf Ki‡e|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iii) ag©wek¦v‡mi Dci wfwË K‡i 2| ii) Lªxóvb a‡g©i

3| iv) †KviAv‡b 4| i) †hgb Kg© †Zgb dj

L) 1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg



AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© we‡kølYx gZgZ

(Analytic Views on the Immortality of Soul)

D‡Ïk¨


AvZ¥vi AgiZv m¤ú‡K© we†kølYx gZ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

AvZ¥vi AgiZv m¤úK©xq we‡kølYx g‡Zi mgv‡jvPbv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡welqK gZ wn‡m‡e we‡kølYx gZ GKUz wfbœ ai‡bi| GB gZ Abymv‡i,

AvZ¥v I †`n wfbœ wKQy bq| †`‡ni g„Zzï mv‡_ mv‡_ AvZ¥vi A_©vr †PZbvi g„Zz¨ N‡U|

myZivs AvZ¥v Agi G aviYv GKev‡iB Ag~jK|

AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© we‡kølYx gZ (Analytic Views on the Immortality of Soul) mgKvjxb we‡kølYx `vk©wbKMY AvZ¥vi Aw¯ÍZ¡ A¯xKvi K‡ib| Zv‡ì g‡Z, ci‡jvK Ges

AvZ¥vi Agi‡Z¡i aviYv Ag~jK| Zviv GKvav‡i hyw³ev`x I AwfÁZvev`x| GRb¨ Zviv

hv cÖZ¨¶ Kiv hvq Ges hyw³ w`‡q cÖgvY Kiv hvq Zvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ ¯xKvi K‡ib| Zv‡ì

e³e¨ n‡jv, †Pv‡Li mvg‡b g„Zzï ciI g„Z e¨w³ †jvKP¶zi AšÍiv‡j †eu‡P _v‡K,

cvi‡jŠwKK Rxebhvcb K‡i G aviYv ixwZgZ nvm¨Ki| Zv‡ì g‡Z, e¨w³ ej‡Z Ggb

mËv‡K †evSvq hv‡K Roe¯‘i g‡Zv cvw_©e Dcv‡q ev cÖv‡qvwMK c×wZ‡Z mbv³ Kiv

hvq| myZivs gi‡Yi ci †eu‡P _vKvi wKsev cybiæ¾xweZ nIqvi cÖkœB I‡V bv| KviY

giY gv‡bB †`nwebvk, e¨w³mËv I †PZbvi c~Y© Aemvb|

we‡kølYx `vk©wbKiv e¨w³mËv ej‡Z ïay †`n‡K Ges e¨w³MZ AwfbœZv (personal identity) ej‡Z †`‡ni msnwZ‡K eySvb| †`‡ni Af¨šÍ‡i †`‡ni †P‡q wfbœ ¯fv‡ei

AvZ¥v ev gb e‡j †h wKQy _vK‡Z cv‡i, G m¤¢vebv‡K Zviv A¯xKvi K‡ib| mvaviYZ

AvZ¥v e‡j hv‡K AwfwnZ Kiv nq Zviv Zv‡K †PZbv e‡j AwfwnZ K‡ib, Avi †PZbv

n‡jv †`‡niB GKwU êwkó¨| GRb¨ Zv‡ì e³e¨ n‡jv, †`nvemv‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_

†PZbviI Aemvb N‡U|

mgv‡jvPbv

we‡kølYx gZev`wU bvbvfv‡e mgv‡jvwPZ n‡q‡Q:

1) we‡kølYx `vk©wbKiv AvZ¥mËv I †`n‡K Awfbœ e‡j g‡b K‡ib| wKš‘ cÖK…Zc‡¶

AvZ¥mËv I †`n GK bq| †`n‡K c`v‡_©i mv‡_ Zzjbv Kiv †M‡jI †`n Af¨šÍ‡i †h

AvZ¥v ev AvZ¥mËv Av‡Q Zv‡K A¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv| GB AvZ¥mËvB wPšÍv, wek¦vm-

Awek¦vm, Avkv-cÖZ¨vkv Gi KZ©v| †Kbbv AvZ¥v hLb †`nZ¨vM K‡i ZLb †`n Gme

cvV - 4



wKQyB Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| myZivs AvZ¥mËv I †`n GK bq| gvbwmK e¨vcvi¸‡jv‡K KLbB

c`vw_©K Dcv‡q e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq bv|

2) †`n QvovI e¨w³i Ggb wKQy êwkó¨ _v‡K hv‡ì c`v‡_©i gZ cÖv‡qvwMK Dcv‡q

cÖZ¨¶ Kiv hvq bv| †hgb, e¨w³gvÎB mZ¨, my›ì I g½‡ji j‡¶ Rxeb cwiPvwjZ

K‡i| e¨w³ Gme Av`k© Abykxj‡bi gva¨‡g Rxeb‡K A_©en I Zvrch©c~Y© Kivi cÖqvm

cvq| Gme Ag~Z© I ˆbe© ‘K g~j¨gvb I g~j¨‡eva‡K †Kv‡bvfv‡eB c`vw_©K ejv hvq bv|

myZivs e¨w³ I e¯‘ GK n‡Z cv‡i bv|

3) we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z, †`nvemv‡bi mv‡_ mv‡_ e¨w³mËvi me wKQy webó n‡q

hvq| Zv‡ì G K_v †g‡b †bqv hvq bv, KviY giY‡K me wKQyi cwimgvwß e‡j ¯xKvi

Ki‡j G Rxeb A_©nxb n‡q hv‡e Ges Rxebhvcb Amva¨ n‡q co‡e|

4) g~j¨‡ev‡ai hw` †Kv‡bv †`nvwZwi³ ¯’vqx Zvrch© bv _vK‡Zv, Zvn‡j cÖwZK‚j cwi‡e‡k

ˆ`wnK myL-¯”Q›`¨ D‡c¶v K‡i, AZ¨vPvi I wbcxob mn¨ K‡i gvbyl Gm‡ei mÜvb I

Abykxj‡b AUj _vK‡Zv bv| Ab¨v‡qi weiæ‡× b¨v‡qi `ytmva¨ msMÖvg n‡Zv bv| gvbeì`x

I †`k‡cÖwgK †jv‡Kiv †h †`k I mgv‡Ri Rb¨ Av‡Z¥vrmM© K‡i Zv Ag~jK bq| A_©vr

b¨vq, ag©, mZ¨ I my›ìmn me g~jgvb I g~j¨‡ev‡ai GKwU ’vqx Zvrch© Av‡Q| gi‡Yi

ciI hw` G¸‡jv wU‡K _v‡K, Z‡e Zv cÖqvZ e¨w³i BPQv I Av`‡k©i AvKv‡i _vK‡e|

Dcmsnvi

we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z, AvZ¥v †Kv‡bvfv‡eB Agi n‡Z cv‡i bv| Zv‡ì e³e¨ n‡jv,

Avgiv hv †`L‡Z cvw”Q Zv ¯xKvi bv K‡i, hv †`L‡Z cvw”Q bv, Zv wK K‡i ¯xKvi

Ki‡ev| wKš‘ †`L‡Z †c‡jB †h, †Kv‡bv wKQy Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj, Avi bv †`L‡Z †c‡j Zv

Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj bq, Zv ejv hvq bv| †hgb, Aw·‡Rb, B_vi G¸‡jv Avgiv †`L‡Z cvB bv,

wKš‘ G‡ì Dcw¯’wZ Avgiv Dcjwä Kwi| †Zgwb gvby‡li AvZ¥vi Dcw¯’wZ ev AgiZv

Avgiv Dcjwä Kwi| gvby‡li A‡bK mxgve×Zv Av‡Q, ZvB me wKQyi Aw¯ÍZ¡ ev AgiZv

cÖgvY Kiv Zvi c‡¶ m¤¢e bq| wKš‘ †Kv‡bv wKQyi AgiZv cÖgvY Kiv hvq bv e‡jB †h,

Zv Agi bq, Zv ejv hvq bv|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| AvZ¥vi AgiZv m¤úK©xq we‡kølYx gZev`wU mgv‡jvPbvmn e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| AvZ¥vi AgiZv cÖm‡½ we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì e³e¨wU eY©bv Kiæb|

2| we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤úKx©q gZev‡ì `ywU mgv‡jvPbv D‡jøL

Kiæb|

3| AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡ m¤ú‡K© Avcbvi gZvgZ e¨³ Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z

i) AvZ¥v Agi

ii) AvZ¥v aŸsmkxj

iii) AvZ¥v wbZ¨

iv) Dc‡ii †Kv‡bvwUB wVK bq

2| we‡kølYx `vk©wbKiv Zv-B ¯xKvi

K‡ib hv

i) cÖZ¨¶ Kiv hvq Ges hyw³ w`‡q

cÖgvY Kiv hvq

ii) Abyfe Kiv hvq

iii) wPšÍv Kiv hvq

iv) ¯úk© Kiv hvq

3| ÒAvZ¥v Agi G aviYvwU Ag~jKÓ -

gšÍe¨wU

i) eyw×ev`x `vk©wbK‡ì

ii) ¯Ávev`x `vk©wbK‡ì

iii) †hŠw³K I cÖZ¨¶ev`x `vk©wbK‡ì

iv) we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì

4| we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì AvZ¥vi AgiZ¡

m¤úK©xq gZev`wU

i) mKj mgv‡jvPbvi E‡aŸ©

ii) me©Rb¯xK…Z

iii) mgv‡jvPbvg~jK

iv) me KÕwUB cÖ‡hvR¨


1| we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z, AvZ¥v Agi|

2| we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z, AvZ¥v Agi -G aviYvwU G‡Kev‡iB Ag~jK|

3| we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z, g„Zzï ciI g„Ze¨w³ †jvKP¶zi AšÍiv‡j †eu‡P _v‡K

Ges cvi‡jŠwKK Rxebhvcb K‡i G aviYv ixwZgZ nvm¨Ki|

4| we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z, hv Abyfe Kiv hvq †Kej Zv-B ¯xKvi Kiv hvq|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| ii) AvZ¥v aŸsmkxj 2| i) cÖZ¨¶ Kiv hvq Ges hyw³ w`‡q cÖgvY Kiv hvq

3| iv) we‡kølYx `vk©wbK‡ì 4| iii) mgv‡jvPbvg~jK

L) 1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg



BDwbU - 8

g~‡jï cÖK…wZ I cÖKvi

(The Nature and Kinds of Values)

g~j¨ mgm¨vwU eZ©gv‡b `k©‡b GKUv ¸iæZ¡c~Y© mgm¨v wn‡m‡e we‡ewPZ n‡q‡Q|

e¯‘RMZ‡K †K›`ª K‡i gvbe g‡b wewfbœ wRÁvmvi Avwef©ve nq| Rxeb I RM‡Zi

A_© Z_v g~j¨ LuyR‡Z gvbe gb gwiqv n‡q I‡V| GB Rxeb-RMZ‡K gvbyl `yÕfv‡e

wePvi K‡i _v‡K| cÖ_gZ: Rxeb I RMr †hfv‡e Av‡Q wVK †mfv‡eB Zvi eY©bv `vb

K‡i Ges wØZxqZ: Rxeb I RM‡Zi Zvrch© wbY©q K‡i| hLb Avgiv †Kv‡bv NUbv‡K

h_vh_fv‡e eY©bv Kwi ZLb Zv n‡e Z‡_ï eY©bv, Avi hw` †Kv‡bv NUbvi fvj-g›`,

†`vl-¸Y, DrKl©-AcKl© BZ¨vwì eY©bv Kwi Z‡e Zv n‡e g~‡jï eY©bv| GB BDwb‡U

g~‡jÏ cÖK…wZ, †kªYxwefvM Ges g~‡jÏ Avbylw½K welqvejxi Dci Av‡jvKcvZ Kiv

n‡e|

GB BDwb‡U †gvU AvUwU cvV i‡q‡Q

Z_¨ I g~j¨

(Facts and Values)

e¯ÍMZ I AvZ¥MZ wn‡m‡e g~j¨

(Values : Objective and Subjective)

g~j¨ e¯‘MZ I AvZ¥MZ DfqB

(Values : Both Objective and Subjective)

g~‡jï cªKvi‡f`

(Classifications of Values)

g~j¨ wbav©i‡Yi bxwZmg~n

(Principles of Valuation)

g~j¨ I mËv

(Valuse and Reality)

g~‡jï Zvrch© I Aaybv g~‡jï Ø›Ø

(Significance of Value and Current Value Conflicts)

g~j¨ wn‡m‡e Rxeb

(Life as a Value)



Z_¨ I g~j¨

(Facts and Values) D‡Ïk¨


Z_¨ I g~‡jï msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb |

Z_¨ I g~‡jï cÖK„wZ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb |

Z_¨g~jK AeaviY I g~j¨welqK Aeavi‡Yi cv_©K¨ wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

Z_¨ m¤ú~Y©fv‡e welqwbf©i| g~j¨ mvaviYZ welqwbf©i n‡jI e¨w³i `„wófw½i cv_©K¨‡nZz

LvwbKUv e¨w³wbf©iI ejv hvq| Z‡e NUbvi g~j¨ wePv‡ii †¶‡Î †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv

Av`‡k©i cÖkœ G†m hvq| hwÌ e¯‘ev`x `vk©wbKMY g~‡jï cwi‡cÖw¶‡Z e¯‘ ev NUbvi

wePv‡ii c¶cvZx bb| ZeyI e¯‘ ev NUbvi g‡a¨ ev¯ÍeZvi AwZwi³ †h GKUv Av`‡k©i

Bw½Z Av‡Q Zv A¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv| eZ©gv‡b êÁvwbKMYI Ro, kw³, †`k, Kvj,

Kvh©KviY m¤Ü cÖf…wZi Øviv wba©vwiZ e¯‘ ev NUbvi †h hvwš¿K KvVv‡gv i‡q‡Q, Zvi

†cQ‡b GKUv Av`k©g~jK KvVv‡gv‡K ¯xKvi K‡i‡Qb| hv‡K Qvov cwi`„k¨gvb NUbvcwÄi

hvwš¿K KvVv‡gv‡KI e¨vL¨v Kiv Am¤¢e| we‡klfv‡e Rxeb I g‡bi ¯iƒc e¨vL¨vq GB

mZ¨Zv‡K ¯úófv‡e Dcjwä Kiv hvq|

Z_¨ : msÁv

†Kvb NUbv ev e¯‘i cÖK…wZ m¤ú‡K© mZ¨ eY©bv ev ePbB Z_¨ (Fact)| A_©vr Z_¨ n‡jv

Ggb eY©bv ev ePb hv ev ÍweKfv‡e Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj †Kv‡bv NUbv ev hv cÖK…Z e¨vcviwU‡K

mwVKfv‡e eY©bv K‡i| Z_¨ m¤úwK©Z NUbvwU ¯’vb I Kv‡j A_©vr †Kv_vI AZx‡Z N‡U‡Q,

eZ©gv‡b NU&‡Q ev fwel¨‡Z NU&‡e Ggb n‡Z cv‡i| †hgb, Avgiv hLb ewj, Ô`wei

mv‡eZ‡K wcwU‡q nZ¨v K‡i‡QÕ ZLb †h‡nZz GwU ev¯Í‡e N‡U hvIqv GKwU wel‡qi eY©bv

ZvB GwU GKwU Z_¨MZ Dw³| GwU‡K Z_¨g~jK AeaviY (judgment of fact)-I ejv

hvq| Z_¨MZ Dw³i Av‡iv KwZcq D`vniY Avgiv w`‡Z cvwi; †hgb, ÔKgjv Mf©cvZ

NwU‡q‡QÕ, ÔiwdK Avgvi Rxeb evuwP‡q‡QÕ ev Ô†gvnbv NUbvwU m¤ú‡K© mZ¨ e‡j‡QÕ,

BZ¨vw`| D`vniY¸‡jv‡Z nZ¨v, Mf©cvZ, Rxeb evuPv‡bv I mZ¨Zv m¤ú‡K© e¯‘wbô eY©bv

†`qv n‡q‡Q| KvR¸‡jv fv‡jv wK g›`, gvby‡li Kiv DwPZ wK AbywPZ †m wel‡q wKQy ejv

nqwb|

g~j¨ : msÁv

Ôg~j¨Õ (Value) kãwU Avgv‡ì GKwU AwZ cwiwPZ kã| Ô¸YÕ, ÔfvjÕ, ÔDrKl©Õ,

ÔcyY©ZvÕ, ÔdjcÖm ZvÕ, ÔgnË¡Õ, Ôgh©v`vÕ BZ¨vw` kã¸‡jv g~‡jï mgv_©K kã e‡j g‡b

Kiv nq| Z‡e GB wel‡q gZ‡f` Av‡Q| †hgb- Ôc~Y©ZvÕ kãwU g~‡jï †P‡q e¨vcKZi

cvV - 1



kã| c~Y©Zv ej‡Z mKj g~‡jï m¤ú~Y©Zv‡KI †evSvq| g~‡jï mwVK A_© wK Zv wb‡q

gvby‡li g‡a¨ bvbv ai‡bi wfbœZv cwijw¶Z nq| GKRb e¯‘ev`x `vk©wbK g~j¨‡K †hfv‡e

e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z Pvb, GKRb fveev`x `vk©wbK ‡mfv‡e K‡ib bv| A_©bxwZ‡Z g~j¨ †h A‡_©

eëüZ nq, †mŠ›`h© weÁv‡b g~j¨ †m A‡_© eëüZ nq bv| Z‡e mvaviYfv‡e †Kv‡bv wKQyi

g~j¨ Av‡Q ej‡Z Avgiv †mwUi Dc‡hvwMZv Av‡Q ey‡S _vwK| †Kv‡bv Av`k©‡K AbymiY

K‡iB NUbvwU g~j¨gvb cÖvß nq|

Z_¨ I g~j¨ : cÖK…wZ

Avgiv mvaviYZ †Kvb e¯‘ ev NUbv‡K `y‡Uv `„wófw½‡Z e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvwi| cÖ_gZ: e¯‘

ev NUbvwU cÖK…wZ‡Z †hfv‡e Av‡Q ev N‡U‡Q †mfv‡eB Zvi eY©bv Ki‡Z cvwi| GwU n‡”Q

Z‡_ï eY©bv| wØZxqZ: Av`‡k©i wfwË‡Z e¯‘ ev NUbvwUi ¸Yv¸Y wePvi Ki‡Z cvwi| GB

¸Yv¸Y wePvi Ki‡Z †h‡q Avgiv welqwU‡K b¨vq ev Ab¨vq, DwPZ ev AbywPZ, mZ¨ ev

wg_¨v, fvj ev g›`, my›ì ev KzrwmZ e‡j AwfwnZ Kwi| Gfv‡e e ‘ ev NUbvwUi ¸Yv¸Y

wePvi KivB n‡jv e¯‘ ev NUbvwUi g~j¨ wba©viY Kiv|

Dc‡ii Z_¨g~jK ePb¸‡jv‡Z nZ¨v, Mf©cvZ, Rxeb evuPv‡bv I mZ¨Zv m¤ú‡K© e ‘wbô

eY©bv †`qv n‡q‡Q| D³ D`vniY¸‡jv‡Z ewY©Z †Kv‡bv NUbviB wePvi Kiv nqwb| A_©vr

KvR¸‡jv fv‡jv wK g›`, DwPZ wK AbywPZ Zv ejv nqwb| wKš‘ hw` D³ ePb¸‡jv Gfv‡e

ejv nq †h, Ômv‡eZ‡K wcwU‡q nZ¨v K‡i `wei GKUv †NviZi Ab¨vq I A‰bwZK KvR

K‡i‡QÕ, ÔKgjv Mf©cvZ NwU‡q GKUv AbzwPZ KvR K‡i‡QÕ, Ges ÔNUbvwU m¤ú‡K© mZ¨

e‡j †gvnbv GKUv fvj KvR K‡i‡QÕ- Zvn‡j GB Dw³¸‡jv‡Z NUbvi DrKl© I AcK‡l©i

eY©bv †`qv n‡q‡Q ej‡Z n‡e| ZvB GB ePb¸‡jv g~j¨welqK ePb| G‡ì‡K g~j¨welqK

AeaviY (judgment of value)-I ejv hvq| g~j¨welqK Aeavi‡Y NUbvwUi ïaygvÎ

e¯‘MZ eY©bv †`qv nq bv, eis NUbvwUi Av`k©wfwËK wePvi Kiv nq| g~j¨welqK

Aeavi‡Y DwPZ, AbywPZ, fv‡jv, g›`, wVK, fzj, ˆbwZK, A‰bwZK G RvZxq kã AšÍfz©³

_v‡K, hv Z_¨g~jK Aeavi‡Y _v‡K bv|

g~‡jï cÖK…wZ : wewfbœ gZev`

g~‡jï ¯iƒc ev cÖK…wZ m¤ú‡K© `vk©wbK‡ì g‡a¨ mvaviYZt Pvi ai‡bi gZev` †`Lv

hvq| †hgb K) AvZ¥wbô ev gb¯ÍË¡g~jK gZev` (Subjective or Psychological View) L) e¯‘wbô gZev` (Objective View) M) cÖ‡qvMev`x gZev` (Pragmatic View) I N) fveev`x gZev` (Idealistic View)| gb¯ÍË¡g~jK gZev` Abymv‡i,

g~j¨ ej‡Z †evSvq e¯‘i Ggb ¸Y‡K hv gvby‡li †Kv‡bv Afve †gUvq Ges Zvi g‡b myL

I Avb‡›ì Abyf‚wZ RvMvq | e¯‘wbô gZev` Abymv‡i, g~j¨ e¯‘wbf©i Ges e¯‘i g~j

cÖK…wZ I g~‡jï g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv cv_©K¨ †bB| gvby‡li fvj jvMv ev bv jvMv A_ev gvby‡li

cwiZ…wß ev AZ…wßi mv‡_ e¯‘i g~‡jï †Kv‡bv m¤úK© †bB| A_v©r e¯‘ Zvi wbR ¸‡YB

Avgv‡ì Kv‡Q Z…wßKi| D`vniY¯iƒc ejv hvq, †Kv‡bv e¯‘i g‡a¨ hLb KZK¸‡jv

my›ì ¸Y _v‡K ‡mB e¯‘‡K Avgiv my›ì e‡j AvL¨vwqZ Kwi| hLb Avgiv ewj, cvnvo

my›ì, ZLb Zvi KZ¸‡jv ¸‡Yi Rb¨B †miKg e‡j _vwK| cÖ‡qvMev`x `vk©wbK‡ì



`„wó‡Z, g~‡jï gvb`Û n‡jv Dc‡hvwMZv ev DcKvwiZv| cÖ‡qvMev`x‡ì g‡Z, e¯‘i g~j¨

wbf©i K‡i e¯‘wUi g‡a¨ e¨w³i ‡Kvb cÖ‡qvRb †gUv‡bvi ¶gZv Av‡Q wKbv Zvi Dci|

fveev`x `vk©wbK‡ì g‡Z, g~j¨ n‡”Q cigZË¡ ev cigmËv, hv cÖK…wZ I gvbe g‡bi ga¨

w`‡q wbR‡K cÖKvk Ki‡Q| fveev`x‡ì g‡Z, g~j¨ welqwbô ev e¯‘MZ Ges AvZ¥wbô ev

AvZ¥MZ DfqB| GQvov Dc‡hvMev`x `vk©wbK wgj (Mill)-Gi g‡Z, hv myL Drcv`b

K‡i ZvB g~j¨| †gBbs (Meinong) Gi aviYv my‡Li Abyf‚wZB g~j¨| Avevi †cix

(Perry) e‡jb, g~‡jï wfwË n‡”Q ˆRweK ¯v_©| g~‡jï ¯iƒc GB BDwb‡Ui cieZx©

cvV¸‡jvi Av‡jvPbv †_‡K AviI cwi®‹vifv‡e eySv hv‡e|

Z_¨g~jK AeaviY I g~j¨welqK AeaviY

Z_¨welqK AeaviY eY©bvg~jK (descriptive), Avi g~j¨welqK AeaviY ¸Y-wba©viK

(appreciative)| Z_¨welqK Aeavi‡Y Avgiv e¯‘ ev NUbvi ïaygvÎ eY©bv w`B, †hgb-

Ô†Mvjvc dzjwU jvjÕ| GLv‡b ePbwU‡Z Ô†Mvjvc dzjÕ bvgK e¯‘wU cÖK…wZ‡Z †hfv‡e

weivR Ki‡Q ZviB eY©bv †`qv n‡q‡Q gvÎ| e¯‘wUi cÖwZ e³vi †Kv‡bv we‡kl g‡bvfve

cÖKvwkZ nqwb| c¶všÍ‡i, g~j¨welqK Aeavi‡Y Avgiv e¯‘i ¸Y wePvi Kwi, †hgb,

Ô†Mvjvc dzjwU my›ìÕ ev ÔwbSz‡gi KvRwU fvj nqwbÕ| GB AeaviY `ywU‡Z Avgiv NUbv

ev Z‡_ï wbQK eY©bv w`w”Q bv mv‡_ mv‡_ e¯‘wUi ¸Y ev g~j¨ wePvi KiwQ| GLv‡b e¯‘ ev

NUbvwUi cÖwZ Avgv‡ì GKwU we‡kl ai‡bi g‡bvfve cÖKvwkZ n‡q‡Q|

Z_¨welqK Aeavi‡Y e¯‘ Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj wK Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj bq Zv eY©bv Kiv nq| GLv‡b e¯‘ ev

NUbv‡K †Kv‡bv Av`‡k©i mv‡_ Zzjbv Kiv nq bv| ZvB Z_¨g~jK AeaviY welqwbó

(positive) | c¶všÍ‡i, g~j¨welqK Aeavi‡Y †h e¯‘wUi ¸Y ev g~j¨ wePvi Kiv nq,

Zv‡K GKvU Av`‡k©i mv‡_ Zzjbv Kiv nq| D`vniY¯îƒc, hLb Avgiv ewj, Ôm~hv©‡¯Íi

`„k¨wU my›ìÕ ZLb Avgv‡ì g‡bi g‡a¨ †mŠ›`‡h©i †h cig Av`k© jy°vwqZ _v‡K, Zvi

mv‡_ Zzjbv K‡iB `„k¨wU‡K my›ì ewj| Abyiƒcfv‡e, mZ¨Zv I g½‡ji cig Av`‡k©i

wfwË‡Z ‡Kvb NUbv ev KvR‡K Avgiv mZ¨, wg_¨v ev fvj, g›` BZ¨vw` wn‡m‡e g~j¨vqb

Kwi| ZvB g~j¨welqK AeaviY Av`k©wbô (normative)|

Dcmsnvi

êÁvwbK Áv‡bi cªmv‡ii d‡j eZ©gv‡b Avgiv Z_¨‡KB AMÖMY¨ wn‡m‡e MÖnY Kwi Ges

g~‡jï welqwUi Dci Kg ¸iæZ¡ †`B| Rxe‡bi wbivcËvi Rb¨ åg‡Yi c~‡e© iv¯ÍvwU

PjvP‡ji Dchy³ wKbv- GB Z_¨wU Rvbv A_ev wkïi Jla †me‡bi ‡evZjwU welgy³

wKbv- GB Z_¨wU Rvbv Avek¨K| g~j¨welqK Dw³i G ai‡bi Zvr¶wYK g~j¨ bv _vK‡jI

A_ev Z_¨g~jK ePb †h A‡_© mZ¨ †m A‡_© g~j¨welqK ePb mZ¨ bv n‡jI g~j¨welqK

Dw³ A‡bK mgq Z_¨g~jK Dw³i †P‡q AwaKZi ¸iæZ¡ enb K‡i| D`vniY¯îƒc,

Ôivwkqv I hy³iv‡óªi Kv‡Q c„w_ex‡K K‡qKevi aŸsm Kivi gZ cvigvYweK †evgv Av‡QÕ-

GB Z_¨g~jK Dw³wUi †P‡q ÒcvigvYweK A¯¿ eënvi Kiv DwPZ bqÕÕ- GB g~j¨welqK

Dw³wU AwaKZi ¸iæZ¡ enb K‡i| G †_‡K †evSv hvq, Z_¨ I g~j¨ †Kv‡bvwUB ¸iæZ¡nxb

bq|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| Z_¨ I g~‡jï D`vniYmn msÁv w`b| Z_¨g~jK Dw³ I g~j¨welqK Dw³i g‡a¨

cv_K© Av‡Q wK?


1| ÔZ_¨g~jK Dw³Õ ej‡Z wK eySvq? D`vniYmn eY©bv Kiæb|

2| Ôg~j¨welqK Dw³Õ ej‡Z wK eySvq? D`vniYmn e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

3| ÔZ_¨Õ I Ôg~j¨Ô DfqB Rxe‡bi Rb¨ ¸iæZ¡c~Y©- D`vniYmn eywS‡q ejyb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| †Kvb&wU g~j¨welqK Aeavi‡Yi

D`vniY

i) evMv‡b A‡bK¸‡jv jvj †Mvjvc

dz‡U‡Q

ii) G‡`‡k wewfbœ i‡Oi †Mvjvc cvIqv hvq

iii) †Mvjvc dzj †`L‡Z my›ì

iv) †Mvjvc Mv‡Q KvuUv Av‡Q

2| Z_¨ wbf©i K‡i

i) e¯‘ ev NUbvi DrKl©-AcK‡l©i Dci

ii) e¯‘ ev NUbvi cÖK…wZi Dci

iii) e¯‘ ev NUbvi êaZvi Dci

iv) e¯‘ ev NUbvi DrK†l©©i Dci

3| †Kvb&wU g~j¨welqK AeaviY bq

i) me© v mZ¨ K_v ejv DwPZ

ii) AvZ¥nZ¨v GKwU A‰bwZK KvR

iii) m~‡hv© ‡q AÜKvi `~i nq

iv) a~gcvb wbeviY Kiv fv‡jv

4| g~j¨

i) e¨w³i Dci wbf©i K‡i

ii) e¯‘i Dci wbf©i K‡i

iii) e¨w³ I e¯‘ Df‡qi Dci wbf©i K‡i

iv) e¨w³i Dci wbf©i K‡i bv

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iii) †Mvjvc dzj †`L‡Z my›ì

2| ii) e ‘ ev NUbvi cÖK…wZi Dci

3| iii) m~‡hv© ‡q AÜKvi `~i nq

4| iii) e¨w³ I e ‘ Df‡qi Dci wbf©i K‡i



e¯‘MZ wn‡m‡e g~j¨ Ges AvZ¥MZ wn‡m‡e g~j¨

(Values : Objective and Subjective) D‡Ïk¨


g~‡jï e¯‘MZ Drm m¤ú‡K© ¯úó e¨vL¨v w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

g~‡jï AvZ¥MZ w`KwU wK Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

A‡bK `vk©wb‡Ki aviYv, g~j¨ †Kv‡bv D”PZi Drm †hgb- Ck¦i, cig ïf, Avjøvn, eªþv

wKsev cÖK…wZ †_‡K Av‡m| Zviv AviI g‡b K‡ib, g~j¨ n‡jv e¨w³ wbi‡c¶ GKwU

e¨vcvi| GB gZ Abymv‡i, GgbwK c„w_ex‡Z hw` †Kv‡bv gvbe cÖRvwZ bvI _v‡K ZeyI

g~‡jï Aw¯ÍZ¡ _vK‡e| Aciw`‡K, Ab¨vb¨ `vk©wbKMY hyw³ †`Lvb †h, g~j¨ cy‡ivcywi

e¨w³mv‡c¶ GKwU e¨vcvi Ges Zv wbf©i K‡i welqwUi Dci gvby‡li g~j¨vq‡bi ¶gZvi

Dci| A_©vr hw` c„w_ex‡Z gvby‡li Aw¯ÍZ¡ bv _v‡K Z‡e e¯‘i Aw¯ÍZ¡ _vK‡jI g~j¨ e‡j

wKQy _vK‡e bv| Av‡jvP¨ cv‡V Avgiv g~j¨ m¤úwK©Z GB `yÕai‡bi hyw³‡KB hvPvB K‡i

g~‡jï cÖK…Z Drm mÜv‡bi †Póv Ki‡ev|

g~j¨ e¯‘MZ (Value as Objective)

g~j¨‡K hLb Avgiv e¯‘MZ ej‡ev ZLb G K_vi wZb ai‡bi A_© n‡Z cv‡i :

K) e ‘i wbR¯ g~j¨ _vK‡e, g~j¨ wbiƒc‡Yi Rb¨ c„w_ex‡Z gvby‡li Aw¯ÍZ¡ _vKzK ev bvB

_vKzK|

L) e¯‘i g~j¨ Av‡m †Kv‡bv AwZcÖvK…wZK Drm †_‡K|

M) cÖK…wZi wbq‡gi g‡a¨B g~j¨ Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj|

e¯‘i g~j¨ wbwnZ _v‡K e ‘i wfZ‡iB

wKQy wKQy `vk©wbK g‡b K‡ib, g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ e¨vcvi bq, g~j¨ m¤ú~Y©fv‡e e¯‘MZ| †Kbbv

gvbyl e¯‘ ev NUbv‡K g~j¨vqb KiæK ev bv KiæK e¯‘i g‡a¨B g~j¨ AšÍwb©wnZ _v‡K| g~j¨

AvZ¥MZ ev e¨w³MZ n‡j me©Rbxb g~j¨ e‡j wKQy _vK‡Zv bv| †m‡¶‡Î gnr mvwnZ¨,

gnr wkí, gnr m½xZ ev gnr †h †Kv‡bv m„wó g~j¨vqb Kiv m¤¢e n‡Zv bv| wKš‘ Avgiv

Rvwb, bRiæj-iex›`ªbv_-‡k·wcq‡ii mvwnZ¨, ivdv‡qj-wcKv‡mv-Rqbyj Av‡ew`‡bi wkí,

mvjvgZ Avjx-bvRvKvZ Avjx-cj iem&‡bi m½xZ mKj wkí‡cÖwgK mü`q hyw³evb

gvby‡li Kv‡Q gnr wkíKg© wn‡m‡e Av`„Z nq| A_©vr Gme wkíK‡g©i g‡a¨ me©Rbxb wKQy

g~j¨ Aek¨B Av‡Q| ZvB g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ e¨vcvi bq| ZvQvov, hv wKQy gvby‡li e¨w³MZ

Abyf‚wZ‡K Z…ß K‡i ZvB g~jëvb| gvby‡li GB e¨w³MZ Abyf‚wZ‡K cwiZ…ß Kivi ¶gZv

†m wb‡R m„wó K‡i bv, Zv e ‘i g‡a¨B _v‡K| †hme e¯‘‡Z gvby‡li cwiZ…ß Kivi ¶gZv

_v‡K Zv g~jëvb e‡j g‡b nq| †hgb, Ô‡Mvjvc dzjÕ gvby‡li Kv‡Q g~jëvb| †Kbbv

cvV - 2



†Mvjvc dz‡ji †mŠ›`h© gvbyl‡K cwiZ…ß K‡i| Avi GB †mŠ›`h© gvby‡li m„ó bq| GwU H

wbw`©ó dzjwUi wbR¯ AšÍwb©wnZ ¸Y| ZvB g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ welq bq eis Zv e ‘MZ|

gvby‡li Dcw¯’wZ I e¯‘i g~j¨

gvby‡li Abycw¯’wZ‡Z c„w_ex‡Z e¯‘i g~j¨ AweK…Z _v‡K wKbv- welqwU cix¶v Ki‡Z

PvB‡j AšÍZ mvgwqKfv‡e n‡jI mKj gvbyl‡K c„w_exi evB‡i †_‡K e¯‘mg~n wbR wbR

g~j¨ wb‡q Ae¯’vb Ki‡Q wKbv- Zv Ae‡jvKb Ki‡Z n‡e| Avm‡j ‡Kvb gvbyl hw`

c„w_ex‡Z bv _v‡K Z‡e Av‡jv, evZvm, cvwb, MvQcvjv, dzj-dj, b`x, mgy ª, cvnv‡oi wK

†Kv‡bv g~j¨ _vK‡e? cÖkœwU Kivi mv‡_ mv‡_ DwjøwLZ e¯‘mg~‡ni mv‡_B g~j¨ K_vwU

m¤ú„³ n‡q c‡o| ZvQvov, Avgiv hw` cÖvYxKzj, MvQcvjv, cZ‡½i „wó‡ZI fvwe

Zvn‡jI e¯‘i wbR¯ g~j¨‡K ¯xKvi Ki‡Z nq| KviY Zv‡ì †eu‡P _vKvi Rb¨ Gm‡ei

cÖ‡qvRb| hwÌ Zviv gvby‡li g‡Zv Gm‡ei g~j¨ wba©viY K‡i wKbv - †m m¤úwK©Z Z_¨

Avgv‡ì Rvbv †bB, ZeyI GUv wbwðZ †h Gme e¯‘mg~n Zv‡ì Kv‡Q g~jëvb| Z‡e

c„w_ex‡Z Ggb wKQy e¯‘ Av‡Q hv ïay gvby‡li Dcw¯’wZi Kvi‡YB g~jëvb| †hgb, ¯Y©

bvgK avZe c`v_©wU gvby‡li Kv‡Q g~jëvb n‡jI MvQcvjv wKsev cÖvYxK‚‡ji Kv‡Q

g~j¨nxb| Abyiƒcfv‡e, cvnv‡oi P‚ovi †mŠ›`h© wKsev mgy`ª ˆmK‡Zi †mŠ›`h©g~j¨ ïay

gvb‡yli Kv‡QB g~jëvb| ZvQvov, ms¯‹…wZ, wkíKjv, miKvi eë¯’vi g~jÏ gvbyl‡Kw›`ªK|

e¯‘i g~j¨ Av‡m †Kv‡bv AwZ cÖvK…wZK Drm †_‡K

A‡b†K e¯‘i I gvby‡li ga¨Kvi g~‡jï Drm wn‡m‡e AwZ cÖvK…wZK Dr‡mi K_v e‡jb|

A‡bK gvbylB AwZ cÖvK…wZK †Kv‡bv mËv, cigmËv ev Awa‰bwZK ‡Kvb wKQyi Aw¯Í‡Z¡

wek¦vm K‡ib| Zv‡ì g‡Z, cigmËvB g~‡jï wfwË| G RMr Ges RM‡Zi me e¯‘ ZuviB

m„wó Ges wZwb RM‡Z hveZxq bv›`wbK Ges ˆbwZK g~j¨‡K cÖwZwôZ K‡i‡Qb Ges

gvbyl‡K †mme Abymi‡Yi Rb¨ wb‡`©k w`‡q‡Qb| G ai‡bi cigmËvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ _vK‡Z

cv‡i, Z‡e Aw¯Í‡Z¡i c‡¶ PzovšÍ †Kv‡bv cÖgvY †bB| cig mËvi Aw¯Í‡Z¡ Kv‡iv Zxeª

wek¦vm _vK‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ wek¦vm I cÖgvY GKK_v bq| ZvQvov ˆbwZK g~‡jï welqwUI

gvby‡li RvMwZK cÖ‡qvRb Ges B”Qv Abyhvqx D™¢‚Z I cwiewZ©Z n‡”Q| AwaKš‘, g~‡jï

AwZ cÖvK…wZK Dr‡mi K_v hviv e‡jb, Zv‡ì g‡a¨ mvaviY HKÏ cwijw¶Z nq bv|

‡hgb, hxï, ey×, ZvI, †cø‡Uvmn wewfbœ gnvgvbe Ges `vk©wbKMY wewfbœ ai‡bi AwZ

cÖvK…wZK mËv, ˆbwZK Drm I bxwZgvjvi K_v e‡j‡Qb| Zv‡ì g‡a¨ g~‡jï Drm I

cÖK…wZ wb‡q wg‡ji †P‡q AwgjB †ewk| Zvn‡j g~‡jï †Kv‡bv& AwZ cÖvK…wZK DrmwU

mwVK-Zv wb‡q cÖkœ DVv ¯vfvweK|

cÖvK…wZK wbq‡gi g‡a¨B g~j¨ wbwnZ

KL‡bv KL‡bv Avjv`vfv‡e, Avevi KL‡bv AwZ cÖvK…wZK Z‡Ë¡i m‡½ hy³ K‡i ejv nq

†h, ˆbwZK wewa¸‡jv cÖvK…wZK RMr I cÖK…wZi Ask| A‡b‡KB e‡jb, KvRUv Kiv wVK

bv KviY Zv cÖK…wZweiæ×| Avgiv cÖvK…wZK wbqg ej‡Z eywS, ÔMwZi m~ÎÕ, ÔZvc

MwZwe`¨vÕ, Ôgva¨vKl©Y wbqgÕ BZ¨vw`‡K| hLb GB ÔwewaÕ ev ÔAvBbÕ kãwU Avgiv

cÖvK…wZK wewa I ˆbwZK wewai †¶‡Î eënvi Kwi ZLb Zv weåvwšÍi Rb¥ w`‡Z cv‡i|

†Kbbv GB `ywU †¶‡Î wewa ev AvBb kãwU wfbœ A‡_© eëüZ| cÖvK…wZK wewa n‡”Q



eY©bvg~jK Ges ˆbwZK wewa n‡”Q civgk©g~jK| Ôgva¨vKl©Y m~ÎÕ GKwU cÖvK…wZK wewa|

gva¨vKl©Y wbqg Abymv‡i, ‡Kvb e¯‘‡K Dc‡ii w`‡K wb‡¶c Ki‡j c„w_exi Uv‡b Zv wb‡P

†b‡g Avm‡e| GB wbq‡gi mv‡_ JwP‡Zï †Kv‡bv m¤úK© †bB| cÖvK…wZK wbqg e¯‘MZ

NUbvi eY©bv w`‡jI Zv ˆbwZK NUbvi wb‡`©k †`q bv| †KD †KD e‡jb, gvby‡li

JwP‡Zï wKQy wbqg cÖK…wZB wVK K‡i †`q| †hgb, mgKvwgZv ˆbwZKfv‡e AbywPZ,

†Kbbv Zv cÖvK…wZK wewa m¤§Z bq| Zv‡ì hyw³ n‡jv, cÖK…wZ ‡KejgvÎ wecixZ wj‡½

†hŠb m¤úK© A_©vr bvix I cyiæ‡li †hŠbZv‡KB ¯xK…wZ ‡`q| wKš‘ welqwU ‡miKg bq|

†Kbbv cÖK…wZ‡Z M‡elYv K‡i †`Lv †M‡Q, GKB wj‡½i gv‡S †hŠbZvi welqwU wewfbœ

cÖvYxK‚j I Dw™¢ ivwRi g‡aÏ eZ©gvb| ZvB GUv ejv hvq, ˆbwZK g~j¨ cÖK…wZ ev AwZ

cÖvK…wZK ‡Kvb wKQy †_‡K Av‡m bv| Zvn‡j g~j¨ hw` e¯‘MZ bv nq, Z‡e g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ

wKbv- welqwU cix¶v Kiv cÖ‡qvRb|

g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ (Value as Subjective)

g~j¨ cy‡ivcywifv‡e AvZ¥MZ ev e¨w³wbf©i ejvi A_© n‡jv, hw` c„w_ex‡Z †Kv‡bv gvby‡li

Aw¯ÍZ¡ bv _v‡K Z‡e g~‡jï Aw¯ÍZ¡ _vK‡e bv| mewKQyB ZLb g~j¨nxb n‡q c‡o| GB

g‡Zi AbymvixMY g‡b K‡ib, g~‡jï Aw¯ÍZ¡ ïaygvÎ gb ev †PZbvi g‡a¨B m¤¢e, e¯‘ ev

NUbvi g‡a¨ m¤¢e bq| †Kv‡bv e¯‘ ev NUbvi †Kv‡bv me©RbMÖvn¨ g~j¨ †bB| GKR‡bi

Kv‡Q hv fvj g‡b n‡e, Avi GKR‡bi Kv‡Q Zv g›` g‡b n‡Z cv‡i| †h Mvb gywbœi Kv‡Q

fvj jv‡M Zv Zvi evÜexi Kv‡Q fvj bvI jvM‡Z cv‡i| Avevi GKB e¨w³i Kv‡Q

mg‡qi wfbœZvq e¯‘i g~jÏ wfbœ wfbœ n‡Z cv‡i| Avb‡›ì mg‡q †h MvbwU gywbœi Kv‡Q

Z…wß`vqK g‡b nq, †kv‡Ki mg‡q †mB GKB Mvb weiw³Ki g‡b n‡Z cv‡i| Zvn‡j ejv

hvq, fvj-g›` cÖf…wZ e¯‘MZ ¸Y bq, eis G¸‡jv AvZ¥MZ| ZvQvov, mZ¨, my›ì I

g½‡ji aviYvI †`k I Kvj †f‡` cwiewZ©Z nq| Av_©-mvgvwRK Ae¯’vi cwieZ©‡bi

Kvi‡Y GK hy‡Mi Gme cig aviYv¸‡jv Ab¨ hy‡M e`‡j †h‡Z cv‡i| myZivs g~†jï

me©Rbxb ev mbvZb †Kv‡bv iƒc †bB| g~j¨ GKvšÍfv‡e e¨w³i g‡bi Ici wbf©ikxj|

e¯‘i wbR¯ †Kv‡bv ¸Y †bB| e¨w³gvbyl e¯‘i Dci ¸Y Av‡ivc K‡i gvÎ| GQvov,

RM‡Zi mg¯Í gnr g~j¨ c×wZ¸‡jvI (value systems) gvby‡liB m„wó| D`vniY¯iƒc,

m‡µwUm, †cø‡Uv, A¨vwi÷Uj, †m›U _gvm GKzBbvm, †m›U AMvw÷b, Bgvby‡qj Kv›U

cÖgyL-Gi g~j¨ m¤úwK©Z wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi K_v ejv hvq|

Z‡e Avgiv Av‡jvP¨ cv‡Vi cÖ_g w`‡Ki Av‡jvPbvq †`‡LwQ, g~j¨ ïay e¨w³ gvby‡li

cÖ‡qvRb, Av‡eM, Abyf‚wZ, B”Qv BZ¨vw` †_‡K wbtm„Z nq bv, g~jï e¯‘MZ wfwËI Av‡Q|

hLb †Kv‡bv wKQz‡K Avgiv my›ì ewj ev wgwó ¯v‡ì ewj, ZLb Hme e¯‘i g‡a¨ Ggb

wKQy ¸Yvejx _v‡K hv e¯‘wU‡K my›ì Ges wgwó ¯^v‡ì e‡j AvL¨vwqZ Kivi KviY wn‡m‡e

KvR K‡i, ZvB g~jï Drm ïaygvÎ e¯‘MZ A_ev AvZ¥MZ bq|



Dcmsnvi

g~j¨ wbav©i‡Yi cÖwµqvwUi mv‡_ g~jëvb e¯‘ ev NUbv _v‡K, g~j¨ wbiƒcYKvix e¨w³i

Dcw¯’wZ _v‡K Ges GKwU we‡kl Ae¯’vq †Kv‡bv wKQyi g~j¨ wbiƒcY Kiv nq| ¯Y© avZzwUi

g~j¨ wbiƒcY Ki‡Z †M‡j, g~jëvb GB avZe c`v_©wUi Dcw¯’wZ _vK‡Z n‡e| mgv‡Ri

Ab¨vb¨ gvbyl KZ…©K GwU‡K g~jëvb avZz wn‡m‡e ¯xK…wZ †c‡Z n‡e Ges Av`vb-cÖ vb

Ki‡Z n‡e| †h e¨w³ GwU‡K g~jëvb ej‡eb, Zvi mvg_© I †hvM¨Zv _vK‡Z n‡e| wbR©b

giæf‚wg‡Z cvwb I Lv`¨ mgm¨v RR©wiZ †Kv‡bv mgv‡Ri Kv‡Q GiKg g~jëvb avZzi g~j¨

wePv‡ii †P‡q RxweKv wbe©v‡ni welq¸‡jv †ewk g~jëvb n‡Z cv‡i| ZvB g~j¨ wePv‡ii

Rb¨ e¯‘i cÖ‡qvRb †gUv‡bvi ¸Yvejx †hgb _vK‡Z n‡e †Zgwb g~j¨ Dcjwä Kivi gZ

mvg_© I †hvM¨Zvm¤úbœ e¨w³i Dcw¯’wZI _vK‡Z n‡e| myZivs g~j¨ e¨w³MZ I e¯‘MZ

DfqB| Bs‡iR `vk©wbK Av‡jKRvÛvi G g‡Zi Ab¨Zg mg_©K| Zvui g‡Z, g~j¨ e¯‘i

g~L¨ ev †MŠY ¸Y bq, eis Zv Z…Zxq Rv‡Zi GKwU ¸Y| GB ai‡bi ¸Y e¯‘wbf©i n‡qI

gb-wbf©i| A_©vr e¯‘ ev gb‡K ev` w`‡j g~‡jï Aw¯ÍZ¡B _v‡K bv| Avgiv AviI †`‡LwQ

†h, g~j¨†ev‡ai mv‡_ e¨w³i iæwP I Abyf‚wZi welqwU RwoZ| wKš‘ e¨w³i iæwP I

Abyf‚wZi GKwU me©RbMÖvn¨ iƒcI Av‡Q| wk¶vi gva¨‡g gvby‡li iæwP I Abyf‚wZ‡K

me©RbMÖvn¨ K‡i †Zvjv hvq| Avi ZvB mv_©K wkí, m½xZ I mvwnZ¨Kg© hv me©Rbxb

g~‡jï AvKvi †c‡q‡Q, Zvi g~j¨ †`k I Kv‡jvËxY©| me©Rbxb g~j¨ n‡”Q e¯‘MZ g~j¨|

ZvB ejv hvq, g~j¨ e¨w³MZ n‡qI AvZ¥MZ| welqwU cieZ©x cv‡V AviI we¯ÍvwiZfv‡e

Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡q‡Q|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| g~j¨ wK? GUv wK AvZ¥MZ bv e ‘MZ? welqwUi mgv‡jvPbvg~jK e¨vL¨v w`b|


1| Òe¯‘i g~j¨ Av‡m †Kv‡bv AwZ cÖvK…wZK Drm †_‡KÕÕ- G Dw³wUi msw¶ß e¨vL¨v w`b|

2| Òe¨w³B e¯‘i Dci g~j¨ Av‡ivc K‡iÕÕ- GB e³e¨wUi mg_©‡b msw¶ß Av‡jvPbv

Kiæb|

K) eû wbe©vPbxg~jK cÖkœ

mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| g~j¨ e¯‘MZ -G K_vi A_© n‡jv

i) g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi Rb¨ gvbyl bv _vK‡jI e ‘i wbR¯ g~j¨ _vK‡e

ii) e¯‘i g~‡jï Drm †Kv‡bv AwZ cÖvK…wZK mËv

iii) e¯‘i g~j¨ wbwnZ _v‡K cÖvK…wZK wbq‡gi g‡a¨

iv) Dc‡ii me¸‡jvB mwVK

2| e¯‘i g~j¨ wbwnZ _v‡K e ‘i wfZ‡iB- G K_vi A_© `vuovq

i) e ‘ cÖvYxK‚‡ji I MvQcvjvi wbKU g~jëvb

ii) e ‘ gvby‡li Kv‡Q g~jëvb

iii) gvbyl e¯‘i ¸YveaviY bv Ki‡jI e¯‘i wbR¯ g~j¨ Av‡Q

iv) g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi Rb¨ e¯‘ Avek¨K

3| g~j¨ m¤úwK©Z AwZ cÖvK…wZK mËvi ZË¡ MÖnY Kiv hvq bv KviY

i) AwZ cÖvK…wZK mËvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ m¤ú‡K© gvby‡li wek¦vm _vK‡jI ‡m m¤ú‡K© P~ovšÍ †Kv‡bv

cÖgvY †bB

ii) wewfbœ gvbyl AwZ cÖvK…wZK mËv m¤ú‡K© Avjv`v Avjv`v aviYv †cvlY K‡ib

iii) wewfbœ AwZ cÖvK…wZK mËv ‡_‡K wbtm„Z g~‡jï g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv mvaviY HK¨ †bB

iv) Dc‡ii me¸‡jvB mwVK

4| wb‡Pi evK¨¸‡jvi g‡a¨ AwaKZi MÖnY‡hvM¨ evK¨wU n‡jv

i) ˆbwZK wewagvjv cÖvK…wZK wbqg I cÖK…wZi Ask

ii) cÖvK…wZK wbqg¸‡jv e¯‘MZ NUbvi eY©bv w`‡jI ‰bwZK NUbvi eY©bv †`q bv

iii) gvby‡li JwP‡Zï wKQy wbqg cÖK…wZB wVK K‡i †`q

iv) hv cÖK…wZweiæ× ZvB A‰bwZK|

mwVK DËi

K) 1| i) g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi Rb¨ gvbyl bv _vK‡jI e¯‘i wbR¯ g~j¨ _vK‡e

2| iii) gvbyl e¯‘i ¸YveaviY bv Ki‡jI e¯‘i wbR¯ g~j¨ Av‡Q

3| iv) Dc‡ii me¸‡jvB mwVK

4| ii) cÖvK…wZK wbqg¸‡jv e¯‘MZ NUbvi eY©bv w`‡jI ‰bwZK NUbvi eY©bv †`q bv



g~j¨ e¯‘MZ I AvZ¥MZ DfqB

(Values : Both Objective and Subjective)

D‡Ïk¨


Ôg~j¨ e¯‘MZÕ- GB gZev‡ì wec‡¶ hyw³ †`Lv‡Z cvi‡eb |

Ôg~j¨ AvZ¥MZÕ- GB g‡Zi mgv‡jvPbvmn eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

Ôg~j¨ †h GKB mv‡_ e¯‘MZ I AvZ¥MZ DfqBÕ Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

c~e©eZ©x cvV-Gi Av‡jvPbvq g~‡jï ¯iƒce¯‘wbf©i bv e¨w³wbf©i Zv wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv

n‡q‡Q Ges Avgiv †`‡LwQ, GB wel‡q `ywU wfbœ g‡Zi D™¢e n‡q‡Q| DwjøwLZ gZ `y‡Uvi

g‡a¨ g~‡jï ¯iƒc m¤úK©xq †Kv‡bv& gZwU MÖnY‡hvM¨ Zv cÖkœmv‡c¶| Z‡e GK‡PwUqvfv‡e

GK_v ejv hyw³m½Z bq †h, g~j¨ †Kej e ‘wbf©i ev †Kej e¨w³wbf©i| GB As‡k Avgiv

welqwU‡K wN‡i we¯ÍvwiZ Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

g~j¨ e¯‘MZ : mgv‡jvPbv

GB gZvbymv‡i g~j¨ e¯‘i g‡a¨B wbwnZ Av‡Q Ges gvby‡li g~j¨ wba©viY e¯ÍwUi ØvivB n‡q

_v‡K| g~j¨ KLbB e¯‘wbi‡c¶ bq| †hgb, Avgiv hLb ewj ÔcvwLwU wK my›ìÕ ev

ÔAgy‡Ki KvRwU fvjÕ ZLb GB g~j¨ wbav©iY Avgv‡ì †Lqvj-L~wki Dci wbf©i K‡i bv|

cvwLi g‡a¨ Ggb wKQy Av‡Q hvi Rb¨ Avgiv cvwLwU‡K my›ì ej‡Z eva¨ nB Ges †Kv‡bv

e¨w³i Kv‡Ri g‡a¨ Ggb †Kv‡bv ¸Y wbwnZ Av‡Q hvi Kvi‡Y Zvi KvR‡K Avgiv fvj

e†j _vwK| myZivs g~j¨ e¨w³ mv‡c¶ e¨vcvi bq| hwÌ g~j¨ wePv‡ii Rb¨ e¨w³i

cÖ‡qvRb, ZeyI e¨w³i cÖksmv ev wb›`v hv GKwU we‡kl g‡bvfve cÖKvk K‡i, Zv ev Íe

cwiw¯’wZi ØvivB wbav©wiZ nq| ZvB g~j¨ e¯‘MZ|

GB gZev‡ì wKQy †`vl-ÎæwU cwijw¶Z nq| Avgiv g‡b Kwi, †KD cÖZ¨¶ KiæK ev bvB

KiæK Ni-evox, cvnvo-ce©Z G¸‡jv Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj _vK‡eB| g~‡jï †¶‡Î Abyiƒc wm×všÍ

mwVK bq, †Kbbv cvnvo-ce©‡Zi gZ g~j¨ †Kv‡bv e¯‘ bq| †h g~j¨ gvby‡li Kvg¨, †mB

g~j¨ gbwbi‡c¶ n‡Z cv‡i bv|

ZvQvov, D³ e ‘MZ g‡Zi weiæ‡× AviI ejv hvq, g~j¨ hw` e¯‘MZ nq Zvn‡j g~j¨

wbav©i‡Y e¨w³‡Z e¨w³‡Z GZ cv_©K¨ †`Lv hvq †Kb? †hgb- †Kv‡bv abx e¨w³i Kv‡Q

500 UvKvi †h g~j¨, w`bgRy‡ii Kv‡Q Zvi g~j¨ wfbœ nIqvB ¯vfvweK| ZvB ejv hvq,

g~j¨ hw` e¯‘wbf©iB n‡Zv Zvn‡j †Kv‡bv wKQyi †mŠ›`h© ev ‡Kvb Kv‡Ri ¸Yv¸Y wePv†ii

†¶‡Î mK‡jB HK¨g‡Z †cuŠuQv‡Zv| wKš‘ Zv cÖvq †¶‡ÎB m¤¢e nq bv|

cvV - 3



g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ : mgv‡jvPbv

GB gZev` Abymv‡i, g~j¨ m¤ú~Y©fv‡e e¨w³i Dci wbf©i K‡i| †KejgvÎ e¨w³i

Abyf‚wZ, B”Qv I wPšÍvi RM‡ZB g~‡jï Avwef©ve NUv m¤¢e| g~j¨ †h‡nZz Bw›`ªqMÖvn¨ e¯‘

ZvB †mŠ›`h©, fvjZ¡, g›`Z¡ G¸‡jv gvbe Rxe‡bi mv‡_ m¤úK©hy³ bv n‡j Zv A_©nxb n‡q

c‡o| g~j¨ †h‡nZz e¨w³i Abyf‚wZ, B”Qv I wPšÍv †_‡K m„wó nq Ges G¸‡jv e¯‘ wbi‡c¶

I cwieZ©bkxj, ZvB g~jÏ e¨w³‡f‡` cwiewZ©Z nq Ges GKB e¨w³i Kv‡QI mgq‡f‡`

Zv wfbœ wfbœ n†Z cv‡i| †hgb, GKRb wK‡kvi †Ljvayjv Ges we‡kl wKQy Kv‡R eq‡mi

Kvi‡Y Avb›` †c‡Z cv‡i, wKš‘ Zv GKwU wbw`©ó eq‡m mg‡qi AcPq ev A_©nxb KvR

e‡j g‡b n‡Z cv‡i| ZvB g~j¨ wbQK g‡bvMZ GKwU e¨vcvi| `vk©wbK †jvU&Rv

(Lotza)Ôi g‡Z, g~j¨ n‡jv m‡šÍv‡li Abyf‚wZ ev GKwU e¯‘ †_‡K Avgv‡ì g‡b †h

Avb‡›ì D™¢e nq †mUvB g~j¨| †h‡nZz m‡šÍvl ev cwiZ…wß e¨w³ g‡bi Abyf‚wZi e¨vcvi,

‡mRb¨ g~j¨ m¤ú~Y©fv‡e e¯‘wbi‡c¶|

D³ gZev‡ìI †ek wKQy †`vl-ÎæwU cwijw¶Z nq| †KD †`LyK ev bv †`LyK, GKwU

dz‡ji †h †mŠ›`h© Zv _vK‡eB| †Kv‡bv e¨w³ †jvK P¶zi AšÍiv‡j nq‡Zv Ggb A‡bK

KvR K‡ib hv Rbmg‡¶ Ges mgv‡R cÖksmv cvevi †hvM¨| wKš‘ A‡bK mgq Zv cÖKvwkZ

nq bv| ZvB e‡j wK †mme fv‡jv Kv‡Ri ‡Kvb g~j¨ †bB? Aek¨B Av‡Q| ZvB g~j¨

g‡bvMZ bq, e¯‘MZ|

Avevi g~j¨ hw` nq e¯‘i ¸‡Yi wePvi Zvn‡j e¯‘ n‡jv ¸‡Yi mgwó GK_v ¯xKvi Ki‡Z

nq| gvbyl e¯‘i ¸Y¸‡jv‡K cÖZ¨¶ K‡i Zvi wePvi K‡i| e¯‘i ¸Y hw` gvbyl cÖZ¨¶

Ki‡Z bv cvi‡Zv Zvn‡j g~j¨ wePvi KivI m¤¢e n†Zv bv| †hgb, †Kv‡bv jvj †Mvjvc‡K

†KD Kv‡jv ev mv`v †Mvjvc ej‡Z cv‡i bv| KviY H †MvjvcwU jvj iO aviY K‡i

Av‡Q| ZvB g~j¨ g‡bvMZ bq| ZvQvov, D³ gZwU e¨w³gb‡K Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj RMr †_‡K

c„_K K‡i †`‡L| wKš‘ e¨w³gb I Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj RMr GB wb‡q GK ALÛ mËv ev

mymvgÄm¨c~Y© mgMÖZv, †mB Kvi‡Y e¨w³gb‡K Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj RMr †_‡K c„_K K‡i †`Lv

hyw³hy³ bq| KviY e¯‘B hw` bv _v‡K Z‡e wK‡mi g~j¨ wePvi Kiv n‡e, ‡m cÖkœwU G‡m

hvq|

D³ g‡Zi Av‡iKwU ÎæwU n‡jv, GB g‡Zi Abymvixiv Abyf‚wZ, B”Qv, Kvgbv-evmbv‡K

g~‡jï Drm g‡b K‡i| wKš‘ Zv wVK bq, KviY Kvgbv, evmbv, Abyf‚wZ e¯‘i ØvivB

wbav©wiZ nq Ges Zviv g~‡jï dj¯iƒc| †hgb, eûw`b a‡i mym¤úK© †bB GiKg †Kv‡bv

`¤úwË hw` †Kv‡bv †ivgvw›UK hvÎvbyôvb GKB mv‡_ Dc‡fvM K‡i Zvn‡j Zv‡ì g‡a¨

cybivq fv‡jvevmvi Abyf‚wZ Rb¥v‡Z cv‡i| ZvB g~j¨‡K ‡Kej g‡bvMZ ejv P‡j bv|

g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ I e¯‘MZ DfqB (Value as Subjective-Objective)

Dc‡iv³ `ywU gZev`B Pigcš’x| AvZ¥MZ gZev`xiv ïaygvÎ e¨w³gb‡K cÖvavb¨ †`q;

†hgb, Avwg ejwQ ZvB †Mvjvc jvj| Avevi e¯‘MZ gZev` ïaygvÎ e¯‘i ¸Y‡K cÖvavb¨

†`q; †hgb, †Mvjvc jvj e‡jB ‡MvjvcwU‡K Avgvi jvj ej‡Z n‡”Q| G `ywU gZev`B



Pigcš’x| g~‡jï Ae¯’vb ïaygvÎ e¯‘‡Z bq, Avevi ïaygvÎ g‡b bq| Avgiv GB `yB

Pig gZev‡ì mgšq mvab K‡i ej‡Z cvwi †h, g~j¨ e ‘MZ I AvZ¥MZ DfqB| †h

†Kv‡bv g~‡jï B `ywU w`K Av‡Q, Zvn‡jv g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi KZ©v Ges †h wel‡qi g~j¨

wbav©iY Kiv nq Zvi Aw¯ÍZ¡| GB `y‡qi g‡a¨ hLbB mgšq NU‡e †Kej ZLbB g~j¨

wba©vwiZ n‡Z cv‡i| G‡ì †Kv‡bv GKwU‡K ev` w`‡q g~j¨ wePvi m¤¢e bq| †hgb-

ZvRgn‡ji †mŠ›`h© hw` we‡k¦i gvbyl KLbB Ae‡jvKb bv Ki‡Zv Zvn‡j Zvi eZ©gvb

g~j¨ Abyaveb Kiv m¤¢e n‡Zv bv| Avevi Av‡`Š hw` ZvRgn‡jv bv _vK‡Zv Zvn‡j Zvi

g~j¨ wba©vi‡YiI cÖkœB DV‡Zv bv| Avm‡j g~j¨ e¯‘i ¸Y, †hwU e¨w³i Abyf‚wZ, B”Qv I

wPšÍ‡bi Øviv wba©vwiZ nq| g~j¨ m¤ú~Y©fv‡e g‡bi m„wó bq| Avevi e¨w³g‡bi Dcjwä I

Abyf‚wZ‡K ev` w`‡j g~j¨ wePvi n‡q D‡V A_©nxb e¨vcvi|

Avgiv Av‡MB †`‡LwQ, `vk©wbK Av‡jKRvÛvi (Alexander)-Gi g‡Z, g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ I

e¯‘MZ DfqB| g~j¨ e¯‘wbi‡c¶ ev AvZ¥MZ GB Kvi‡Y †h, e¨w³gbB g~j¨ wbav©iY K‡i

_v‡K| Avevi g~j¨ e¯‘MZ GB Kvi‡Y †h, †Kv‡bv e¯‘i †mB ¸Y ev g~j¨ _v‡K e‡jB

Avgiv e¯‘wUi †mfv‡e ¸Y wePvi Ki‡Z cvwi|

†Kv‡bv wel‡qi g~j¨ gvby‡li Kvgbv-evmbvi Øviv wba©vwiZ nq, wKš‘ gvbyl ‡Kvb e¯‘‡K

Kvg¨ ev Kvg¨ bq g‡b K‡i wKbv Zv wbf©i K‡i †mB e¯‘i ¸‡Yi Dci| †hLv‡b e¨w³-

g‡bi Aw¯ÍZ¡ †bB, †mLv‡b g~j¨ ev¯Íeiƒ‡c bq, m¤¢vebviƒ‡c we`¨gvb _vK‡e| †Kv‡bv

wel‡qi Ávb n‡Z n‡j †hgb ÁvZv I †Áq Df‡qiB cÖ‡qvRb, †Zgwb e¯‘i g~j¨ wePv‡ii

‡¶‡ÎI wePvh© e¯‘ Ges g~j¨vqbKvix e¨w³ ev e¨w³g‡bi Dcw¯’wZ Avek¨K| ZvB ejv

hvq, g~j¨ AvZ¥MZ I e¯‘MZ DfqB|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| g~j¨ wK? Òg~j¨ e ‘MZ I AvZ¥MZ DfqBÓ- GB welqwUi we¯ÍvwiZ e¨vL¨v w`b|


1| Òg~j¨ ïayB e¯‘MZÓ- GB g‡Zi wec‡¶ msw¶ß Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

2| Ò g~j¨ ïayB AvZ¥MZÓ- Gi weiæ‡× hyw³ †`Lvb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| wb‡Pi †Kv‡bv evK¨wU mwVK bq

i) e¯‘i ¯iƒc cwiewZ©Z n‡j g~j¨ cwiewZ©Z nq

ii) e¨w³i g~j¨vq‡f‡` e¯‘i g~j¨ cwiewZ©Z nq

iii) e¨w³i g~j¨vqb Ges e¯‘i ¯iƒc Df‡qi cwieZ©‡b e¯‘i g~j¨ cwiewZ©Z nq

iv) e¯‘i g~j¨ me mgq AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K

2| e¯‘i g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi Rb¨ ¸iæZ¡c~Y© n‡jv

i) e¯‘i wbR¯ êwkó¨

ii) e¯‘i Pvwn`v

iii) e¯‘i cvwicvwk©¦K Ae¯’v

iv) Dc‡ii me¸‡jvB

3| ¯Y© g~jëvb KviY

i) ¯‡Y©i g~jëvb nevi †hvM¨Zv Av‡Q

ii) ¯Y© g~jëvb wn‡m‡e mevi Kv‡Q ¯xK…Z

iii) ¯Y©‡K gvbyl g~jëvb e‡j g‡b K‡i

iv) ¯‡Y©i g~jëvb nevi gZ ¸YMZ êwkó¨ Ges gvby‡li Kv‡Q †miKg MÖnY‡hvM¨Zv

Av‡Q

4| g~‡jï e¨vcviwU

i) cy‡ivcywifv‡e e¨w³MZ

ii) m¤ú~Y©fv‡e e¯‘wbf©i

iii) m¤ú~Y© ˆè wbav©wiZ

iv) e¨w³wbf©i I e¯‘MZ DfqB

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iv) e¯‘i g~j¨ me mgq AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K

2| iv) Dc‡ii me¸‡jvB

3| iv) ¯‡Y©i g~jëvb nevi gZ ¸YMZ êwkó¨ Ges gvby‡li Kv‡Q †miKg MÖnY‡hvM¨Zv

Av‡Q

4| e¨w³wbf©i I e¯‘MZ DfqB



g~‡jï cªKvi‡f`

(Classifications of Values)

D‡Ïk¨

GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb

wewfbœ cÖKvi g~j¨ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

¸iæ‡Z¡i w`K †_‡K wewfbœ ai‡bi g~‡jï †kªYxKiY Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

wewfbœ cÖKvi g~‡jï cvi¯úwiK m¤úK© wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

g~j¨ m¤úK©xq mgm¨v AZxZ Kv‡ji b¨vq eZ©gv‡b †KejgvÎ `vk©wbK m¤úÖ v‡qi g‡a¨

mxgve× bq| eis Zv K‡Vvi e¯‘ev`x weÁvbx †_‡K mvaviY gvby‡li wPšÍv-‡PZbvi g‡aÏ

cwijw¶Z nq| m¤¢eZ gvby‡li wPšÍv-fvebvi weeZ©b I RM‡Zi mv‡_ AviI †ewk GKvÍZv

AbyfeB g~‡jï Av‡jvPbvi cÖ‡qvRbxqZv‡K evwo‡q Zz‡j‡Q| ZvB m½Z Kvi‡YB Ab¨vb¨

wel‡qi gZB g~‡jï †kªYxKiY Kiv n‡q‡Q|

gvb ev g~‡jï cÖKvi‡f` (Different Types of Values) ˆ`wnK g~j¨ (Physical Value)

cÖK…Zc‡¶ ˆ`wnK g~j¨ bv‡g †Kv‡bv g~j¨‡K ¯xKvi Kiv n‡e wK n‡e bv, Zv wb‡q †ek

weZ‡K©i AeKvk Av‡Q| Z‡e P~ovšÍ ch©v‡q hyw³i ZvwM‡` ˆ`wnK g~j¨‡K ¯xKvi K‡i wb‡Z

nq| ¶zav, Z…òv, †hŠb evmbv, ¯v¯’ cÖf…wZ‡K ˆ`wnK g~j¨ bv‡g AwfwnZ Kiv nq|

eyw×e„wËK DrKl©Zv ev AvwÍK cwic~Y©Zv gvbe Rxe‡bi Pig j¶¨| eyw×e„wËK DrKl©Zv

e¨ZxZ Ab¨ †Kv‡bv Av`k© gvbe Rxe‡bi Av`k© n‡Z cv‡i bv ev Zv †Kv‡bv cÖKv‡i

gvbexq êwk‡óï mv‡_ mvgÄm¨c~Y© bq| wb®‹›UK Rxeb †Kv‡bv wKQy jv‡fi mnvqK bq|

eis cÖwZeÜKZvi gv‡S gvbyl Zvi Avcb êwk†ó¨ fv¯i ev D¾¦j n‡q I‡V| cvw_©e

Rxe‡bi hveZxq Kvgbv-evmbv‡K mywbqwšÍZ K‡i cÖK…Z gyw³ ev gvbeZvi weR‡qi ¯v`

jvf Kiv hvq| cÖK…Z A‡_© Avgiv †h AvZ¥v‡K Dcjwä Kwi Zv †`‡ni Aw¯Í‡Z¡i Rb¨B

m¤¢eci nq| Kv‡RB †`n I AvZ¥v G‡K Ac‡ii mv‡_ Awe‡”Q`¨fv‡e hy³| A_©vr †`n

gvbe AvKvw•¶Z cig j‡¶¨ †cuŠQv‡Z mnvqK f‚wgKv cvj‡b Avek¨Kxq, hv cÖKvivšÍ‡i

‰`wnK g~j¨‡K ¯xKvi K‡i Ges ¸iæZ¡ I Zvrch©‡K e„w× K‡i|

A_©‰bwZK g~j¨ (Economic Value)

Avw`g mvgëv`x mgv‡R gvby‡li e¨w³MZ m¤úwË e‡j wKQy wQj bv| me wKQy wQj

mvgwóK| gvbyl B‡”Q gZ †h ‡Kvb `ªe¨ †fvM Ki†Zv| wKš‘ ax‡i ax‡i gvby‡li wPšÍv-

‡PZbvi weeZ©‡bi d‡j m¤úwË mvgwóK †_‡K †MvôxMZ Ges Ae‡k‡l e¨w³MZ m¤úwË

iƒ‡c aviYv jvf Ki‡jv| Kv‡RB †h Avw`g mvgëv`x mgv‡R e¯‘i g~‡jï †Kv‡bv

cvV - 4



Avek¨KZv wQj bv, Zv AvR‡Ki mgvR ev¯ÍeZvq Acwinvh© n‡q D‡V‡Q| Avi G welqwU

A_©‰bwZK g~j¨‡K wb‡`©k K‡i|

cyuwRev`x mgvR KvVv‡gv‡Z †Kv‡bv e¨w³B Zvi †gŠwjK Pvwn`v †gUv‡bvi Rb¨ mKj `ª‡eï

gvwjK bq| Kv‡RB Pvwn`v c i‡Y A‡bï Dci wbf©ikxjZv Avek¨K| cyuwRev`x mgvR

eë¯’vi Av‡M cªvK-cyuwRev`x mgv‡R `ª‡eï wewbg‡q `ª‡eï e¨vcK cÖPjb wQj| wKš‘

Zv‡Z †h mgm¨v wQj Zv n‡jv wewbgqKvix `yB e¨w³i gv‡S †mB mKj c‡Yï

cÖ‡qvRbxqZv| GB APjve¯’v wbim‡b Kv¸‡R gy`ªvi cÖPjb n‡q‡Q hv Øviv wbw`©ó g~‡j¨

†Kv‡bv `ªe¨ µq m¤¢e| A_©vr gy`ªvi gva¨‡g †h mKj e¯‘ ev `ª‡eï wewbgq m¤¢e ZvB †m

`ª‡eï A_©‰bwZK g~j¨‡K Dc¯’vcb K‡i|

gvbwmK g~j¨ (Mental Value)

wPšÍv, Abyf‚wZ I K…wZ (Thinking, Feeling & Willing)- G wZbwU g‡bi e„wË| G

wZbwU e„wË h_vµ‡g mZ¨, my›ì I g½j‡K wb‡`©k K‡i| G¸‡jvB gvbwmK g~j¨ bv‡g

AwfwnZ| gvbe Rxe‡bi cig g~j¨‡K GivB cÖwZwbwaZ¡ K‡i| †KejgvÎ G‡ìB ¯Ztg~j¨

we`¨gvb| †Kbbv my›ì‡K my›ì, g½j‡K g½j Ges mZ¨‡K mZ¨ e‡jB Avgiv MÖnY

Kwi| wb‡P cÖ‡Z¨KwUi Avjv`vfv‡e g~j¨vqb Kiv n‡jv:

wPšÍvi g~j¨ (Intellectual Value) : gvbyl gvÎB wPšÍvkw³i AwaKvix| GUv Zvi

Avcb êwkó¨| µgvMZ wPšÍvkw³i eënvi I Zv‡K kvwYZ K‡i wPšÍvi Av`k© mZ¨‡K

jvf KivB gvbe Rxe‡bi Ab¨Zg j¶¨| mZ¨‡K jvf Kiv m¤¢e wK m¤¢e bq G msk‡q

Kvj‡¶cY bv K‡i mZ¨ jv‡fi ZrciZvq wPšÍvi AMÖYx f‚wgKv cvjb Kivi `vq eZ©vq|

e¨w³‡Z e¨w³‡Z ev RvwZ‡Z RvwZ‡Z ÔmZ¨Õ m¤ú‡K© wewfbœ aviYv we`¨gvb| Z‡e GUv

AZ¨šÍ ¯vfvweK, †Kbbv cÖ‡Z¨‡KB Avjv`v mvgvwRK cwigÛ‡ji gv‡S †e‡o D‡V‡Q,

Rxe‡bi Kv‡Q cÖZ¨vkv I Rxeb‡K wbR wbw`©ó m‡Zï gvb`‡Û Pvjbv KivB Zvi Afxáv|

Z‡e hZB cv_©K¨ ev wfbœZv cwijw¶Z †nvK bv †Kb mZ¨Kvgx Ges AvZ¥-Dbœqbkxj

e¨w³i gv‡S cÖv_wgK ch©v‡q mZ¨ m¤ú‡K© GKwU A¯úó aviYv _vK‡e, ch©vqµ‡g Zv

my úó I `„p aviYvq iƒcvšÍi jvf Ki‡e| A_©vr GB cÖwµqvi gva¨‡g wPšÍv m‡Zï

me©Rbxb gvb`Û `vuo Kiv‡Z AMÖMvgx nq|

K…wZi g~j¨ (Volitional Value) : K…wZ ev K‡g©i Av`k© g½j| myLx-mg„×kvjx mgvR

MV‡b Kg©mRxeZv ev Kg©PÂjZvi weKí †bB| cÖK…Zc‡¶ †mB KvRB M«nY‡hvM¨ hv

g½j Avbq‡b m¶g| `k©‡bi Ab¨vb¨ wel‡qi gZ g½‡ji cÖK…Z iƒc wb‡q h‡_ó gZ‡f`

cwijw¶Z nq| GK‡PwUqvfv‡e GK `j `vk©wbK †hgb e‡jb, ˆ`wnK myLB g½j, Avevi

Ab¨ GK`j `vk©wbK e‡jb, gvbwmK myLB g½j| Avevi mgšqev`x aviv ev bxwZ

Aej¤b K‡i †Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK `yÕ‡qi mgš‡qi gv‡S g½‡ji Avfv †`L‡Z cvb|

Z‡e hZB weZK© _vKzK bv †Kb eZ©gvb mvgvwRK †cÖ¶vc‡U Ôme©vwaK mvgvwRK Kj¨vY

jvfÕ- GB aviYv ev Av`‡k© AbycÖvwYZ n‡q †h Kg©cÖ‡Póv Zvi gv‡SB cÖK…Z g½j wbwnZ|



Abyf‚wZi g~j¨ (Emotional Value):: Abyf‚wZi Av`k© n‡”Q my›ì| my›ì‡K

h_v_©fv‡e cÖKvwkZ Kivi gva¨‡gB Abyf‚wZi g~j¨ wbwnZ| Ô†mŠ›`h©Õ aviYvwU †ek PgKcÖ

I weZwK©Z welq| mvaviYZ: `vk©wbKMY `ywU wkwe‡i wef³ n‡q †mŠ›`h© m¤úK©xq gZev`

e¨³ K‡i‡Qb| cÖ_gZ: GK`j `vk©wbK e‡jb, †mŠ›`h© AvZ¥MZ| hveZxq †mŠ›`h© gvby‡li

gb †_‡K DrmvwiZ| e¯‘‡Z †Kv‡bv †mŠ›`h© †bB| iex›`ªbv_ VvKz‡ii wb‡æv³ KweZvi

jvBb¸‡jv‡Z G g‡bvfve e¨³ n‡q I‡V -

ÒAvgvi †PZbvi i‡O cvbœv n‡jv meyR,

Pzwb DVj ivOv n‡q|

Avwg †PvL †gjjyg AvKv‡k-

R¡‡j DVj Av‡jv

c~‡e cwð‡g

†Mvjv‡ci w`‡K ‡P‡q ejjyg Ômy›ìÕ-

my›ì n‡jv †m|Ó

wØZxqZ: Av‡iK `j `vk©wbK g‡b K‡ib, †mŠ›`h© m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c e¯‘MZ| GLv‡b gvby‡li

g‡bi †Kv‡bv f‚wgKv †bB| hv my›ì Zv Avcbv‡ZB my›ì; gvby‡li g‡bi gvayix †gkv‡bvi

†Kv‡bv Avek¨KZv †bB| †Mvjvc dz‡j, AvKv‡ki Zvivq, †Rvrøv iv‡Z †h †mŠ›`h© Zv

†Kv‡bv e¨w³gb ch©†e¶Y bv Ki‡jI Avcb †mŠ›`†h© fv¯i|

cÖK…Z chv©‡jvPbvq G welqwU ¯úóZ cÖZxqgvb nq †h, Dfq gZev`B Pig gZev`| Dfq

gZev`B GK‡`k`wk©Zv‡`v‡l `yó| Kv‡RB mgšqev`x aviv ev bxwZ Aej¤b K‡i ejv

hvq †h, †mŠ›`h© AskZ: e¨w³wbf©i, AskZ: e¯‘wbf©i| G welqwU j¨vs‡dì

(Langfeld)-Gi e³‡e¨ Av‡iv cwi®‹vifv‡e wea„Z n‡q‡Q: Ò†mŠ›`h© m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c e¨w³MZ

Abyf‚wZi Dci A_ev Abyf‚Z e¯‘i Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| GUv e¨w³MZ bq ev e¯‘MZ bq|

GUv †Kej wPšÍvRvZ K‡g©i dj bq ev e ‘RvZ g~j¨ bq| GUv n‡jv cwieZ©bkxj e¨w³ I

e¯‘- G y‡Uvi m¤úK© ev m¤Ü|Ó

g~‡jï Abyµg ci¤úiv (Gradation of Values) ¸iæZ¡ ev cÖ‡qvRbxqZv, †Kv‡bv wel‡qi Av‡jvPbv, ch©v‡jvPbv I we‡køl‡Yi Avek¨KZv‡K

evwo‡q †Zv‡j| wbw`©ó welqe¯‘i †Kv‡bv& †Kv‡bv& As‡k ‡ewk ¸iæZ¡ Av‡ivc Ki‡Z n‡e

Avi ‡Kvb& †Kv‡bv& As‡k A‡c¶vK…Z Kg ¸iæZ¡ Av‡ivc Ki‡Z n‡e Zv welqwU

ch©vqµwgKfv‡e Av‡jvPbv Ki‡j †evaMg¨ n‡q I‡V| wb‡æ ¸iæ‡Z¡i w`K ‡_‡K g~‡jï


¯Z:g~j¨ I ciZ:g~j¨ (Intrinsic and Extrinsic Values)

g~‡jï wbR¯ g~j¨ _vKv ev bv _vKvi Dci wfwË K‡i g~j¨†K ¯Z:g~j¨ I ciZ:g~j¨

wn‡m‡e †kªYxfz³ Kiv nq| †h g~‡jï wbR¯ g~j¨ Av‡Q Ges GKvšÍfv‡e wb‡Ri Rb¨

PvIqv nq, Zv‡K ¯Z:g~j¨ ejv nq| ¯Z:g~j¨ mv‡c¶ bq, ¯ZšÍ I ¯vaxb|



D`vniY¯iƒc, myL ev cÖkvwšÍ ¯Z:g~j¨, †Kbbv myL †KejgvÎ wb‡Ri Rb¨ PvIqv nq Ges

wbR¯ g~‡jï `vwe`vi| mZ¨, my›ì I g½j- G¸‡jv n‡jv ¯Z:g~j¨| mZ¨ mZ¨ e‡jB,

g½j g½jgqZvi Rb¨B Ges my›ì, †mŠ›`h© weKv‡ki mnvqK e‡jB Zv Avg‡ì Kvg¨|

G wZbwU gvbe Rxe‡bi gnr Av`k©| G wZbwU Av`‡k©i mw¤§j‡b gvbe Rxeb †c‡Z cv‡i

cwic~Y© I mv_©K Rxeb|

†h g~‡jï wbR¯ ‡Kvb g~j¨ †bB, wKš‘ Aci g~j¨ jv‡fi mnvqK Zv‡K ciZ:g~j¨ ejv

nq| ciZ:g~j¨ Av‡cw¶K I kZ©mv‡c¶| ciZ:g~j¨ †Kv‡bv wKQy jv‡fi Dcvq wn‡m‡e

KvR K‡i| ciZ:g~j¨ gvbe Rxe‡bi †Kv‡bv cig j¶¨ bq, eis Dcj¶¨gvÎ| †hgb-

A_©, e¨vqvg cÖf…wZ n‡jv ciZ:g~j¨| A_© myL-¯^v”Q›`¨ Avbq‡bi mnvqK Ges e¨vqvg my¯’

I Kg©¶g †`n ˆZwi‡Z mnvqK|

e¨w³MZ I e¯‘MZ g~j¨ ( Subjective and Objective Values)

†Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv `vk©wb‡Ki g‡Z, g~j¨ n‡jv AvZ¥MZ ev e¨w³wbf©i| e¨w³i cQ›`, AvMÖn,

g‡bvfve BZ¨vw` †Kv‡bv e¯‘‡Z g~j¨ Av‡ivc K‡i| g~j¨ hw` e¯‘MZ n‡Zv Zvn‡j Zv mevi

Kv‡Q mgvbfv‡e MÖnY‡hvM¨ g‡b nZ| †hgb, GK UzKiv ¯Y© mf¨ gvby‡li Kv‡Q AZ¨šÍ

g~jëvb e‡j M„nxZ, wKš‘ †Kv‡bv eb¨ m¤úÖ v‡qi gvby‡li Kv‡Q Zv ¸iæZ¡ enb K‡i bv|

m½x‡Zi †¶‡ÎI Gi MÖnY‡hvM¨Zv e¨vL¨vZ nq; †hgb, D`vigbv †Kv‡bv e¨w³ iex›`ª

m½xZ cQ›` K‡i, Ab¨w`‡K msKxY© g‡bvfvevcbœ †Kv‡bv e¨w³ Zv me© v AcQ›` K‡i|

ev¯Íeev`x `vk©wbMY g‡b K‡ib †h, g~j¨ n‡jv Awbevh©fv‡e e¯‘MZ ev e¯‘wbf©i| g~jëvb

e¯‘‡Z Ggb wKQy Dcv`vb we`¨gvb hv mevi `„wó‡K AvKwl©Z K‡i| †hgb, Ô†gvbvwjmvÕ

wkíKg©wU h_v_© my›ì e‡j mevi Kv‡Q mgvbfv‡e MÖnY‡hvM¨|

cÖK…Z ch©v‡jvPbvq G mZ¨ ¯úó n‡q I‡V †h, g~j¨ m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c AvZ¥MZ wKsev m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c

e¯‘MZ bq| eis `y‡qi mgšq¯iƒc| cvw_©e cÖ‡qvR‡b AwaKZi Avek¨Kxq e¯‘mg~n hv

cÖK…Z A‡_©B wbw`©ó wKQy Dcv`vb aviY K‡i Zv‡ZB Avgiv g~j¨ Av‡ivc Kwi|

Av‡cw¶K I cig g~j¨ (Relative and Absolute Value)

Av‡cw¶K I Pig GB `yÕfv‡eI g~‡jï g~j¨vqb Kiv n‡q _v‡K| mZ¨, my›ì I g½j

n‡jv cig g~j¨| †Kbbv G¸‡jv wbR ¸‡YB jf¨| G wZbwU gvbe Rxe‡bi cwic~Y©

weKv‡ki †mvcvb| Ab¨w`‡K ˆ`wnK g~j¨, A_©‰bwZK g~j¨ BZ¨vw` Av‡cw¶K; †Kbbv

G¸‡jv Pig g~j¨ jv‡fi mnvqKgvÎ| cig g~j¨¸‡jv e¯‘MZ, †Kbbv Giv e¨w³i `ªe¨g~j¨

wbiƒc‡Yi evB‡i †_‡K e¨w³i g~j¨ wbiƒcY‡K wbqš¿Y K‡i| GQvov, Ck¦i †h‡nZz cig

mËv, ZvB mKj ¯Z:g~j¨ e¯‘MZ, Ges Pig g~‡jï mv‡_ Ck¦i Awe‡”Q`¨ m¤ú‡K© m¤ú„³|

gvbwmK g~j¨¸‡jvi cvi¯úwiK m¤úK© (Interaction between Mental Values) gvbwmK g~j¨¸‡jv Avjv`v Avjv`vfv‡e Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡jI †m¸‡jv †h ci¯úi †_‡K

c„_K, Ggb aviYv Ki‡j fzj n‡e| eis mvgvwRK e¨w³Z¡ jv‡fi weKv‡k I e¨w³i

†PZbvi DËi‡Y G¸‡jvi cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki f‚wgKv mgvb Ges G‡K Ac‡ii AbyMvgx| †Kv‡bv

†Kv‡bv `vk©wbK Ôme©vwaK mvgvwRK Kj¨vY jv‡fiÕ K_v e¨³ K‡i e‡jb †h, K‡g©i Av`k©



g½jB GKgvÎ cÖavb g~j¨| Ab¨vb¨ g~j¨¸‡jvi c„_K †Kv‡bv Aw¯ÍZ¡ †bB| eis Zv g½‡ji

mv‡_ GKxf‚Z| G gZev‡ì cÖe³viv Av‡iv ¯úó K‡i e‡jb †h, †Kv‡bv e¯‘i †mŠ›`h© I

mZZv wbf©i K‡i KZUzKz g½j jv‡f Zv m¶g Zvi Dci|

Avevi A‡b‡K my›ì‡K GKgvÎ g~j¨ e‡j `vwe K‡ib| mZ¨ I g½‡ji c„_K †Kv‡bv

Aw¯ÍZ¡ †bB, eis Zv †mŠ›`‡h©i Dci wbf©ikxj| Zviv e‡jb †h, gvbyl †h‡nZz DbœZZi

†PZbvm¤úbœ Rxe, †m Kvi‡Y †PZbvi DËiY Zvi j¶¨| Avi GB †PZbvi DËi‡Yi mv‡_

mv‡_ †mŠ›`‡h©i aviYvi mw¤§jb Avek¨K| g½‡ji aviYv wPšÍv I Abyf‚wZi mv‡_

IZ‡cÖvZfv‡e RwoZ, †mŠ›`h© wePv‡ii †¶‡Î mZ¨ I g½‡ji aviYv Avbq‡bi Avek¨KZv

cwijw¶Z nq| †hgb, wk‡íi KvR ‡mŠ›`h© m„wó, wKš‘ †m †mŠ›`‡h©i mv‡_ hw` g½j I

m‡Zï †Kv‡bv m¤úK© bv _v‡K Z‡e Zv h_vh_ Av‡e`b m„wó Ki‡Z e¨_© nq| cwi‡k‡l

ejv hvq †h, mZ¨, g½j I my›ì ci¯úi Nwbô m¤ú‡K© Ave×| hw` c„_Kfv‡e Zv‡ì

aviYv jvf Ki‡Z AMÖmi nB, Z‡e g~j †cÖ¶vcU †_‡K wePy¨Z nevi m¤¢vebvB cÖej|

Dcmsnvi

g~‡jï †kªYxKi‡Y mKj `vk©wbK I wPšÍvwe` †h HK¨gZ †cvlY K‡i‡Qb Zv bq| eis

A‡bK †¶‡ÎB Zv‡ì e³e¨ A¯úó Ges weZ‡K©i m„wó K‡i‡Q| Z`ycwi g~j¨ m¤úwK©Z G

†kªYxKiY AvaywbK mgvR ev¯ÍeZv I wPšÍv-fvebvi mv‡_ GgbwK ˆ`bw›`b Kvh©µ‡gi mv‡_

AwaKZi m½wZc~Y©|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| g~†jï †kªYxKiY wb‡`©k Kiæb| gvbwmK g~j¨¸‡jvi cvi¯úwiK m¤úK© Av‡jvPbv

Kiæb|

msw¶ß iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| ˆ`wnK g~j¨ cÖK…Z g~j¨ wKbv ms‡¶‡c e¨vL¨v w`b|

2| ¯Z:g~j¨ I ciZ:g~j¨ ej‡Z wK eySvq? D`vniYmn eY©bv Kiæb|

3| gvbwmK g~j¨¸‡jvi wfZ‡i ‡Kvb GKwU wK we‡kl ¸iæZ¡ enb K‡i? e¨vL¨v w`b|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| ¯Ztg~j¨ n‡jv

i) hvi wbR¯ g~j¨ Av‡Q

ii) hvi wbR¯ g~j¨ †bB

iii) †h g~j¨ Ab¨ wKQy Øviv wba©vwiZ nq

iv) hvi wbR¯ g~j¨ KL‡bv _v‡K Avevi KL‡bv _v‡K bv

2| ciZtg~j¨ n‡jv

i) hvi wbR¯ g~j¨ Av‡Q

ii) hvi wbR¯ g~j¨ †bB

iii) hvi wbR¯ g~j¨ Av‡Q Ges †bB

iv) Dc‡ii †Kv‡bvwUB bq

3| gvbwmK g~j¨

i) mZ¨

ii) my›ì

iii) g½j

iv) Dc‡ii me KqwU

4| ciZtg~j¨ †Kv‡bvwUi Av‡Q

i) Kjg

ii) Nwo

iii) †Uwej

iv) UvKv

mwVK DËi

K)

1| i) hvi wbR¯ g~j¨ Av‡Q

2| ii) hvi wbR¯ g~j¨ †bB

3| iv) Dc‡ii me KqwU

4| iv) UvKv



g~j¨ wbav©i‡Yi bxwZmg~n

(Principles of Valuation)

D‡Ïk¨


†Kv‡bv e¯‘ ev NUbvi g~j¨ wba©vi‡Y †Kv‡bv& †Kv‡bv& gvb ev bxwZgvjv Abym„Z nq Zv

eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

we‡kl we‡kl e¯‘ ev NUbv‡K g~jëvb ejvi †¶‡Î KwZcq bxwZ‡K Avgiv mbv³ Ki‡Z

cvwi| Z‡e †h‡nZz g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi cÖwµqvwU †ek RwUj, ZvB Gme bxwZmg~‡ni e¨wZµgI

_vK‡Z cv‡i| g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi Gme bxwZmg~n wb¤œiƒc n‡Z cv‡i :

K) ’vqxZ¡ (Permanence)

L) myL I Avb›``vqKZv (Pleasure and Happiness)

M) g~j¨ wbiƒc‡Y ¯vaxb B”Qvi f‚wgKv (Self-Chosen Values) N) DrKl© (Excellence)

O) m„wókxjZv I m½wZ (Creativity and Harmony)

Av‡jvP¨ cv‡V g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi Gme bxwZ¸‡jv wb‡qB Avgiv Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

¯’vqxZ¡

†Kv‡bv e¯‘i g~‡jï †¶‡Î Zvi ¯’vqx‡Z¡i welqwU †ek ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| wKQy g~j¨ Av‡Q hv

¶Y¯’vqx| †hgb- GKUv fvj ˆbk †fvR| Avevi wKQy g~j¨ Av‡Q `xN© ’vqx| †hgb- GKUv

DËg êevwnK m¤úK© Ges cyÎ-‡cŠÎmn GKwU myLx cwievi| KL‡bv KL‡bv Avgiv

Rxe‡bi ¯’vqx Ges `xN© †gqv`x g~‡jï Abyl½¸‡jv‡KB D”PZi g~j¨ wn‡m‡e MÖnY Kwi|

GB ¯’vqx‡Z¡i m‡½ hy³ nq wbivcËv Ges MfxiZi g~j¨ ÁvcKZv| †hgb- †ewki fvM

gvbylB Ggb GKwU PvKzwi ev †ckvK‡K g~jëvb e‡j g‡b K‡ib hv `xN© ’vqx, wbivc`

Ges hv Avb›`c~Y©| Ab¨ †Kv‡bv PvKzix ev †ckvi †P‡q Kg A_©Kix n‡jI G ai‡bi

KvR‡K gvbyl g~jëvb g‡b Ki‡Z cv‡i| mKj gvby‡li Rb¨ mZ¨ bv n‡jI mvaviYfv‡e

†mme e¯‘ ¸Y‡K gvbyl †ewk g~jëvb g‡b K‡i hv AwaKZi ¯’vqx cÖK…wZi nq| Z‡e me

`xN© ’vqx ¸Ym¤úbœ e¯‘B g~jëvb n‡e Ggb bq|

myL I Avb›``vqKZv

Avgiv wbtm‡›`‡n ej‡Z cvwi †h, me gvbylB Avb›` Ges myL`vqK e¯‘‡KB g~jëvb e‡j

MY¨ K‡i, Ges hv cwiYv‡g `ytL I hš¿Yv e‡q Av‡b Zv‡K g~j¨nxb e‡j MY¨ K‡i| Z‡e

mveavbZvi mv‡_ g~jëvb I g~j¨nxb e¯‘i cv_©K¨ Kiv cÖ‡qvRb| †Kbbv wKQy wKQy mgq

gvbyl B”QvK…Zfv‡eB wKQy hš¿Yv I `ytL‡K †g‡b †bq Ges Gi Øviv `~ieZx© †Kv‡bv

cvV - 5



myL`vqK j‡¶¨ ‡m †cuŠ‡Q hvq| †hgb- mywL I ¯v¯’ Ki Rxe‡bi Rb¨ A‡bK mgqB

Avgiv A‡¯¿vcPv‡ii gZ hš¿Yv`vqK wPwKrmv‡KI ¯vMZ RvbvB| KL‡bv KL‡bv Avgiv

wbivb›` I Kó`vqK KvRI K‡i _vwK, hLb Zvi gva¨‡g Avgiv A_© DcvR©b Kwi Ges

myLjvf Kwi|

GLv‡b GKwU ¸iæZ¡c~Y© welq n‡jv, Avb›` I myL K_v¸‡jv‡K MÖnY Ki‡Z n‡e e¨vcK

A‡_©| Zv †Kej Zvr¶wYK Bw›`ªq my‡Li ‡fZi mxgve× bq | hviv Bw›`ªq my‡Li c¶cvZx

ev ¯’‚j Bw›`ªq myLev`x Zv‡ì `„wófw½Uv GiKg †h, ÔLvI `vI d‚wZ© KiÕ, †h‡nZz Kvj Zzwg

†eu‡P bvI _vK‡Z cv‡iv| wKš‘ myL I Avb›``vqKZv Kg Bw›`ªq Nwbô e¨vcv‡ii g‡aÏ

i‡q‡Q; †hgb, eyw×e„wËK, Ava¨vwZ¥K I gvbweK Kv‡Ri g‡aÏ myL I Avb›``vqKZv

we`¨gvb| myZivs myL I Avb›``vqKZvi GKUv cwie¨vß A_© Av‡Q, Zv †hgb Bw›`ªq Nwbô

n‡Z cv‡i, †Zgwb gvbwmK chv©‡qiI n‡Z cv‡i| GK_v Avgiv wbwðZfv‡e ej‡Z cvwi,

†h mKj Kv‡Ri g‡a¨ myL I Avb›` weivR K‡i Zv‡KB Avgiv g~jëvb e‡j AvL¨vwqZ

K‡i _vwK|

g~j¨ wba©vi‡Y ¯vaxb B”Qvi f‚wgKv

GUv mZ¨ †h, e¨w³i Dci †hme g~j¨ evB‡i †_‡K Pvwc‡q †`qv nq, Zvi †P‡q †hme

g~j¨†K †m wb‡R ¯vaxb B”Qvi Øviv, †evSvcovi gva¨‡g MÖnY K‡i, †m¸‡jvB Zvi Kv‡Q

†ewk ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| GLv‡b cÖkœ DV‡Z cv‡i †h, gvby‡li Pvicv‡ki AwaKvsk g~j¨B †Zv Av‡M

†_‡K cÖwZwôZ| gvbyl‡K †Kv‡bv GKwU RwUj mgvR, ivóª I cwiev‡i Rb¥v‡Z nq, †hLv‡b

g~j¨ Av‡M †_‡K ˆZwi n‡q Av‡Q; hv‡K cwievi, ¯‹zj, mgvR I ivóª- e¨w³i Dci Pvwc‡q

†`q|

GLv‡b mZK© we‡ePbvi welqwU GB †h, mgvR, cwievi I ivóª Av‡M †_‡K GKUv ˆZwi

g~j¨ Avgv‡ì Dci Pvwc‡q w`‡jI, Avgiv AweKj †mfv‡eB †g‡b †be †Zgb bq| Avgiv

H g~j¨†K MÖnY Kwi Avgv‡ì wbR¯ hyw³-cÖwµqvi wfwË‡Z hvPvB‡qi gva¨‡g| Avgiv

†m¸‡jv‡K g~j¨vqb Kwi Ges hw` Zv Zvrch©nxb nq Z‡e †m¸‡jv‡K cwiZ¨vM Kwi|

myZivs g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi ‡¶‡Î ¯vaxb B”Qvi GKUv ¸iæZ¡c~Y© f‚wgKv Av‡Q| AÜfv‡e

†Kv‡bvI g~j¨‡K MÖnY Kiv AbywPZ, hZ¶Y bv Zv e¨w³i Kv‡Q ¯vaxb †evSvcovi gva¨‡g

g~jëvb e‡j we‡ewPZ nq| D`vniY¯iƒc, aiv hvK †Kv‡bv GKRb †jvK GKwU a‡g©i

Ave‡ni †fZi w`‡q ‡e‡o D‡V‡Q| †m e¨w³ H a‡g©i hveZxq wbqg-Kvbyb†K †Kv‡bv

wePvi-we‡kølY QvovB cvjb K‡i‡Q| GKw`b †m eyS‡Z cvi‡jv H ag©xq g~j¨¸‡jv m¤ú‡K©

†m KL‡bv ‡Kvb cÖkœ †Zv‡jwb, ¯^vaxbfv‡e KLbI wePvi-we‡kølY K‡iwb| Avm‡j Hme

ag©xq g~j¨ K…wÎgfv‡e Zvi m‡½ hy³ n‡q Av‡Q| hw` H g~j¨¸‡jv‡K †m ¯vaxb wePvi-

we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g MÖnY Ki‡Zv Zvn‡jB †Kej I¸‡jvi gva¨‡g bZzb ˆbwZK

welq¸‡jv‡K Zvi c‡¶ wePvi-we‡kølY Kiv m¤¢e n‡Zv| myZivs †h g~j¨¸‡jv‡K e¨w³

¯^vaxb I mZK© †evSvcovi gva¨‡g MÖnY K‡i †m¸‡jv AwaKZi Zvrch©c~Y©|

DrKl©



Av‡iKwU ¸Y hv g~j¨ wbav©i‡Y we‡kl f‚wgKv iv‡L †mwU n‡jv DrKl©| †Kv‡bv wKQy hLb

myPviæfv‡e m¤úbœ Kiv nq, wKsev †Kv‡bv we‡kl c×wZ hv GKwU KvR‡K myPviæfv‡e

m¤úbœ Kivi Rb¨ gvbyl mev©waK cÖZ¨vkv K‡i, ZvB n‡”Q DrKl©| †hgb, hLb ‡KD

Kgjvi MÜ I ¯v` m¤ú‡K© IqvwKenvj _v‡K, ZLb †m evMv‡bi †h we‡kl KgjvwU

¯v‡`-M‡Ü me †_‡K †kªô †mUv‡KB g~jëvb e‡j MY¨ Ki‡e| Avevi, †KD hLb m½xZ

cQ›` K‡i ZLb †m m‡ev©rK…ófv‡e cwi‡ewkZ m½xZ‡KB g~jëvb we‡ePbv Ki‡e| myZivs

e¯‘i DrKl©, g~j¨ wba©vi‡Y GKwU mywbw`©ó gvb wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i|

m„wókxjZv I m½wZ

g~j¨ MV‡b f‚wgKv iv‡L Ggb Av‡iv `ywU gvb n‡jv, m„wókxjZv I m½wZ| m„wókxjZvi

Afve Ges Am½wZi wecix‡Z Zv‡ì‡K Avgiv g~jëvb e‡j MÖnY Kwi| mgv‡Ri †ekxi

fvM gvbylB Zv‡ì Rxe‡b cÖwZcvk¦© Ges Ab¨vb¨‡ì ga¨Kvi m¤úK©‡K m½wZc~Y©

nIqvUv‡K evÃbxq e‡j g‡b K‡i| ZvQvov, wKQy †jvK Av‡Q hviv Ggb Kg©†¶Î‡K

g~jëvb e‡j †e‡Q †bq, †hLv‡b Rxebhvc‡b Ges Zv‡ì cÖvZ¨wnK KvR-K‡g© m„wókxjZv

Avb‡Z m¶g n‡Z cv‡i| †hgb, †Kv‡bv †jvK‡K Zvi Kg©‡¶‡Î hw` Ggb cwi‡e‡ki

g‡a¨ KvR Ki‡Z nq, †hLv‡b Zv‡K †Kej iæwUb IqvK© Ki‡Z nq, †hLv‡b m„wókxj nevi

my‡hvM †bB Ges Zvi cwiev‡ii mv‡_ m¤úK© i¶vq m½wZc~Y© Ae¯’v ˆZwi‡Z evav m„wó

K‡i, Ggb Kg©‡¶Î Lye †ewk jvfRbK n‡jI †m cwiZ¨vM Ki‡Z cv‡i| eis Ggb

Kg©‡¶Î‡KB †m cQ›` Ki‡e, †hLv‡b Kv‡R m„wókxjZv Av‡Q Ges hv cwiev‡ii mv‡_

GKwU mym½wZ ˆZwi‡Z mvnvh¨ K‡i| m„wókxjZv I m½wZ m¤ú‡K© GKwU Abywm×všÍ,

GLv‡b D‡jøL¨†hvM¨ †h, Zv‡ì‡K n‡Z n‡e MVbg~jK| A‡bK mgq aŸsmvÍK Kv‡RI

Kv‡iv m„wókxjZv cÖLi n‡Z cv‡i wKsev Zv Zvi Ae¯’vb Abyhvqx m½wZc~Y©I n‡Z cv‡i

wKš‘ Zv g~‡jï gvcKvwV n‡Z cv‡i bv|

Dcmsnvi

hwÌ e¯‘i g~j¨ wbav©iY GKwU RwUj weqq, ZeyI Av‡jvwPZ gvb¸‡jv e ‘ ev NUbvi g~j¨

wbav©i‡Y mnvqZv Ki‡Z cv‡i| Avgiv g~j¨ mgm¨vi cÖK…wZ wePvi K‡i Av‡jvwPZ gvb¸‡jv

†_‡K cÖ‡hvR¨ gvbwUi Av‡jv‡K g~j¨ wbiƒcY Ki‡Z cvwi|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| g~j¨ wK? g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi bxwZmg~n Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| g~j¨ wbav©i‡Yi bxwZ wn‡m‡e Ô¯vaxb B”Qvi f‚wgKvÕ ms‡¶‡c Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

2| g~j¨ wbav©i‡Yi bxwZ wn‡m‡e ÔmyL I Avb›``vqKZvÕ ms‡¶‡c e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| g~j¨ wba©vi‡Yi Rb¨ ¸iæZ¡c~Y© gvb`Û n‡jv NUbv ev e¯‘i

i) ¯’vqxZ¡ I DrKl©

ii) myL I Avb›``vqKZv

iii) g~j¨ wbav©i‡Y B”Qvi f‚wgKv, m„wókxjZv I m½wZ


2| KL‡bv KL‡bv cxov`vqK NUbv‡KI Avgiv g~jëvb ewj KviY

i) Zv‡Z ’vqxZ¡ I DrKl© _v‡K

ii) cwiYv‡g Zv myLKi I Avb›``vqK n‡q DV‡Z cv‡i

iii) g~j¨ wba©vi‡Y GLv‡b B”Qvi f‚wgKv _v‡K

iv) cxov`vqK KvR m„wókxj I m½wZc~Y©

3| g~jëvb nIqv DwPZ

i) ivóª, mgvR I cwievi hv‡K g~jëvb e‡j ¯xK…wZ †`q

ii) agx©q weavb Abyhvqx hv g~jëvb

iii) B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv wb‡q hyw³ we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g e¨w³ hv‡K g~jëvb we‡ePbv K‡i

iv) hvi ¯’vqxZ¡ Av‡Q

4| e¯‘i g~j¨ wba©vi‡Y GKwU mywbw`©ó gvb wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i

i) †mŠ›`h©

ii) myMVb

iii) DrKl©

iv) cQ›`

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iii) g~j¨ wbav©i‡Y B”Qvi f‚wgKv, m„wókxjZv I m½wZ

2| ii) cwiYv‡g Zv myLKi I Avb›``vqK n‡q DV‡Z cv‡i

3| iii) B”Qvi ¯vaxbZv wb‡q hyw³ we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g e¨w³ hv‡K g~jëvb we‡ePbv K‡i

4| iii) DrKl©



g~j¨ I mËv

(Value and Reality) D‡Ïk¨


mËv wKfv‡e g~j¨wbf©i Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

g~j¨ wKfv‡e mËvwbf©i Zv wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

mËv I g~j¨ †h ci¯úi m¤úK©hy³ Zv †`Lv‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

g~‡jï mv‡_ mËvi m¤úK© wb‡q `vk©wbK‡ì g‡a¨ gZ‡f` i‡q‡Q| Kv‡iv Kv‡iv e³e¨

†_‡K cÖZxqgvb n‡q‡Q †h g~j¨ mËvwbf©i, Avevi Kv‡iv Kv‡iv g‡Z, mËv g~j¨ wbf©i|

Avgiv Gevi wewfbœ `vk©wb‡Ki AwfgZ¸‡jv Av‡jvPbvi gva¨‡g g~j¨ I mËvi m¤úK©

wbiƒcY Kivi †Póv Ki‡ev|

g~j¨ I mËv : Roev`x gZ

Roev`x `vk©wbKiv cig Z‡Ë¡i mv‡_ g~‡jï m¤úK© m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c A¯xKvi K‡ib| Zv‡ì

g‡Z, cigvYyB GB RM‡Zi g~j Ges Rokw³i ØvivB GB RMr wbqwš¿Z nq| RM‡Zi

m„wó, w¯’wZ I aŸsm hvwš¿Kfv‡e N‡U _v‡K| GRb¨ †Kv‡bv m‡PZb mËvi n¯Í‡¶‡ci

cÖ‡qvRb nq bv|

cigZË¡ I g~j¨ m¤ú‡K© Roev`x g‡Zi mgv‡jvPbvq ejv hvq †h, GwU GKwU ÎæwUc~Y©

gZev`, ZvB GwU me©RbMÖvn¨ bq| R‡oi c‡¶ RM‡Zi k„sLjv, mywbw`©óZv , mvgÄm¨ I

H‡Kï ‡Kvb e¨vL¨v †`qv m¤¢e bq| P~ovšÍ ch©‡e¶‡Y g~j¨†K †hLv‡b e¯‘MZ I g‡bvMZ

e‡j ¯xKvi Kiv nq, †mLv‡b Roev`x‡ì g‡Z mZ¨, my›ì I g½‡ji Av`k© ïaygvÎ

g‡bvMZ|

g~j¨ mËvi †P‡q D”PZi

A‡bK `vk©wb‡KiB aviYv, g~j¨ †Kv‡bv D”PZi Drm †_‡K Av‡m| †hgb- Ck¦i, cig ïf,

g½j BZ¨vw`| `vk©wbK †cø‡Uv GB gZev‡ì Ab¨Zg cÖe³v| †cø‡Uv RMZ‡K `ywU fv‡M

fvM K‡i‡Qb: AZxw›`ªq RMr I `„k¨gvb RMr| AZxw›`ªq RMr g~jZ aviYvi RMZ

(World of Ideas), „k¨gvb RMr aviYviB QvqvgvÎ| †cø‡Uvi g‡Z, aviYv¸‡jvi g‡a¨

g½‡ji aviYv (The idea of Good) me‡P‡q D”P ¯Í‡ii| g½j n‡jv K…wZi Av`k©|

Kv‡RB †cø‡Uvi `k©‡b Av`k© ev g~j¨‡K mËvi †P‡q D”PZi ejv n‡q‡Q| mgmvgwqK

`vk©wbK wiKvU©(Rickert)-I †cø‡Uvi GB gZwU‡K mg_©b K‡ib| Zvui g‡Z, g~j¨ Av`k©

wn‡m‡e mËvi †P‡q D”PZi I gnËi Ges mËvi †P‡q g~j¨ eo| g~j¨ D”PZi Drm †_‡K

Av‡m-GK_vi A_©B n‡jv, g~j¨ GKwU e¨w³wbi‡c¶ e¨vcvi| A_©vr hw` c„w_ex‡Z †Kv‡bv

cvV - 6



gvbyl ev cÖvYx bvI _v‡K ZeyI g~‡jï Aw¯ÍZ¡ _vK‡e| mËvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ g~‡jï Ici wbf©i

K‡i Av‡Q|

†cø‡Uv‡K AbymiY K‡i nvU©g¨vb (Hartman)-I e‡jb, g~‡jï †KejgvÎ Av`k©MZ

Aw¯ÍZ¡ Av‡Q| Av`‡k©i cwi‡cÖw¶‡Z hveZxq cvw_©e e¯‘i g~j¨vqb m¤¢e| g~‡jï

AwfÁZvc~e© e¯‘MZ mËv Av‡Q Ges Zviv ev¯Íe RM‡Zi AZxZ| g~‡jï †Kv‡bv ms‡e`b

jvf m¤¢e bq, †Kbbv †KejgvÎ Av`wk©K wn‡m‡e Gi Avwe©fve|

Dch©y³ g‡Zi mgv‡jvPbvq ejv hvq, g~‡jï ev Av`‡k©i †Kv‡bv Aw¯ÍZ¡ m¤¢e bq, hw` bv

Zv e¨w³g‡bi mv‡_ mshy³ _v‡K| Av`‡k©i cªKvk ‡KejgvÎ ev¯Í‡ei g‡a¨ w`‡q m¤¢e,

Kv‡RB Av`‡k©i ¯’vb ev¯Í‡ei Dc‡i GK_v ejv A_©nxb| gvbyl Zvi †PZbvi weKv‡ki

gva¨‡g mZ¨, my›ì I g½‡ji Av`k©‡K Dcjwä Ki‡Z m‡Pó nq| Av`k© ev g~j¨

G‡Kev‡i evB‡i †_‡K mËv ev ZË¡‡K wbqwš¿Z Ki‡e, GK_v fvev hvq bv| †h g~j¨

gvby‡li eyw×MÖvn¨ bq Zv A‡hŠw³K I Amg_©bxq| G cÖm‡½ AviI ejv hvq, †cø‡Uvi

aviYv wKQyUv eyw×MÖvn¨ n‡jI wiKv‡U©i g~j¨ cÖK…Zc‡¶ Aev¯Íe Ges `k©b kv‡¯ i †Kv‡bv

bxwZ w`‡q Zv e¨vL¨vZ bq, eis `y‡ev©a¨Zvi Awf‡hv‡M Awfhy³| †Kbbv Avgiv hv‡K g~j¨

wn‡m‡e AwfwnZ Kwi Zv Avgv‡ì Avkv-AvKv•¶vi mv‡_ m¤ú„³ bv n‡j Ges Ávbeyw×i

AZxZ n‡j, †m¸‡jv g~j¨ wn‡m‡e `vwe Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| Avevi †cø‡Uvi ev¯ÍeweewR©Z I

KíbvcÖm~Z aviYv¸‡jvi b¨vq nvU©g¨v‡bi g~j¨¸‡jvI wKfv‡e Av`k©iƒ‡c KvR Ki‡Z cv‡i,

Zv eyw×i Øviv wbY©q Kiv mnR bq|

g~j¨ mËvi Dci wbf©ikxj

KwZcq cvðvZ¨ `vk©wbK w¯ú‡bvRv (Spinoza), eªvWwj (Bradley) I †evmv¼‡qU

(Bosanquet) Ges fviZxq `vk©wbK ksK‡ii gZv`k© Abyhvqx, cig mËv ev cigZË¡

g~‡jï †P‡q D”PZi ¯’v‡b Avmxb| e¨w³ hwÌ mZ¨, my›ì I g½j‡K Zvrch©gwÛZ I

¸iæZ¡c~Y© g‡b K‡i Z_vwcI cig mËvi Kv‡Q G¸‡jv G‡Kev‡i ¸iæZ¡nxb|

eªvWwji g‡Z,cig mËv me© v mg¯Í gvbweK g~‡jÏ Dc‡iI Ae¯’vb K‡i| Avevi

w¯ú‡bvRv e‡jb, GK cig mËvi Kv‡Q RvMwZK wel‡qi g~j¨vqb wbZvšÍB A_©nxb GKwU

e¨vcvi| eªvWwj AviI e‡jb, cig mËvi g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv AvZ¥we‡iva †bB, wKš‘ g~j¨‡eva

m¤úwK©Z aviYv AvZ¥-we‡iv‡a cwic~Y©| eªvWwji g‡Z, g~j¨ KíbvgvÎ bq, ZvB g~j¨†K

Aw¯ÍZ¡nxb ejv m½Z bq| Avevi RM‡Zi wewfbœ e¯‘i †hgb- eB, LvZv, Kjg, MvQ-cvjv

BZ¨vwì Ae¯’v‡bi gZ g~‡jï Aw¯ÍZ¡‡K ¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv| wKš‘ eªvWwji g‡Z, g~j¨

Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj I Aw¯ÍZ¡nxb GUv nq bv| KviY GKB m‡½ Av‡Q Ges †bB- GUv we‡ivac~Y©|

Kv‡RB g~‡jï ZvwË¡K mËv ¯xKvi Kiv hvq bv| Zvui g‡Z, g~j¨ Avfvm gvÎ| Kv‡RB

ejv hvq, mËvi Avmb g~‡jï Avm‡bi †P‡q A‡bK Dc‡i|

Avevi cvigvw_©K `„wófw½ †_‡K fviZxq `vk©wbK ksKi mZ¨, my›ì I g½‡ji mZ¨Zv

A¯xKvi K‡ib, Z‡e Zv‡ì eënvwiK mZ¨Zv Av‡Q| Zvui g‡Z, mZ¨, my›ì I g½‡ji

cÖK…Z A‡_© †Kv‡bv ev¯ÍeZv †bB eis G¸‡jv AjxK, gvqv I åvšÍ| cig Z‡Ë¡i g‡a¨



†Kv‡bv †f` †bB, Zv †f‡ì AZxZ| cig mËv GK mvgwMÖK HK¨| mËv wn‡m‡e wZwb

wbwe©Kvi, wbwe©‡kl I wb¸©Y|

Dchy©³ gZwUi mgv‡jvPbvq ejv hvq, gvbyl ˆbwZK I Ava¨vwZ¥K †PZbvm¤úbœ Rxe|

ˆbwZK I Ava¨vwZ¥K †PZbv‡K cªwZwôZ Ki‡Z n‡j Avg‡ì GB gZev`wU eR©b Ki‡Z

nq| †Kbbv †h mËvq mZ¨, my›ì I g½‡ji ¯’vb †bB Zvi ev¯Íe Aw¯ÍZ¡ †bB- G K_v

Ab¯xKvh©| G ai‡bi cig mËvi aviYvi A_©B Kíbvi mvM‡i AeMvnb Kiv hv ev¯ÍeZvi

mv‡_ m½wZnxbI e‡U|

g~j¨ I mËv : `vk©wbK †n‡M‡ji gZ

mËv I g~‡jï wel‡q `vk©wbK †n‡M‡ji gZ cÖwYavb†hvM¨| Zvui g‡Z, cig mËv GK

c Y©mËv| Rxeb I RM‡Zi me wKQyB cig mËvq wea„Z| g~j¨ ïay g‡bi Dci wbf©i K‡i

bv| G¸‡jvi e¯ÍMZ mZ¨ZvI Av‡Q| wZwb e‡jb, gvby‡li Kv‡Q D”PZi Av`k© ‡jv,

‡hgb- mZ¨, my›ì, g½j KL‡bv ev¯Í‡e iƒcvwqZ nq bv| Z‡e gvbyl Gme Av`k©

wb‡R‡ì Rxe‡b mv_©K K‡i Zzj‡Z AwfcÖvq cÖKvk K‡i| wKš‘ Amxg MÛx I Amxg

¶gZvi Afv‡e gvbyl Zv KLbB cy‡ivcywifv‡e mv_©K K‡i Zzj‡Z cv‡i bv| mZ¨, my›ì,

g½j- gvby‡li Kv‡Q Av`k© n‡jI G¸‡jv GK cig cyiæl A_©vr Ck¦‡ii g‡a¨ ev¯Íe iƒc

aviY K‡i| Avi †m Ck¦iB n‡jv cig mËv| ZvB †n‡M‡ji e³e¨‡K mg_©b K‡i `vk©wbK

I hyw³we` i‡qm e‡jb, Pig Z‡Ë¡B gvby‡li me Av`k© I g~j¨ cwic Y©Zv jvf K‡i‡Q|

Dcmsnvi

ÒmËv g~j¨wbf©i bv wK g~j¨ mËvwbf©i Ó- G wb‡q G c‡e©i Av‡jvPbvq `vk©wbKM‡Yi wewfbœ

we‡ivac~Y© gZev` m¤ú‡K© Avgiv AeMZ n‡qwQ| e¨vcviwU †hb, †Nvov Av‡M bv Mvwo

Av‡M- Z‡K©i gZ| Gi mgvavbI RwUj| GB Av‡jvPbv †_‡K G K_v ¯úóZt cÖZxqgvb

n‡q‡Q †h, GKwU Av`k©‡K cwic~Y©fv‡e †Kv‡bv gvby‡li c‡¶ jvf Kiv m¤¢e bq|

cwic~Y©fv‡e Av`k© jvf Kivi A_©B n‡”Q Rxe‡bi MwZ †kl n‡q hvIqv Ges ¯ÍäZvq

ch©ewmZ nIqv| g~jZ mZ¨, my›ì I g½j- GB Av`k©mg~n cig mËvi mw¤§j‡b ev¯ÍeZv

jvf K‡i Ges G¸‡jv jv‡f cvw_©e gvbyl me© v m‡Pó _v‡K hv Zvi Rxeb‡K mvdj¨gwÛZ

Ki‡Z AMÖYx f‚wgKv cvjb K‡i|

G c‡e© Av‡jvwPZ wewfbœ `vk©wbKM‡Yi, we‡klfv‡e ‡n‡Mj I i‡q‡mi g‡Zi Av‡jvPbv

†_‡K AviI wm×všÍ MÖnY Kiv hvq †h, g~j¨ ev Av`k© I mËv G‡K Ac‡ii mv‡_

Nwbôfv‡e m¤úwK©Z| Giv †hb gy`ªvi GwcV I IwcV m¤ú‡K© m¤úwK©Z|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cªkœ

1| g~j¨ I mËvi Zzjbvg~jK Av‡jvPbv Kiæb| G cÖm‡½ †n‡M‡ji gZ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| g~j¨ m¤ú‡K© †cø‡Uvi aviYv ms‡¶‡c e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| Òg~j¨ mËvi Dci wbf©ikxjÓ- welqwU ms‡¶‡c eY©bv Kiæb|

3| mËv I g~j¨ m¤ú‡K© †n‡M‡ji aviYv †Kb AwaKZi ¸iæZ¡c~Y©- Gi c‡¶ hyw³ †`Lvb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| mËv I g~‡jï †¶‡Î †Kv‡bvwU mwVK

i) mËv g~‡jï †P‡q eo

ii) g~j¨ mËvi †P‡q eo

iii) g~j¨ I mËv mgv‡b mgvb


2| `vk©wbK wiKv‡U©i g‡Z

i) mËv g~j¨ wbf©i

ii) g~j¨ mËv wbf©i

iii) Giv †KD Kv‡iv Dci wbf©ikxj bq

iv) Giv Df‡q Df‡qi Dci wbf©ikxj

3| mËv wn‡m‡e cigZË¡ wbwe©Kvi, wbwe©‡kl I wb¸©Y- Dw³wU K‡ib

i) ksKi

ii) eªvWwj

iii) w¯ú‡bvRv

iv) Kv›U

4| cigmËv GK cwic~Y© mËv- e‡jb

i) ksKi

ii) Kv›U

iii) ‡n‡Mj

iv) eªvWwj

mwVK DËi

K)

1| ii) g~j¨ mËvi †P‡q eo

2| i) mËv g~j¨ wbf©i

3| i) ksKi

4| iii) †n‡Mj



g~‡jï Zvrch© I Aaybv g~‡jï Ø›Ø

(Significance of Value and Current Value Conflicts)

D‡Ïk¨


cÖhyw³MZ Dbœqb I wPwKrmv weÁv‡bi DbœwZi d‡j g~j¨‡ev‡ai wK cwieZ©b

n‡q‡Q Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

ev¯‘ms¯’v‡bi mv‡_ g~j¨‡ev‡ai m¤úK© Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

A_©bxwZ I eëmvq-Gi mv‡_ g~j¨‡ev‡ai m¤úK© e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

eZ©gv‡b Avgv‡ì Rxeb eë¯’vi †¶‡Î Avgiv Ggb wKQy †gŠwjK cwieZ©b Avb‡Z m¶g

n‡qwQ hvi gva¨‡g Avgv‡ì mvgwMÖK Dbœqb‡K aviY Kiv m¤¢e n‡”Q| wKš‘ GZ AMÖMwZ

m‡Ë¡I wesk kZvãxi †k‡l Avgv‡ì Rxeb eë¯’vi †¶‡Î g~j¨‡evaMZ msKU Lye †ewk

cÖKU n‡q D‡V‡Q| Dbwesk kZvãx‡Z GB msKU GZUv cÖKU wQj bv| GB mgqKvi

Avwe®‹vi¸‡jv we‡kl K‡i †Uwj‡¯‹vc, ev®úPvwjZ BwÄb Ges †iwWI wek¦mgv‡R hZUv

cÖfve †dj‡Z †c‡i‡Q, eZ©gv‡bi (wesk kZvãxi) Avwe®‹vimg~n Zvi †P‡q †ewk cÖfve

†dj‡Z m¶g n‡”Q| wKš‘ c~e©eZx© Avwe®‹vimg~n, cÖhyw³MZ Dbœqb I êÁvwbK

Kjv‡KŠk‡ji eënvi wb‡q gvbyl‡K Lye GKUv fve‡Z n‡Zv bv| wKsev Gme êÁvwbK

eënv‡ii cÖ‡kœ ˆbwZK weZ‡K©iI AeKvk wQj bv| wKš‘ mgmvgwqK Rxe‡b weÁv‡bi

B‡”QgZ Aceënv‡ii d‡j ˆbwZK weZ‡K©i m„wó n‡”Q|

cÖhyw³MZ Dbœqb I g~j¨‡eva

G cÖm‡½ cvigvYweK kw³i Dbœq‡bi K_v ejv hvq| cvigvYweK kw³i Dbœqb Avgv‡ì

Rxebhvcb‡K gnvaŸs‡mi w`‡K avweZ Ki‡Q| we‡kl K‡i hy×v¯¿ cvigvYweK †evgv

gvbeZvi BwZnv‡m †h Ae¶wqZ g~j¨‡ev‡ai m„wó K‡i‡Q Zvi cÖ_g ¯v¶i cvIqv hvq

wØZxq wek¦hy‡×| ZvQvov eZ©gv‡bI †h cwigvY gviYv‡¯¿i gRy` i‡q‡Q Zv w`‡q c„w_ex‡K

`kev‡ii AwaK aŸsm Kiv m¤¢e| Av‡gwiKv Z_v e„nr kw³ai ivóªmg~‡ni K_v aiv hvK,

ZvivI Zv‡ì mvgvwRK AMÖMwZ cÖhyw³MZ Dbœqb‡K a‡i ivLvi Rb¨ Ges evRvi

cÖwZ‡hvwMZvq wb‡R‡ì cÖvavb¨ eRvq ivLvi Rb¨ gviYv‡¯¿i h‡_”Qv Drcv`b I eënvi

K‡i P‡j‡Q| cvkvcvwk m¤¢ve¨ hy× †_‡K wb‡R‡ì gy³ ivL‡Z, cwi‡ek `~lY Ges

cvigvYweK kw³i aŸsmvZ¡K Aceënvi †iva Ges cvigvYweK wbi¯¿xKi‡Yi Rb¨ †Zgb

†Kv‡bv gnZx D‡`¨vM wb‡”Q bv| A_P G¸‡jv mgMÖ gvbe mf¨Zvi Rb¨ ûgwK¯iƒc|

A_©‰bwZKfv‡e AMÖmi ivóªmg~n we‡ùviK I we‡ùviKRvZ `ªe¨ ˆZwi Ki‡ZB ïay D`¨gx

bb, eis Gme aŸsmvZ¡K gviYv¯¿mg~‡ni evRvi ˆZwi Kivi RbÏ cªPÛ AvMÖnx| d‡j

cÖhyw³i †¶‡Î µgewa©Z Dbœqb, AMÖMwZ Avg‡ì‡K Avk¦¯Í bv K‡i eis kswKZ I mš¿ Í

cvV - 7



K‡i Zzj‡Q| †hgb- cÖhyw³MZ Dbœq‡bi d‡j Drcv`b †¶‡Î h¯¿vs‡ki DbœwZ mvwaZ

n‡q‡Q, Drcv`‡b mnvqK †KŠkjMZ DbœwZ mvwaZ n‡q‡Q, cÖwµqvMZ Kvi‡Y A‡bK

`ytmva¨ KvR Abvqv‡m Ges AwaK msL¨K kªwg‡Ki ¯’‡j Aí msL¨K kªwgK w`‡q m¤úbœ

Kiv m¤¢e n‡”Q| Avi Gfv‡e gvbyl Kg©nxb n‡q co‡Q| Avi ZvB cÖhyw³MZ Dbœq‡bi

†bwZevPK w`K¸‡jvi Dci ¸iæZ¡ cÖ vb Kivi cvkvcvwk `~i`kx© n‡Z n‡e| Ab¨_vq

cÖhyw³MZ Dbœqb Avgv‡ì Kj¨vY bv K‡i eis msK‡U wbcwZZ Ki‡e| myZivs cÖhyw³MZ

Dbœqb gvbyl‡K kswKZ, fxZm¯¿ Í Kivi cvkvcvwk Zvi g~j¨‡evaRwbZ †PZbvqI

cÖwZwµqv †d‡j _v‡K|

ev¯‘ms¯’vb I g~j¨‡eva

cÖhyw³MZ Dbœqb Avgv‡ì ev¯‘ms¯’vbMZ (cwi‡ekMZ) mgm¨vI m„wó Ki‡Q| A_P ag©,

mvgvwRK cÖ_v I ˆbwZK Av‡jvPbvq ev¯‘ms¯’v‡bi Dci h‡_ó ¸iæZ¡ †`qv n‡q _v‡K|

wKš‘ wesk kZvãx‡Z cÖhyw³MZ AMÖMwZ I Zvi Aceënv‡ii d‡j ev ‘ms¯’vb gvivÍKfv‡e

wech©‡qi gy‡LvgywL| ‡hgb- cvigvYweK eR© , KjKviLvbv, Mvwo BZ¨vw` †_‡K D`M&Z

†auvqv, ivmvqwbK Dcv`v‡bi wewfbœ eënvi cwi‡e‡ki Dci gvivÍK cÖfve †dj‡Q| A_P

cwi‡ek Z_v ev¯‘ms¯’vbMZ mgm¨v gvbe cÖRvwZ‡K ax‡i ax‡i wejyß K‡i w`‡Z cv‡i- G

m¤¢vebv G‡Kev‡i Dwo‡q †èvi bq|

ev¯‘ms¯’vbMZ Zvrch© cÖm‡½ GRb¨ wewfbœ ag© I ˆbwZK bxwZmg~‡ni Av‡jvPbvi w`‡K

`„wócvZ Kiv DwPZ| ev¯‘ms¯’vb cÖm‡½ Iì †U÷v‡g›U (Old Testament) Abymv‡i

g‡b Kiv nq, mgMÖ wek¦eªþvÛ n‡jv ememKvix gvbz‡li ivRZ¡ A_©vr gvbe ivR¨| GRb¨

gvbyl‡K Zvi AvMvgx my›ì fwel¨r wewbg©v‡Yi Rb¨B Zvi emevmKvix cwi‡e‡ki

†mŠKzgvh© PP©vi cÖ‡qvRb| Avi ZvB evB‡ejxq wek¦åvZ…Z¡‡eva cÖwZôvq ev¯‘ms¯’v†bi

AbyK‚j Ae¯’vI we‡ePbv Kiv nq| Avevi ‡cø‡UvwbK `k©‡bI ev¯‘ms¯’v‡bi Dci ¸iæZ¡

†`qv n‡q‡Q| GLv‡b ejv nq, gvby‡li g‡bvRvMwZK I AšÍwb©wnZ †eŠw×K RM‡Zi mv‡_

civZvwË¡K RM‡Zi GK ai‡bi m¤úK© i‡q‡Q| GB m¤ú‡K©i wfwË‡ZB e¨w³ Zvui

AvZ¥v‡K wbqwš¿Z I ewa©Z Ki‡Z cv‡i| cvkvcvwk RM‡Zi †mŠ›`h© PP©vi ¸iæZ¡‡K

Abyaveb Ki‡Z cv‡i- GB A‡_© †hb cÖK…wZ‡Z we`¨gvb Amxg m¤ú`‡K cywÄf‚Z K‡i

ivL‡Z cv‡i| †cø‡Uv gvbevZ¥vi Pig DrK‡l©i Rb¨ †h civZ‡Ë¡i K_v e‡j‡Qb Zv

AR©‡bi Rb¨ e¨w³‡K cÖK…wZi ms¯úk© wb‡qB Ki‡Z n‡e| A_©vr †cø‡Uvi `k©‡b cÖK…wZ

n‡jv Amxg I wbZ¨| GB Amxg I wbZ¨ cÖK…wZ‡K msi¶Y Kivi cÖ‡qvRbxqZv i‡q‡Q|

†cø‡UvwbK `k©‡b m¤ú‡ì h_vh_ eënvi‡K wbwðZ Kivi cÖwZI ¸iæZ¡ †`qv n‡q‡Q|

A_v©r †Kv‡bv m¤ú` cy‡ivcywi wbt‡kl bv nIqv ch©šÍ cieZx© m¤ú‡ì Dci n¯Í‡¶c

Kiv‡K wbwl× †NvlYv K‡i‡Q| ZvQvov cÖvYx, Dw™¢ I MvQcvjvi h‡_”Qv eënvi Kivi

†¶‡ÎI mveavb nevi K_v ejv n‡q‡Q| Ab¨_vq Gme cÖvK…wZK m¤ú‡ì NvUwZ Avgv‡ì

fwel¨r cÖRb¥‡K msK‡Ui gy‡LvgywL Ki‡Z cv‡i| Gfv‡e †cø‡Uv Zvui `k©‡b gvby‡li Avevm

I cÖvK…wZK cwi‡ek‡K ¸iæZ¡en K‡i Zz‡j‡Qb|



cÖvK…wZK m¤ú` I g~j¨‡eva

wKš‘ eZ©gvb mg‡q gvbemgvR cÖK…wZi ¸iæZ¡‡K h_vh_fv‡e we‡ePbvq Avb‡Q bv e‡j

Avgv‡ì g‡b nq| cÖvK…wZK m¤ú` hwÌ gvby‡li Rb¨, Z_vwc Gme msi¶Y eënv‡ii

†¶‡Î wgZPvix Ges fwel¨r cÖR‡b¥i K_v wPšÍvq ivLv DwPZ| ZvQvov, cÖvK…wZK m¤ú‡ì

NvUwZ gvbe mgvR‡K msK‡Ui gy‡LvgywL wbcwZZ Ki‡Z cv‡i| Z‡e GRb¨B ïay G‡ì‡K

msi¶Y Ki‡ev, Zv bq| cÖvK…wZK m¤ú` I BZi cÖvYxmg~‡ni GKUv wbR¯ g~jÏ i‡q‡Q|

GB g~j¨ cÖvPxb mgv‡R, cÖvPxb fvi‡Z I ag©MÖš’mg~‡n h‡_ó we‡ePbvq ivLv n‡q‡Q|

†hgb- cÖvPxb mgv‡R I cÖvPxb fvi‡Zi Avw`g Avwèvmxiv g‡b Ki‡Zv cÖK…wZi cÖwZ hZ

†ewk m`q nIqv hv‡e Zv‡ì KvQ †_‡K ZZ ‡ekx cÖwZdj cvIqv hv‡e| Zv‡ì g‡Z, †h

mgvR cÖvYx I cÖK…wZi cÖwZ †ewk m`q n‡e Zviv ZZ †ewk mf¨ RvwZ wn‡m‡e we‡ewPZ

n‡e| Gfv‡e Zviv g~j¨‡ev‡ai gva¨‡g cwi‡ek msi¶‡Y Zrci wQj| G‡_‡K eySv hvq,

Avgv‡ì fwel¨r AMÖMwZ, Dbœqb Ges Aw¯ÍZ¡‡K myi¶vi Rb¨B ev¯‘ms¯’vb Gi Dci

¸iæZ¡ †`qv AZ¨vek¨K|

wPwKrmv weÁv‡bi DbœwZ I g~j¨‡eva

wPwKrmv weÁvb Avgv‡ì g~j¨‡evaRwbZ †PZbv‡K hZUv cÖfvweZ Ki‡Z cv‡i Ab¨

†Kv‡bv wKQy Zv Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| †hgb- cÖwZ‡ivag~jK wUKv, Jla, ¯v¯’ ea©b †KŠkj,

mvwR©K¨vj eë¯’v AwaKvsk gvby‡li Rxeb‡K `xNv©qy w`‡q‡Q| Avevi Rb¥wbqš¿Y,

Mf©cvZRwbZ eë¯’vi Dbœqb K‡i RbmsL¨v‡K Avgv‡ì B‡”QgZ we¯Ívi I wbqš¿Y Ki‡Z

cviwQ| GUv mZ¨ †h, wPwKrmv weÁv‡bi Abyiƒc AMÖMwZ wesk kZvãx‡Z ¯vaxbZv I

ms¯‹„wZ‡ev‡a BwZevPK g~j¨‡eva m„wó K‡i‡Q| wPwKrmv weÁvb gvbyl‡K `xN©vqy †èvi

cvkvcvwk †¯”Qvg„Zz¨ MÖn‡Yi ˆbwZK ¯xK…wZI w`‡q‡Q| Gfv‡e wPwKrmv weÁvb gvby‡li

cyi‡bv g~j¨‡ev‡ai ¯’‡j bZzb g~j¨‡ev‡ai m„wó Ki‡Q| cyi‡bv a¨vb-aviYv‡K e`wj‡q bZzb

a¨vb-aviYvi D™¢e NUv‡”Q|

A_©bxwZ, eëmvq I g~j¨‡eva

AvaywbK mgv‡Ri cÖK…wZ, kªgeë¯’v, A_©‰bwZK Pvwn`v Avgv‡ì Rxe‡b bZzb wKQy

g~j¨‡ev‡ai Rb¥ w`‡”Q| d‡j Kg©Rxexi mv‡_ gnvR‡bi, kªwg‡Ki mv‡_ gvwj‡Ki, eëmv

eë¯’vcbvi mv‡_ RbM‡Yi Ges eëmvi mv‡_ cwi‡e‡ki wfbœgvwÎK m¤úK© ¯’vwcZ

n‡q‡Q| †hgb- Drcv`b eë¯’vq AvaywbKvqb, K…wl‡¶‡Î hvwš¿KxKiY, e›Ub eë¯’vq

cyi‡bv ai‡bi ¯’‡j bZzb aib BZ¨vw` kªg I kªwg‡Ki m¤úK©‡K cwiewZ©Z K‡i w`‡q‡Q|

GB D™¢‚Z m¤ú‡K©i d‡j mgv‡R m„wó n‡q‡Q bZzb ˆbwZK gvÎv, bZzb g~j¨‡ev‡ai|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| cÖhyw³MZ Dbœqb, ev¯‘ms¯’vb I wPwKrmv weÁv‡bi cwieZ©b wKfv‡e mvgvwRK

g~j¨‡eva‡K cÖfvweZ K‡i‡Q? we¯ÍvwiZ eY©bv w`b|


1| cÖhyw³MZ Dbœqb wKfv‡e Avgv‡ì g~j¨‡eva‡K cÖfvweZ K‡i? Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

2| Òev¯‘ms¯’v‡bi cÖwZ hZœkxj nIqv DwPZÓ|- GB Dw³wUi c‡¶ hyw³ †`Lvb|

3| A_©bxwZ I eëmvq-Gi †¶‡Î cwieZ©b wKfv‡e mvgvwRK g~j¨‡eva‡K cÖfvweZ K‡i

Zvi msw¶ß Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| ÒcÖvK…wZK Rxeb I civZvwË¡K Rxeb m¤úwK©ZÕÕ- Dw³wU K‡ib

i) †cø‡Uv

ii) A¨vwi÷Uj

iii) iæ‡kv

iv) wWDB

2| ÒcÖvK…wZK †mŠ›`‡h©i wfZi w`‡q wek¦åvZ…Z¡‡K cÖwZôv Kiv hvqÕÕ- GB Dw³wU i‡q‡Q

i) †KviAv‡b

ii) evB‡e‡j

iii) Iì †U÷v‡g›U

iv) wbD †U÷v‡g›U

3| Òev¯‘ms¯’v‡bi cÖwZ hZœkxj bv n‡j cwi‡ek wech©q †VKv‡bv hv‡e bvÕÕ

i) Dw³wU mZ¨

ii) Dw³wU wg_¨v

iii) Dw³wU AvswkK wg_¨v

iv) Dw³wU AvswkK mZ¨

4| wPwKrmv weÁv‡b gvby‡li AMÖMwZ

i) g~j¨‡ev‡a cwieZ©b NUv‡Z cv‡i

ii) mvs¯‹…wZK Rxe‡b cÖfve †dj‡Z cv‡i

iii) gvbyl‡K wec_Mvgx Ki‡Z cv‡i

iv) Dc‡ii me KqwU NUv‡Z cv‡i

mwVK DËi

K)

1| i) †cø‡Uv

2| iii) g›U

3| i) Dw³wU wg_¨v

4| i) ‡ev‡a cwieZ©b NUv‡Z cv‡i

cvV - 8



g~j¨ wn‡m‡e Rxeb

(Life as a Value) D‡Ïk¨


Rxe‡bi A_© wK Zv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

†Kvb& A‡_© Rxeb g~jëvb Zv eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

e¨w³Rxe‡bi ˆbwZK I mvgvwRK g~j¨‡eva m¤ú‡K© e¨vL¨v w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

Rxeb wK wb‡RB GKwU g~j¨? cÖkœwU †KŠZ‚n‡jvÏxcK I ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| RxeweÁv‡bi `„wó‡Z

Rxeb n‡”Q, KZK¸‡jv A½-cÖZ¨‡½i mgš‡q MwVZ GKwU RxešÍ Aw¯ÍZ¡| Avi Av`k©MZ

w`K †_‡K Rxeb n‡”Q, GKwU †eŠw×K, A_©c~Y©, djcÖm~ I MwZgq RxešÍ Aw¯ÍZ¡| cÖ_g

A‡_© Rxeb g~j¨ bq| †Kbbv g~‡jï mv‡_ m‡PZbfv‡e g~j¨vq‡bi cÖwµqvi aviYvwU

RwoZ| GB A‡_© A‡PZb Roe¯‘ I wb¤œ ch©v‡qi cÖZ¨½ g~j¨vqb cÖwµqvi mv‡_ RwoZ

bq| ZvB Giv g~jëvb bq| Z‡e G‡ì êlwqK g~j¨ _vK‡Z cv‡i, Avi ZvQvov A_©nxb

Rxeb ïaygvÎ Aw¯Í‡Z¡i Kvi‡Y gbyl¨‡Z¡i g~j¨ aviY Ki‡Z cv‡i bv| G ai‡bi Rxeb

g~j¨m¤úbœ gvby‡li g~jëvb Rxeb AR©‡bi wbwgËK wn‡m‡e eëüZ n‡Z cv‡i|

wKš‘ wØZxq A‡_©, Rxeb ¯úóZB GKwU g~j¨| GwU GKwU AšÍwb©wnZ g~j¨ Ges GLv‡b GB

g~j¨ aviYKvix RxešÍ Aw¯ÍZ¡ GKwU wbwgËK ev evnK wn‡m‡e KvR K‡i‡Q| Rxe‡bi

wbR¯ G ai‡bi g~j¨ _vK‡Z cv‡i wKbv Zv wb‡q `vk©wbK‡ì g‡a¨ gZwe‡iva Av‡Q|

g~j¨ I Rxeb : wewfbœ `vk©wbK I `vk©wbK m¤úÖ vq

wMÖ‡mi ÔwmwbKÕ I Ô†÷vwqKÕ bvgK `vk©wbK m¤úÖ vq Rxeb m¤ú‡K© ˆbivkëv`x gZ cÖPvi

K‡ib Ges Rxe‡bi wbR¯ g‚‡jï K_v A¯xKvi K‡ib| AvaywbKKv‡j weªwUk `vk©wbK

†WwfW wnDg Ges `ytLev`x Rvgv©b `vk©wbK Av_v©i †kv‡cb nvIqviI Rxe‡bi g~j¨

m¤ú‡K© Abyiƒc gZ †cvlY K‡i‡Qb| Z‡e AvaywbKKv‡jiB Aci GK Rvgv©b `vk©wbK,

Bgvby‡qj Kv›U Rxe‡bi g~j¨ m¤ú‡K© my›ì hyw³ `vuo Kwi‡q‡Qb| Kv‡›Ui hyw³Uv GB †h,

ÒˆbwZK wewa m¤ú~Y© Ô¯^kvwmZÕ, A_v©r wb‡Ri AwaKvi cÖ‡qv‡Mi Rb¨ †m Ab¨ wKQyi

gyLv‡c¶x bq| wKš‘ GiKg GKUv wewa _vK‡Z n‡j RM‡Z Ggb GKUv wKQy _vKv PvB

hvi wbR¯^ ev AšÍwb©wnZ (Intrinsic) g~j¨ Av‡Q| †m g~j¨ Av‡Q eyw×m¤úbœ (Rational) RxeK‚‡ji Ges gvbyl †m †kªYxi AšÍM©Z| Ab¨K_vq, cÖ‡Z¨K bigvj ev ¯vfvweK gvbyl

GK GKwU ¯wbf©i Ôg~j¨Õ; Zvi Aw¯Í‡Z¡i †hŠw³KZvi Rb¨ Avi wKQyi Dci ‡m wbf©ikxj

bq| myZivs cÖ‡Z¨K gvby‡li DwPZ wb‡R‡K Ges Acivci cÖwZwU gvbyl‡K ‡Kej ÔDcvqÕ

(mean) wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv bv K‡i ÔD‡Ïk¨Õ (end) wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv|Ó



g~j¨ I Rxeb : mvgvwRK cwi‡cÖw¶Z

mvgvwRK †cÖ¶vc‡U Rxeb‡K we‡ePbv K‡i Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi, Rxeb cÖKvwkZ nq

mvgvwRK e¨w³i gva¨‡g| Avi e¨w³i e¨w³Z¡ cÖKvwkZ nq AvZ¥wbqš¿‡Yi gva¨‡g| e¨w³

Zvi cvwicvwk©¦K Ae¯’vi Dci AÜfv‡e wbf©i K‡i bv| Zvi cwi‡ek‡K †m wb‡Ri

cÖ‡qvRb Abyhvqx wbqš¿Y Ki‡Z cv‡i| mgv‡Ri cÖwZ `vwqZ¡-KZ©e¨ mwVKfv‡e m¤úbœ K‡i

mvgvwRK e¨w³ wn‡m‡e Rxe‡bi g~j¨‡K cÖwZwôZ Ki‡Z cv‡i|

gvbyl g~jZ mvgvwRK Rxe| cvi¯úwiK wbf©ikxjZvi Kvi‡YB gvbyl m„wó K‡i‡Q mgvR|

Rxe‡bi b~ bZg Pvwn`v †gUvevi Rb¨B cÖ‡qvRb nq G‡K Ac‡ii| GB cÖ‡qvR‡bi Dci

wfwË K‡iB gvby‡li gv‡S mgwóMZ Rxe‡bi Dcjwä Av‡m| †cÖg, `qv, KiæYv, mnvbyf‚wZ

BZ¨vwì b¨vq AšÍwb©wnZ †eva I †PZbv w`‡q e¨w³ wbR¯ †h ¯KxqZv M‡o †Zv‡j ZvB

g~j¨‡eva|

mvgvwRK Rxeb I g~j¨‡eva

eZ©gvb mvgvwRK Rxe‡b †h msKU `vk©wbK we‡køl‡Y Zv g~jZ g~j¨‡ev‡aiB msKU| Avi

GRb¨B Rxeb‡K gvwR©Z, myk„sLj I AvPvi-AvPi‡Y cwiï× K‡i †Zvjvi Rb¨ g~j¨‡ev‡ai

Abykxjb cÖ‡qvRb| ‡Kbbv hw` gvby‡li m‡PZb mËvq cÖK…Z Rxe‡bi Av`k©, D‡Ïk¨ I

g~j¨‡ev‡ai †Kv‡bv my úó QK bv _v‡K wKsev cwiKwíZ †Kv‡bv aib bv _v‡K, Zvn‡j

Abyiƒc Ae¶wqZ KvVv‡gvB g~j¨‡ev‡ai aŸm‡K ZivwšZ Ki‡e| ZvB eZ©gvb Rxe‡b

g~‡jï cÖkœwU‡K AZ¨waK ¸iæ‡Z¡i mv‡_ we‡ePbv Kiv n‡q _v‡K| wewfbœ cªKvi

g~j¨‡ev‡ai gv‡S ˆbwZK I mvgvwRK g~j¨‡eva -G cÖm‡½ D‡jøL‡hvM¨| †Kbbv mgv‡Ri I

e¨w³i wbqwš¿Z I k„sLwjZ Rxe‡bi Rb¨ GB `yÕai‡bi g~j¨‡evaB ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| GB

g~j¨‡evamg~n e¨w³i m`vPviY, DrKl© Rxeb I Rxeb eë¯’vi MwZkxj w`K¸‡jv‡K

GwM‡q wb‡q hvq| e¨w³i wbR¯ †h †PZbv I †eva i‡q‡Q, Zvi gva¨‡gB e¨w³ wb‡R wVK

K‡i ‡bq †Kv‡bv KvRwU wVK ev †ewVK| e¨w³i gv‡S GwU ¯Kxqfv‡eB _v‡K|

mZëvw`Zv, b¨vqcivqYZv, hyw³cªeYZv ZvB †PZbvMZ ùyi‡YiB ewntcÖKvk| Avi ZvB

ˆbwZK g~‡jï cÖwZ e¨w³i wek¦vm I cÖwZwµqv ¯’vb-Kvj-cvÎ‡f‡` GKB iKg n‡q

_v‡K|

cvwicvwk¦©K cwi‡ek, mvgvwRK ixwZ-bxwZ, AvPvi-AvPiY Gm‡ei Dci wfwË K‡i e¨w³

M‡o †Zv‡jb mvgvwRK ˆbwZKZv| G ai‡bi ˆbwZKZv gvbyl‡K gvby‡li cÖwZ m™¢ve,

åvZ…Z¡, KiæYv I gvbweKZvi cÖwZ AvMÖnx K‡i _v‡K| d‡j mgv‡Ri cÖ‡Z¨KwU gvbyl

Ab¨vb¨ gvby‡li cÖwZ m`q n‡q _v‡Kb| ˆbwZKZvi G aibwU g~jZ mvgvwRK g~j¨‡ev‡aiB

bvgvšÍi| Avi ˆbwZK wbqg mg~‡ni mswewae× Av`‡k©i wfwË‡Z †h g~j¨‡eva cÖwZwôZ nq

Zvn‡jv ˆbwZK g~j¨‡eva| gvby‡li Rxe‡b GB `yÕai‡bi ˆbwZKZvi web¨v‡m M‡o †Zvjv

m¤¢e g~j¨‡ev‡ai BwZevPKZv|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| g~‡jï ¸iæZ¡ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb| Ôg~j¨ wn‡m‡e RxebÕ- K_vwUi Zvrch© e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| ˆbwZK g~j¨‡eva ej‡Z wK eySvq? gvby‡li Rxe‡b wKfv‡e ˆbwZK g~j¨‡eva MwVZ n‡Z

cv‡i?

2| mvgvwRK g~j¨‡eva ej‡Z wK eySvq? mvgvwRK g~j¨‡eva wKfv‡e gvby‡li Rxe‡b MwVZ

nq?


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| mvgwRK Rxe‡b †h msKU g~jZ Zv

i) †hvM¨ †bZvi msKU

ii) Aciva e„w×RwbZ msKU

iii) g~j¨‡ev‡ai msKU


2| wewfbœ cÖKvi g~j¨‡ev‡ai g‡a¨ D‡jøL‡hvM¨ n‡”Q

i) ˆbwZK I mvgvwRK g~j¨‡eva

ii) cvwievwiK I mvgvwRK g~j¨‡eva

iii) cvwievwiK I A_©‰bwZK g~j¨‡eva

iv) mvgvwRK I A_©‰bwZK g~j¨‡eva

3| ˆbwZK g~†jï cÖwZ e¨w³i wek¦vm I cÖwZwµqv ¯’vb-Kvj‡f‡`

i) cwiewZ©Z nq

ii) GKB _v‡K

iii) KL‡bv GKB _v‡K Avevi KL‡bv cwiewZ©Z nq

iv) Dc‡ii ‡KvbwUB bq

4| †Kv‡bv& `vk©wbK m¤úÖ vq Rxeb m¤ú‡K© ˆbivkëv`x gZ cÖPvi K‡ib

i) wmwbK m¤úÖ vq

ii) AwfÁZvev`x m¤úÖ vq

iii) eyw×ev`x m¤úÖ vq

iv) †hŠw³K cÖZ¨¶ev`x m¤úÖ vq

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iii) g~j¨‡ev‡ai msKU

2| i) ˆbwZK I mvgvwRK g~j¨‡eva

3| ii) GKB _v‡K

4| i) wmwbK m¤úÖ vq



BDwbU - 9

`vk©wbKZv wkLb

(Learning to Philosophize)

`k©b GKwU ¯Zš¿ ÁvbkvLv| Gi i‡q‡Q ¯Zš¿ c×wZ| Avgiv Av‡MB †`‡LwQ, GB

c×wZ wePvi-we‡kølYag©x| GB wePvi-we‡køl‡Yi †¶‡Î hyw³we`¨vi wbqg-bxwZ cÖ‡qvM

Kiv nq| Abya¨vbx I we‡kølYx Dfq cÖKvi `k©‡b hyw³we`¨vi Gme wbqg-bxwZ Kg-

†ewk AbymiY Kiv nq|

`k©b eyS‡Z I PP©v Ki‡Z n‡j ZvB, we‡kølY ej‡Z wK eySvq, we‡køl‡Yi wbqg ev

†KŠkj wK, hyw³ wKfv‡e M‡o I‡V, hyw³ ev hyw³web¨vm KZ cÖKvi, fzj hyw³

(AbyccwË) wKfv‡e I KZfv‡e N‡U Gme welq fvjfv‡e Rvbv ìKvi| hyw³we`¨vi

Dci GKwU c„_K †Kvm© i‡q‡Q; GRb¨ Avgiv eZ©gvb BDwb‡U hyw³ msµvšÍ wKQy

cÖv_wgK I D‡jøL‡hvM¨ welq gvÎ D‡jøL Ki‡ev| D‡jøL¨, GB BDwb‡U g~jZ †Kv‡bv

`vk©wbK welq wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Kiv nqwb, `vk©wbK welq wKfv‡e Rvb‡Z I co‡Z nq

Ges PP©v Ki‡Z nq †mme wb‡qB Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡q‡Q|

GB BDwb‡U †gvU AvUwU cvV i‡q‡Q

`vk©wbK `„wófw½i weKvk

(Developing a Philosophical Attitude)

`k©b cvV ev cVb

(Reading Philosophy)

`vk©wbKZv wkLb

(Learning How to Philosophize)

hyw³web¨v‡mi cÖKvi

(Types of Reasoning)

†hŠw³K AbyccwË : AwZmijxKi‡Yi AbyccwËmg~n

(Logical Fallacies : Fallacies of Oversimplification)

†hŠw³K AbyccwË : cÖZviYvg~jK AbyccwËmg~n

(Logical Fallacies : Fallacies of Deception)

jNyKiYev` I cÖmviYev`

(Reductionism and Expansionism)

`k©‡b ˆbe© w³K cix¶v cÖ vb I iPbv wjLb

(Taking Objective Tests and Writing Papers in Philosophy)



`vk©wbK „wófw½i weKvk

(Developing a Philosophical Attitude)

D‡Ïk¨


`vk©wbK „wófw½i êwkó¨ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

mvgwMÖK mskqev` I mvgwqK mskqev‡ì g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

Ab¨gZ we‡ePbvi ¸iæZ¡ e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

†Kv‡bv welq ev ¸iæZ¡c~Y© mgm¨v m¤ú‡K© `vk©wbK `„wófw½ cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

`k©b ïay cov ev †kLvi welq bq, ev¯Íe Rxe‡b Gi wk¶v I †KŠkj cÖ‡qvM Kiv ev

Abykxjb KivB ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| `k©b Abykxj‡bi Rb¨ `vk©wbK `„wófw½ M‡o †Zvjv cÖ‡qvRb|

Avgiv Ô`k©b I Ab¨vb¨ welqÕ kxl©K c~e©eZ©x BDwbU 3 n‡Z `vk©wbK `„wófw½i mv‡_

êÁvwbK, agx©q I mvwnwZ¨K `„wófw½i cv_©K¨ m¤ú‡K© †R‡bwQ| eZ©gvb cv‡V Avgiv

`vk©wbK `„wófw½i êwkó¨¸‡jv Ges Zv AbymiY K‡i wKfv‡e G `„wófw½ M‡o †Zvjv hvq

Zv Rvbvi †Póv Ki‡ev|

gy³ gbgvbwmKZv

`vk©wbK `„wófw½i cÖavb I cÖ_g êwkó¨ n‡jv gy³ gbgvbwmKZv| gy³ gbgvbwmKZvi

cÖKvk N‡U ZLbB hLb Avgiv †Kv‡bv gZ ev aviYv‡K mwZ¨Kvifv‡e hvPvB-evQvB K‡i

MÖnY ev eR©b Kwi| cÖvqB †`Lv hvq †h, Avgiv †Kv‡bv gZ ev aviYv‡K GB Kvi‡Y

evwZj K‡i †`B †h, D³ gZ ev aviYvwU Avgv‡ì cÖPvwiZ ev c~e©†cvwlZ aviYvi mv‡_

†g‡j bv| †Kv‡bv aviYv ev gZ cÖPwjZ ev cÖwZwôZ aviYvi mv‡_ bv wgj‡j A_ev Zv

bZzb, Avðh©, wKsev weg~Z© n‡jB Zv‡K evwZj K‡i †`qv hv‡e bv| ¯vaxb I wbi‡c¶

wePvi-we‡kølY K‡i †Kv‡bv gZ ev aviYvi g~j¨ wbiƒcY Ki‡Z n‡e|

Mfxi wPšÍvkw³

Avgiv cÖvqB AwaKvsk welq‡K Lye mn‡RB MÖnY Kwi Ges †m m¤‡Ü mij I fvmv-fvmv

wPšÍv Kwi| A_P wPšÍv-cÖwµqv Av‡`Š mnR bq| †h †Kv‡bv welq m¤‡Ü mwZ¨Kvi †Kv‡bv

Ávb jvf Ki‡Z n‡j, H welq‡K Aek¨B Mfxi I weï×fv‡e we‡ePbv Ki‡Z n‡e| GB

Mfxi I weï×fv‡e wPšÍvi ZvwM‡` `vk©wbKiv †h †Kv‡bv †gŠwjK welq ev mgm¨v m¤ú‡K©

wewfbœfv‡e cÖkœ †Zv‡jb| `„óvšÍ iƒc, gnvb mªóvi Aw¯ÍZ¡-Gi welqwU MÖnY Kiv hvK|

`vk©wbKiv cÖkœ †Zv‡jb, mªóv ej‡Z e¯‘Z Kx eySvq? mªóv wK wbQK GKwU aviYv? G aviYv

wK mnRvZ bv AwfÁZvRvZ? Aw¯ÍZ¡ ej‡Z wK eySvq? Aw¯ÍZ¡ K_vwU Avgiv †h A‡_© MÖnY

Kwi mªóvi †¶‡Î †m A‡_© cÖ‡hvR¨ wKbv, cÖf…wZ| GB cÖ‡kœi mv‡_ mv‡_ `vk©wbKiv mªóv,

Aw¯ÍZ¡ I mªóvi Aw¯ÍZ¡ m¤‡Ü gvbeRvwZi wewfbœ Ávb I AwfÁZv we‡ePbv K‡i †`‡Lb|

cvV - 1



e¯‘Z †h †Kv‡bv ¸iæZ¡c~Y© welq wewfbœ cUf‚wg I cwi‡cÖw¶Z †_‡K we‡ewPZ n‡Z cv‡i|

†Kv‡bv Av‡jvP¨ welq wK cUf‚wg I cwi‡cÖw¶Z †_‡K we‡ewPZ n‡e Zv wba©vi‡Yi Rb¨

`vk©wbKiv welqwU‡K Mfxi I wek`fv‡e ch©v‡jvPbv K‡i †`‡Lb|

A‡bï gZ we‡ePbv (Consideration of Other Views) gy³gb I Mfxi wPšÍvkw³B h‡_ó bq| `vk©wbK `„wófw½ M‡o Zzj‡Z PvB‡j Avcbv‡K

Aek¨B Ab¨ gZ ev aviYv‡K cwic~Y© I mZK©fv‡e we‡ePbv Ki‡Z n‡e| Abïv Zv‡ì

wek¦vm, gZ ev Ae¯’vb †Kb MÖnY K‡i‡Qb Zv LwZ‡q †`Lvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb, H me gZ,

c_ I wek¦v‡mi wfwË wK Zv me©v‡MÖ eySvi †Póv Kiv| GgbwK Ab¨ gZ cy‡ivcywi bv eySv

ch©šÍ wbR¯ gZ ev AeaviY ¯’wMZ ivLv DwPZ|

A‡bï g‡Zi cÖwZwU Av‡jvPbv ev cvV mwnòzZv I e`vb¨Zvi mv‡_ Kiv DwPZ| Ab¨

g‡Zi hyw³mg~‡ni cÖwZ c~Y© g‡bv‡hvM w`‡Z n‡j hyw³mg~n‡K m¤¢ve¨ m‡e©v”P AbyK‚j

cUf‚wg ev cÖm‡½ †d‡j cix¶v Kiv cÖ‡qvRb| Ab¨ K_vq ejv hvq, †Kb `vk©wbK Mv¾vwj

eyw× I AwfÁZvi Zzjbvq ¯^Ávi Dci me©vwaK ¸iæZ¡ w`‡qwQ‡jb, Zv eySvi Rb¨ a‡i

wb‡Z n‡e Mv¾vwj GKRb ¸iæZ¡c~Y© wPšÍvwe`, Zuvi hyw³mg~n Mfxifv‡e we‡ePbvi `vwe

iv‡L| ¯Ávi ¯c‡¶ Zuvi hyw³mg~n hw` h_v_© nq, Zvn‡j Zv †_‡K Avcwb Avwg bZzb

wKQy wkL‡ev| Ab¨_vq, h_v_© bv n‡j Avgiv AšÍZ Ggb GKwU Ae¯’v‡b G‡m †cuŠQv‡ev

†hLvb †_‡K c¶cvZnxb wePv‡ii ci hyw³hy³fv‡e Zuvi gZ‡K evwZj K‡i w`‡Z

cvi‡ev| ZvQvov, Ab¨gZ h_v_©fv‡e we‡ePbvi GKwU `vwe ev cwiYwZ n‡jv, Ab¨ g‡Zi

mejZv I `ye©jZv cwi®‹vi n‡q DVvi mv‡_ mv‡_ wbR¯ g‡Zi mejZv-`ye©jZv c~‡e©i

Zzjbvq AwaK cwi®‹vi n‡q I‡V|

mskqx g‡bvfve ev „wófw½ (Skeptical Outlook)

Avgiv c~‡e©B †R‡bwQ, †Kv‡bv welq m¤ú‡K© Ávbjvf Ki‡Z n‡j Zv Mfxifv‡e

ch©v‡jvPbv Kiv cÖ‡qvRb| Mfxifv‡e ch©v‡jvPbvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRb cÖ‡kœi DÌvcb| cÖkœ

DÌvc‡bi A_© n‡jv, Ggb wKQy m¤‡Ü m‡›`n cÖ k©b Kiv, hvi c‡¶ †Kv‡bv P‚ovšÍ ev

wm×všÍg~jK mv¶¨ †bB|

gvbywlK mskq

A‡b‡KB e‡jb, †hgb `vk©wbK wnDg, †Kv‡bv wKQyB wbwðZfv‡e Rvbv hvq bv, Avgv‡ì

m¤j †Kej wek¦vm| †Kv‡bv wKQy†K Rvb‡Z n‡j me wKQy‡K Rvb‡Z n‡e| me wKQy Rvbv

Am¤¢e| myZivs gvbylgvÎB mskqx n‡Z eva¨| Giƒc Ae¯’vb †h m½Z ev ¯vfvweK bq,

Zv mn‡RB cÖ k©b Kiv hvq| Mvb †Kv‡bvv Avb›``vqK wKbv Zv eySvi Rb¨ mgy‡`ªi

Zj‡`‡ki Ae¯’v wKsev Av‡jvi MwZ Rvbvi cÖ‡qvRb †bB| †Kv‡bv wKQyB hw` Rvbv m¤¢e

bv-B nq, Zvn‡j GB †h Ô†Kv‡bv wKQy Rvbv hvq bvÕ Zv Rvbv †M‡jv wKfv‡e? e¯‘Z

mvgwMÖK ev P‚ovšÍ mskq AMÖnY‡hvM¨| GwU `vk©wbKfv‡e aŸsmvÍK I ev¯Í‡e AvZ¥webvkx|

†KDB Giƒc mskqev‡ì Dci Rxeb iPbv Ki‡Z cv‡ib bv|



AvswkK I m„Rbg~jK mskq (Partial and Creative Doubting)

mewKQy m¤‡Ü bq, †Kej we‡eP¨ welq m¤‡Ü Avgiv mskq †cvlY Ki‡ev| G msk‡qi

D‡Ïk¨ n‡e, h_v_© Ávbjvf| Avgiv cÖkœ Zzj‡ev G Avkvq †h, AšÍZ wKQy welq m¤‡Ü

Avgiv Ávbjvf Ki‡Z cvwi| Avi GRb¨ Avgiv Avek¨B wek¦vm Ki‡ev †h, wKQy Ávb

jvf Kiv m¤¢e| m„Rbg~jK msk‡qi ¯v‡_© Avgiv wb‡R‡ì gZ ev Z_¨‡K cwiZ¨vM bv

K‡i eis mvgwqKfv‡e ¯’wMZ ev cv‡k mwi‡q ivL‡ev| mskq †K‡U †M‡jB Avgiv MÖnY ev

eR©b Kie| GB g‡bvfve A_©vr m„Rbg~jK mskq `vk©wbK `„wófw½i GKwU Abb¨

êwkó¨| AvaywbK `k©‡bi RbK †WKvU© Zuvi mvgwqK m„Rbg~jK msk‡qi gva¨‡g wKfv‡e

m‡Z¨ DcbxZ n‡qwQ‡jb, G cÖm‡½ Avgiv Zv ¯§iY Ki‡Z cvwi|

mwePvi we‡kølY (Critical Analysis) wPšÍv I Ab¨ g‡Zi we‡ePbvi mv‡_ mv‡_ Avcwb Avcbvi †Kv‡bvv, cov ev ˆZwi ¸iæZ¡c~Y©

welq ev e³‡eï Dci GKwU wePvikxj `„wó I m„Rbg~jK mskqx g‡bvfve M‡o Zzj‡eb|

Bw›`ªq AwfÁZvi eënvi (Using Sense Experience)

Avcbvi DwPZ cÖwZwU e³e¨‡K wbR¯ AwfÁZvi Av‡jv‡K cix¶v Kiv| †¶‡Î, Avcwb

Avcbvi c‡Âw›`ªq I AšÍ‡iw›`ªq cÖ‡qvRbxqZv Abyhvqx eënvi Ki‡Z cv‡ib| ZvQvov,

Avcbvi DwPZ, wb‡Ri mvaviY AwfÁZvi Av‡jv‡K, we‡klZ gvbecÖK…wZ m¤Üxq, mKj

ZË¡ I cÖKí‡K cix¶v Kiv| G cix¶v m¤úv`‡bi †¶‡Î Avcbv‡K Aek¨B we‡eKx,

mZK© I h_vh_ n‡Z n‡e|

hyw³wPšÍb I hyw³we`¨vi eënvi (Using Reasoning and Logic)

AwaKš‘, Avcbv‡K Aek¨B Avcbvi wbR¯ hyw³ I e³e¨mn mKj hyw³ I e³e¨‡K

hyw³we`¨v I hyw³wPšÍ‡bi mwVK c×wZ eënvi K‡i cix¶v Ki‡Z n‡e| Avi hyw³wPšÍb I

hyw³i †¶‡Î mvaviY (common) ‡hŠw³K AbyccwËmg~n m¤^‡Ü mZK© _vK‡Z n‡e|

Dcmsnvi

cwi‡k‡l ejv hvq, `k©b Abykxj‡bi ¯v‡_© `vk©wbK `„wófw½ M‡o †Zvjv cÖ‡qvRb|

`vk©wbK `„wófw½i Abb¨ êwkó¨mg~n n‡jv : 1) gy³ gb 2) Mfxi wPšÍvkw³ 3) Ab¨gZ

we‡ePbv 4) mskqx g‡bvfve I 5| wePvig~jK we‡kølY|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `vk©wbK `„wófw½i êwkó¨mg~n eY©bv Kiæb|


1| Ab¨gZ we‡ePbvi ¸iæZ¡ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| mvgwMÖK I AvswkK msk‡qi cv_©K¨ cÖ k©b Kiæb|


mwUK DËi wjLyb|

1| `vk©wbK `„wófw½i êwkó¨ n‡jv

i) gy³ gbgvbwmKZv

ii) Mfxi wPšÍvkw³

iii) Ab¨gZ we‡ePbv

iv) Dc‡ii me¸wj

2| e³e¨ ev ePb cix¶v Ki‡Z n‡e

i) Bw›`ªq AwfÁZvi gva¨‡g

ii) ¯Ávi gva¨‡g

iii) hyw³wPšÍ‡bi gva¨‡g

iv) Bw›`ªq AwfÁZv I hyw³ wPšÍ‡bi

gva¨‡g

3| m„Rbg~jK msk‡qi Kvi‡Y

i) wbR¯ gZ‡K eR©b Ki‡Z nq

ii) wbR¯ gZ‡K cix¶v Ki‡Z nq

iii) wbR¯ gZ‡K ms‡kvab Ki‡Z nq

iv) wbR¯ gZ‡K ¯’wMZ ivL‡Z nq

4| mvgwMÖK mskq

i) me wKQy‡Z mskq cÖKvk K‡i

ii) wKQy wel‡q mskq cÖKvk K‡i

iii) wek¦v‡mi e¨vcv‡i mskq cÖKvk K‡i

iv) Dc‡ii †Kv‡bvwUB bq


1| cÖPwjZ aviYvi mv‡_ Awgj NU‡jB †h †Kv‡bv aviYv evwZj n‡q hv‡e|

2| wPšÍv-cÖwµqv GKwU RwUj cÖwµqv |

3| Ab¨ g‡Zi Av‡jvPbv mwnòzZv I e`vb¨Zvi mv‡_ Kiv DwPZ|

4| `vk©wbK †WKvU© GKRb mvgwMÖK mskqev`x|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iv) Dc‡ii me¸wj 2| iv) Bw›`ªq AwfÁZv I hyw³ wPšÍ‡bi gva¨‡g

3| iv) wbR¯ gZ‡K ¯’wMZ ivL‡Z nq 4| i) me wKQy‡Z mskq cÖKvk K‡i

L) 1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg



`k©b cvV

(Reading Philosophy)

D‡Ïk¨


mvaviYfv‡e `k©b cv‡Vi wKQy wbqg D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

`k©‡bi mvaviY †U·U eB covi †KŠkj wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

†gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv cv‡Vi †KŠkj eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

AcÖavb ev †MŠb `vk©wbK iPbv cv‡Vi †KŠkj eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

`vk©wbK `„wófw½i †hgb wKQy êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q †ZgbB `k©b covi wKQy wbqg ev †KŠkj

i‡q‡Q| Avgiv Av‡MB †R‡bwQ, `k©‡bi Av‡jvP¨ welq LyeB †gŠwjK I me©Rbxb| `k©‡bi

Av‡jvPbv c×wZI LyeB g~j¯úk©x (foundational)I hyw³ag©x (argumentative)|

GRb¨ `vk©wbK †jLvi A_© eyS‡Z n‡j, Avcbv‡K g‡bv‡hvMx I mZK© n‡Z n‡e| Z‡e

`vk©wbK †jLv cv‡Vi †¶‡Î wKQy †KŠkj AbymiY Ki‡j, Avcwb mn‡R Zv eyS‡Z

cvi‡eb| wewfbœ ai‡bi `vk©wbK iPbv ev †jLv cv‡Vi †¶‡Î wKiƒc †KŠkj AbymiY Kiv

hvq, Avgiv GLb Zv Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

`k©b cvV : mvaviY wb‡`©kbv (Reading Philosophy:General Suggestions) Sv‡gjvgy³ n‡q w¯’i gb wb‡q co‡Z emyb| `vk©wbK †jLvi GKwU wbw`©ó Ask AšÍZ

`yÕevi, m¤¢e n‡j wZbevi covi cwiKíbv MÖnY Kiæb| cÖ_gevi weiwZnxbfv‡e AskwU

c‡o hvb Ges †Kv‡bv kã ev c¨viv KwVb ev `y‡ev©a¨ g‡b n‡j, cieZ©x evi fvjfv‡e cov

I eySvi Rb¨ mbv³ K‡i ivLyb| cÖ_gev‡ii cov‡k‡l mbv³K…Z kã I c¨viv¸‡jv eySvi

†Póv Kiæb| GRb¨ cÖ_‡g eB‡qi wfZi †Kv‡bv kã-wUKv ev kã‡Kvl (Glossary) Av‡Q

wKbv, Zv j¶ Kiæb Ges _vK‡j Zv Kv‡R jvMvb| covi †Uwe‡j GKUv fvj evsjv

Awfavb (Dictionary) _vK‡j fvj nq| GB mv‡_ GKUv fvj `k©b Awfavb ivL‡j

DcK…Z n‡eb|

KwVb kã¸‡jv eySvi Rb¨ cy‡iv AskwU wØZxq evi co‡eb| Z‡e Gevi Av‡Mi †P‡q ax‡i

ax‡i co~b, Ges g~j aviYv¸‡jv AvÛvijvBb Kiæb A_ev cy‡iv AskwUi g~j e³e¨ ev

welq¸‡jvi GKUv iƒc‡iLv wfbœ KvM‡R wjwce× Kiæb| G mgq KwVb c¨viv¸‡jv Av‡iv

fvjfv‡e eySvi Rb¨ cybivq co–b| AZci, Avcbvi cÖYxZ iƒc‡iLvi Dci GKevi ‡PvL

eywj‡q wbb| AZci, cÖ_g ev‡ii gZ cy‡iv AskwU weiwZnxbfv‡e co~b, Z‡e Gevi A_©vr

Z…Zxqevi Dc¯’vwcZ aviYvejx Ges Zvi †cQ‡b wbwnZ hyw³wPšÍb AvZ¥¯’ Kivi Rb¨

AwaK m‡Pó nb|

cvV - 2



Dc¯’vwcZ aviYv ev ZË¡ Avcbvi Kv‡Q Avðh© g‡b ‡nvK ev bv †nvK, Avcwb hZUv m¤¢e

gy³ I m`q gb wb‡q Zv co‡eb| c‡oB †Kv‡bv aviYv ev ZË¡ evwZj K‡i †`‡eb bv;

eis cy‡iv AskwU c‡o †kl Kiæb| wØZxq ev Z…Zxq ev‡ii cov †kl bv nIqv ch©šÍ,

†Kv‡bv wKQy‡K AvµgY ev evwZj Ki‡eb bv Ges Zvi cvëv hyw³I `vuo Kiv‡eb bv|

wØZxq ev Z…Zxq ev‡i Avcwb hv c‡o‡Qb †m m¤‡Ü Avcbvi cÖwZwµqv I mgv‡jvPbv wj‡L

†djyb|

mvaviY `k©b cv‡Vi †¶‡Î, GB mhZœ c×wZ AbymiY Ki‡j, Avcbvi cwVZ welq †hgb

Avcwb eyS‡Z cvi‡eb, †Zgwb `k©‡bi †h †Kv‡bv wbw`©ó welq Avcwb hyw³wePvi mnKv‡i

Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z ev wjL‡Z m¶g n‡q DV‡eb|

`k©‡bi cwiwPwZg~jK ev mvaviY †U·U eB cvV (Reading Introductory or General Philosophy Text Books) `k©‡bi cwiwPwZg~jK ev mvaviY †U·U eB cv‡Vi †¶‡Î Dc‡iv³ wb‡`©kbvmg~n AbymiY

Kiæb| j¶ Kiæb, †U·U eB‡qi †jLKMY eB cv‡Vi †Kv‡bv wbqg ev †KŠkj D‡jøL

K‡i‡Qb wKbv, Ki‡j Zv Aek¨B AbymiY Ki‡eb| mvaviYZ eB‡qi f‚wgKv‡Z †jLK ev

†jLKMY eBwUi D‡Ïk¨, welqe¯‘i web¨vm I cVb-†KŠkj eY©bv K‡i _v‡Kb| †jLK

wKfv‡e eBwU‡K wewfbœ Aa¨v‡q ev BDwb‡U, Aa¨vq‡K wewfbœ Aby‡”Q‡`, Aby‡”Q`‡K wewfbœ

c¨vivq wef³ K‡i‡Qb, Zv Aek¨B j¶ Ki‡Z n‡e| Avcwb hLbB †U·U eB‡qi †Kv‡bv

wbw`©ó Ask co‡eb, ZLbB j¶ Ki‡eb, AskwU †Kvb& Aa¨vq ev BDwbUfz³, Aa¨v‡qi

evwK As‡ki mv‡_ cwVZ As‡ki m¤ú„³Zv KZUzKz| wbw`©ó Ask ev cvV mvaviYZ wewfbœ

wk‡ivbvg mn‡hv‡M Av‡jvwPZ n‡q _v‡K, GB wk‡ivbvg¸‡jvi †hŠw³KZvI eySvi †Póv

Kiæb| wbw`©ó Ask ev cv‡Vi g‡a¨ wewfbœ ai‡bi ZvwjKv _vK‡Z cv‡i, †hgb- bxwZwe`¨v

wZb cÖKvi : 1| Av`k©wbô bxwZwe`¨v, 2| cÖv‡qvwMK bxwZwe`¨v I 3| civ-bxwZwe`¨v GB

ZvwjKv¸‡jv we‡klfv‡e j¶ Ki‡eb|

A‡bK †U·U eB‡q Aa¨v‡qi †klw`‡K Aa¨v‡qi mvivsk †`qv _v‡K| Aa¨v‡qi mvivsk

Aa¨v‡qi g~j e³‡eïB GKwU iƒc‡iLv| d‡j GwU welqe¯‘ eySvi †¶‡Î we‡kl mnvqK|

Aa¨vq‡k‡l mvaviYZ cv‡VvËi cÖkœgvjv _v‡K| G¸‡jv Abykxjb Ki‡j cÖ_gZ Avcwb

wb‡RB eyS‡Z cvi‡eb, cwVZ welqe¯‘ Avcwb KZUzKz ey‡S‡Qb wØZxqZ A‡bK A¯úó,

RwUj ev D‡cw¶Z welq GKvwaKevi g‡bv‡hvM jvf Kivi Kvi‡Y, Av‡Mi †P‡q mnR

g‡b n‡e| †U·U eB‡qi AšÍM©Z kã‡Kvl I wbN©›U (index) Aek¨B Kv‡R jvMv‡eb|

G¸‡jv kã, m¤úÖZ¨q (concept) I Z‡Ë¡i h_vh_ A_© I Zvrch© eyS‡Z Avcbv‡K

mvnvh¨ Ki‡e; cÖPwjZ Awfavb †_‡K Avcwb mvaviYZ GwU jvf Ki‡Z cvi‡eb bv|



†gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv cvV (Reading Original Philosophical Writings) †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbvi `vk©wbK PvwiÎ¨ _v‡K; GwUi M`¨ wbw`©ó D‡Ïk¨ jv‡fi Rb¨

wbcyYfv‡e hyw³wePvi mn‡hv‡M M‡o I‡V| †gŠwjK `vk©wbK †jLvi cÖvq meB we‡`kx

fvlvq iwPZ| AwaKvsk mgq G m‡ei Abyev` cov Qvov MZ¨šÍi _v‡K bv; Abyev`

mvaviYZ g~j iPbvi †P‡q KwVb nq| ZvQvov, mg‡qi cwieZ©‡b fvlvi cÖ‡qvM-ixwZ

(usage)-i cwieZ©b N‡U weavq c~e©eZ©x iPbvi gg© D×vi Kiv A‡bK mgq KwVb n‡q

c‡o| G me Kvi‡Y †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv cv‡Vi †¶‡Î, mvaviY †U·U eB cv‡Vi †P‡q

A‡bK †ewk âh© I g‡bv‡hvM ìKvi| †gŠwjK iPbv cv‡Vi †¶‡Î wb‡Pi wb‡`©kbv¸‡jv

†g‡b Pjvi †Póv Kiæb|

cÖm½ we‡ePbv (Consider the Context) mvwn‡Zï g‡Zv `vk©wbK iPbvI GKUv my¯úó HwZnvwmK ev¯ÍeZv †_‡K D™¢‚Z nq| GRb¨

†Kv‡bv †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv cv‡Vi mgq j¶ Ki‡Z n‡e, ‡K GwU wj‡L‡Qb, KLb I

†Kv_vq GwU cÖKvwkZ n‡qwQj, GwU Kv‡ì‡K j¶¨ K‡i g~jZ iwPZ n‡qwQj, wKiƒc

D‡Ïk¨ GwU AR©b K‡iwQj e‡j fvev nq Ges GwU cÖKvwkZ nIqvi ci †_‡K AvR ch©šÍ

wKfv‡e mvaviY cvVK I `vk©wbK m¤úÖ vq KZ©„K M„nxZ n‡q‡Q| D`vniY¯îƒc ejv hvq,

†cø‡Uvi `vk©wbK iPbv co‡Z n‡j Rvbv ìKvi: m‡µwUm-†cø‡Uv m¤úK©, wMÖ‡mi †mw`‡bi

RxebixwZ, wMÖK‡ì wPšÍv-cÖYvjx cwieZ©‡b m‡µwUm I †cø‡Uvi cÖ‡Póv, Zvu‡ì D™¢vweZ

hyw³wPšÍvi Øvw›ØK c×wZ (the dialectical method of reasoning), †cø‡Uvi wPšÍvaviv

m¤‡Ü Ab¨vb¨ `vk©wbK‡ì gZvgZ cÖf…wZ|

g~j aviYv ev †K›`ªxq gZ mbv³KiY (Identify Central Theses)

cÖwZwU †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbvq GK ev GKvwaK we‡kl ePb ev Dw³i mZ¨Zv cÖwZôvi

cÖ‡Póv _v‡K| `vk©wbKiv mvaviYZ Zuv‡ì gZ hyw³wePvi mn‡hv‡M m~¶~fv‡e Dc¯’vcb

K‡ib| Zuv‡ì gZ nq †Kv‡bv `vk©wbK Ae¯’vb‡K mg_©b K‡i, bZzev cÖZ¨vL¨b K‡i| hvB

†nvK bv †Kb, Avgiv Aek¨B †evSvi †Póv Ki‡ev, `vk©wbK Zvi GB wbw`©ó MÖš’wU‡Z

Avm‡j wK Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z Pv‡”Qb Ges †m m¤‡Ü Zvi g~j e³e¨ ev gZ wK? cÖm½Z

Avgiv †cø‡Uvi ÔwicvewjKÕ Gi K_v D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvwi| GB MÖ‡š’ †cø‡Uv g~jZ b¨vqwePvi

(justice) wb‡q Av‡jvPbv K‡i‡Qb Ges G wel‡q Zuvi e³e¨ n‡jv, iv‡óªi wZbwU my¯úó

†kªYxi Kv‡Ri myôz mgšq n‡jv b¨vqwePvi| e¯‘Z †Kv‡bv †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv ZLbB

fvjfv‡e cov n‡e, hLb Avcwb H `vk©wb‡Ki g~j aviYv ev gZ, Zvi †`qv wewfbœ c‡ì

msÁv, Zvi †`qv hyw³i cÖavb j¶Y Ges H hyw³i mg_©‡b Zvi †`qv D`vniY ev e¨vL¨v

eyS‡Z m¶g n‡eb|

mvg_©wbK hyw³ wPwýZKiY (Locate Supportive Arguments)

`vk©wbKiv Zv‡ì gZvgZ‡K wbQK e¨³ K‡ib bv, H gZvg‡Zi mZ¨Zv cÖwZôvq ev

cÖwZcv`‡b m‡Pó nb| `vk©wbKiv wb‡R‡ì gZ mg_©b Kivi Rb¨ †hme c×wZ eënvi

K‡ib, Zv wewfbœ iKg n‡Z cv‡i| Z‡e Gme c×wZi AwaKvskB g~jZ ‡hŠw³K

wePv‡iiB GKwU iƒc (one of the forms of logical argumentation) cÖKvk K‡i|



`vk©wbK ¯úófv‡e ev myßfv‡e KwZcq AvkªqevK¨ †ck K‡ib hv ¯úóZt mZ¨, AZtci

`vwe K‡ib †h, wbLyuZ Abygv‡bi mvnv‡h¨ Gme AvkªevK¨ †_‡K Aek¨¤¢vexiƒ‡c evwÃZ

wm×v‡šÍ †cŠuQv‡bv hvq| Avgiv hw` †Kv‡bv `vk©wb‡Ki eëüZ hyw³wPšÍ‡bi iƒc wPwýZ

Ki‡Z PvB, Zvn‡j Aek¨B hyw³wPšÍ‡bi wewfbœ iƒc m¤‡Ü Avgv‡ì Ávb _vK‡Z n‡e|

cÖ Ë hyw³i g~j¨ wbiƒcY (Assess the Arguments) `vk©wb‡Ki g~j gZ Ges G g‡Zi mg_©‡b cÖ Ë hyw³i iƒcwU eySvi ci, Avcwb H hyw³i

g~j¨ wbiƒc‡Y Aek¨B AMÖmi n‡eb| G‡¶‡Î A_©vr hyw³i wePvi-we‡køl‡Y I g~j¨-

wbiƒc‡Y Avcwb wb‡Pi cÖkœ ‡jv‡K c_-wb‡`©k (guidelines) wn‡m‡e Kv‡R jvMv‡Z

cv‡ib :

1| `vk©wbK Zvi g~j c`¸‡jv‡K (key terms) Hfv‡e msÁvwqZ K‡i‡Qb wK, †hfv‡e

`vk©wbK-A`vk©wbK mevB c`¸‡jv‡K ey‡S _v‡Kb? `vk©wb‡Ki †`qv msÁv mvaviY Awfavb

†_‡K wfbœ bv Awfbœ, Zv hvPvB K‡i †`Lyb| Av‡jvP¨ c` (terms) ev cÖZ¨q

(concepts) mvaviY fvlvq mPivPi †hfv‡e eëüZ nq e‡j Avcwb Rv‡bb, Zvi mv‡_I

G msÁvi wfbœZv Av‡Q bv †bB, Zv hvPvB K‡i †`Lyb| Zvi †`qv msÁvwU wfbœ iƒc n‡j,

wKfv‡e Zv wfbœ? Zvi msÁvwU k‡ãi mvaviY eënv‡ii KvQvKvwQ, bv Zv †_‡K iƒieZ©x ?

msÁvwU wK GKwU êa msÁv?

2| wZwb wK Zvi hywË‡K Bw›`ªq-AwfÁZvi Dci cÖwZwôZ mv¶¨ (evidence) w`‡q

mg_©b K‡i‡Qb? hw` K‡ib, Zvn‡j cÖZ¨¶f‚Z welq m¤úK©xq Zvi eY©bv wK h_vh_? GB

eY©bv wK Avcbvi wb‡Ri Bw›`ªq-AwfÁZv Ges Ab¨vb¨‡ì Bw›`ªq-AwfÁZv- Ab¨‡ì

†_‡K hv Avcwb †R‡b‡Qb- Zvi mv‡_ Lvc Lvq?

3| wZwb wK Ae‡ivnx I Av‡ivnx hyw³wPšÍb‡K h_vh_fv‡e Ges hyw³we`¨vi wbqg Abyhvqx

eënvi K‡i‡Qb?

4| wZwb wK †hŠw³K AbyccwËmg~n eR©b K‡i‡Qb?

5| Zvi hyw³i mgMÖ w`K wK D³ 2, 3 I 4 b¤i cÖ‡kœ wea„Z welq¸‡jv gvb¨ K‡i M‡o

D‡V‡Q?

AcÖavb iPbv cvV (Reading Secondary Writings or Sources) AcÖavb iPbv n‡jv †gŠwjK ev cÖv_wgK `vk©wbK iPbvKg© m¤úwK©Z fvl¨, Zvi wePvi-

we‡kølY ev g~j¨vqbg~jK †jLv| mnRK_vq, GKRb `vk©wbK hLb Ab¨ GKRb `vk©wb‡Ki

†gŠwjK iPbvKg© m¤ú‡K© fvl¨ iPbv K‡ib, ZLb Zv nq AcÖavb iPbv| GKRb †jLK ev

`vk©wbK hLb Ab¨ `vk©wb‡Ki hyw³ I ZË¡‡K mg_©b ev AvµgY K‡i wKQy †j‡Lb, ZLb

Zv nq AcÖavb iPbv| AcÖavb iPbv cv‡Vi †¶‡Î c~e©eZ©x mKj wb‡`©kbv AbymiY Kiæb,

mv‡_ mv‡_ wb‡Pi welq¸‡jv we‡ePbvq Avbyb :



1| cÖ_‡g wbwðZ nb †h, Avcwb †gŠwjK iPbv c‡o‡Qb Ges ey‡S‡Qb| AZtci wVK

Kiæb, Avcwb wKfv‡e wØZxq `vk©wb‡Ki Av‡jvPbv ev we‡køl‡Yi g~j welq eyS‡Z

cvi‡eb|

2| wØZxq `vk©wb‡Ki iPbv eySvi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvR‡b c~e©eZ©x †KŠkj eënvi Kiæb, mv‡_

mv‡_ wb‡Pi cÖkœ ‡jv DÌvcb Kiæb :

K) wØZxq `vk©wbK wK cÖ_g `vk©wb‡Ki eëüZ msÁv eënvi K‡i‡Qb, bv †Kv‡bv bv

†Kv‡bvfv‡e Zv cwieZ©b K‡i‡Qb? cwiewZ©Z n‡j, Zv wKfv‡e KZUzKz wfbœZv m„wó

K‡i‡Q?

L) Zvi hyw³i g~j j¶Y wK Ges wZwb wK wm×v‡šÍ Avm‡Z Pvb?

M) wZwb Zvi g~j welq I wm×všÍ‡K KZUv fvjfv‡e mg_©b ev hyw³hy³ Ki‡Z †c‡i‡Qb?

N) wZwb wK cÖ_g `vk©wb‡Ki g~j¨vqb, we‡kølY I mgv‡jvPbvq c¶cvZnxb?

†gŠwjK `vk©wbK wK eySv‡Z †P‡q‡Qb Ges wZwb Zvi Abygvb ev hyw³wPšÍ‡bi †¶‡Î †Kv_vq

mwVK ev †ewVK, Zv eySvi †¶‡Î AcÖavb iPbv AZ¨šÍ g~jëvb fzwgKv ivL‡Z cv‡i| Z‡e

‡gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbvi gZB GwU‡K mZK© I wePvig~jKfv‡e Aa¨qb Kiv cÖ‡qvRb|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `k©‡bi †U·U eB I †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv cv‡Vi †KŠkj eY©bv Kiæb|


1| `k©b cv‡Vi mvaviY wb‡`©kbvmg~n D‡jøL Kiæb|

2| cÖ Ë hyw³i g~j¨ wbiƒc‡Yi †¶‡Î wK wK welq j¶Yxq?


mwVK DËi wjLb|

1| KwVb kã I c¨viv¸‡jv eySvi Rb¨

i) kã‡KvlB h‡_ó

ii) mvaviY AwfavbB h‡_ó

iii) k©b AwfavbB h‡_ó

iv) wZbwUB ¸iæZ¡c~Y©

2| cwVZ As‡ki g~j e³‡eï iƒc‡iLv

wjL‡ev

i) cÖ_g evi cv‡Vi mgq

ii) cÖ_g ev‡ii cvV‡k‡l

iii) wØZxq ev‡ii cv‡Vi mgq

iv) Z…Zxq evi cv‡Vi mgq

3| †U·U eB‡qi †jLK eB‡qi cVb-

†KŠkj mvaviYZ

i) eB‡qi Dcmsnv‡i eY©bv K‡i

_v‡Kb

ii) eB‡qi gv‡S eY©bv K‡i _v‡Kb

iii) eB‡qi f‚wgKv‡Z eY©bv K‡i _v‡Kb

iv) eB‡qi GKwU Aa¨v‡q eY©bv K‡i

_v‡Kb

4| †cø‡Uvi wicvewjK GKwU

i) AcÖavb iPbv

ii) mvaviY †U·U eB

iii) ‡gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv



1| †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbvi `vk©wbK PvwiÎ¨ _v‡K|

2| †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv cv‡Vi mgq †U·U eB‡qi Zzjbvq †ewk g‡bv‡hvM w`‡Z nq|

3| `vk©wbKiv mvaviYZ Zv‡ì gZ hyw³wePvi mn‡hv‡M m~¶~fv‡e Dc ’vcb K‡ib|

4| †gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv eySvi †¶‡Î AcÖavb iPbv †Kv‡bv f‚wgKvB iv‡L bv|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iv) wZbwUB ¸iæZ¡c~Y© 2| iii) wØZxq ev‡ii cv‡Vi mgq

3| iii) eB‡qi f‚wgKv‡Z eY©bv K‡i _v‡Kb 4| iii) ‡gŠwjK `vk©wbK iPbv

L) 1| m, 2| m, 3| m, 4| wg



`vk©wbKZv wkLb

(Learning How to Philosophize)

D‡Ïk¨


wKfv‡e `vk©wbKZv Kiv hvq Zv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

Abya¨vbg~jK `vk©wbKZv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

we‡kølYg~jK `vk©wbKZv e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

Abya¨vbg~jK I we‡kølYg~jK `vk©wbKZvi cv_©K¨ wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

Rxeb I RM‡Zi eûwea †gŠwjK mgm¨v wb‡q me gvbyl e¨vcKfv‡e bv fve‡jI AšÍZ

wKQy mgm¨v wb‡q mevB Kg-†ewk fv‡eb| Gw`K w`‡q me gvbylB Kg-†ewk `vk©wbK|

Z‡e cy‡ivcywi A‡_© ev GKv‡WwgK A‡_© `vk©wbKZv ej‡Z eySvq, we‡kl cÖwµqv hv

`vk©wb‡Ki `„wófw½MZ Ae¯’vb Ges Zvi M„nxZ e¨vL¨v-ixwZ wb‡`©k K‡i| GB cÖwµqv‡K

`ywU K¨vwUMix‡Z fvM Kiv hvq: Abya¨vbg~jK cÖwµqv I we‡kølYg~jK cÖwµqv| j¶Yxq,

GB `yB cÖwµqv †_‡K m„ó `k©b‡K h_vµ‡g Abya¨vbx `k©b I we‡kølYx `k©b e‡j AwfwnZ

Kiv nq|

Abya¨vb (Speculation)

`vk©wbK w`K w`‡q Abya¨vb n‡jv, †Kv‡bv aviYv ev welq‡K we‡ePbv Kiv Ges Zv wb‡q

Mfxifv‡e wPšÍv Kiv| †h †Kv‡bv e¨w³i gZ GKRb `vk©wbK ‡Kvb mgm¨v ev welq‡K

¸iæZ¡c~Y© ev AvKl©Yxq e‡j g‡b Ki‡Z cv‡ib Ges †m m¤‡Ü Zvi wbR¯ „wó‡KvY †_‡K

we‡klfv‡e fvebv-wPšÍv Ki‡Z cv‡ib| A‡bK mgq Ab¨ †Kv‡bv e¨w³ ev †Mvôx KZ…©K

we‡ewPZ †Kv‡bv welq, GKRb `vk©wb‡Ki Kv‡Q AvKl©Yxq n‡q DV‡Z cv‡i| †m Kvi‡Y

wZwb welqwU‡K wb‡q we‡klfv‡e fvebv-wPšÍv Kivi Rb¨ Drmvnx n‡q DV‡Z cv‡ib|

Ab¨K_vq ejv hvq, mgm¨vi m¤§yLxb n‡q, mskq, we¯§q I †KŠZ‚n‡j DØy× n‡q, wKsev

A‡bï Øviv cÖfvweZ n‡q, GKRb `vk©wbK †Kv‡bv welq m¤‡Ü mPwKZ n‡q DV‡Z

cv‡ib; AZci Zvi mgvavb ev Zvrch© †LuvRvi Rb¨ m‡Pó n‡Z cv‡ib|

D`vniY¯iƒc ejv hvq, hw` †KD Rxeb-i¶vi AwaKv‡i wek¦vmx †Kv‡bv †jL‡Ki Mf©cvZ

we‡ivax †Kv‡bv cÖeÜ cvV K‡ib; AZci cQ‡›ì ¯vaxbZvq wek¦vmx †Kv‡bv †jL‡Ki

Mf©cv‡Zi mc‡¶ †jLv †Kv‡bv cÖeÜ cvV K‡ib, Zvn‡j wZwb †`L‡Z ïiæ Ki‡eb †h,

Mf©cv‡Zi cy‡iv welqwU wN‡i wKQy ¸iæZ¡c~Y© cÖkœ i‡q‡Q : gvbeRxeb KLb ïiæ nq? KLb

‡_‡K GwU‡K g~j¨ †`qv DwPZ? bvix I ARvZ åƒ‡Yi wK AwaKvi i‡q‡Q? Aek¨

`vk©wbKiv †h †Kv‡bv welq ev mgm¨v‡K Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ †e‡Q wb‡Z cv‡ib| Z‡e A‡bK

mgq, wbQK GKwU mgm¨v Lye `ªƒZ †e‡Q †bqvi PvB‡Z eûwea welq wb‡q MfxiZi

cvV - 3



g‡bv‡hv‡Mi mv‡_ wPšÍv Kiv †ewk g~jëvb n‡Z cv‡i| Aek¨ hw` †Kv‡bv mgm¨v ev welq

Zvr¶wYK wm×všÍ ev K‡g©i `vex iv‡L, Zvn‡j †h †KD Zvr¶wYKfv‡e we‡kl welq ev

mgm¨v‡K †e‡Q wb‡Z cv‡ib| D`viniY¯iƒc, hw` †Kv‡bv e¨w³I Zvi ¯¿x cvwievwiKfv‡e

Mf©cvZ mgm¨vi m¤§yLxb nb, Zvn‡j GB we‡kl cwiw¯’wZ‡Z Zv‡ì wK Kiv DwPZ, Zv

GK me©vMÖYxq welq| Z‡e G ai‡bi †Kv‡bv Pvc bv _vK‡j, Mf©cv‡Zi †MvUv mgm¨v wb‡q

hZUv m¤¢e Abya¨vb KivB n‡e DËg| GB e¨vcK I Mfxi Abya¨v‡bi d‡j †MvUv

mgm¨vwUi ˆbwZK I †hŠw³K w`K m¤‡Ü Avgiv cÖf‚Z Ávbjvf Ki‡Z cvi‡ev| Avi GB

AwR©Z Ávb we‡kl I Riæix NUbvi †¶‡Î †jvK‡ì‡K h_vh_ wm×všÍ MÖn‡Y mvnvh¨

Ki‡Z cv‡i|

m¤¢eZ Abya¨v‡bi †Kv‡bv welq evQvB‡qi me‡P‡q ¸iæZ¡c~Y© gvb`Û n‡jv, gvbe-Kj¨vY I

Rxeb-weKv‡ki cwi‡cÖw¶‡Z GKwU welq KZUv ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| Avcbvi wbR‡K, Ab¨‡K Ges

Avcbvi Pvwiw`‡Ki RMZ‡K Av‡iv fvj I c~Y©fv‡e eySvi †¶‡Î, Av‡jvPbv I mgvavb

†LuvRvi cÖ‡qvRbxqZvi w`K w`‡q, Avcbvi Kv‡Q †eŠw×Kfv‡e AvKl©Yxq nIqvi w`K

w`‡q, GKwU welq KZUv ¸iæZ¡c~Y©, †mme we‡ePbvI welq wbe©vP‡bi gvb`Û n‡Z cv‡i|

Z‡e hvB †nvK bv †Kb, `vk©wbKZvi cÖ_g `kv ev ch©vq n‡jv, GKwU welq m¤‡Ü we‡kl

m‡PZbZv I Zvi wbe©vPb|

we‡kølY (Analysis) †Kv‡bv GKwU welq wbev©Pb Ges †m m¤Üxq Abya¨v‡bB `vk©wbKZvi KvR †kl n‡Z cv‡i|

Z‡e, AwaKvsk I ¸iæZ¡c~Y© `vk©wbKiv Abya¨v‡bi welq I Abya¨vbjä Ávb‡K AwaKZi

mymse× I wePvig~jKfv‡e Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ we‡kølY c×wZ MÖnY K‡i AMÖmi nb| eZ©gvb

mg‡qi AwaKvsk `vk©wbKB Abya¨v‡bi Zzjbvq we‡kølYg~jK KvRwU‡KB AwaKZi

¸iæZ¡c~Y© g‡b K‡ib| GgbwK A‡b‡K GwU‡KB h_v_© `vk©wbKZv e‡j we‡ePbv K‡ib|

we‡kølY c×wZ m¤‡Ü Avgiv wØZxq BDwb‡U wKQy Av‡jvPbv K‡iwQ, GLv‡b Avgiv wKQy

avc ev ch©vq D‡jøL Ki‡ev gvÎ, hv AbymiY K‡i we‡køl‡Yi KvR m¤úbœ Kiv m¤¢e :

1) cÖ_‡g mgm¨v ev welqwU cwi®‹vifv‡e I mZK©Zvi mv‡_ msÁvwqZ Kiæb|

D`vniY¯iƒc, Mf©cv‡Zi mgm¨v wb‡q we‡klfv‡e wPšÍv Kivi †ejvq, Avcwb †f‡e wb‡Z

cv‡ib †h, gbyl¨Rxeb KLb ïiæ nq- †m msµvšÍ mgm¨v m¤ú‡K© Avcbvi Ávb cy‡ivcywi

k~b¨| GRb¨, ‘zygote’, ‘embryo’, ‘fetus’, ‘gestation’ Ges G ai‡bi g~jc` ev

aviYv¸‡jv‡K ¯úófv‡e msÁv w`‡qB ïiæ Kiv n‡e Avcbvi cÖ_g KvR|

2) wØZxqZ mgm¨v ev welqwU msµvšÍ mKj Z_¨, DcvË hZUv m¤¢e msMÖn Kiæb|

K. Avcbvi I Ac‡ii Bw›`ªq-AwfÁZv I cix¶‡Yi mvnv‡h¨ mgm¨v m¤ú‡K© cÖ‡hvR¨

mKj Bw›`ªqMZ mv¶¨ hZUv m¤¢e msMÖn Kiæb| D`vniY¯iƒc, Mf©avi‡Yi ïiæ †_‡K

wW¤vYyi wbwl³ (fertilized) nIqv ch©šÍ Av`‡Z wK N‡U, Zv Rvbvi Rb¨ Avcwb

RxeweÁvb I eskMwZwe`¨vi GZ`&msµvšÍ Z_¨ msMÖn Ki‡Z cv‡ib|



L. Avcwb Avcbvi eyw× I †evakw³ Kv‡R jvwM‡q ag©xq, gb¯ÍvwË¡K, mgvRZvwË¡K,

b„ZvwË¡K I `vk©wbK `„wó‡KvY †_‡K gbyl¨Rxeb KLb ïiæ nq, †m msµvšÍ hyw³, ZË¡ I

aviYvmg~n‡K cix¶v-wbix¶v K‡i †`L‡eb|

3) AZtci Avcwb GB DcvËmg~n‡K we‡kølY, web¨¯Í I †kªYxKiY Ki‡eb|

D`vniY¯iƒc, Avcwb cÖvß mv¶¨ I hyw³wPšÍv‡K †kªYxKi‡Yi Rb¨ wZbwU cÖavb K¨vwUMix

eënvi Ki‡Z cv‡ib :

K. cÖvYavi‡Yi c‡¶ `„p Ae¯’vb L. cQ‡›ì c‡¶ „p Ae¯’vb Ges M. gvÎve× ga¨cš’x

Ae¯’vb|

4) GB ch©v‡q Avcwb Avcbvi wb‡Ri hyw³wPšÍ‡bi mvnv‡h¨ cÖKí (hypothesis) m~ÎvwqZ

Ki‡Z cv‡ib| D‡jøL¨, Z…Zxq av‡c Avcwb †h mvgwqK mgvavb ev wm×všÍ jvf K‡i‡Qb,

ZvB n‡jv cÖKí| D`vniY¯iƒc, Avcwb Gfv‡e cÖKí ïiæ Ki‡Z cv‡ib †h, hw` RbZv

me‡P‡q wbivc` ˆbwZK Ae¯’vb MÖnY Ki‡Z Pvq, Zvn‡j Zv‡ì DwPZ cÖvYavi‡Yi

mg_©bKvix `„p `„wófw½ MÖnY Kiv| Ab¨w`‡K, hw` Zviv kixi I Rxe‡bi Dci gwnjv‡ì

AwaKvi I e¨w³¯vaxbZvi cÖkœwU eo K‡i †`‡Lb, Zvn‡j Zv‡ì DwPZ cQ‡›ì c‡¶

Ae¯’vb MÖnY Kiv|

5) Avcbvi m~ÎvwqZ cÖKí mwVK n‡j ev¯Í‡e wK NU‡e, †m m¤‡Ü Avcbvi cÖKí †_‡KB

Avcwb wK wm×všÍ Uvb‡Z cv‡ib, Zv †`LvB n‡e GB ch©v‡qi KvR| D`vniY¯iƒc, Avcwb

Avcbvi cÖKí †_‡K wm×všÍ Uvb‡Z cv‡ib †h, hw` Mf©cvZ‡K DrmvwnZ Kiv nq ev

Aby‡gv`b †`qv nq, Zvn‡j Acivci †¶‡Î (K…cvRwbZ nZ¨v, hy×RwbZ nZ¨v, wkï nZ¨v)

gbyl¨Rxe‡bi cÖwZ kª×v K‡g Avm‡Z cv‡i|

6) AZtci Avcwb Avcbvi wm×všÍ‡K †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bvfv‡e hvPvB K‡i †`L‡eb|

D`vniY¯iƒc, Mf©cvZ AvBb AwaKZi wkw_j Kiv n‡j, gbyl¨Rxe‡bi cÖwZ kª×v‡eva

K‡g Av‡m wK Av‡m bv, G msµvšÍ c„w_exe¨vcx Z_¨ msMÖn Ki‡Z cv‡ib| Avcwb

msM„nxZ GB Z‡_ï Av‡jv‡K mn‡RB eyS‡Z cvi‡eb, Avcbvi wm×všÍwU êa bv A‰ea|

7) we‡kølY wµqvi me©‡kl GB av‡c G‡m Avcwb j¶ Ki‡eb, Avcbvi, A‡bï I

RM‡Zi †¶‡Î Avcbvi `vk©wbKZvi djvdj ev Zvrch© wK| Ab¨vb¨ ¸iæZ¡c~Y© mgm¨v ev

wel‡qi mv‡_ Avcbvi we‡eP¨ mgm¨v I Zvi `vk©wbK djvd‡ji m¤úK© wK, ZvI j¶

Kiæb| D`vniY¯iƒc, Mf©cv‡Zi mg_©b ev Amg_©b RbKj¨vY, wkï-Aceënvi ev

AšÍtmË¡v bvixi fvex Rxe‡bi †¶‡Î wK djvdj iv‡L, Zv j¶ Kiv hvq| me©‡kl GB

avcwU LyeB ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| †Kbbv GwU ZË¡ I we‡kølY‡K Rxe‡bi ev¯Íe †¶‡Î cÖ‡qvM K‡i

Ges Ávb‡K AwZµg K‡i cÖÁvi ¯Í‡i avweZ nq|



Dcmsnvi

Abya¨vb I we‡kølY Dfq cÖwµqvi mn‡hv‡M M‡o I‡V h_v_© `vk©wbKZv| Abya¨v‡b Avgiv

GKwU welq ev mgm¨v m¤‡Ü m‡PZb n‡q DwV| †Kv‡bv mgm¨v ev wel‡qi wbe©vPb wb‡Pi

cÖkœ ‡jvi Dci g~jZ wbf©i K‡i :

1| GwU gvby‡li Rxeb, g½j I weKv‡ki †¶‡Î KZUzKz ¸iæZ¡c~Y©?

2| GwU Avcbvi, A‡bï I Avcbvi Pwiw`‡Ki c„w_ex m¤ú‡K© AwaKZi fvj I c~Y© Ávb

jv‡fi †¶‡Î KZUv ¸iæZ¡c~Y©?

3| GwU Avcbvi Kv‡Q eyw×MZfv‡e KZUv AvKl©Yxq?

we‡kølY cÖwµqv‡K wb‡Pi mvZwU av‡c fvM Kiv hvq :

1) welq ev mgm¨v‡K mZK©fv‡e msÁv †`qv|

2) h_vm¤¢e mKj cÖvmw½K DcvË msMÖn Kiv|

3) msM„nxZ DcvË we‡kølY, web¨¯Í I †kªYxfvM Kiv|

4) cÖKí ev mvgwqK mgvavb m~ÎvwqZ Kiv|

5) m~ÎvwqZ cÖKí †_‡K wb‡Ri Uvbv wm×všÍ j¶¨ Kiv|

6) wm×všÍ hvPvB Kiv Ges †m Av‡jv‡K Zv MÖnY ev eR©b Kiv|

7) `vk©wbKZvi djvdj ev e¨Äbv Avwe®‹vi Kiv|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| Abya¨vbg~jK `vk©wbKZv e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| we‡kølYg~jK `vk©wbKZv e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


1| `vk©wbK welq wbe©vP‡bi gvb`Ûmg~n eY©bv Kiæb|

2| we‡kølY cÖwµqvi me©‡kl avcwU e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| `vk©wbK GKwU welq m¤‡Ü m‡PZb

n‡q I‡Vb

i) mgm¨vi gy‡LvgyLx n‡q

ii) mskq, we¯§q ev †KŠZ~n‡j DØy×

n‡q

iii) A‡bï Øviv cÖfvweZ n‡q

iv) Dc‡ii †h †Kv‡bv Kvi‡Y

2| welq wbe©vP‡bi ¸iæZ¡c~Y© gvb`Û

n‡jv

i) gvbeKj¨vY

ii) AvZ¥Ávb

iii) eyw×MZ AvKl©Y

iv) Dc‡ii me¸‡jv

3| we‡køl‡Yi cÖ_g avc n‡jv

i) mgm¨v ev welq msµvšÍ mKj

cÖvmw½K Z_¨, DcvË hZUv m¤¢e

msMÖn Kiv

ii) cÖKí ev mvgwqK mgvavb m~ÎvwqZ Kiv

iii) wm×všÍ hvPvB Kiv Ges †m

Av‡jv‡K Zv MÖnY ev eR©b Kiv

iv) mgm¨v ev welq‡K ¯úóZv I

mZK©Zvi mv‡_ msÁvwqZ Kiv

4| Ávb‡K AwZµg K‡i Avgiv cÖÁvi

¯Í‡i †cŠuQvq ... we‡kølY cÖwµqvi

i) PZz_© av‡c

ii) cÂg av‡c

iii) lô av‡c

iv) mßg av‡c


1| `vk©wbKZvi cÖ_g ch©vq n‡jv, GKwU welq m¤ú‡K© m‡PZbZv I Zvi wbev©Pb|

2| AvR‡Ki AwaKvsk `vk©wb‡Ki g‡Z, Abya¨v‡bi †P‡q we‡kølY ¸iæZ¡c~Y©|

3| mgm¨v msµvšÍ DcvË msMÖ‡ni †¶‡Î Ac‡ii Bw`ªq-AwfÁZv Kv‡R jvMv‡bv hvq bv|

4| we‡kølY cÖwµqvi me©‡kl av‡c Avgiv ZË¡‡K ev¯Í‡e cÖ‡qvM Kwi|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iv) Dc‡ii †h †Kv‡bv Kvi‡Y 2| iv) Dc‡ii me¸‡jv

3| iv) mgm¨v ev welq‡K ¯úóZv I mZK©Zvi mv‡_ msÁvwqZ Kiv 4| iv) mßg av‡c

L) 1| m 2| m 3| wg 4| m



hyw³web¨v‡mi cÖKvi

(Types of Reasoning)

D‡Ïk¨


hyw³web¨v‡mi cÖavb aib ev cÖKvi¸‡jv D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

Ae‡ivnx hyw³web¨vm e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

Av‡ivnx hyw³web¨vm e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³web¨vm e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

Øvw›ØK hyw³web¨vm e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

Ae‡ivnx, Av‡ivnx, mv`„k¨g~jK I Øvw›ØK hyw³web¨v‡mi cv_©K¨ wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

Abya¨vb I we‡kølY Dfq cÖwµqv hyw³web¨v‡mi mnvqZvq m¤úbœ Kiv hvq|Z‡e we‡kølY

cÖwµqvq hyw³web¨v‡mi mnvqZv Acwinvh©|GRb¨ `vk©wbKZv wkL‡bi Av‡jvPbvq

hyw³web¨v‡mi AšÍZ cÖv_wgK cwiPq †ck Kiv cÖ‡qvRb| hyw³web¨v‡mi PviwU cÖavb iƒc

ev aib wb‡q Avgiv GLb Av‡jvPbv Ki†ev|

Ae‡ivnx hyw³web¨vm (Deductive Reasoning)

Ae‡ivnx hyw³web¨v‡mi †¶‡Î GKwU hyw³ ev Abygvb `vwe K‡i †h, Zvi AvkªqevK¨mg~‡ni

mZ¨Zv Zvi wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨Zvi wbðqZv `vb K‡i| A_v©r Ae‡ivnx hyw³i AvkªqevK¨mg~n

Zvi wm×v‡šÍi c‡¶ P‚ovšÍ I cwic~Y© mg_©b †hvMvq| Avi †m Kvi‡YB GUv g‡b Kiv

ixwZgZ AmsjMœ n‡q ùvovq †h, AvkªqevK¨mg~n mZ¨ wKš‘ wm×všÍwU wg_¨v|

MZvbyMwZKfv‡e ejv hvq, Ae‡ivnx hyw³web¨vm n‡jv mvwe©K mZ¨ †_‡K we‡kl m‡Zï ev

Kg mvwe©K m‡Zï Abygvb| wb‡P Ae‡ivnx hyw³i `ywU D`vniY †`qv n‡jv :

K) mKj ivRbxwZwe` nb mr|

Av‡bvqvi mv‡ne nb GKRb ivRbxwZwe`|

AZGe, Av‡bvqvi mv‡ne nb mr |

L) mKj gvbyl nq giYkxj|

mKj weÁvbx nq gvbyl|

AZGe, mKj weÁvbx nq giYkxj|

Av‡ivnx hyw³web¨vm (Inductive Reasoning)

Av‡ivnx hyw³web¨v‡mi †¶‡Î GKwU hyw³ ev Abygvb Ggb `vwe K‡i bv †h, Zvi

AvkªqevK¨mg~n wbwðZfv‡e Zvi wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨Zv cÖwZôv K‡i| Av‡ivnx hyw³i ‡¶‡Î

†Kej G `vwe Kiv nq †h, AvkªqevK¨¸‡jv wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨Zvi c‡¶ wKQyUv mg_©b

cvV - 4



†hvMvq| G Kvi‡Y, †h A‡_© Ae‡ivnx hyw³i †ejvq êa I A‰ea K_v `ywU cÖ‡qvM Kiv

nq, †m A‡_© Av‡ivnx hyw³‡K êa ev A‰ea ejv hvq bv| AvkªqevK¨mg~n wm×v‡šÍi

m¤¢ve¨Zvi c‡¶ KZUv †Rviv‡jv, Zvi wfwË‡Z Av‡ivn Abygvb ev hyw³i g~j¨ wbiƒwcZ

nq|

MZvbyMwZKfv‡e ejv hvq, Av‡ivnx hyw³web¨vm n‡jv, we‡kl mZ¨ †_‡K mvwe©K m‡Z¨,

KLbI ev we‡kl m‡Z¨B DcbxZ nIqv| wb‡P Av‡ivnx hyw³i ywU D`vniY †`qv n‡jv :

K) mgªvU AvKei GKRb gvbyl Ges wZwb gviv wM‡q‡Qb|

AvKei Avjx GKRb gvbyl Ges wZwb gviv wM‡q‡Qb|

wbDUb GKRb gvbyl Ges wZwb gviv wM‡q‡Qb|

nhiZ Igi GKRb gvbyl Ges wZwb gviv wM‡q‡Qb|

Bw›ìv MvÜx GKRb gvbyl Ges wZwb gviv wM‡q‡Qb|

AZGe, m¤¢eZ mKj gvbylB nq giYkxj|

L) gy‡mvwjbx nq GKRb ˆ¯ivPvix I wbôzi|

wnUjvi nq GKRb ˆ¯ivPvix I wbôzi|

geyZz nq GKRb ˆ¯ivPvix I wbôzi|

K¨v‡óªv nq GKRb ˆ¯ivPvix

AZGe, K¨v‡óªv nq m¤¢eZt wbôzi|

mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³web¨vm (Argument by Analogy)

mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³web¨vm Av‡ivnx hyw³web¨v‡miB GKwU cÖKvi| `ywU e¯‘i g‡a¨ †Kv‡bv

†Kv‡bv wel‡q mv`„k¨ †`‡L ZviB wfwË‡Z Ab¨ ‡Kvb wel‡q Zv‡ì mv`„‡kï Abygvb Kivi

bvg mv`„k¨g~jK Abygvb ev hyw³| mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i `ywU D`vniY :

K) gvwU, cvwb, evqy, bvwZkx‡ZvòZv cÖf…wZ w`K w`‡q c„w_ex I g½j MÖ‡ni g‡a¨ mv`„k¨

Av‡Q; c„w_exi GKwU AwZwi³ ¸Y n‡jv, GLv‡b Rx‡ei Aw¯ÍZ¡ Av‡Q| AZGe, g½j

MÖ‡nI Rx‡ei Aw¯ÍZ¡ Av‡Q|

L) Avwg GKRb we‡kl †jL‡Ki ‡jLv Dcb¨vm c‡o eivei Avb›` †c‡qwQ| myZivs

Abygvb KiwQ †h, G †jL‡Ki bZzb Dcb¨vmwUI myLcvV¨ n‡e|

mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i MVb we‡kølY K‡i Avgiv mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i ‰ewkó¨ Rvb‡Z cvwi|

cÖ_g hyw³wU we‡ePbv Kiv hvK: hyw³wUi cÖ_g AvkªqevK¨ †NvlYv K‡i †h, `ywU e¯‘ PviwU

wel‡q m`„k Ges wØZxq AvkªqevK¨ †NvlYv K‡i †h, GB `ywU e¯‘i GKwUi i‡q‡Q GKwU

evowZ êwkó¨; Avi ZvB cÖ_‡gv³ Avkªqev‡K¨ †NvwlZ mv`„‡kï Dci wfwË K‡i wm×všÍ

Uvbv n‡q‡Q †h, Ab¨ e¯‘wUiI H êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|



j¶Yxq, me mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i †¶‡ÎB †h `ywU gvÎ e¯‘i g‡a¨ mv`„k¨ †`Lv‡bv n‡e Ges

PviwU wel‡qi mv`„‡kï K_vB ejv n‡e, Ggb bq| Z‡e me mv`„k¨g‚jK hyw³i KvVv‡gv

GKB| mv`„k¨g‚jK hyw³i KvVv‡gv n‡jv, cÖwZwU mv`…k¨g~jK hyw³i †¶‡Î `yB ev Z‡ZvwaK

e¯‘i g‡a¨ GKvwaK wel‡qi mv`„‡kï wfwË‡Z Abygvb Kiv nq †h, Zv‡ì g‡a¨ Av‡iv

GKwU wel‡q mv`„k¨ _vK‡Z cv‡i| hw` A, B, C I D KwZcq e¯‘ nq Ges x, y, z

KwZcq êwkó¨ nq, Zvn‡j †h †Kv‡bv mv`„k¨g‚jK hyw³i AvKvi ev KvVv‡gv n‡e,

A, B, C I D meviB x I y êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

A, B I C meviB z bvgK Av‡iv GKwU êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

myZivs D GiI m¤¢eZ z bvgK êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

mv`„k¨g~jK Abygvb Ac~Y© mv`„‡kï wfwË‡Z cÖwZwôZ, †Kv‡bv Kvh©KviY m¤‡Üi Dci

cÖwZwôZ bq, weavq Gi wm×všÍ m¤¢ve¨ gvÎ| Z‡e m¤¢ve¨Zv wewfbœ gvÎvi n‡Z cv‡i; k~b¨

†_‡K ïiæ K‡i GB gvÎv wbðqZvi KvQvKvwQ †h‡Z cv‡i| mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i m¤¢ve¨Zvi

gvÎv †hme kZ© ‡jvi Dci wbf©i K‡i, Zvi K‡qKwU gvÎ wb‡P D‡jøL Kiv n‡jv |

1) hZ¸‡jv e ‘i g‡a¨ mv`„‡kï K_v ejv n‡”Q, Zv‡ì msL¨v †ewk n‡j mv`„k¨g‚jK

hyw³i wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨ nIqvi m¤¢vebv †ewk n‡e| D`vniY¯iƒc aiv hvK,

K. A I B Gi p I q êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

A Gi r êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

myZivs B GiI r êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

Avevi,

L. A, B, C I D Gi p I q êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

A, B I C Gi r êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

myZivs D GiI r êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|

GLv‡b †k‡lv³ mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i wm×v‡šÍi m¤¢ve¨Zv cÖ_g hyw³i Zzjbvq †ewk |

2| yB ev Z‡ZvwaK e ‘i g‡a¨ m`„k wel‡qi msL¨v KZ, Zvi Dci mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i

m¤¢ve¨Zvi gvÎv wbf©i K‡i| D`vniY¯iƒc,

K. A I B Gi p I q êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|



Avevi

L. A I B Gi n,o, p I q êwkó¨ i‡q‡Q|





GLv‡b, †k‡lv³ hyw³i mZ¨ nIqvi m¤¢vebv cÖ_gwUi Zzjbvq AwaK|

3) Avkªqev‡K¨ DwjøwLZ `„óvšÍ wm×všÍ cÖwZôvi c‡¶ hZ cÖvmw½K n‡e, mv`„k¨g‚jK hyw³i

wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨ nIqvi m¤¢vebv ZZ †ewk n‡e| D`vniY¯iƒc, hw` †Kv‡bv wPwKrmK

wm×všÍ K‡ib †h, †h Jl‡a iwn‡gi e¨vwai wbivgq n‡qwQj, †mB Jl‡aB Kwi‡gi e¨vwaI

wbivgq n‡e, †Kbbv iwn‡gi i³ cix¶vq †h RxevYy cvIqv wM‡qwQj, Kwi‡gi i³

cix¶vq †mB RxevYyB cvIqv wM‡q‡Q, Zvn‡j wPwKrm‡Ki wm×všÍ h‡_ó †Rviv‡jv n‡e|

wKš‘ wPwKrmK hw` Ggb Abygvb K‡ib †h, †h‡nZz iwng I Kwi‡gi Mv‡qi iO GK,

†`‡ni IRb GK Ges Df‡qi Pzj ‡KuvKov, †m‡nZz †h Jl‡a iwn‡gi e¨vwa wbivgq

n‡q‡Q, †m Jl‡aB Kwi‡gi e¨vwa wbivgq n‡e, Zvn‡j wPwKrm‡Ki Abygvb LyeB `ye©j

n‡e| KviY, †hme wel‡qi mv`„‡kï K_v ejv n‡q‡Q, †mme wm×všÍ cÖwZôvi †¶‡Î

AcÖvmw½K|

Øvw›ØK hyw³web¨vm (Dialectical Reasoning)

m‡µwUm I †cø‡Uv wQ‡jb Øvw›ØK hyw³web¨v‡mi Avwe®‹viK| †cø‡Uv Zuvi `vk©wbK iPbvKg©

wj‡LwQ‡jb msjvc AvKv‡i, hv‡Z m‡µwUm I A‡bïv m‡Z¨ †cŠuQv‡bvi Rb¨ msjvc

(Dialogue)-G wjß nq| ‘Dialogue’ I ‘Dialectic’ kã ywU GKB g~j †_‡K

AZ¨šÍ KvQvKvwQ A_© wb‡q D™¢‚Z nq| Dialogue A_© n‡jv, yÕR‡bi K‡_vcK_b,

Av‡jvPbv ev weZK©; Avi Dialectic A_© `ywU aviYvi g‡a¨ ÔmsjvcÕ ev ÔK‡_vcK_bÕ|

Øvw›ØK hyw³web¨vm wZbwU Ask wb‡q M‡o I‡V : 1| ev` (thesis) 2| cÖwZev`

(antithesis) I 3| m¤v` (synthesis)| GKwU gZev` (thesis) ev aviYv (idea)

ev ZË¡ (theory) Av‡jvPbv I we‡køl‡Yi Rb¨ Dc¯’vcb Kiv n‡jv; GwU we‡ivax ZË¡ ev

aviYv ev cÖwZev` (antithesis) Gi gy‡LvgywL n†jv; GB gy‡LvgywL ‡evSv-cov ev msNl©

†_‡K cÖKvk †cj †h, cÖ_g ZË¡ ev gZev‡` †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bvfv‡e wKQy `ye©jZv ev NvUwZ

i‡q‡Q| A_ev Zv nq‡Zv wg_¨v, Z‡e mPivPi †`Lv hvq †h, GB msNl© †_‡K GKwU bZzb

gZev` A_©vr m¤v` (synthesis) D™¢‚Z nq, hv cÖvqk ev` I cÖwZev` Df‡qi m‡e©vËg

Ask ev w`K¸‡jv‡K mgwšZ K‡i Ges Zv‡ì Df‡qi `ye©j ev ÎæwUc~Y© Ask¸‡jv‡K

cwiZ¨vM K‡i| KL‡bv KL‡bv †`Lv hvq †h, gZev`wU Zvi cÖwZev‡ì Øviv ÎæwUc~Y© e‡j

cÖgvwYZ n‡”Q Ges GKwU bZzb I wfbœ gZev` Rb¥ wb‡”Q| hv‡nvK, GB gy‡LvgywL ‡evSv-

covi cÖwµqv †_‡K †h-†KD wg_¨vZ¡ (falsehood) †_‡K wKfv‡e mZ¨‡K cy‡ivcywi †ei

K‡i Avb‡Z nq Zv wkL‡Z cv‡i|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| Ae‡ivnx I Av‡ivnx hyw³web¨v‡mi cv_©K¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|


1| mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i KvVv‡gv eY©bv Kiæb|

2| Ggb `ywU kZ© D‡jøL Kiæb, hvi Dci mv „k¨g‚jK hyw³i m¤¢ve¨Zvi gvÎv wbf©ikxj|

3| Øvw›ØK hyw³web¨vm e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

K) eûwbe©vPbx cÖkœ

mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| AvkªqevK¨mg~n wm×v‡šÍi c‡¶

P‚ovšÍ mg_©b †hvMvq

i) Av‡ivnx hyw³i †¶‡Î

ii) mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i †¶‡Î

iii) Øvw›ØK hyw³i †¶‡Î

iv) Ae‡ivnx hyw³i †¶‡Î

2| mvwe©K mZ¨ †_‡K we‡kl m‡Z¨

DcbxZ nB

i) mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³‡Z

ii) Av‡ivnx hyw³‡Z

iii) Ae‡ivnx hyw³‡Z

iv) Øvw›ØK hyw³‡Z

3| mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³

i) c~Y© mv`„‡kï Dci cÖwZwôZ

ii) Ac~Y© mv`„‡kï Dci cÖwZwôZ

iii) Kvh©KviY m¤‡Üi Dci cÖwZwôZ

iv) m¤¢ve¨Zvi Dci cÖwZwôZ

4| Avkªqev‡K¨ DwjøwLZ `„óvšÍ wm×všÍ

cÖwZôvi c‡¶ hZUv cÖvmw½K n‡e

i) Øvw›ØK hyw³web¨v‡mi wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨

nIqvi m¤¢vebv ZZ †ewk n‡e

ii) mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i wm×v‡šÍi wg_¨v


iii) mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨


iv) Ae‡ivnx hyw³i wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨



1| we‡kølY cÖwµqvq hyw³web¨v‡mi eënvi Acwinvh©|

2| Av‡ivnx hyw³i AvkªqevK¨mg~‡ni mZ¨Zv Zvi wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨Zvi wbðqZv †`q|

3| AvkªqevK¨mg~n wm×v‡šÍi m¤¢ve¨Zvi c‡¶ KZUv †Rviv‡jv, Zvi wfwË‡Z Ae‡ivnx

hyw³i g~j¨ wbiƒwcZ nq|

4| mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³web¨vm Av‡ivnx hyw³web¨v‡mi GKwU cÖKvi|

mwVK DËi

K) 1| iv) Ae‡ivnx hyw³i †¶‡Î 2| iii) Ae‡ivnx hyw³‡Z

3| ii) Ac~Y© mv`„‡kï Dci cÖwZwôZ 4| iii) mv`„k¨g~jK hyw³i wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨ nIqvi

m¤¢vebv ZZ †ewk n‡e

L) 1| m 2| wg 3| wg 4| m



†hŠw³K AbyccwË : AwZmijxKi‡Yi AbyccwËmg~n

(Logical Fallacies : Fallacies of Oversimplification)

D‡Ïk¨


AbyccwËi msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb|

AwZmijxKi‡Yi AbyccwËmg~n D‡jøL Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

AbyccwË n‡jv fzj ev g›` hyw³ ev hyw³web¨vm| hyw³ bvbv Kvi‡Y g›` ev AwbLuyZ n‡Z

cv‡i| GK ev GKvwaK AvkªqevK¨ wg_¨v n‡j, wKsev AcÖvmw½K n‡j, hyw³web¨vm A‰ea

n‡j, hyw³ cÖKvkK fvlv A¯úó ev Ø¨_©K n‡j hyw³ g›` n‡q hvq| g›`fv‡e ev åvšÍfv‡e

hyw³web¨vm Kivi aib AMwYZ n‡Z cv‡i| djZ g›` ev fzj hyw³i msL¨vI Amxg| Z‡e

H mg¯Í fzj hyw³‡K AbyccwË ejv nq, †h¸‡jv fzj nIqv m‡Ë¡I h_v_© e‡j cÖZxqgvb

nq| A_©vr AbyccwË n‡jv, cÖ‡ivPbvg~jK (persuasive) fzj hyw³| cÖ‡ivPbvg~jK

nIqvi Kvi‡Y Avgiv G ai‡bi hyw³i duv‡` co‡Z cvwi| h_v_© ev mwVK hyw³web¨v‡mi

¯v‡_© ZvB AbyccwË m¤‡Ü Avgv‡ì AšÍZ cÖv_wgK Ávb ivLv DwPZ| AbyccwË‡K

wewfbœfv‡e fvM Kiv hvq| Avgiv AbyccwË‡K `ywU cÖavb fv‡M †d‡j Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev :

1| AwZmijxKi‡Yi AbyccwË I 2| cÖeÂbvg~jK AbyccwË|

AwZmijxKi‡Yi AbyccwËmg~n (Fallacies of Oversimplification)

G ai‡bi AbyccwË‡Z cÖavb welq‡K AwZ mijxKiY K‡i †djv nq Ges Zvrch©c~Y©

NUbv‡K AMÖvn¨ ev D‡c¶v Kiv nq| wb‡P G ai‡bi K‡qKwU AbyccwË wb‡q Avgiv GLb

Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev :

wbQK Dw³ (Mere Assertion)

RbmvaviY cÖvqB fv‡e †h, Zviv hw` †Kv‡bv wKQy GKiKg †Rviv‡jv ev wbw`©ó c‡ì

mvnv‡h¨ †NvlYv Ki‡Z cv‡i, Zvn‡j Zv‡ì hyw³mg~n wek¦vm Rb¥v‡Z cvi‡e|

D`vniY¯iƒc ejv hvq, Ò†Lv`v GwU e‡j‡Qb Ges Avwg GwU wek¦vm Kwi, Avi GB n‡jv

GUvi †klK_vÓ| G K_vwU Avm‡j wKQyB cÖgvY K‡i bv| GwU Avm‡j wbQK wek¦v‡miB

GK †NvlYv| `vk©wbK hyw³ cÖ k©‡bi cÖ_g K_vB n‡jv mv¶¨ ev †hŠw³K wbq‡gi mvnv‡h¨B

†Kej †Kv‡bv hyw³ mg_©b ev cÖgvY Kiv hvq| GKwU aviYv ev wek¦vm ev ZË¡ wbQK †NvlYv

Kijvg, Avi cÖZ¨vkv Kijvg †h, gvbyl GwU‡KB LuvwU hyw³ wn‡m‡e MÖnY Ki‡e Zvn‡j Zv

n‡e wbwðZfv‡e GKwU AbyccwË|

wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygvb (False Dilemma)

cvV - 5



wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygvb‡K Ômv`v-Kv‡jvÕ (black-white), ev Ônq-bZzevÕ (either-or) AbyccwË bv‡gI AwfwnZ Kiv nq| Avgiv hw` †Kv‡bv mgm¨v ev wel‡qi `yB‡qi AwaK

mgvavb (solutions) ev w`K (aspects) _vKv m‡Ë¡I a‡i †bB †h, Zvi ywUgvÎ AvcvZ

mZ¨ mgvavbB i‡q‡Q, Ges Zvi Dci wfwË K‡i hyw³web¨vm Kwi Zvn‡j wg_¨v

wØKZ¥vbygvb AbyccwËi D™¢e N‡U| Avgiv hw` ewj welqwU nq K bZzev L n‡e, A_P

Zvi M, N, I O nIqviI m¤¢vebv i‡q‡Q, Zvn‡j Avgiv wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygvb m„wó Ki‡ev|

ÔRxeweÁvb bq A_©bxwZ cyiæl-cÖvavb¨‡K (male domination) e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cv‡iÕ|

GB Dw³wU aviYv Rb¥vq †h, `ywU gvÎ m¤¢vebvB i‡q‡Q, nq RxeweÁvb cyiæl cÖvavb¨

e¨vL¨v K‡i bZzev A_©‰bwZK mdjZv Zv e¨vL¨v K‡i| AviI aviYv Rb¥vq †h, wØZxq

m¤¢vebvwU, A_©vr A_©‰bwZK mdjZv n‡Z cv‡i cyiæl cÖvav‡bï mwZ¨Kvi e¨vL¨v| A_P

Avgiv Rvwb †h, AviI A‡bK m¤¢vebvB i‡q‡Q, h_v- mvgvwRK cÖ_v, ag©xq cÖZ¨q Ges

A_©‰bwZK I RxeZvwË¡K Dcv`v‡bi mgš‡q M‡o IVv wewfbœ ai‡bi ev¯ÍeZv| Av‡jvP¨

Dw³wU nq A_©bxwZ b‡Pr Rxewe`¨v‡KB cyiæl-cÖvav‡bï KviY wn‡m‡e fve‡Z Avgv‡ì

cÖ‡ivwPZ K‡i Ges Ab¨vb¨ m¤¢vebv¸‡jv‡K Avgv‡ì `„wó †_‡K mwi‡q †`q| Avi

Gfv‡eB wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygv‡bi AbyccwË NUvq|

AcÖvmw½K hyw³ (Irrelevant Argument) Giƒc AbyccwËi †ejvq, hyw³`vbKvix Ggb GKwU Ae¯’v‡b AvNvZ nvbvi †Póv K‡ib hv

g~j hyw³i †¶‡Î AcÖvmw½K Ges cvVK ev †kªvZvi g‡bv‡hvM‡K Dc¯’vwcZ g~j welq †_‡K

`~‡i mwi‡q ivLvi cÖqvm cvb| Ab¨K_vq, mv¶¨ ev AvkªqevK¨mg~n wm×v‡šÍi †¶‡Î

cy‡ivcywi AcÖvmw½K n‡j AcÖvmw½K hyw³ bvgK AbyccwË N‡U| D`vniY¯iƒc,

A¯¿wbqš¿‡Yi weiæ‡× hyw³ w`‡Z wM‡q hw` †KD e‡jb, cÖwZ eQi A¯¿ Øviv hZ gvbyl

wbnZ nq, Zvi †P‡q †ewk gvbyl moK `yN©Ubvi Kvi‡Y wbnZ nq| Zvn‡j G hyw³ n‡e

AcÖvmw½K hyw³| e›`y‡Ki msL¨v e„w×i mv‡_ hvbevnb I hvbevnbRwbZ `yN©Ubvi †Kv‡bv

m¤úK© †bB| cÖwZ eQi wewfbœ Kvi‡Y gvbyl g„ZzëiY K‡i, A¯¿ wbqwš¿Z nIqv DwPZ wK

DwPZ bv, Zvi mv‡_ Gme ev¯ÍeZvi †Kv‡bv m¤Ü †bB | g~j welq n‡jv, A¯¿ wbqš¿Y Kiv

DwPZ wK DwPZ bv, Ab¨fv‡e AwaK msL¨K gvbyl g„ZzëiY K‡i wKbv Zv GLv‡b †`Lvi

welq bq|

PµK hyw³ (Circular Argument) PµK hyw³‡K ÔcÖkœwf¶v AbyccwËÕ (Fallacy of Begging the Question)-I ejv

nq| KviY G hyw³i AvkªqevK¨ Zvi wm×v‡šÍi gZB cÖkœ‡hvM¨| †h welqwU cÖgvY Ki‡Z

n‡e Zv c ‡e©B cÖgvwYZ e‡j a‡i wb‡q hyw³ w`‡j GB AbyccwË N‡U| A_©vr wm×v‡šÍ hv

cÖgvY Ki‡Z n‡e ZvB hw` Avkªqev‡K¨ a‡i †bqv nq Zvn‡j PµK hyw³‡`vl N‡U| †Kv‡bv

wKQy cÖgvY bv K‡i AvkªqevK¨ I wm×v‡šÍ ÔNy‡i-wd‡iÕ GKB K_v ejv nq e‡jB GB

AbyccwËi bvg n‡q‡Q PµK hyw³‡`vl ev AbyccwË| D`vniY¯iƒc, KuvP GKwU ¯^”Q

c`v_©, KviY Kuv‡Pi gvS w`‡q Avgiv †`L‡Z cvB GwU GKwU PµK AbyccwË|



†KD hw` e‡jb, †Lv`vi Aw¯ÍZ¡ i‡q‡Q, KviY cweÎ †KviAv‡b GwU ejv n‡q‡Q; AZ:ci

Ab¨ ‡KD hw` wRÁvmv K‡ib, †KviAv‡bi mZ¨Zvi welqwU Avcwb wKfv‡e Rvb‡jb,

Rev‡e H e¨w³ hw` e‡jb, †KviAvb †Zv †Lv`v KZ…©K cÖZ¨v`„ó, Zvn‡j Zvi hyw³ n‡e

PµK †`v‡l `yó| GLv‡b †Lv`vi Aw¯ÍZ¡ †KviAv‡bi Øviv Ges †KviAv‡bi mZ¨Zv †Lv`vi

Aw¯ÍZ¡ Øviv cÖgvY Kiv n‡q‡Q| A_©vr †Lv`vi Aw¯ÍZ¡ cÖgvY Ki‡Z cÖ_‡g ev c~‡e©B †Lv`vi

Aw¯ÍZ¡‡K a‡i †bqv n‡q‡Q| d‡j G hyw³‡Z †Lv`vi Aw¯ÍZ¡ †hŠw³Kfv‡e cÖgvwYZ nqwb|

AÁZvwfwËK hyw³ ev AÁvbZv †`vl (Appeal to Ignorance)

Giƒc hyw³‡Z †Kv‡bv welq cÖgvY Kivi †Póv bv K‡i Zv AcÖgvY Kivi fvi wec‡¶i Dci

Pvwc‡q †`qv nq| wec‡¶i AÁvbZvi my‡hvM wb‡q wb‡Ri K_v cÖgvY Kivi †Póv Kiv nq

e‡j Giƒc hyw³‡K AÁvbZv †`vl ev AbyccwË e‡j| AÁvbZvwfwËK hyw³i K_v n‡jv,

Avgiv GKwU Dw³ ev eP‡bi mZ¨Zv ZZ¶Y ch©šÍ MÖnY Ki‡ev hZ¶Y bv Avgv‡ì wec¶

Ab¨Zi wKQy A_©vr wg_¨v cÖgvY Ki‡Z cv‡i| D`vniY¯iƒc, †KDB cÖgvY Ki‡Z cv‡ibwb

†h, f‚Z †bB; AZGe f‚Z Av‡Q|

†÷wiIUvBwcs (Stereotyping)

†÷wiIUvBc n‡jv Ggb MZvbyMwZK aviYv, gZ ev wek¦vm hv mPivPi AwZmijxK…Z ev

AwZùxZ n‡q _v‡K| AwaKvsk †÷wiIUvBc ms¯‹v‡ii Kvi‡Y N‡U| `j ev †MvôxMZ

wek¦vm‡K wbwðZ Kivi AvKv•¶v †_‡K A_ev cÖ‡qvRbxq mv‡¶ï Afve _vKv m‡Ë¡I `ªƒZ

I myweavRbK wm×všÍ Uvbvi AvKv•¶v †_‡K Gme ms¯‹v‡ii Rb¥ nq|

†÷wiIUvBwcs bvgK AbyccwËi ZLbB D™¢e N‡U hLb †KD GKwU †kªYx m¤‡Ü wg_¨v ev

AwZe¨vcK mvaviYxKiY (generalization) K‡ib Ges Zv †_‡K H †kªYxi †Kv‡bv

m`m¨‡K wePvi Kivi †Póv K‡ib| D`vniY¯iƒc †KD hw` fv‡eb †h, mKj gwnjv nq

Av‡eMcÖeY, `ye©j I †iv`bcÖeY, Zvn‡j †h-†Kv‡bv gwnjv H me PvKzwi ev K‡g©i †¶‡Î

A‡hvM¨ e‡j we‡ewPZ n‡eb †hLv‡b †gavex, `„p cÖZ¨qx I axiw¯’i gvby‡li cÖ‡qvRb

i‡q‡Q| e¯‘Z gvby‡li †¶‡Î ÔmKjÕ K_vwU cÖ‡qv‡Mi †ejvq Avgv‡ì mZK© nIqv DwPZ|

†Kv‡bv wKQy‡K A_ev †Kv‡bv e¨w³‡K †Kv‡bv †kªYxi wbQK GK m`m¨ e‡j bv †f‡e eis

AgyK GK, AgyK `yB, AgyK wZb A_ev iwng ev Kwig wKsev iv‡eqv ev iwngv -

GiKgfv‡e fvev DwPZ| j¶Yxq, wbw`©ó †kªYxi gvbyl m¤Üxq †÷wiIUvBç‡jv

we‡klfv‡e gvivÍK: divwmiv n‡jv gnvb †cÖwgK, evOvwj nq ûRy‡M, †g‡qiv †Q‡j‡ì †P‡q

Aw¯’igwZ|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| AwZmijxKi‡Yi AbyccwËmg~n eY©bv Kiæb|


1| wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygvb AbyccwË e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| AcÖvmw½K hyw³ e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

K) eûwbe©vPbx cÖkœ

mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| hyw³ g›` ev †`vlhy³ nq hw`

i) GK ev GKvwaK AvkªqevK¨ wg_¨v nq

ii) GK ev GKvwaK AvkªqevK¨

AcÖvmw½K nq

iii) hyw³ cÖKvkK fvlv A¯úó ev Ø¨_©K nq

iv) Dc‡ii †h †Kv‡bvwU N‡U

2| nq-bZzev AbyccwË bv‡gI AwfnZ

Kiv nq

i) wbQK Dw³‡K

ii) AcÖvmw½K hyw³‡K

iii) PµK hyw³‡K

iv) wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygvb‡K

3| Ôbvixiv nq fvjev‡m bv nq N„Yv

K‡iÕ GB Dw³wU

i) wbQK Dw³ AbyccwË m„wó K‡i

ii) wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygvb m„wó K‡i

iii) PµK ‡`vl m„wó K‡i

iv) †÷wiIUvBwcs AbyccwË m„wó K‡i

4| QvÎ ivRbxwZ eÜ Kiv DwPZ bq;

†Kbbv AvR‡Ki A‡bK ivRbxwZwe`

GK mgq QvÎ †bZv wQ‡jb| G hyw³i

d‡j

i) wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygvb N‡U

ii) PµK †`vl N‡U

iii) AcÖvmw½K hyw³ AbyccwË N‡U

iv) AÁvbZv †`vl N‡U


1| AbyccwË nq cÖ‡ivPbvg~jK|

2| wek¦v‡mi †Rviv‡jv †NvlYv n‡jv GK cÖKvi hyw³|

3| AvkªqevK¨ I wm×v‡šÍ Ny‡i-wd‡i GKB K_v ej‡j PµK †`vl N‡U|

4| AcÖvmw½K hyw³‡K cÖkœwf¶v AbyccwËI ejv nq|

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iv) Dc‡ii †h †Kv‡bvwU N‡U 2| iv) wg_¨v wØKZ¥vbygvb‡K

3| iv) †÷wiIUvBwcs AbyccwË m„wó K‡i 4| ii) PµK †`vl N‡U

L) 1| m 2| wg 3| m 4| wg



†hŠw³K AbyccwË : cÖZviYvg~jK AbyccwËmg~n

(Logical Fallacies : Fallacies of Deception) D‡Ïk¨


cÖZviYv ev cÖeÂbvg~jK AbyccwËmg~n eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

hyw³‡Z Rq jv‡fi Rb¨ Giƒc AbyccwË a~gªRvjÕ m„wói †Póv Pvjvq| Gme AbyccwË

mZ¨Zv ev hyw³i mv‡_ m¤úK©hy³ ev cÖvmw½K bq Ggb welq ev wRwb‡mi cÖwZ Av‡e`b

Rvbvq|

e¨w³MZ AvµgY (Personal Attack) ev wb›`v †`vl

MZvbyMwZK hyw³we`¨vq GB AbyccwË‡K ejv nq Argumentum ad Hominem, hvi

Av¶wiK Abyev` n‡jv, e¨w³i w`‡K PvwjZ hyw³| Giƒc AbyccwË ZLbB N‡U hLb

†NvwlZ wel‡qi mZ¨Zv Avµg‡Yi †Póv bv K‡i eis †NvlYvKvix‡K AvµgY Kiv nq|

hw` †KD hyw³ mnKv‡i e‡jb †h, mv‡eK ivóªcwZ Agy‡Ki K_v wek¦vm‡hvM¨ bq, †Kbbv

wZwb wQ‡jb ˆ¯ivPvix kvmK| A_ev †KD hw` hyw³ w`‡q e‡jb, Agy‡Ki e³e¨ ev cÖ¯Íve

MÖnY‡hvM¨ bq ev wg_¨v, †Kbbv †m n‡jv ¯vaxbZv-we‡ivax (ev †gŠjev`x ev Kgywb÷),

Zvn‡j Zv n‡e AbyccwË `yó| KviY, †Kv‡bv e¨w³i e¨w³MZ PwiÎ, AvPiY ev Ae¯’vb H

e¨w³i e³‡eï mZ¨Zv ev wg_¨v‡Z¡i †¶‡Î A_ev H e¨w³i hyw³i mwVKZv ev ‡ewVKZvi

†¶‡Î ‡hŠw³Kfv‡e AcÖvmw½K| Avgv‡ì DwPZ Avgv‡ì cÖwZc‡¶i hyw³, ZË¡ ev

gZv`k©‡K AvµgY Kiv; e¨w³MZfv‡e Zv‡ì‡K bq|

mK‡jB GwU K‡i (Everybody Does It) AbyccwË

Avgv‡ì cÖvq mK‡jB m¤¢eZ GB hyw³wU cÖ‡qvM K‡i‡Qb Ges †Kv‡bv bv †Kv‡bv mg‡q

GB AbyccwË NwU‡q‡Qb| Avgiv hw` ewj, ivRbxwZ‡Z wg_¨v K_v ejv hvq, †Kbbv

mK‡jB Zv K‡i; A_ev ÔDcwiÕ †bqv Ab¨vq bq, †Kbbv mK‡jB Zv †bq; A_ev

cÖ‡Z¨‡KB Rv‡b †h, mKj †gŠjev`x nq mš¿vmx, Zvn‡j Zv n‡e AbyccwË `yó| cÖ‡Z¨‡KB

ev AwaKvsk gvbylB ev mK‡jB †Kv‡bv wKQy Ki‡j ev Rvb‡j Zv h_v_© ev b¨vh¨ n‡q hvq

bv| 1492 mv‡ji Av‡M AwaKvsk gvbylB wek¦vm Ki‡Zv †h, c„w_ex n‡jv mgZj| wKš‘

GB wek¦vm ev gZvgZ mZ¨ ev ev Íe Ae¯’vi †¶‡Î †Kv‡bv cÖfve †dj‡Z cv‡iwb|

K…cv D‡ ªK (Appeal to Pity) †`vl

K…cv D‡`ªK †`vl (Argumentum ad Misericordiam) ZLbB N‡U hLb †cvwlZ ev

M„nxZ wm×všÍ cÖwZôvi ¯v‡_© `qv ev K…cvi Av‡e`b Kiv nq| Giƒc hyw³i †¶‡Î cÖvw_©Z

`qv ev fvecÖeYZv hyw³‡K Av”Qbœ K‡i †d‡j Ges cÖwZc¶ ev cvVK ev †kªvZv‡K

cÖvmw½K NUbv †_‡K mwi‡q †`q| wb‡Pi hyw³wU K…cv D‡`ªK †`v‡l yó|

cvV - 6



Avgvi mšÍvb‡ì wcZvgvZv ej‡Z Avwg GKvB, AvwgB †Kej Zv‡ì Avw_©K `vqfv‡ii

Rb¨ `vqx|

Zzwg hw` GB UªvwdK wUwKU Avgv‡K `vI, Zvn‡j Avwg Avgvi jvB‡mÝwU nviv‡ev Ges

Kv‡Ri Rb¨ Mvwo Pvjv‡Z cvi‡ev bv|

Avwg hw` KvR Ki‡Z bv cvwi, mšÍvbvw`mn Avwg M„nnxb n‡q co‡ev Ges ¶zavq g‡i

†h‡Z cvwi|

myZivs Avgv‡K GB UªvwdK wUwKU †`qv †Zvgvi DwPZ bq|

Giƒc hyw³i eënvi mPivPi Av`vj‡Z NU‡Z †`Lv hvq| AvBbRxex hLb gvgjvi

NUbv‡K D‡c¶v Kivi wbwg‡Ë Ges Zvi g‡°j‡K Lvjvm Kivi Rb¨ wePviK‡ì gv‡S

`qv ev K…cv RvMv‡Z cÖqvm cvb ZLb Giƒc AbyccwË N‡U|

Av‡eM DÏxcK †`vl (Appeal to Vanity)

GB AbyccwËwU M¨vjvixi cÖwZ Av‡e`b ev RbZvi cÖwZ Av‡e`b bv‡gI cwiwPZ| G

ai‡bi AbyccwË ZLbB NUvq hLb Avgiv GKwU e„nr Rb‡Mvôxi cÖwZ Av‡e`b Rvwb‡q

†Kv‡bv †NvlYv ev `vwei ¯xK…wZ jv‡fi †Póv Kwi| Giƒc AbyccwËi †¶‡Î cÖvqk

Av‡eMag©x fvlv eënvi Kiv nq| D`vniY¯iƒc,

Òc‡Y©vMÖvdx Aek¨B wbwl× Kiv DwPZ| GwU n‡jv gwnjv‡ì cÖwZ wnsmªZv|Ó

ÒnvRvi eQi a‡i gvbyl hxïwLª÷ I evB‡e‡j wek¦vm K‡i Avm&‡Q| GB wek¦v‡mi GKwU

cÖej cÖfve i‡q‡Q H mg¯Í wek¦vmx gvbyl‡ì Rxe‡b| hxïwLª÷ wQ‡jb Ck¦‡iiB cyÎ - Gi

mg_©‡b Zzwg Avi wK mv¶¨ PvI? Zzwg wK H mg¯Í gvbyl‡ì ej‡Z Pv”Q †h, Zviv mK‡jB

†evKv Ges fz‡ji g‡a¨ Av‡Q?Ó

A‡_©i cwieZ©b (Changing Meanings) AbyccwË

†Kv‡bv hyw³-cÖwµqvi g‡a¨ †gŠj c` (key terms)-Gi A‡_©i cwieZ©b NUv‡j GB

AbyccwË N‡U| D`vniY¯iƒc †KD hw` e‡jb †h, †h‡nZz hxïwLª÷ e‡jwQ‡jb, ÒAvwg

†hgbwU †Zvgv‡K fvjevwm †mfv‡e †Zvgiv G‡K Aci‡K fvjevwmIÓ †m‡nZz wZwb we‡qi

g‡a¨ ev evB‡i †h †Kv‡bv cÖKvi AmgKvgx ev mgKvgx wµqvKjvc‡K gvR©bv K‡ib,

Zvn‡j Zv ÔfvjevmvÕ kãwUi msÁvi cwieZ©b NUv‡e| hxïwLª÷ m¤¢eZ c`wU‡K

Ava¨vwZ¥KZv, eÜzZ¡ I cÖh‡Zœi A‡_© eënvi K‡iwQ‡jb| Aek¨, Giƒc A_© †h †hŠbZv

msµvšÍ wel‡qi †¶‡Î Av‡jvwPZ c`wUi eënv‡ii †ejvq Avek¨Kxqfv‡e Abycw¯’Z _v‡K

Ggb bq| Z‡e G †_‡K Abym„Z nq bv †h, wZwb A‰ea AmgKvgx ev mgKvgx m¤ÜZv ev

wµqvKjvc‡K gvR©bv K‡iwQ‡jb| †Kbbv wZwb gvbyl‡ì G‡K Aci‡K fvjevm‡Z

e‡jwQ‡jb| hw` hyw³ w`‡q ejv nq †h, wZwb GgbwUB K‡iwQ‡jb (A_©vr gvR©bv

K‡iwQ‡jb) Zvn‡j Zv n‡e ÔfvjevmvÕ kãwUi A‡_©i cwieZ©bmvab|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| cÖZviYvg~jK AbyccwËmg~n eY©bv Kiæb|


1| K…cv D‡`ªM AbyccwË I Av‡eM DÏxcK AbyccwËi cv_©K¨ wb‡`©k Kiæb|

2| A‡_©i cwieZ©b AbyccwË e¨vL¨v Kiæb|


mwVK DËi wjLyb|

1| hyw³‡K AvµgY bv K‡i hyw³`vZv‡K AvµgY Ki‡j

i) Av‡eM DÏxcK AbyccwË N‡U

ii) A‡_©i cwieZ©b AbyccwË N‡U

iii) wb›`v ‡`vl N‡U

iv) K…cv D‡ ªK †`vl N‡U

2| hw` ejv nq cÖ‡Z¨‡KB Rv‡b †h, mKj bvw ÍK nq Kgy¨wb÷ Zvn‡j Zv n‡e

i) wb›`v AbyccwË

ii) AÁvbZv AbyccwË

iii) ‡÷wiIUvBwcs AbyccwË

iv) mK‡jB GwU K‡i AbyccwË

3| ÒAvwg Avgvi gvZv-wcZv‡K Kzovj Øviv nZ¨v Kwi! `qv K‡i Avgv‡K †`vlx mve¨¯Í

Ki‡eb bv, GwZg nIqvi Kvi‡Y Avwg h‡_ó hš¿Yv‡fvM KiwQÓ| GwU GKwU

i) wbQK Dw³ AbyccwË

ii) Av‡eM DÏxcK AbyccwË

iii) AÁvbZv AbyccwË

iv) K…cv D‡ ªK †`vl

4| B›Uvib¨vkbvj jv· n‡jv ZviKv‡ì cQ‡›ì mvevb, myZivs AvcwbI GwU eënvi

Kiæb| -GwU GKwU

i) K…cv D‡ ªK †`vl

ii) wbQK Dw³ AbyccwË

iii) Av‡eM DÏxcK AbyccwË

iv) mK‡jB GwU K‡i AbyccwË

mwVK DËi

K)

1| iii) wb›`v †`vl N‡U

2| iv) mK‡jB GwU K‡i AbyccwË

3| iv) K…cv D‡`ªK †`vl

4| iii) Av‡eM DÏxcK AbyccwË



jNyKiYev` I cÖmviYev`

( Reductionism and Expansionism)

D‡Ïk¨


jNyKiYev` e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

cªmviYev` e¨vL¨v Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

†Kv‡bv wRwbm ev welq‡K Zvi ¶z`ªZg ev wb¤œZg Dcv`v‡b ev As‡k wef³ K‡i ev Kwg‡q

G‡b we‡ePbv Ki‡j Zv Rvbv-‡evSv mnR nq| GKBfv‡e †Kv‡bv wRwbm ev welq‡K

e„nËi cUf‚wg ev †cÖ¶vc‡U †d‡j we‡ePbv Ki‡j Zv Rvbv-‡evSv mnR nq| Z‡e GB yB

†¶‡ÎB GKUv wbqg ev cwiwgwZ gvb¨ bv Ki‡j Abvek¨K RwUjZv ev weåvwšÍ m„wó n‡Z

cv‡i| eZ©gvb cv‡V Avgiv jNyKiY I cÖmviY-Gi ¯iƒc I ¸iæZ¡ wb‡q Av‡jvPbv Ki‡ev|

jNyKiYev` (Reductionism)

GwU hyw³we`¨viB GKwU DËg wbqg †h, cÖ‡Z¨‡KiB DwPZ †Kv‡bv wRwbm ev welq‡K

Abvek¨Kfv‡e RwUj Kivi †P‡q eis †Kv‡bv hyw³i mijZg A_© A_ev ev¯ÍeZv msµvšÍ

†Kv‡bv mijZg gZ †LuvRvi Rb¨ K‡Vvifv‡e †Póv Kiv| D`vniY¯iƒc, hviv MwY‡Zi

†¶‡Î fMœvs‡ki PP©v K‡i‡Qb Zviv Rv‡bb †h, cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki DwPZ fMœvskmg~n‡K Zv‡ì

Ôwb¤œZg mvaviY wefvRKÕ-G Kwg‡q Avbv| †Kv‡bv wKQy bv †Q‡o ev cwiZ¨vM bv K‡i

†Kv‡bv wRwbm‡K Kwg‡q Avbv hvq- GwU wbwðZ K‡iB cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki DwPZ, ev¯ÍeZv m¤úwK©Z

ZË¡ I hyw³i †¶‡Î GB jNyKiY c×wZ cÖ‡qvM Kiv|

AvR Avgiv †h DcMÖnwU‡K ïKZviv ewj, GKKv‡j cÖvPxb gvby‡liv Zv‡K ‡`‡L fve‡Zv

Zviv `ywU wfbœ Zviv (ZviKv) †`‡L : cÖfvZ Zviv I mÜ¨vZviv| hLb Avwe®‹…Z n‡jv,

Avm‡j GwU GKwUB Zviv, ZLb `ywU bv‡gi e`‡j bvg ùvov‡jv GKwU| GKB wRwbm‡K

`yB bv‡g WvKv n‡Zv GKUv ev‡R e¨vcvi, G‡Z Abvek¨K RwUjZv m„wó nq| gvby‡li

mvimËv msµvšÍ Av‡jvPbvi †¶‡Î Avgiv Avi GKwU D`vniY Luy‡R †c‡Z cvwi| KwZcq

`vk©wbK ÔAvZ¥mËvÕ (self), ÔAvZ¥vÕ (soul), ÔgbÕ (mind) I ÔRxebxkw³Õ (spirit) bvgK c`¸‡jv‡K ci¯úi wewb‡gq (interchangable) wn‡m‡e eënvi K‡ib| wKš‘

Gme c`¸‡jv hw` GKB wRwbm‡K eySvq, Zvn‡j †Kb GKB wRwbm eY©bvi Rb¨ PviwU

c` eënvi Ki‡Z n‡e? myZivs cÖ‡Z¨‡Ki DwPZ GKwU c`‡K wbw`©ó Kiv ev Zv‡Z AUj

nIqv Ges †mwU‡K mZK©fv‡e msÁvwqZ Kiv| GwU Ki‡j cy‡iv mgm¨vwU mij n‡q DV‡e

Ges c`mg~‡ni Abvek¨K cÖmviY I Z`&RwbZ RwUjZv ~i Kiv hv‡e|

cvV - 7



Z‡e jNyKiYbxwZ cÖ‡qv‡Mi †¶‡Î mevB‡K Aek¨B mZK© _vK‡Z n‡e †h, Av`‡Z n«vm

Kiv hvq bv Ggb `yB ev Z‡ZvwaK wRwbm‡K †hb GKwU‡Z n«vm Kiv bv nq| A_v©r Zviv

hLb ev¯Í‡e GKwU bq `ywU wRwbm, ZLb Zv‡ì‡K GKwU‡Z n«vm Kiv hv‡e bv|

D`vniY¯iƒc, ˆØZev`x‡ì c¶ †_‡K Roev‡ì mgv‡jvPbv D‡jøL Kiv hvq| Roev`xiv

hyw³mnKv‡i e‡jb †h, gb e‡j wKQy †bB, Av‡Q †Kej gw¯Í®‹| ˆØZev`xiv e‡jb,

Roev`x‡ì GB hyw³ Avm‡j jNyKiYev`x hyw³| ˆØZev`x‡ì g‡Z, Roev`xiv gb‡K

gw¯Í‡®‹ iƒcvšÍwiZ Kivi †Póv K‡ib, A_P gb gw¯Í®‹ †_‡K cz‡ivcywi wfbœ wKQy| Zv‡ì

g‡Z, Roev`xiv Abvek¨K jNyKiYev‡ì Aciv‡a Acivax|

cÖmviYev` (Expansionism)

cÖmviYev` n‡jv jNyKiYev‡ì wecixZ| myZivs GwUiI jNyKiYev‡ì gZ myweav-

Amyweav `yB-B i‡q‡Q, Z‡e Zv jNyKiYev‡ì wecixZµwgK| A_©vr mvaviYfv‡e,

jNyKiYev‡ì Amyweav n‡jv cÖmviYev‡ì myweav Ges jNyKiYev‡ì myweavmg~n n‡jv

cÖmviYev‡ì Amyweavmg~n| gv‡S-gv‡S, mvgwqK cÖmviYev` DcKvix n‡Z cv‡i|

D`vniY¯iƒc, †KD `vk©wbK Av‡jvPbvq gvbe cÖK…wZ m¤úK©xq gZmg~n D‡jøL Ki‡Z

†h‡q `k©b, g‡bvweÁvb cÖf…wZ ÁvbkvLvi GZ`&msµvšÍ gZvgZ Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z cv‡ib|

GB cÖmvwiZ ev we¯ÍvwiZ Av‡jvPbv gvbecÖK…wZi mKj w`K‡K hZUv m¤¢e e¨vcKfv‡e

D‡b¥vwPZ K‡i †Zv‡j| d‡j GwU‡K Mfxifv‡e wePvi-we‡kølY Kiv hvq| Z‡e

jNyKiYev`x mgv‡jvPKMY ej‡Z cv‡ib †h, AvZ¥v, Rxebxkw³, Av‡eM I B”Qv- gvbe

cÖK…wZi Gme wewfbœ w`K‡K Av‡jvPbv K‡i gvbe cÖK…wZi msÁv‡K eo †ekx RwUj K‡i

†Zvjv n‡q‡Q| Zviv hyw³ w`‡q ej‡Z cv‡ib, Gme wewfbœ w`K‡K Avm‡j gb I †`‡n

A_ev †Kej †`‡n ev †Kej g‡b Kwg‡q Avbv hvq|

Z_vwc cÖmviYev‡ì myweav n‡jv, Gi gva¨‡g cix¶Yxq †h †Kv‡bv wel‡qi wewfbœ Ask ev

w`Kmg~‡ni g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Kiv hvq| GwUi Amyweav n‡jv, cÖ‡qvRbvwZwi³ Ask ev wfbœZv

m„wó K‡i GwU we‡eP¨ welq‡K AwaKZi RwUj K‡i †Zv‡j| D`vniY¯iƒc, cÖK…wZ I

wek¦eªþvÛ‡K †K m„wó K‡i‡Qb Zv †LuvRvB †hLv‡b KwVb I RwUj GK e¨vcvi †mLv‡b

Zv‡ì m„wó AwZcÖvK…wZK wKQy †_‡K n‡q‡Q GK_v e‡j AwaK RwUjZv m„wói welqwU

D‡jøL Kiv hvq| cÖvK…wZK †Kv‡bv wKQyi e`‡j AwZcÖvK…wZK wKQy w`‡q e¨vL¨v ev eY©bv

Kiv AwaKZi KwVb | AwZcÖK…wZev`x ev ag©ev`xiv hLb hyw³ w`‡q e‡jb †h,

AwZcÖvK…wZK GK mËv i‡q‡Q, Ges †mB mËvB cÖK…wZ I wek¦eªþvÛ‡K Aw¯ÍZ¡kxj K‡i‡Q

ZLb cÖK…wZev`xiv GB AwZRwUjZv Z_v cÖmviYev‡ì K_v e‡jB Zv‡ì GB hyw³i

mgv‡jvPbv K‡ib|

Dcmsnvi

ms‡¶‡c ejv hvq, jNyKiYev` I cÖmviYev` hyw³wePv‡ii †¶‡Î GK ai‡bi mgm¨v|

jNyKiYev‡ì A_© n‡jv, ePb, hyw³ ev ev¯ÍeZv msµvšÍ gZ‡K Zv‡ì mijZg iƒ‡c

Kwg‡q Avbv| me wKQy‡K n«vm ev jNy Kiv hvq G cÖZ¨q ev cÖ‡Póv BwZevPK| Ab¨_vq,

GmeB n‡q co‡Zv AwZmijxK…Z| c¶všÍ‡i, cÖmviYev‡ì A_© n‡jv, ZË¡‡K A‡bK¸‡jv



As‡k fvM K‡i we¯Í…Zfv‡e Zz‡j aiv A_ev ev¯ÍeZv m¤^‡Ü A‡bK¸‡jv wfbœag©x gZ

Dc¯’vcb Kiv| Gi myweav n‡jv, hw` ev¯ÍweKB †Kv‡bv RwUjZv †_‡K _v‡K hv mijfv‡e

e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq bv, Zvn‡j cÖmviYev` Zv e¨vL¨v Kivi †¶‡Î mvnvh¨ K‡i| GwUi Amyweav

n‡jv, GKwU PgrKvi mij gZ ev aviYv A‡bK¸‡jv w`K ev Z‡Ë¡i Dc¯’vc‡bi Kvi‡Y

AwaKZi RwUj n‡q co‡Z cv‡i|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| jNyKiYev` I cÖmviYev‡ì cv_©K¨ wb‡`©k Kiæb|


1| jNyKiYev` e¨vL¨v Kiæb|

2| cÖmviYev‡ì ¸iæZ¡ eY©bv Kiæb|


1| kvgmyj Bmjvg‡K kvgmy mv‡ne, Gm Bmjvg, kvgm& cÖf…wZ bv‡g WvK‡j Zv n‡e

jNyKiYev‡ì `„óvšÍ|

2| GKB †jLvq Ô†cÖgÕ K_vwU eySv‡bvi Rb¨ KL‡bv fvjevmv, KL‡bv AbyivM, KL‡bv

†cÖg kã eënvi Ki‡j Zv n‡e cÖmviYev‡ì `„óvšÍ|

3| AvZ¥v, gb, Rxebxkw³, AvZ¥mËv cÖf…wZ kã GKB A‡_© GKB iPbvq eëüZ n‡j Zv

n‡e cÖmviYev‡ì `„óvšÍ|

4| jNyKiYev` GKwU aviYv‡K wewfbœ As‡k wef³ K‡i AwaKZi RwUj K‡i †Zv‡j|

mwVK DËi

K) 1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg



`k©‡b ˆbe© w³K cix¶v cÖ vb I iPbv wjLb

(Taking Objective Tests and Wrting Papers in Philosophy)

D‡Ïk¨


`k©‡bi ˆbe¨©w³K cix¶vi cÖK…wZ eY©bv Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

`vk©wbK iPbv wjL‡bi ‡KŠkj wb‡`©k Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

f‚wgKv

`k©b GKwU welq (Discipline) wn‡m‡e wKQy ¯Zš¿ êwkó¨ aviY K‡i| `vk©wbK wPšÍv

†hgb m~² †ZgbB weg~Z©| `vk©wbK iPbvq _v‡K hyw³, we‡kølY I mgv‡jvPbv| GB hyw³,

we‡kølY I mgv‡jvPbvi wKQy we‡kl c×wZ I †KŠkj i‡q‡Q| GRb¨ `k©‡b cix¶v cÖ vb

I iPbv wjL‡bi †KŠkj Rvbv I AvqË Kiv cÖ‡qvRb|

ˆbe© w³K cix¶v (Objective Tests) `k©‡bi ˆbe¨©w³K cix¶vi ¯iƒc Ab¨vb¨ AwaKvsk welq (Subjects) Gi ˆbe© w³K

cix¶vmg~‡ni Abyiƒc; A_©vr G ai‡bi cix¶v cix¶v_©x‡K cvV¨ eB I †kªYxcvVmg~‡ni

AšÍM©Z welq‡K mbv³ Ki‡Z e‡j, †Kv‡bv e¨w³MZ gZvgZ w`‡Z e‡j bv| Z_vwc

`k©‡bi ˆbe¨©w³K cix¶v wb‡æv³ w`K w`‡q wfbœ n‡q DV‡Z cv‡i :

1) GwU cix¶v_©x‡K ¯vZš¿ ev cv_©K¨mg~n‡K Dcjwä Ki‡Z ej‡Z cv‡i| D`vniY¯iƒc

mZ¨-wg_¨v wbiƒc‡Yi welq D‡jøL Kiv hvq : ÒAe‡ivnx hyw³ wbðqZv cÖ vb K‡i|

Ab¨w`‡K, Av‡ivnx hyw³ †Kej m¤¢ve¨Zv cÖ vb K‡i| - mZ¨ / wg_¨v|Ó

2) GwU cix¶v_©x‡K Ab¨vb¨ ÁvbkvLvi AšÍM©Z NUbvejxi Zzjbvq ¯iƒcZ AwaKZi

weg~Z© (abstract) ev aviYvg~jK (conceptual) NUbvejx‡K Dcjwä Kivi Rb¨ ej‡Z

cv‡i| D`vniY¯iƒc, ÒgvbecÖK…wZ e¨vL¨vi †¶‡Î mijxKiY‡hvM¨ ‡Kvb welq‡K we¯Í…Z

K‡i †Zvjv KLbB wVK bq| - mZ¨ / wg_¨v|Ó

Z‡e Avcwb hw` fvj Aa¨qb †KŠkj, hv Avgiv c~‡e©B Av‡jvPbv K‡iwQ, AbymiY K‡ib

Ges Ab¨vb¨ ÁvbkvLvi mv‡_ `k©‡bi cv_©K¨ wK Zv eyS‡Z cv‡ib, Zvn‡j Avcbvi

wjL‡Z-co‡Z-eyS‡Z †Kv‡bv Amyweav n‡e bv| wb‡Pi civgk© ywUI †g‡b Pjyb :

1) Avcbvi eëüZ cvVëB A_ev Avcbvi wk¶‡Ki †`qv cvV-mnvwqKv (study guides) ev cv‡VvËi cÖkœvejx fvjfv‡e Abykxjb Kiæb| D`vniY¯iƒc ejv hvq, eZ©gvb

cvV - 8



MÖ‡š’i cÖwZwU cv‡Vi cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb Mfxi g‡bv‡hvM I mZK©Zvi mv‡_ Abykxjb Kiv

cÖ‡qvRb|

2) cix¶vi Av‡M-fv‡M gyL¯’ K‡i cvi cvevi Avkvq cov‡kvbv †d‡j ev Rwg‡q ivL‡eb

bv| KL‡bv a‡i wb‡eb bv †h, cov‡kvbv bv K‡iB Avcwb `k©‡bi †h †Kv‡bv ˆbe¨©w³K

cix¶vq cvk K‡i hv‡eb| Ab¨vb¨ ÁvbkvLvi mv‡_ Zzjbv Ki‡j Avcwb †`L‡Z cv‡eb

†h, `k©‡bi welqe¯‘ mPivPi AwZkq bZzb I AwZkq aviYvg~jK (conceptual) n‡q

_v‡K; Avi †m Kvi‡Y n‡q _v‡K wKQyUv Amij| GRb¨ c~e© †_‡KB ev cÖ_g †_‡KB

Avcbv‡K mgqvbyewZ©Zv gvb¨ K‡i AvMÖn I AvšÍwiKZv wb‡q cov‡kvbv Pvwj‡q †h‡Z

n‡e| Giƒc Ki‡j welqe¯‘ Avcbvi Kv‡Q mij I mnRmva¨ n‡q hv‡e|

`k©b wjLb (Writing Philosophy)

`k©b Z_v `vk©wbK welqvw` wjLb weeiYg~jK wjLb (reportive writing),

M‡elYvg~jK wjLb, e¨vL¨vg~jK wjLb (expository writing) cÖf…wZ wjL‡bi Abyiƒc

n‡Z cv‡i| Z‡e `k©‡bi AwaKvsk †jLvB we‡kølY, mgv‡jvPbv I hyw³ mn‡hv‡M M‡o

I‡V| Avi Gm‡ei Rb¨ cÖvqk we‡kl cÖYvjx I †KŠk‡ji cÖ‡qvRb nq:

mvaviY civgk© (General Suggestions)

†h †Kv‡bv fvj †jLvi A‡bK¸‡jv cÖYvjx `k©‡bi †¶‡ÎI GKB :

1) †jLvi Av‡MB me© v mymsMwVZfv‡e hvÎv ïiæ Kiæb, wVK Kiæb- Avcwb wK †kªYxK‡¶

e‡m cix¶vi cÖ‡kœvËi wjL‡Qb, bv Zvi evB‡i †Kv‡bv wePvig~jK (critical) ev e¨w³MZ

`vk©wbK iPbv wjL&‡Qb|

2) †gŠwjK c`¸‡jv‡K (key terms) cwi®‹vifv‡e msÁvwqZ Kiæb|

3) cÖavb aviYv¸‡jv‡K (main ideas) cwi®‹vifv‡e wee„Z Kiæb|

4) D`vniY I e¨vL¨vi gva¨‡g Gme aviYv¸‡jvi A_©‡K cwi®‹vifv‡e I c~Y©fv‡e Zz‡j

aiæb|

5) cÖ_‡g GKUv Lmov †jLv ùvo Kivb| mZK©Zvi mv‡_ cÖƒd †`Lyb Ges ms‡kvab

Kiæb| AZci GwU‡K cybivq wjLyb|

6) h_vh_ e¨vKiY (grammer), cÖ‡qvMixwZ (usage), evK¨-KvVv‡gv (syntax) I

Aby‡”Q` (section) eënvi Kiæb| wKQy wk¶v_©x g‡b K‡ib, `k©‡bi †¶‡Î e¨vKiY Z_v

fvlvi wbqgbxwZ †g‡b Pjvi †Zgb cÖ‡qvRb †bB| †Kbbv GwU ‡Kvb fvlv-†Kvm©

(language course) bq| G aviYv LyeB åvšÍ| `vk©wbK †jLvi †¶‡Î fvlvi h_vh_

eënvi LyeB ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| Z‡e kãvo¤ic~Y© I AwZAjsK…Z fvlv eR©b Kiæb, G ai‡bi



fvlvq e³e¨ A¯úó I Ø¨_©K n‡q c‡o| me© v †mvRvmywR I h_vh_fv‡e †jLvi †Póv

Kiæb|

7) Avcbvi covi †Uwe‡j me© v AšÍZ GKwU fvj evsjv I GKwU fvj Bs‡iwR e¨vKiY

eB Ges GB `yB fvlvi AšÍZ GKwU K‡i `ywU fvj Awfavb ivLyb Ges cÖ‡qvR‡b Zvi

mvnvh¨ wbb|

`vk©wbK †jLvi Rb¨ AviI wKQy civgk© (Additional Suggestions for Philosophical Writing) wb‡Pi wb‡`©kbvw` we‡klZ `vk©wbK †jLvi †¶‡Î ¸iæZ¡c~Y©| e¯‘Z GB wb‡`©kbvw` `vk©wbK

†jLvi mv‡_ Ab¨vb¨ ÁvbkvLvi †jLvi †gŠwjK cv_©KÏ cÖKvk K‡i| cÖ‡qvRb Abyhvqx

Avcbvi †jLvq wb‡Pi wb‡`©kbvw` AbymiY Kiæb :

1) we‡kl mgm¨v I welqmg~n‡K †hgb- †Zgwb Ac‡ii aviYv, ZË¡ I hyw³mg~n‡K

we‡kølY Kiæb Ges Zvi mwePvi g~j¨vqb Kiæb| ZË¡ I mgm¨vi D`vniY wn‡m‡e D‡jøL

Kiv hvq: Roev`, ev Íeev`, †`n-gb mgm¨v, mªóvi Aw¯ÍZ¡-Abw¯ÍZ¡ mgm¨v cÖf…wZ|

2) wewfbœ `vk©wbK mgm¨v m¤ú‡K© Avcbvi e¨w³MZ gZvgZ Dc¯’vcb Kiæb|

3) Ae‡ivnx I Av‡ivnx Dfq cÖKvi hyw³web¨vm (logical reasoning) Gi mv‡_ Bw›`ªq

mv¶¨‡K wKfv‡e GKÎ Kiv hvq Zv †kLvi †Póv Kiæb| (1) I (2) wb‡`©kbv Abykxj‡bi

†¶‡Î wKfv‡e †hŠw³K AbyccwËmg~n‡K mbv³ Kiv I Gov‡bv hvq Zv †kLviI †Póv

Kiæb|

`vk©wbK hyw³ we‡køl‡Yi †KŠkj (Strategies for Analyzing Philosophical Arguments) †Kv‡bv `vk©wb‡Ki ZË¡ ev hyw³mg~n‡K we‡kølY ev mwePvi g~j¨vqb Kiv Z_v †jLvi Rb¨

wb‡Pi wb‡`©kbv AbymiY Kiæb :

1) mZK©Zvi mv‡_ `vk©wb‡Ki ZË¡MZ Ae¯’vb Zz‡j aiæb| GRb¨ †Kv‡bv mgv‡jvPbv ev

g~j¨vqb QvovB `vk©wb‡Ki †`qv hyw³i g~j w`K ev êwkó¨mg~‡ni ZvwjKv cÖ vb Kiæb Ges

wZwb c`mg~‡ni †Kv‡bv we‡kl msÁv `vb Ki‡j Zv cwi®‹vifv‡e eY©bv Kiæb| GK K_vq,

`vk©wb‡Ki †h †Kv‡bv cÖKvi e³e¨‡KB AweK…Zfv‡e Dc¯’vc‡bi †¶‡Î mZK© n‡eb|

2) †Kv‡bv `vk©wb‡Ki Ae¯’vb‡K mg_©b ev AvµgY hvB Kiæb bv †Kb, Zvi Ae¯’vb ev

ZË¡‡K GKwU msMwVZ I c×wZMZ ixwZ‡Z we‡kølY I mwePvi g~j¨vqb Kiæb| cÖvqk

†`Lv hvq, `vk©wb‡Ki Ae¯’v‡bi GKUv mvgwMÖK g~j¨vqb ùvo Kiv‡bvi †¶‡Î GKUvi ci

GKUv wel‡qi mg_©b ev LÛbB n‡jv m‡e©vËg †KŠkj|



3) `vk©wb‡Ki ZË¡ m¤úwK©Z Avcbvi mKj hyw³ ev Ae¯’vb‡K mv¶¨ I hyw³ mnKv‡i,

Avcbvi c‡¶ hZUv m¤¢e c~Y©fv‡e, mg_©b Kiæb Ges †mm‡ei b¨vh¨Zv (justification)

cÖwZcv`b Kiæb| Avcwb hw` GKB mgm¨v ev wel‡qi Dci yRb `vk©wb‡Ki hyw³mg~‡ni

Zyjbv Ges †mm‡ei mwePvi g~j¨vqb K‡ib, Zvn‡j mv¶vr c~e©eZ©x †KŠkj Dfq

`vk©wb‡Ki †¶‡Î mgfv‡e cÖ‡qvM Ki‡Z n‡e|

`vk©wbK mgm¨v ev welq we‡køl‡Yi †KŠkj (Strategies for Analyzing an Issue or Problem) †Kv‡bv we‡kl `vk©wbK mgm¨v ev welq (†hgb †`n-gb mgm¨v ev NUbv I g~j¨ mgm¨v ev

Ck¦‡ii Aw¯ÍZ¡ mgm¨v)-‡K we‡kølY I mwePvi g~j¨vq‡bi Rb¨ wb‡Pi KvR¸‡jv Kiæb :

1) g~j c`¸‡jvi msÁv`vbc~e©K mgm¨v ev welqwU‡K mZK©fv‡e I ¯úófv‡e wee„Z

Kiæb|

2) mgm¨vwUi Dfq w`‡Ki kw³kvjx hyw³mg~n Ges Gme hyw³i †cQ‡b †h wfwË I

hyw³web¨vm wbwnZ i‡q‡Q Zv Dc¯’vcb Kiæb|

3) Dfq w`‡Ki hyw³web¨vm I hyw³i †¶‡Î mv‡¶ï Afve I AbyccwËmg~n cÖ k©bc~e©K

cÖwZwU w`‡Ki hyw³mg~n‡K we‡kølY I mwePvi g~j¨vqb Kiæb|

4) cÖ‡qvRb‡eva Ki‡j Avcbvi wbR¯ gZ Ges †m g‡Zi mc‡¶ hyw³mg~n †ck Kiæb|

AZtci Avcbvi c‡¶ hZUv m¤¢e c~Y©fv‡e gZwU‡K g~Z© K‡i Zyjyb Ges Zvi b¨vh¨Zv

cÖwZcv`b Kiæb|

e¨w³MZ `vk©wbK AwfgZ †jLvi †KŠkj (Strategies for Writing Personal Philosophical Views) hw` †Kv‡bv welq ev welqmg~‡ni Dci Avcbvi e¨w³MZ `vk©wbK gZ †jLvi

cÖ‡qvRb‡eva K‡ib Zvn‡j :

1) wbwðZ n‡Z †Póv Kiæb †h, Avcbvi cix¶K Avcbvi KvQ †_‡K hv Avkv K‡ib Zv

Avcwb eyS‡Z †c‡i‡Qb|

2) GB BDwb‡Ui Z…Zxq cv‡V we‡kølY cÖwµqvi †h mvZwU avc D‡jøL Kiv n‡q‡Q Zv

cybix¶Y Kiæb| D‡jøL¨, Avcbv‡K mgm¨vi mc‡¶i I wec‡¶i hyw³mg~n m¤‡Ü AewnZ

n‡Z n‡e|

3) mgm¨v ev welqwU‡K cwi®‹vifv‡e eY©bv I Dc¯’vcb Kiæb|



4) welqwU cÖm‡½ Avcbvi Ae¯’vb wK Zv hZUv m¤¢e c~Y©fv‡e I ¯úófv‡e Dc ’vcb I

Av‡jvPbv Kiæb|

5) Avcbvi gZ ev Ae¯’vb mg_©‡bi Rb¨ Avcbvi c‡¶ hZUv m¤¢e †ewk mv¶¨ myweb¨¯Í

Kiæb| Avcbvi wbR¯ hyw³ I hyw³web¨v‡m †Kv‡bv †hŠw³K AbyccwË I `ye©jZv Av‡Q

wKbv †m e¨vcv‡i wbwðZ nb|

6) Avcbvi Ae¯’v‡bi g~j w`K¸‡jv (main points) cwi®‹vifv‡e Zz‡j aivi Rb¨

Avcbvi c‡¶ hZUv m¤¢e ‡ewk D`vniY I e¨vL¨v cÖ vb Kiæb|

7) Av‡jvP¨ wel‡q Ab¨vb¨ `vk©wbK‡ì AwfgZ Avcbvi †jLvq cÖ‡qvRbvbyhvqx AšÍfz©³

Kiæb| GB AšÍfy©w³i mgq Aek¨B M„nxZ ev D×…Z e³‡eï Drm dzU‡bv‡U ev MÖš’cwÄ‡Z

D‡jøL Ki‡eb| Z‡e Ab¨vb¨‡ì AwfgZ‡K cÖkœnxbfv‡e MÖnY ev Dc¯’vcb Ki‡eb bv|



cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb

iPbvg~jK cÖkœ

1| `vk©wbK iPbv †jLvi †KŠkjmg~n eY©bv Kiæb|


1| `k©‡bi ˆbe© w³K cix¶vi ¯iƒc eY©bv Kiæb|

2| e¨w³MZ `vk©wbK AwfgZ †jLvi †KŠkj eY©bv Kiæb|

3| `vk©wbK hyw³ we‡køl‡Yi †KŠkjmg~n D‡jøL Kiæb|


1| ˆbe© w³K cix¶vq e¨w³MZ gZvgZ cÖ vb Ki‡Z nq|

2| `k©‡bi welqe¯‘ mPivPi AwZkq aviYvg~jK n‡q _v‡K|

3| `vk©wbK iPbvq _v‡K hyw³, we‡kølY I mgv‡jvPbv|

4| `vk©wbK iPbvq e¨vKi‡Yi wbqgbxwZ †g‡b Pjvi cÖ‡qvRb †bB|

mwVK DËi

K) 1| wg 2| m 3| m 4| wg

mnvqK MÖš’ (Reference Books)

GB eBwU cv‡Vi mnvqK MÖš’ wn‡m‡e wb¤œwjwLZ eB¸‡jv co‡Z cv‡ib, hv Avcbvi cvV‡K

†evSvi Rb¨ mvnvh¨ Ki‡e| Gme eB‡qi mnvqZvq eZ©gvb eBwU iwPZ n‡q‡Q| ZvQvov wb‡¤œv³

eB¸‡jv cv‡V Avcwb `k©b m¤c‡K© we¯ÍvwiZ Ávb jvf Ki‡Z cvi‡eb|

1. J. P. Thiroux, Philosophy : Theory and Practice, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

2. A. Matin, An Outline of Philosophy, Mullick Brothers, Dhaka. 3. Harold Titus, Living Issues in Philosophy, New York. 4. Nigel Warburton, Philosophy : The Basics, Routledge, London. 5. E. R. Emmet, Learning to Philosophize, Penguin, London. 6. A. C. Grayling, Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 7. Honer, Hunt and Okholm, Invitation to Philosophy : Issues and

Options, Wardsworth Publishing Company, California. 8. J. O. Urmson and Jonathon Ree, The Concise Encyclopaedia of

Western Philosophy and Philosophers, Routledge. 9. Anthony Kenny (edited), The Oxford Illustrated History of Western

Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 10. Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford

University Press, Oxford. 11. Ted Honderich, The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford

University Press, Oxford. 12. Robert Audi, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge. 13. gyn¤§` Ave`yj evix, `k©‡bi K_v, nvmvb eyK nvDm, XvKv|

14. W. Av. gZxb I W. gwdR DÏxb Avng` (m¤úvw`Z), `k©b cwifvlv †Kvl, evsjv GKv‡Wgx,

XvKv|

15. mvB‡q` Avãyj nvB, `k©b I g‡bvwe`¨v cwifvlv †Kvl, evsjv GKv‡Wgx, XvKv|

* eZ©gvb eB‡qi beg BDwbUwU J.P. Thiroux-Gi Philosophy : Theory and Practice eB Abymi‡Y †jLv n‡q‡Q|

Introduction to Philosophy - Bangladesh Open … · Introduction to Philosophy COURSE ... c×wZi gva¨‡g Avcbviv wbR `vwq‡Z wb‡Ri myweavgZ Aem‡i wk¶vjvf Ki‡Z cvi ... Nigel

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