Introduction to Memory C:\Documents and Settings\fac6l170\My Documents\My Videos C:\Documents and Settings\fac6l170\My Documents\My Videos Why do we process.

Introduction to Memory C:\Documents and Settings\fac6l170\My Documents\My Videos

Why do we process certain Information when other stimuli passes us by.We will be looking at

1. Short term memory

2. Long term memory

Think time

The difference between STM and LTM

Capacity Duration Encoding Forgetting

STM Very limited(7 items)

Very limited Mainly acoustic(By sound)

MainlyDisplacement

LTM Unlimited Unlimited(A lifetime)

Mainly semantic(By meaning)

MainlyInterference

Evidence for separate storesBrain Damage: Shows some people lose the Ability of one type of memory but not the other.

Case Study of Clive Wearing STM damaged, but some of LTM intact

What aspect of Clive Wearing’s memory remained fully intact?

Evidence For separate stores

The Case of H.M. (Milner, 1966) – STM damaged, LTM intact

Hypothalamus Removed

“Some aspects of H. M.’s memory remained intact. He could, for example, learn basic motor tasks, but had to be reminded that he knew how to perform them!

Questions Outline the evidence for a division between

STM and LTM (2 marks)

Explain how studies of Brain Damage can support the argument for a division between STM and LTM (2 marks)

Give one criticism when using studies into Brain Damage (2 marks)

Capacity – how many can you remember?

Can you remember: The capacity of STM and LTM?

Check your Capacity in STM Write down 8 strings of numbers first with

three numbers then add one more for each following string E.g. 265,2768, 86097 …and so on. Use different numbers each time

In pairs : One person read out your no’s while your partner writes them down immediately after hearing them.

Now swap roles. Note down your scores

Results of your STM 1: What is your score ( this is the longest strip

of numbers you recalled )

2: The class mean =

STM suggested capacity (Jacobs, 1887 and Miller, 1956) is 7+/-2

We call this ‘Digit Span Technique’

Jacobs carried out this study (1887) and George Miller repeated this (1957) with similar findings, naming his study “The Magical Number Seven”

Capacity in STM = 7 +/- 2 digits

Miller believed it was the number

of chunks of information that was

important

Miller termed this: Chunking

C B T U O D S A G I L E P N G

CBT UOD SAG ILE PNG

CAT SUN LEG DOT PIG

Showing that capacity can appear to increase by chunking

Measuring the Capacity in STM Simon (1974): argued

That it depended on the sizeof the chunks. Small chunks More capacity, larger chunks smaller capacity.

Factors Affecting Capacity:Rehearsal and storage in LTM: This will increase the capacity

for STM

Reading digits aloud: Strengthens memory trace

Pronunciation time: Lower capacity for Arabic words than English as they take longer to pronounce

Real Life Application Baddeley discovered that e can chunk

information, better if we using meaning at the beginning and then alternated using numbers and letters together.

i.e SW6 8PQ = South West London then some random numbers between more letters.

Questions 2) Outline one characteristics of short-term

memory (2 marks)

3) Outline one study supporting the capacity of STM (2 marks)

4) Give one criticisms of the above study (2 marks)

Duration – how long can you remember for?

Duration in STM Peterson and Peterson:

Found that STM Deteriorated by 90% after

18 seconds

When rehearsal was prevented

information decayed or

disappeared more quickly

Peterson & Peterson Stimulus list: Distant Cottage Stable Bargain Cabbage Finger Mattress Landscape Uncle Future Minstrel Question

This time after you have looked at the words. You need to count back in 3’s from 100

Velvet Village Stomach Carpet Flower Favour Gossip Lawful Chamber Started Sandal Warehouse

Studies in Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959)

found that when participants

were given a 3-second interval

they could remember 90% of data.

However, when there was an

18- second interval retention

reduced.

Methodological Issues

Laboratory study using Repeated measures…

1. In groups, criticise this study (use your research

methods terms)

Factors Affecting Duration in STM Rehearsal: increases duration.

Intention to recall: When we are

under pressure to remember.

Relevance of information: - is the

information important to you?

Duration in LTMIt is generally

accepted that LTM

lasts a lifetime.

Bahrick et al (1975)

tested memory and

found that after 34 years

memory was good, but

after 47 years there was

a decided dip.

Factors affecting duration in LTM

Feedback around the room: Cues in experiments

Depth of learning

Pattern of learning

Nature of Material to be learned

Factors affecting duration in LTM Cues in experiments: Cues (things that remind us) help recall, example

recognition tasks were higher than recall tasks.

Depth of learning: The more time spent learning, the longer information stays.

Pattern of learning: Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning

Nature of Material to be learned: Meaningful information is better retained

True or False? (duration)1. The less time spent learning, the longer information stays.

2. It is generally accepted that LTM lasts a lifetime.

3. Rehearsal: increases duration in LTM

4. Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning

5. The relevance of information to us is not important

6. We remember the same amount of information whether we are given cues or not

True or False ANSWERS1. The less time spent learning, the longer information stays: FALSE

2. It is generally accepted that LTM lasts a lifetime: TRUE

3. Rehearsal: increases duration in LTM: FALSE (IT IS TRUE FOR STM)

4. Spaced out learning hold longer than intensive learning: TRUE

5. The relevance of information to us is not important: FALSE

6. We remember the same amount of information whether we are given cues or not: FALSE (CUES HELP US REMEMBER)

As stimuli reaches memory it is in it’s raw form. i.e. a visual picture or a sound

It is believed that STM and LTM have different methods of encoding information

Encoding

3 Main Types of EncodingAcoustic: The sound

of the stimulus

Visual: The physical

appearance of the stimulus

Semantic: The

meaning of the stimulus

Task: In pairs Explain how you could adapt your notes from

class so that they are in an:

Acoustically memorable form Visually memorable form Semantically memorable form

Acoustic Coding in STM Conrad ran a number of tests. Write these

letters down in the correct serial order

Acoustically similar

B G C T DV

Second Condition. Acoustically dissimilar

Now write these letters down in the correct serial order

J G X M SF

Conclusion Conclusion: Conrad believed that we must convert information FLOWERthat is visual into acoustic to store it in STM

Therefore, participants were confused when faced with letters that sounded the same

Methodology: A little low in validity, not everyday chore to place letters in order

Evidence for Encoding: STM and LTM Baddeley suggested STM used Acoustic coding

because we confuse acoustically similar words

He also found that words that were similar in meaning were poorly recalled in LTM.

Evidence for Encoding: Baddeley Method: Baddeley gave participants lists of

words that pertained to either one of these categories: accoustically similar, accoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, and semantically dissimilar.

Participants were tested on immediate recall and on delayed recall.

Baddeley’s lists List A AS: Mad, map, mad, mat, cad,

cap, cat. List B AD: pen, cow, pit, sup, day , wet,

ran List C SS: tall, high, broad, wide, big,

large, fat List B SD: foul, thin, late, safe, strong,

back, look

Evidence for Encoding: Results: Immediate recall showed that the most confusion arose between the

acoustically similar words as opposed to the words that were acoustically dissimilar. There was no difference in recall for the semantically similar and dissimilar words.

In the delayed recall test, the most confusion arose between semantically similar words as opposed to words that were semantically dissimilar. There was no difference in recall for the acoustically similar and dissimilar words.

Task Write a conclusion for Baddeley’s study into

encoding, describing what can be concluded about encoding in STM and LTM. (4 marks)

Explain one criticism of Baddeley’s lab study (2 marks)

Evidence for different Encoding Conrad (1964) found that STM used acoustic

coding.

Multi Store Model

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) created The information-processing system to help explain how memory works

What is a Model ?Psychologists have used flow charts to try and explain how memory works

Information-processing systems are similar to the workings of acomputer.

There is a temporary store, a STM and LTM store. Temporary store = buffer on a

computer

The Multi Store ModelStimulus input

Attention Rehearsal

Sensory memory STMLTM

Visual, auditory Acoustic coding semantic coding ‘Haptic’ coding limited capacity Unlimited capacity Limited capacity brief duration Unlimited duration Very brief duration

Rehearsal Loop

Evidence for a distinction between STM and LTM

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966): When participants were distracted they lost the recency effect but not the primacy effect

Long term memory: The Primacy effect

( beginning of a word list)

Short term memory: Recency effect ( the end of a word list)

Their work showed that there was a difference between STM store and LTM store

Evaluating Glanzer and Cunitz (1966): Laboratory studies: ?

Validity: ?

Weaknesses Different types of information:

Some data is a lot more exciting and therefore easier to remember. It’s not always about how much!

Repetition vs Semantic: Craik and Lockhart found that information is remembered better if it is processed with meaning rather than simple rehearsal.

Weaknesses Flashbulb memory:

This supports Semantic

inputting Kulik and Brown

argue that shocking events

are imputed without rehearsal.

Linear: Ruchkin (1999)

Information in LTM helps

to improve recall from STM.

(words with meaning vs words

without)

WeaknessesBrain Damage: It has been

shown that people with damaged

STM do not necessarily have

impairment to their LTM.

Artificial Experiments: Laboratory

experiments do not necessarily

show us how we behave in the

real world.

The Working Memory Model

Baddeley and Hitch believe that memory is much more complex than the Multi-story model suggests. They focused on short-term memory as an active process with different components

The Working Memory Model Baddeley and Hitch believed that there was more than one component

to STM.

One for information that we hear

One for information that we see.

Therefore we can do two tasks at once, i.e. driving a car and having a conversation at the same time

attention test - Google Video

The Components of working memory

The Working Memory Model There are three different components

The Central Executive: Responsible for all the processing and attention tasks.

The Phonological Loop: The temporary storage system for verbal information.

The Visuo-spatial sketchpad: The temporary storage system for visual information

Recent model

Baddeley (2000)

Phonological store

(Inner ear)

ArticulatoryControl system(Inner voice)

1.Central Executive

4.Visio-spatial sketch pad

(Inner eye)

3.Phonological loop

2.EpisodicBuffer

Phonological store:This part of the loop holds the words you hear, like

an inner ear.

Articulatory control system:This is where words are silently repeated or rehearsed, like an inner voice.

Evidence for Working Memory

Baddeley et al ran numerous

experiments and found evidence

to support the existence of the Phonological loop, the Visuo-spatial sketchpad and the Central Executive

Evidence for the Visuo-Spatial Baddeley et al (1973) showed two tasks

F H L Task one: identify the angles on a letter

Task two: Follow a spotlight

They could not do both tasks together. They could do one visual task and one auditory task.

This shows that there is a difference between the phonological loop and the visual-spatial sketchpad

Evidence for the Phonological loop Baddeley et al (1975): presented lists of words

With one syllable: Harm, Wit, Twice With multi syllables: Organisation, University

It takes longer to say multi syllable word, therefore participant remembered more single syllable words

This shows that we remember information by listening to the word in our heads. Shorter words take shorter time to rehearse

Strength and Weaknesses of Working memory.This model is generally accepted throughout the psychological world. It has a much more in-depth and logical interpretation of STM

WMM Information Tasks1. Read and highlight the information on the

WMM and as a group summarise 10 key points

2. Explain one case study and two lab studies that support the WMM.

3. Identify a criticism of each of the above research methods

4. Explain two weaknesses of the model (4 marks)

Evidence for the Central Executive Some evidence from Neurological investigation

shows that brain activity is increased when doing two tasks that require attention and rehearsal.

It is difficult to test the existence of a central executive.

There has been limited evidence given and this is one of the weaknesses of this theory

Lesson Objectives Understand the concept that

eyewitness testimony is not always reliable.

Know the procedures of experimental research into eyewitness testimony

Understand Reconstructive Memory

Eye Witness Testimony

How accurate do we recall details of events witnessed.

Psychological Experiment

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6fRH5MLBIU&feature=related

Misleading Information Loftus discovered that a problem we have in recalling events

often comes from stimuli experienced after the event.

Participants were Shown a

Video clip of a car accident.

misleading information Caused errors

in recall http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K9oNxolBzE0

Loftus’ Experiments.

Experiment 1: After watching the car Crash Participants were asked

how fast the car was going.

Some questionnaires said how fast Was the car going when it hit others

others used the word smashed or Contacted instead or hit.

Experiment 2: Students were shown aVideo of a multiple car crash. One weekLater they were brought back and askedWas there any broken glass? Again usingThe various verbs; hit, smashed, or contacted

Results – Experiment 1 VERBMEAN

ESTIMATE OF SPEED (mph)

Smashed 40.8

Collided 39.3

Bumped 38.1

Hit 34.0

Contacted 31.8

.

Response Smashed Hit Control

Yes 16 7 6

No 34 43 44

Results – Experiment 2

Did you see any broken glass?

How fast was the car going?

The Results of Both Experiments

Discussion

Reconstructive memory

Information processing for an event:

1: The person’s own perception, during the event

2: Information supplied after the event

Response Bias: critical words

bias a person’s response.

Memory is altered: The critical

word changes a person’s memory.

Demand Characteristics Participants might have guessed the aim of the experiment and changed

their behaviour

To reduce demand

characteristics Loftus

offered money to

participants who got

The recall correct.

Despite this incentive

over 70% still got

the recall details wrong.

Black et al

Methodology and Ethics Laboratory experiments are high in reliability.

Although films of real events

were shown participants would

have experienced things

differently if they had been

present at the car crash.

Lack of validity/ emotional

response

Ethics: Participants were

deceived therefore debriefing

would be necessary afterwards

The Accuracy of EWT

SchemasSchema: Is our Preconceived ideas about certain experiences. i.e. eating in a restaurant

Tuckey and Brewer (2003) did an experiment on ourideas about bank robbers

Participants recalled more details if they were in line with their schema of such events.

AnxietyLoftus and Burns (1982) found that high levels of anxiety negatively effect

memory.

When people witnessed a Man with a knife covered in blood leaving a room Identification was poor.

To busy looking at the knife.

Christianson and Hubinette discovered that in real life experiences of anxiety often heighten recall. Witness bank robbery > Being threatened by robbers.

Age of Participant Children seem to accept what others tell them as part of their

own memories (Poole and Lindsay 2001 = incorporate stories into real events)

Flin et al (1992) found that children forget details much quicker than adults.

Elderly people: Recall of events is less accurate

Methodology and Ethics There is difficulties in eliminating extraneous variable with children

There are also ethical issues when using children. Need informed consent from parent.

In the real world when events happen we are not expecting them therefore not prepared to try and remember every detail . + demand Characteristics.

Improving EWT

Method of QuestioningIf misleading information has an affect of EWT then it is important that the policeare careful not to misdirectwitnesses.

Fisher (1987) discoveredthat police asked closed questions which seems toconflict with the witnesses testimony. They also frequently interrupted breaking concentration.

The Cognitive InterviewInstructions to witness

Context reinstatement

Recall what you were thinking, feeling and the scene beforehand

Report everything Report everything, even trivia

Recall from changedPerspective

Recall it from another’s point of view.

Recall in reverse order

Report from different ways moving backwards and forwards in time

Evidence for the Cognitive Interview Geiselman et al (1985) found that the cognitive interview was

better than the original method and hypnosis. More correct

details were recalled

But there was also

more mistakes

Fisher et al (1990) discovered that police

in Miami were impressed with results.

Evidence for the Cognitive Interview Police have expressed a concern, with the

increase incorrect detail, when using CI.

They believe that the context reinstatement and reporting everything are more useful than the other two categories

This has been backed up by psychologists Milne and Bull (2002)

Improving MemoryTeaching strategies for memory improvement is a useful tool for future exams

Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery The Peg Word

System

One is bun

Two is Shoe

Three is tree

Four is a door

Five is a hive

Six are Sticks

Seven is Heaven

Eight is a Gate

Nine is a Line

Ten is Hen

• One is bun

• Two is Shoe

• Three is tree

• Four is a door

• Five is a hive

• Six are Sticks

• Seven is Heaven

• Eight is a Gate

• Nine is a Line

• Ten is Hen

Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery The Peg Word

System

Eggs

Bread

Biscuits

Tomatoes

Potatoes

Cheese

Jam

Pasta

Juice

Cornflakes

One is bun

Two is Shoe

Three is tree

Four is a door

Five is a hive

Six are Sticks

Seven is Heaven

Eight is a Gate

Nine is a Line

Ten is Hen

Mnemonics based on Visual Imagery The Peg-word system: Where you thing

of one word and then peg another on to help recall

The Method of Loci: Thing of things you see on your route to college. Then attach a list of item to each of the things on your route

Visual Imagery Paivio (1965): found that people could

remember words that were easy to put pictures to – concrete V abstract nouns

Beni and Moe (2003): Present words + images together,

rather than words + words

or images + images

Improving Memory

Organisation and Understanding Bransford and Johnson gave a passage to

participant.

One with a title to the piece One with no title (Content was not clear)

People remembered the title and that coupled with their schema helped recall.

Organisation in memory Bransford and Johnson (1972) found that

participants who were given a title to a passage of information found it easier to recall than those not given a title, as participants applied already stored knowledge on the topic to their understanding of the passage. This enhanced their recall later.

Chunking As already noted, chunking increases the

amount we can recall and also reduces the load on memory. A difficult task can be reduced to a simpler task for STM.

Encoding and retrieval strategies We recall things better if we try and retrieve

the information in the same context or situation as when we learnt it.

(Geiselman and Glenny (1977)

Active processing We are more likely to remember material that we

have actively processed. Simple rehearsal is not enough to lay down long-lasting memories.

Craik (1977) investigated recall of a word list under different conditions e.g. Is a word written in capital letters, does the word rhyme with another word, is it the name of a living thing.

They found that group 3 remembered more than groups 1 and 2 because they had to think about the meaning of the word rather than just look at its structure.

Attention and practice If we don’t pay attention to material we cannot

remember it (as looked at in EWT). Practice is also important in order to remember large

amounts of information for an exam, for example. Ericsson and Chase (1981) studied SF who could memorise up to 80 digits in one go – he had to practice for an hour a day over a two year period to do this!

However, you need to be aware of your own memory and what works best for you!