Introduction to Linguistics Notes

INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICSExplained by Mrs. Siti Sundari and typed by Abraham Sugiharto

1. DEFINITIONLinguistics is the science of language that is of its structure, acquisition, relationship to other communication.Linguistics comes from latin word lingua Linguistics (noun) = it refers to science Linguistic (adjective; without s) Example: which one is correct?a. Linguistics Teacherb. Linguistic Teacher Option (a) is correct because teacher refers to science

2. WHAT EXPERT SAYS ABOUT LINGUISTICS Ronald Wardhangh (1972)Linguistics is the scientific study of language Lado (1964)Linguistics is the science that is described and classified language Alwasilah (Indonesian)Linguistics is empirical science in which its subject matter observable with the senses, the speech can be heard, the movement of the vocal organ can be seen directly and the writing can be seen. WebsterLinguistics is the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure and modification of language

3. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE AND SCIENCE Knowledge is from information Science comes from experiments, research and observationResearch is divided into several methods, they are: Descriptive research: its purpose to describe something Experimental research: the experimenter/ researcher do action to the subject Its divided into 2 groups:i. Group A : Experimental groupThis group is given treatmentii. Group B : Control Group Classroom Activity Research: done in one class, the subject is one class Comparative Research: its purpose to compare A Case Study

4. VOCABULARY IN FOCUSLingua Franca is language which is used by most of countries in this world (international language)Mother Tongue is daily language that is used by some familyA Foreign Language is a language that is not used actively but it is learnedA Second Language is a language that is used actively in a country (ex: it is used in meeting, or other formal discussion)

5. SUBFIELDS OF LINGUISTICS

a) Anthropological Linguistics The study of interrelationship between language and cultureb) Applied Linguistics The application of the methods and the result of linguistics to language teaching, translation, politics etc.c) Historical Linguistics The study of haul languages change through time, the relationship among languagesd) Neurolinguistics The study of the brain and how it function in the production, perception, acquisition of languagee) Psycholinguistics The study of the interrelationship of language and cognitive language and the acquisition of language,f) Sociolinguistics The study of language in relation to society or the study of the way that language is used in societyg) Pragmatics The study of how language is used in context for various purposesh) Phonology The study of systems of sounds and sound combination in a languagei) Phonetics The study of speech sounds dealing with production (how speech sounds are produced by the organ of speech), transmission (how speech sounds are transmitted from the speaker to the listener), and reception (how speech sounds are heard from the speaker to the listener)j) Morphology The study of the forms and formations of words in a language or the study of how word are structured from smaller partk) Syntax The study of the structure of phrases, clauses, sentences in a language or the study of how phrases, clauses, sentences are structuredl) Semantics The study of the meaning of words, phrases, clauses and sentences either grammatical meaning or lexical meaning. (grammatical meaning: from the context; lexical meaning: found in dictionary) m) Discourse The study of written or spoken communicationn) Comparative Linguistics The study of comparison between ertain language to other language

6. TERMS OF LINGUISTICSi) Competence : the system of linguistics knowledge owned by native speaker of language (related to skill)ii) Performance:Refers to the way the language system is used in communication (related to application)

7. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE Refers to a language users grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology, and the like as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately Communicative competence consists of 4 areas:a) Linguistics Competence The ability how to use grammar, syntax and vocabulary of a languageb) Sociolinguistics Competence Knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately based on the setting, topic and the relationship among the peoplec) Discourse Competence Knowing how to interprete the larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language, so that the parts make up coherenced) Strategic Competence Knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdown, how to work around gaps in ones knowledge of the language and how to learn more about language in context

8. THE OBJECTS OF LINGUISTICSa) Primary Object= The spoken language (speaking & listening)b) Secondary Object= The written language (reading & writing)

According to Ferdinand de Saussure (A Swiss Scholar)

The objects of linguistics consists of 3 terms:LanguageIt means Language in general (the most abstract)LangueIt means A certain language (more abstract object)ParoleIt means Speech (the concrete object)

9. THE COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE Grammar Vocabulary Pronunciation Mechanics Capital Letter Punctuation Spelling

10. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCEAccording to experts, the characteristics of linguistics as a science are:

a) R.H. Robins

Exhaustive Consistent Economic

b) Nelson Francis

Simple Consistent Complete & Useful

c) David Crystal

ExplicitIt means that The rules of language are defined explicitly, clearly and as a whole to avoiddouble meanings SystemateIt means that Language has rules that govern pronunciation, word formation, the system of sounds, the grammartical contruction, and has complete generalization that constitutes a single unit. ObjectiveIt means that Language is analyzed and described objectively and openly the hipothesis of the language is proved critically through a research

11. THE OBJECTIVES (AIMS/GOALS) OF STUDYING LANGUAGE

1. Practical PurposeWe study a certain language so that we can communicate with other people by using the language we study (as means of communication)2. Theoretical PurposeWe study a certain language so that we can study the theories of language that covered phonology (the system of sounds), phonetics (the pronunciation), syntax (the structure of sentences), morphology (the word formation), semantics (the meaning of words/phrases/sentences), the pregmatics (the use of language for various purposes and contexts)3. Esthetical PurposeWe study a certain language so that we can enjoy the literary works written in the language we study.4. Philological PurposeWe study a certain language so that we can understand the culture of a nation/countries using the language we study.

12. THE BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS1) According to the way how a language is used:a. Macro Lingustics Linguistics that dels with language from the point of view of the other science Its divided into 2: General Linguistics (the study of language in general) Spesific Linguistics (the study of a certain language)

b. Micro Linguistics Linguistics that dels with language from the point of view of the language itself Its divided into 3: Descriptive Linguistics Comparative Linguistics (the study of the comparison between 2 languages or more) Historical Linguistics (the study of the history of a certain language)

2) According to the purposes of studying language:a. Practical Linguisticsb. Theoretical Linguisticsc. Esthetical Linguisticsd. Philological Linguistics

3) According to we have a concept or not before we study language:a. Prescriptive LinguisticsThe study of how language should be used instead of how it is actually usedb. Descriptive LinguisticsThe study of the description of the theories of language that cover phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pregmatics.

4) According to the time when a language is studied:a. Synchronic LinguisticsThe study of language at a certain timeb. Diachronic LinguisticsThe study of language from time to time, for example: the study of the comparison between old English and modern english

c. Macro Lingustics Linguistics that dels with language from the point of view of the other science Its divided into 2: General Linguistics (the study of language in general) Spesific Linguistics (the study of a certain language)

13. SEVERAL DIMENTIONS OF LANGUAGE Language can be viewed as a processIt deals with the cognitive strategy in learning the language Language can be viewed as a productionIt deals with the use of language to communicate, to express feelings, opinions to others either in oral or written form. Language can be viewed from deep structureIt deals with the underlying meaning embodied in the language. Language can be viewed from surface structureIt deals with the forms of the language take (words, phrases) Language can be viewed from formsIt deals with the terms or the structure of the language.

14. THE ASPECTS OF LANGUAGEA. PHONOLOGY is the study of the systems of sounds and sound combination in a language Phonetics: the study of phonology that studies the speech sound dealing with the production (how are speech sounds produced by the organ of speech), transmission(how are speech sounds transmitted from the speaker to the listener) and reception (how are speech sound heard from the speaker to the listener) Speech sounds are produced by the organ of speech. The organs of speech that are involved in producing speech sounds are: The Mouth Cavity1) Teeth Upper Lower2) Lips Upper Lower3) Tongue The blade/tip of the tongue The front of the tongue The back of the tongue The root of the tongue4) Palate Uvula The soft palate The hard palate The toothridge

The Throat1) Pharynx2) Epiglottis3) Larynx Ring cartiladge (criorid) Shield Cartilage (thyroid) Arytenoids Vocal Chords The Glothis (the opening between the vocal chords) The Chest Lungs

oral from the mouthvoiced sounds Sounds Nasal through the nosevoiceless sounds

Vowels voiced Speech Sounds Consonants voiced/less Diphtongs voiced

In English there are 12 vowels and 24 consonantsa) Vowels = speech sound in which the airstream can pass freely through and out the mouth Long/ free vowels: |i:|; |u:|; | |; | |; |a:| Short vowels: |i |; |u|; | |; | |; | |; | |; | |b) Consonants = speech sound in which the airstream after having pass the larynx is either stopped for a moment or released through narrow opening that a friction is heard Long/ free vowels: |b|; |d|; |g|; |z|; | |; |d |; |V|; |m|; |n|; | |;| |; |

Short vowels: |p|; |t|; |k|; |s|; | |; | |; ||; | |; |h|

Classification of Consonants:1. Based on the place of articulation

a) Bilabial articulated by two lipsex:b) Labiodental articulated by the lower lip and the upper teethex:c) Dental articulated by the tip of the tongue against the upper teethex:d) Alveolar articulated by the tip of the tongue against the teethridgeex:e) Post Alveolar articulated by the tip of the tongue against the backport of the teethridgeex:f) Palato Alveolar articulated by the tip of the tongue against the teethridgeex:g) Palatal articulated by the front of the tongue against the hard palateex:

h) Velar articulated by the back of the tongue against the central and forward (part of the soft palate)ex:i) Glottal Laryingal articulated in the glottisex:

2. Based on the manner of articulationa) Plosive formed by complete closure of the air passage, the air is compressed and makes plosive soundsex:b) Affricate formed as plosive consonantsex:c) Nasal formed by closure in the mouth, the air is free to pass outthrough the noseex:d) Lateral formed by placing an obstacle in the centreex:e) Rolled formed by rapid succession of taps of some elastic organsex:f) Flapped formed by a single tap of some elastic organex: g) Fricative formed by narrowing the air passage so that the airescapes produce audible friction.ex: h) Semi vowel a voiced gliding soundex:

B. MORPHOLOGY Is the study of the word formation in a language or the study of how words are structured from smaller parts Morphemes is the smallest meaningful linguistics unit of speech sounds or the smallest part of the words that have meanings The Classification of Morphemes (The Graph)Morphemes

LexicalGrammatical

FreeBound Free Bound (Nouns, Verbs, (ex: clude in the word (preposition,Adjective, Adverb) include)conjunction, possessive adjective, articles, demonstrative pronoun)

Derivational InflectionalPrefixes and suffixes suffixes only

The Classification of Morphemes (Details)1. Lexical MorphemesIs the morphemes that have meanings in themselves2. Grammatical MorphemesIs the morphemes that do not have meaning in themselves3. Free MorphemesIs the morphemes that can stand alone as words4. Bound MorphemesIs the morphemes that cannot stand alone as words5. Derivational MorphemesIs the morpheme which create new words by changing the meanings or parts of speech of the words6. Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which serve grammatical function without creating new words ut only create different form of the same words

The kinds of Morphemes based on the amount of the morphemes1) Words consists of 1 morphemeEx: boy, girl, happy, sad, man2) Words 2 morphemesEx: beautiful beauty (free lexical) ful (derivational grammatical)wonderful wonder (free lexical) ful (derivational grammatical)3) Words 3 morphemesEx: disappointed dis (derivational) appoint (free lexical) -ed (inflectional)4) Words 4 morphemesEx: unfortunately un- (derivational) fortune (free lexical) -te (derivational) -ly (derivational)* a word that consist of one morpheme is called monomorphemic word**a word that consist of more than one morpheme is called polymorphemic word

Types of Inflectional Morphemes1) Plural Morphemes (PLU)Ex: Books2) Possesive MorphemesEx: Alis book3) Present MorphemesEx: he works4) Present Paticiple MorphemesEx: they are studying5) Past Tense MorphemesEx: he studied6) Past Participle MorphemesEx: they have learned

7) Comparative MorphemesEx: he is older than she is8) Superlative MorphemesEx: he is the youngest

PRACTICE: Identify the types of morphemes and count the number of morphemes in these sentences!1. The man works hard to earn the money for his family.2. The children do not like studying difficult materials.3. They have got new information about the implementation of the final test.4. We thought that it is useful for us to make improvement of English skills.5. The students worked in groups to do the assignment given by the lecturer. ANSWER

C. SEMANTICS The study of meanings of the words, phrases, clauses, and sentences either in lexical meanings or grammatical meanings Lexical Meaning: the meaning that we can find in the dictionary Grammatical Meaning: the meaning that is based on the context The types of meanings

1) Synonyms two or more words that have same/similar meaningsEx: Begin=startGo on = continueBeautiful = pretty2) Anthonyms two words that have contrast meaningsEx: Good >< BadBeautiful >< UglyLazy >< Diligent3) Homonyms one word that has more than one meaningEx: Can (dapat/kaleng)Bank (bank/tepi)4) Homophone two words that have same sound but different meaningEx: flower (bunga) flour (tepung)5) Homographs two words that have same spelling but different pronunciation and meaningEx: present(hadiah) present (mempersembahkan)Record (noun) record (verb)Import (noun) verb (verb)Report (noun) report (verb)6) Acronyms few alphabets which is shortened of wordsEx: SWAT = Special Weapons and TacticsBBC = British Broadcast Council

D. SYNTAX The study of the structure of phrases, clauses, and sentences The study of how sentences are structured from smaller parts Phrasal Categories

1. Noun Phrase a phrase that the headword is a nounEx: good student, a beautiful scenery2. Adjective Phrase a phrase that the headword is an adjectiveEx: very good, extremely interesting3. Adverbial Phrase a phrase that the headword is an adverbEx: very slowly, it drives so fast4. Prepositional Phrase a phrase that begins with a prepositionEx: in the class, at the bank5. Gerund Phrase a phrase that begins with a prepositionEx: the boy often practices speaking English with his friends6. Present Participle Phrase a phrase that begis with present participleEx: * the man standing at the door is a teacher* crossing the street you must be careful7. Past Participle Phrase a phrase that begins with past participleEx: the book written in English is very good8. To Infinitive Phrase a phrase that begins with to- infinitiveEx: he decided to continue his study abroad9. Perfect Past Phrase a phrase that begins with perfect participleEx: having done the test, you may leave the class

Word categories: noun, adjective, adverb, verb, preposition, conjunction, pro CLAUSES Independent Clause subclause Dependent Clause

SENTENCES TYPESa) Simple Sentences (+, -, ?, -?)* Imperative (+, -)* Request* Exclamatory sentence (e.g What a good book it is!)b) Compound Sentences* consists of two independent clause joined by coordinate conjunction (and, or, so, but, because and so on)c) Complex Sentences* consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause*ex: I dont understand what you saidThe girl who has long hair is beautifuld) Compound Complex Sentence* consists of 2 independent clause