Introduction to Journalism Class Notes Table of Contents · Introduction to Journalism Class Notes Table of Contents 1:1 The Functions of the News Media in Society ... 2.5 Copyediting
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Table of Contents 1:1 The Functions of the News Media in Society............................................................................................. 3 1:2 The First Amendment ................................................................................................................................. 4 1:3 What the First Amendment Really Means.................................................................................................. 5 1:4a Material Not Protected by the First Amendment ...................................................................................... 6 1:5a The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment................................................................................... 13 1:6a Ethics and Responsibility........................................................................................................................ 15 1:7a Major Events in American Journalism History....................................................................................... 17 1:8a The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 27 1:8b The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 28 1:8c The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 29 2:1a News Values ........................................................................................................................................... 30 2:2a News Elements........................................................................................................................................ 34 2:3 5 Ws and H ............................................................................................................................................... 37 2.4 The Inverted Pyramid ............................................................................................................................... 38 2.5 Copyediting Symbols................................................................................................................................ 39 2.6 Summary Leads ........................................................................................................................................ 40 2.7a Grammatical Beginnings for Summary Leads........................................................................................ 41 3:1 How News is Gathered ............................................................................................................................. 46 3:2 Beats.......................................................................................................................................................... 47 3:3 Types of Interviews .................................................................................................................................. 48 3:4a Preparing for the Interview ..................................................................................................................... 50 3:5a Conducting the Interview........................................................................................................................ 52 3:6a Writing the Interview.............................................................................................................................. 54 3:7a Quotes and Transitions............................................................................................................................ 56 4:1a Types of Features .................................................................................................................................... 59 4:2 Structure of the Feature Story................................................................................................................... 61 4:3 Where to Look for Feature Stories ........................................................................................................... 62 4:4 Feature Leads............................................................................................................................................ 63 4:5 The Body of the Feature Story.................................................................................................................. 64 4:6 The End of the Story................................................................................................................................. 65 4:7a Alternative Copy/Sidebars ...................................................................................................................... 66 5:1a Types of Sports Stories ........................................................................................................................... 68 6:1a Types of Opinion Pieces ......................................................................................................................... 70 6:2a Types of Editorials .................................................................................................................................. 72 6:3 How an Editorial is Written ...................................................................................................................... 74 6:4 Formula for a Persuasive Editorial ........................................................................................................... 75 6:5a Column Writing ...................................................................................................................................... 76 6:6a Political Cartoons.................................................................................................................................... 78 6:7a Review Writing ....................................................................................................................................... 81 7:1a Types of Headlines.................................................................................................................................. 86 7:2 Top 10 List of ‘Dos’ in Headline Writing ................................................................................................ 88 7:3 Top 10 List of ‘Don’t Dos’ in Headline Writing ...................................................................................... 89 7:4 Headline Count System ............................................................................................................................ 90 8:1a Type Classifications................................................................................................................................ 91
• The political watchdog function. Journalists are charged with monitoring the activities of the government.
• The entertainment function. Not everything in life is serious.
We want comic relief. We want comic strips. We want sound advice from Dear Abby. We want our MTV.
• The social function. Newspapers and broadcast news provide
Americans with topics to talk about over the back fence, at the office water cooler, over coffee at Starbuck’s.
Figure 2
• The economic function. Advertising carried in the media helps to stimulate the economy and provide consumers with information about available products and services.
• The record-keeping function. Through the records kept by the
news media, we know who is born, gets married, gets divorced, dies, who won the game, etc.
Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
• 45 words guarantee five basic freedoms o Religion
no religion can be forced on Americans. no American can be prohibited from worshiping.
o Speech Americans are free to express their opinions, based upon their own value systems (based on the freedom of religion, above)
o Press Americans are free to print the truth, and Congress cannot require any kind of licensing for journalists; all Americans have this freedom.
o Assembly Americans have the freedom to gather in public places for meetings, for worship, as spectators.
o Petition Americans have the right to petition the government for change and have the right to petition at the ballot box.
1:3 What the First Amendment Really Means • Viewpoint neutral
o All ideas are protected. o The way in which ideas are expressed may be subject to
some controls. There is a difference in expressing an opinion and in acting on that opinion.
Figure 4 Figure 5
OK Not OK
• Only the government is prevented from imposing restrictions on freedom of expression. o One exception: Public schools (government agents) can
prevent expression that would lead to a material and substantial disruption of the school day and can limit expression for legitimate, pedagogical reasons.
• Private businesses can restrict expression on their property, Web sites.
• Individuals can restrict expression in their homes and on their property.
1:4a Material Not Protected by the First Amendment • Material that is obscene as to minors
o Must meet all three of the following requirements to be considered obscene as to minors:
The average person, applying contemporary community standards, would find that the publication, taken as a whole, appeals to a minor’s prurient interest in sex;
The publication depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct such as ultimate sexual acts (normal or perverted), masturbation and lewd exhibition of the genitals; and
The work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value.
o According to this definition, indecent or vulgar language is not obscene. Words are not obscene in and of themselves.
1:4b Material Not Protected by the First Amendment • Libelous material: Libelous statements are provably false
and unprivileged statements of fact that cause injury to an individual’s or business’s reputation in the community.
o Public officials and public figures have less protection
than private citizens.
A public official is a person who holds an elected or appointed office and exercises a significant amount of government authority: Mayor, Governor, President, etc.
Figure 7
A public figure is a person who either has sought the public’s attention or is well known because of personal achievements or actions.
1:4c Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
School employees will be considered public officials or public figures in relationship to articles in the school media which concern their school-related activities.
Figure 8
When an allegedly libelous statement concerns an individual who is not a public official or public figure, it must be proven that the false statement was published willfully or negligently; i.e., the journalist who wrote or published the statement has failed to exercise reasonably prudent care.
If the allegedly libelous statement concerns an individual who is a public official or public figure, it must be proven that the statement was made with actual malice.
1:4d Material Not Protected by the First Amendment • Journalists, including student journalists, are allowed to
express opinions. Specifically, they may criticize policy or the performance of teachers, administrators, school officials and other school employees.
o Material that will cause a “material and substantial
disruption” of school activities
o Disruption is defined as:
Student rioting Unlawful seizure of property
Destruction of property Substantial student participation in a boycott
Figure 9
For student media to be considered disruptive, specific facts must exist upon which one could reasonably forecast that there would be an immediate, substantial disruption to the normal school activity as a result of the material’s distribution.
1:4e Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
o Mere fear or apprehension about a disturbance is not enough; school administrators must be able to show substantial facts that would reasonably support a forecast of likely disruption.
Administrators must pay attention to the context of the
distribution as well as the content of the material.
• Consideration must be given to
o past experience in the school with similar material,
o past experience in dealing with the students at
the school,
o current events which influence student attitudes; and
o whether or not there have been previous
instances of actual or threatened disruption that occurred simultaneously with the distribution of the student publication.
1:4f Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
• Speech that could lead to imminent lawless action. o Yelling “FIRE!” in a crowded movie theater.
Figure 10
• Invasion of privacy o Private citizens have more protections than public
figures, public officials (as in libel cases). o Types of invasion of privacy:
Appropriation of someone’s face or likeness without express permission
Unreasonable publicity given to one’s personal life Intrusion upon someone’s seclusion Publicity which unfavorably places someone in false light before the public
1:4g Material Not Protected by the First Amendment Fighting words
o While Americans have the right to express their opinions, the Supreme Court has ruled that “fighting words,” those words which by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace, are not protected.
Figure 11
• Copyright infringement
o Occurs when copyrighted material is used without the permission of the creator or copyright holder.
o A copyright lasts for the lifetime of the creator plus 70 years.
o After the copyright expires, the material enters the public domain, meaning that it is available for use.
o All intellectual property should be credited to the creator.
--Material gathered from Student Press Law Center, www.splc.org, and First Amendment Center, www.fac.org
1:5a The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment The First Amendment is under constant scrutiny. The First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University annually conducts a “reality check”, a survey to determine just how Americans perceive their First Amendment freedoms. Selected results of the 2003 survey: • Freedom of the press is the least popular freedom. About
46% of the respondents said the press has too much freedom.
• 65% of the respondents liked the idea of embedding U.S. journalists in individual combat units as was done during the 2003 war in Iraq.
• 68% said that the news media did an excellent or good job in covering the war.
• Despite the positive perception of coverage of the war, about 67% said that the government should be able to prior review journalists’ news reports.
• 48% said that they believed they had too little information on the war on terrorism.
• Respondents were split on whether they thought the press had too much freedom to publish or if there was too much government censorship. 43% said there was too much freedom; 38% said there was too much censorship.
• 33% said individuals should not be allowed to protest against an American war during the period of active combat.
1:5b The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment • 33% said that public school officials should be allowed to
prohibit high school students from expressing their opinions about war on school property.
• Despite a Supreme Court ruling granting students the right to wear armbands or other symbolic opposition to war or combat, about 50% said that schools should be able to ban these items.
• Remembering a statement by Natalie Maines, lead singer for the Dixie Chicks, prior to a London concert, that she was embarrassed that the President of the United States was from Texas, 39% of those surveyed said they would be less likely to buy a CD from a musician who has made controversial political remarks in public that differ from their own views.
• 55% of those surveyed opposed a constitutional amendment to ban flag burning, a 4% increase from 2002.
• Truth and Accuracy. Journalists depend upon good faith with the reader.
• Impartiality. This does not prevent the newspaper reporter from having an opinion, but there must be a clear distinction for the reader about what is presented as fact and what is presented as an opinion.
• Fair Play. Journalists must respect the rights of all who are involved in a news story, no matter who they are or what they have done.
• ASNE ends its statement of principles this way:
o These principles are intended to preserve, protect and strengthen the bond of trust and respect between American journalists and the American people, a bond that is essential to sustain the grant of freedom entrusted to both by the nation’s founders.
o Other major news organizations and individual media outlets have their own codes of ethics which are similar in concept.
--Society of Professional Journalists, www.spj.org --American Society of Newspaper Editors, www.asne.org
1:7c Major Events in American Journalism History • Newspapers and the Industrial Revolution
o By 1833 there were three times as many newspapers in the U.S. as there were in France or England.
Technological advances produced better printing presses.
Free public education meant a higher literacy rate. Population was growing and heading west. Several cities had competing newspapers. Publishers began lowering cost of papers to increase circulation.
• Penny Press o In 1833, Dr. H.D. Shepard lowered the price of the New
York Morning Post to 2 cents per copy, then 1 cent. Paper folded after 2 ½ weeks.
o In September, 1833, Benjamin Day lowered the price of the New York Sun to 1 cent.
o Other newspapers followed suit. • Civil War Coverage
o Invention of telegraph made faster communication possible.
o Reporters were able to send news directly from the battlefield.
o Matthew Brady and his photographers took pictures from the battlefields.
o Wire services, including the Associated Press, were established.
Some historians believe the rivalry between Hearst and Pulitzer caused or contributed to the Spanish American War in 1898.
Figure 15
Figure 16
Cartoon is in the Public Domain
• The Yellow Kid (from Hogan’s Alley series) o Cartoon originated in Pulitzer’s New York World. o Originally drawn by Richard Outcault. o Featured a bald child wearing a yellow nightgown, who
made pithy, but ungrammatical, observations about the day’s events.
o Hearst hired Outcault and The Yellow Kid away from the World.
o Pulitzer hired another cartoonist to draw a Yellow Kid cartoon, so there were two competing versions of the cartoon published at the same time.
Turning it around • Some publishers were unhappy about the direction
American journalism was going on during the Yellow Journalism period.
Figure 18
• Some subscribers stopped taking the sensational papers. • The New York Times emerged as a leading newspaper.
o Two slogans: “Does not soil the breakfast cloth” “All the news that’s fit to print”
• Pulitzer’s philosophy about news coverage had changed by 1901 and he began to emphasize quality reporting and the paper’s responsibility to the public. o Before his death in 1911, he established the Pulitzer
1:7i Major Events in American Journalism History • Broadcast media were able to provide visual coverage of the news.
o Later technology allowed for immediate coverage through breaking news.
o Now news is on the air 24 hours a day.
• Newspapers began to streamline their design. o Stories were packaged. o Bigger pictures o Color added o Infographics o USA Today became the first mass market national daily
newspaper, taking advantage of advances in technology to print full-color pages at regional plants around the nation.
Figure 20
• Newspapers could provide more in-depth coverage than the broadcast media.
1:8a The Scholastic Media Student journalists are following in the footsteps of their professional counterparts.
• Students are producing: o Newspapers
o Yearbooks o Literary Magazines
o Broadcast news o Documentaries o News Web sites or online editions of the student
newspaper
• Students are tackling more sophisticated and controversial topics than high schools of a few years ago would allow. o Gay/lesbian issues o Teen pregnancy o STDs o Homelessness
o AIDS o School budgets o Eating disorders o Investigation of wrongdoing by school officials o Lawsuits against the school district
• Students are gaining practical experience in writing, editing, layout, design, visual media.
• Focus on controversial topics causes some concern from administrators and the public (See 2003 First Amendment Survey results.)
• Three major U.S. Supreme Court cases have shaped the student media. o Tinker v. Des Moines, 1969
Established that students have First Amendment rights while at school.
Students can express opinions at school so long as they do not materially and substantially disrupt the normal activities of the school day.
o Bethel v. Fraser, 1986 Established that while students have the freedom to express themselves, the school has the right to determine how they express their opinions.
The school has the right to limit vulgarity within its boundaries and to ensure a positive learning atmosphere for all students.
o Hazelwood v. Kulhmeier, 1988 Did not reverse Tinker, but limited the amount of freedom the student press, or any activity which allows expression, may have.
Established that administrators have the right to censor the press for legitimate, pedagogical reasons, but did not establish what those reasons might be
Emphasized that school administrators must be viewpoint neutral, and cannot censor a student’s expression because it differs from their own.
o The Student Press Law Center is set up to assist student journalists in high school and college with all legal issues concerning the production of student media.
Censorship Prior review Prevention of libel, copyright infractions, invasion of privacy issues
o Several organizations exist to support student journalists and their advisers:
Journalism Education Association, www.jea.org Statewide organizations Columbia Scholastic Press Association National Scholastic Press Association, www.studentpress.org
o Web sites are set up to help student journalists. o www.highschooljournalism.org o www.jteacher.com
2:2a News Elements What Makes News News? Figure 29
There are facts that are newsworthy, and there are facts that are not newsworthy. There are facts which might be newsworthy in one location, but not in another. There are facts which might be newsworthy today, but not tomorrow. What makes a fact newsworthy is how it is perceived by your readership, the people in your community who are affected—or not—by the facts. Among the common news elements are the following:
Figure 30
• Proximity: This has to do with location. If the event is happening
close by, it will impact your readers more than if it is
happening across town, or across the world, all other considerations
being equal. A dance at your school, for instance, is more newsworthy than a dance at
• Prominence: This has to do with how well known the people involved in your story are. If the person or persons are well known to your readers, the story will impact your readers more than a similar story involving people they do not know.
• Timeliness: If something is happening NOW, it has more
impact than something that happened yesterday or last week. Often, the most recent development is the feature of the story.
Figure 31
• Consequence: If the impact of an event on your readers is major, they want to know all about it. For instance, they might not care that a particular street is being shut down for repairs, until it is brought to their attention that this will reroute the major
portion of the traffic into their residential areas. This will affect them in a significant way, and they will want to know about it.
• Human interest: If a situation makes you angry, sad, happy or overjoyed, it contains the news element of human interest. If there is conflict or drama or the situation is out of the ordinary, the situation also has human interest. Any
time human emotions come into play, this news element is present. Some stories are newsworthy on this basis alone.
Most news stories have a combination of two or more of these
• Must stress what is NEWSWORTHY (relevance, usefulness, interest to the reader) by explaining IMPACT (so what?)
• Don't back into the lead (avoid use of “there is,” “there was,” “there will be.”)
• Don't bury the news—feature the most important development.
• Subject-verb-direct object for most sentence constructions (but note grammatical variations as well)
• One clear sentence, not too long, not too short. Make two short sentences if necessary.
• Avoid minor or lesser important details in the lead sentence (specific time, addresses, names if not well-known). Use them in later paragraphs. However, include interesting, colorful or unusual details.
• If the WHO of the news story is a celebrity or prominent person in the community, you will probably use the name in the lead sentence. Otherwise save the name for the second paragraph, describing the person or organization that the story is about.
• Often uses WHEN to indicate timeliness • Often indicates WHERE news occurred in relative not
overly specific terms • Avoid Questions Leads. • Avoid Leads that are Direct Quotations. • Be sure to update the lead on second-day or subsequent
2.7a Grammatical Beginnings for Summary Leads • Temporal Clause
o Begins with a word that deals with time, such as as, after, when, while, before, since or as soon as.
Example: • When Patrick Briggs went to see musicals, he
used to watch the male lead and think, "I can do that." "Then I thought, `I can do that better than he can,' " said Briggs, assistant principal of Watkins Middle School in the Cypress Fairbanks Independent School District. (Houston Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28, 2003)
• Prepositional Phrase o Begins with a preposition and features an aspect of the
story that the reporter feels merits special attention. Example:
• By withdrawing from the campaign finance system, Howard Dean and Senator John Kerry are sharply altering the nominating battles in Iowa and New Hampshire. (New York Times, Nov. 29, 2003) -- Explains how they are affecting the campaign.
• In Hawaii, a sturdy American tradition has rejuvenated a fading Hawaiian one, all within the steamy, friendly confines of the imu. (New York Times, Nov. 29, 2003) – Refers to where.
• As a teenager zipping along the well-trimmed links at the River Oaks Country Club on his motor scooter in the 1940s, Preston Moore Jr. never knew he would inspire a Houston car dealer to invent the motorized golf cart. (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003) -- Refers to when.
• Conditional Clause o Begins with if, unless or provided, and expresses
speculative interest or condition. Example:
• Unless they've dropped some clear hints, choosing a gift for the die-hard video gamers in the family could be overwhelming this holiday season. An estimated 250 new games are expected in this pivotal season for game companies -- it accounts for about half of the industry's $10 billion annual sales. (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Infinitive Phrase o Begins with “to” plus a verb and features purpose or
dramatic action or creates a minor note of suspense.
Example: • To control a bizarre gathering of eagles, pigs
and foxes on the California channel islands, federal wildlife officials may have to kill a protected species in order to save an endangered one. (Associated Press, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Causal Clause o Begins with because or since and shows a causal
relationship between facts. Example:
• Since Memorial City Mall wanted to provide entertainment other than movie theaters, designers put in a skating rink. (Houston Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28, 2003)
• Participial Phrase o Begins with a present or past participle and features
action. Often answers the questions “why” or “how” Examples:
• Using the Internet, many holiday shoppers will take part in the shipping process, pointing and clicking to create their own shipping labels, or, if they're ordering online, supplying information that makes it easier for packages to be sent worldwide. (Present Participle) (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Led by a former Rosenberg city official, the new Katy Area Economic Development Council is focused on enticing businesses to locate in the Katy school district to strengthen the tax base. (Past Participle) (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Gerund Phrase o Begins with a gerund (-ing form of a verb used as a
noun) and features action or an interesting detail. Examples:
• Traveling Houston's highways in search of the perfect gift might require a little extra good cheer this season, transportation officials caution. Road construction knows no holidays. (Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Finding attorney Tim Hootman's downtown law office isn't at all a complicated task. (Houston Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28, 2003)
• Being the running back at Wylie is hard. Being the backup running back is even harder. (Dallas Morning News, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Concessive Clause o Begins with though or although and expresses
difficulties overcome or unusual circumstances. Example:
• Although Bryan Scott Boggs was only 16 when he used his mother's cell phone to make the threatening calls to 11 area schools, prosecutors in the case charged him as an adult. Yesterday he entered a guilty plea.
• Noun Clause o Begins with that, how, why, whether, what or when and
features the substance of announcements, decisions or beliefs.
Example: • How the state plans to finance public
secondary education in the next decade was the focus of a week-long confrontation between the Governor and the Legislature.
• Make an appointment in advance. • Learn everything you can about the
subject or person so you can ask intelligent questions.
• Know what you want to accomplish in the interview.
• Make a list of 15-20 good solid questions that will focus on the subject.
• Types of questions: o Avoid asking questions that can be answered “yes” or
“no”. o Use the Ws and H to form relevant questions that will get
the interviewee to open up. What are your feelings about this? What do you think was the deciding factor? Why did people respond so enthusiastically? Why is it a good idea to do this? How was this accomplished? How will the money be raised?
3:4b Preparing for the Interview • Use the “tell me” method if you know the interview has an anecdote that might be used in the story: o Tell me about the time your
pig took first place in the livestock show.
o Tell me what it was like to be Homecoming Queen.
• Obtain all the information you think you will need before concluding the interview, but be sure to ask if you can contact the interviewee for more information if necessary.
mannerisms or gestures into the story if appropriate.
• End your story on the second most
dynamic quote that sums up the situation. This will eliminate the urge to use a “cheerleader” statement to wrap up the story. (And a good time was had by all.)
reports of what the speaker said. These are the exact words of the speaker and should be in quotation marks. o Example:
“My world does not revolve around number problems,” Johnson said, “but I do get a sense of achievement and accomplishment when I solve problems no one else can get.”
• Indirect quotations are a summary of what the speaker said. Quotations marks are not used. The speaker’s ideas are used, but the reporter does not use the speaker’s exact words. o Example:
Johnson credits his senior English teacher, Phyllis Long, with his success on the verbal portions of the test.
o Advantages: Information can be condensed without changing the meaning.
Indirect quotes can be used as transitional statements.
4:3 Where to Look for Feature Stories Ideas are everywhere in the school. Every faculty member and student is a potential story. Here are some possibilities: Figure 62
• Early graduates • Students who own businesses • Ethnic or cultural composition of your
school • Fund raisers • Twins/Triplets • Security measures
• Lucky charms and rituals • Superstitions and phobias • Health, nutrition and exercise • Volunteering • Fashion/Dress code • Students going into the military
Here are some common types of feature leads: • Allusion leads: These give the reader a
reference to a character or event in history, literature or mythology and relate that reference to what is going on in the story.
• Anecdotal leads: These use a brief story to represent the universal experience.
• Contrast leads: These leads point out opposites, such as hot and cold, wet and dry, rich and poor, then and now. They work best when the contrast is an obvious one.
• Parody leads: A well-known song, poem, phrase or title is rewritten to begin a story.
• Narrative leads: Through reading the lead, the reader feels as though he or she is in the middle of the action.
• Question lead: Use only if the question is very relevant. The reader wants answers, not questions.
• Quotation leads: Use only if the quote is extremely powerful and dynamic and captures the theme of the story.
Almost as important as the lead, the end of the story wraps it up for the reader. Here are some common ways to wrap up the story: • End with a powerful quote. • End with an anecdote.
• End with a quick summary. • Use an add-on ending, which makes a point in the end
which was never addressed in the story itself. • Circle back to the lead. Restate something from the lead if it
helps to complete the message that the story is conveying.
Information does not have to be in story form in all cases. Sometimes information can be more easily understood if it is presented in other forms, or in alternative copy. Examples of Alternative Copy or Sidebar
Information: • Lists: winners, places to contact, items needed. • Q&As: Questions and answers
published without a lead or transitions. Question followed by answer.
• Advance story: Appears before a game is played; gives the essentials of an upcoming game or athletic event: o Starting lineups o Entries o Lists of competitors o Background info on teams o History of rivalry o Records against one another o Strategy comparisons o Strengths and weaknesses of each team o May be in inverted pyramid or may be a feature
• Coverage story: About games already played. o Highlights o Outstanding plays o Exceptional performances o Body may be told chronologically, but usually just hits
Ideas come together on the opinion pages of a newspaper—ideas from members of the staff and from members of the community. These may take the form of: • Editorials: The official opinion of the newspaper, arrived at
by consensus of the editorial board in most cases. o Written in third person o Do not carry a by-line because they are not the opinion
of a person but of the paper as a whole. • Columns: Opinion pieces that express the personal
viewpoint of the writer. o Do carry a by-line o Can be written in first person o Better to leave out expressions such as “in my opinion”
or “I think” because these phrases weaken the position. o Could be from local writer or syndicated writer
• Letters to the editor: Letters written to the newspaper by readers or members of the public o May be in response to an article or editorial o May be something the reader wants to see action on o Should be signed, but staff can withhold name if they
have a legitimate reason to do so • Editorial/political cartoons: Illustrations which make a
political or editorial statement. o Use symbolism in pictures (flag=patriotism; elephant =
Republicans; donkey=Democrats, etc.) o Can be humorous or serious
• Criticize or attack: o Require suggestions for change. o If an editorial attacks, it must be accurate in the charge. o The criticism or attack must be backed up with facts.
• Defend: o Stand up for an individual or organization under attack
by society. • Endorse:
o Backing of an issue or a candidate o Must give solid reasons for doing so
• Compliment: o Show evidence that the compliment is deserved o Praise when warranted
Avoid moralizing editorials. People do not read the newspaper to get a sermon—they go to their churches or other places of worship. Editorials should be built around a solid framework: • Introduction:
o Gets the reader’s attention o States the problem or situation o States the position
• Body:
o Persuades the reader through logical reasoning o Backs up stance with solid factual reasoning o Brings in the opposition’s point of view, then shoots it
down with more logical reasoning • Conclusion:
o Prompts the reader to take action Vote Attend a rally Support a cause Write letters, etc.
What should a column do? • Highlight creative expression of opinion. • Reflect the personality of the author. • Showcase superior writing ability and distinctive style. • Express the viewpoint of one writer rather than a
• Use an original title that defines the slant or the type of
content. Good titles often play on the writer’s name or reflect the writer’s skills. Also the “live” headlines must follow appropriate styles. Bylines are essential, and photos of the writer are appropriate.
• Appear regularly in a newspaper on the same page. • To establish an appropriate identity and to distinguish the
column from other articles, the column title should use typography and graphics to complement the publication design. A column, however, should never be confused with a regular feature in the paper.
Political cartoons are a visual representation of an editorial comment. With an illustration and very few words, cartoonists make statements on the events of the day. Political cartoons use: • Symbolism: Because cartoons use few words to convey a
message, various symbols are employed to represent certain concepts. To work, these symbols need to be easily recognized and understood by the readers. o Some common symbols:
Flag: patriotism Crown: royalty Money bag: anything to do with money, taxes, federal budget, cost-of-living
Donkey: Democrats—Elephant: Republicans School house: education Scales: law, justice, court system
• Caricatures: Exaggeration of prominent facial features or physical characteristics which are recognized by readers as belonging to certain politicians or celebrities.
• Stereotypes: Cartoonists will often use stereotypes of certain professions (for example, a school marm to represent educators) to stand for groups of people.
• Body language and facial expressions to represent
reactions. • Signs: If there could be some confusion about what some
aspect of the cartoon means, the cartoonist may plant a sign in front of the object, or in the hands of a character to explain briefly what is going on.
A review is not a report. Its primary function is to be critical. The review will be based on the reviewer’s individual responses to the performance, exhibit or experience, but these responses should be based on fact. The review should: • Make sense to the reader, whether or not the reader heard
the son, attended the concert, watched the movie, read the book or attended an exhibit.
• Extend one’s appreciation of the performance or exhibit. • Convey and honest and fair criticism, pro or con. Usually
contains both pro and con comments, although it is not a requirement.
• Offer a unique perspective, one reflecting the performance or exhibit as a whole, and one stressing a significant, fresh angle.
• Cite tangible, observable evidence for all conclusions. • Build on accurate observations and appropriate reporting. • Make the reader feel like he or she was part of the same
What kind of art forms can be reviewed? • Drama • Music • Art (painting, sculpture, architecture, photography) • Film, media (TV, radio) • Publications (books, periodicals) • Restaurants • Travel packages • Software (games, new programs) • Electronics (new gadgets, gizmos, etc.)
• Do read the article, especially the opening paragraph, to understand the purpose and the main idea.
• Do give the most general, overall focus/summary of the story.
• Do remember that the headline may be the reason the reader decides to read the story (The headline the #2 entry point).
• Do limit the number of words—6-10 generally. • Do use strong, active verbs. (“To be” verbs are generally
understood, but are not written out as they only take up space.)
• Do use present tense verbs to show past action. Use the infinitive (to plus the verb) to show future action.
• Do express a complete thought. Headlines usually read like simple sentences, without words like a, an and the.
• Do use a secondary headline—or subhead—to convey an additional idea in the story.
• Do, for downstyle headlines, capitalize only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives. For upstyle headlines, capitalize the first letter of each word. Avoid all cap headlines as they are hard to read.
7:3 Top 10 List of ‘Don’t Dos’ in Headline Writing
Figure 110
• Don’t editorialize in the headline. • Don’t use acronyms/abbreviations that readers won’t
recognize. • Don’t put information in a headline that is not in the story. • Don’t write the headline of a news story from any part of
the story other than the summary lead. • Don’t copy the wording in the lead for the headline. • Don’t overuse puns. If you groan, it’s no good. If you laugh,
it’s good. • Don’t use headlines with double-entendre meanings. It takes
a dirty mind to edit a clean newspaper. • Don’t split: adjectives/nouns; proper names; verbs/adverbs;
prepositions/objects, etc. • Don’t turn in three or four versions of a headline unless the
editor specifically requests it. • Don’t be afraid to ask for help.
Even though computers help you fit headlines in these modern times, knowing headline counts will help you write tighter, better heads. Letter Count Capital I 1 Capital M, W 2 All other capital letters 1.5 Lowercase f, l, i, t, j .5 Lowercase m, w 1.5 All other lowercase letters 1 Spaces .5 Numerals, except for 1 1 The number 1 .5 Question mark, dash 1 All other punctuation .5
• Serif Characterized by thin and thick strokes on letters, and tiny decorative strokes at the base and other extremities of the letters. Very readable type. Good choice for body text.
• Sans Serif Characterized by simplicity. Strokes are the same width. No decorative strokes at ends of letters. Not as readable as serif type, but a good choice for larger uses, such as headlines.
• Script or Cursive Script and cursive types are based on hand-lettered forms. Script letters do not connect; cursive letters do.
Text Elaborate, old-fashioned faces, also based on hand-lettering. Used mainly for nameplates for some newspapers.
• Decorative/ Novelty
Decorative and novelty typefaces are distinct, attention-getting and eccentric. They are used for advertising, posters, greeting cards and to set the mood for stories in the paper.
o Warm colors make the letters appear to come forward; cooler colors seem to recede. Experiment with the shades of gray to produce the same effect in black and white.
• AVOID ALL CAPS o Unless you have a very specific, logical
reason for using all caps, don’t. Readability is reduced considerably.
You might use all caps in the main deck of a major headline for impact, but use it in small doses, two or three words.
• The caption should be a little story about the picture and it should be complete.
• Always write at least two sentences per caption. o The first should be in present tense and should describe
the action that is seen. o The second should be in past tense and should give
additional information to complete the story. o A third sentence consisting of a quote from someone
involved in the story can be added. • Captions should give specific information, but should not
state the obvious. • The caption should begin with an interesting lead. • Strong visual nouns should be used. • The caption should be written in complete sentences. • Complete names should be used, and all people in the
picture should be identified by name, if there are six or fewer people.
10:1a Advertising Appeals Advertising does not create a need for a product or a service, but it can create a desire based on propaganda techniques and recognized advertising appeals.
Figure 126
• Transfer or Masculine/Feminine Appeal o The key to the ad is atmosphere. You see the perfection
in the ad, and the message you get is that you will transfer these qualities to yourself if you use the product being offered.
• Desire for possessions: o The ad makes people want to buy one product over
another, such as a Rolex over a Timex. • Luxury and elegance/snob appeal.
o Creates a feeling of envy or desire for this “fine” product.
• The purpose of advertising is to increase sales for the advertiser.
• It should also benefit the consumer and the publication. • The number one entry point on an ad is a large photograph
or illustration. If an ad has a large picture, more people will look at the ad.
• The second entry point is a large, bold headline. This headline should attract the attention of the reader by offering a benefit.
• Subheads can be used to expand on the benefit offered and can serve as a lead-in to the copy.
• The copy should give information on the product, how it differs from other similar products, reasons to buy the product and easy-to-understand statistics.
• White space in the ad lets the ad breathe. • Keep the design simple. Do not “decorate” with clip art.
[ ] Open rate: no discount [ ] 5% discount [ ] 10% discount [ ] Special promo [ ] School organization Color Options [ ] Spot Color $75 [ ] Full Color $300
Business Name _______________________Mailing Address______________________ City, State, Zip _______________________Phone_______________Fax_____________Authorized Signature__________________ School Representative_________________ ------------------------------------------------------TERMS OF THE AGREEMENT ------------------------------------------------------The client named above agrees to purchase _________in advertising space in ____ issues of the XXXX newspaper. The cost of the advertisement for one issue is $__________ and the total cost of all newspaper advertising within this contract is $________. The client named above agrees that the total cost for all ads contractually obligated to run under this agreement is $___________
• This contract constitutes a legally binding agreement between the client and the publication named herein. The client agrees to provide either a camera-ready advertisement or the art and copy necessary to create an advertisement. The publication requires that clean black and white copy be provided to use. Colored ink or paper drastically reduces the quality of the image and will not be accepted.
• The deadline for placing advertisements is 10 (ten) days prior to the publication date
• Rates: See current rate sheet for rates, publication dates and policies • Payments: To qualify for the 5% “Pay now discount”, payment must be
made when the contract is signed. To qualify for the 10% “3-consecutive issue” discount, the same size ad must be purchased for three consecutive issues. Copy changes may be made.
• Billed accounts are payable within 30 days of the invoice date. Advertisers who contract for multiple insertions and who choose to be billed will be billed after each insertion. Advertisers who do not pay for their ads by the due date may have future ads pulled or rejected for non-payment. Advertisers will receive tear sheets as proof of payment.
• We reserve the right to refuse advertising. Products and services illegal or inappropriate for minors will be rejected by the newspaper staff.
3. Make a good first impression. a. Shake the hand of the decision-maker. b. Introduce yourself as a member of the yearbook or
newspaper staff. c. Present your business card. d. Use language appropriate to the situation—do not use
slang words that the advertiser may not understand.
Figure 138
4. Talk benefits. a. Give the advertiser an information sheet telling about
your publication b. Explain the benefits of purchasing an ad. c. Show the advertiser a copy of the publication. d. Tell what your circulation figures are—how many
copies of the yearbook you sell, how many newspapers you distribute.
• Use no more than 2 typefaces per page, a serif and a sans serif. You can use a decorative or novelty type for a feature story headline IF the typeface fits the mood of the story.
• All design elements should have a reason for being there. • Keep standing elements consistent from issue to issue. • Headlines should decrease in size as you move down the
page. • Have vertical and horizontal modules for contrast. • If color is used, it should mean something. Color is
expensive and should not be wasted on something trivial. • Keep design simple. It’s called design, not decorating. • Study professional newspapers for examples.
• Be consistent: o Choose one or two type families. o Keep consistent internal margins (there should be a 1-
pica wide line of white space between all elements on the page unless you are purposely overlapping elements or purposely going for a different look. (In the class section, just use a thin white line to separate mug shots.)
o Be consistent with your column widths within each section.
Yearbook layout pages are marked off in 6- and 8-column choices for a double page spread. Some companies offer more choices. • Start with these, then branch out as you get
more comfortable with design. • Design in double page spreads. A reader sees two pages at
once. Design these pages as a unit. o Every double page spread should have a dominant
element. This is usually a photograph, but could be an illustration or some other element.
12:2c Yearbook Design • Every photo should have a caption, and the caption should
be immediately above, below or next to the picture. Remember the rules for caption writing: if there are five or fewer people in the picture, each person should be identified; if there are six or more, the group should be identified, as in “Joe Smith’s biology class…” o One exception: Organizational group photos and team
shots should have full identification. o Do not stack more than two captions on top of each
other. • Copy (stories, headlines, captions) should NOT be extended
across the gutter (the seam between the pages). It does not look good, plus part of the type will be lost and will not be seen by the reader.
• Photographs, especially the dominant photo, can extend across the gutter.
• If a photograph extends beyond an external margins of the page, it should bleed off the page and should not end in the margin area. However, only one picture should bleed, and in only one direction.
• Headlines should be written journalistically and should have a subject and a verb. The headline should connect in content with the dominant picture.
• Keep photographs and other “heavy elements” toward the center of the double page spread, and lighter elements, such as copy and graphics, to the outside.
12:3a Simple Steps for Designing a Yearbook Spread This is for a very basic yearbook spread. As you get more comfortable with design, you can branch off from this and create much more sophisticated layouts.
Figure 154
All pages in the book except for the first and last pages, are designed in double page spreads. The simplest way to design the spread is to make use of the columnar format on the layout sheets provided by your yearbook publisher. For consistency, choose a 6-column, 8-column (or in some cases, a 10-column) layout for the section. Most yearbook layouts are based on a mosaic concept; that is, everything is placed around the dominant element in pinwheel fashion. Begin by establishing an eyeline across the double page spread. The eyeline is a pica-wide line that goes across the DPS and will serve as an internal margin between elements. The eyeline should be in the upper or lower third of the DPS. It should never be across the midpoint of the spread.
12:3b Simple Steps for Designing a Yearbook Spread
Figure 155
Place the dominant photo. It should be 2-2 ½ times larger than any other element on the page. It should go across or next to the gutter. All pictures should take up the entire width of the number of columns they go across. Do not begin or end a photo in the middle of a column. Place the other pictures on the page in pinwheel fashion. Each should rest upon or hang from the eyeline or touch the dominant photo. Save room for the captions next to each picture. Place the captions next to, above, or below the pictures they describe. The captions should be the width of one column. You can stack two captions, but no more than that. Place the story on the page so that it either rests upon or hangs from the eyeline. The story should be set one column wide, then broken into two or more legs to fit the space. The headline should go above the story.
Writing for broadcast differs from writing for print publications. Here are some guidelines: • The lead of a broadcast story is like the headline of a print
story; it lets the reader know what the story is about. o The lead should get to the point of the story in the first
sentence o The viewers/listeners should hear the who, what, when
and where in the first sentence. The why and how can come later.
o The lead should not begin with a name. Save the name for the second sentence.
• Hit the highlights. Time is important; eliminate the fluff.
• Corrections. Do NOT use copyediting symbols to correct
mistakes. Strike out words completely and retype them. • Spell phonetically. • Keep words to one or two syllables • Avoid hissing sounds. • Avoid exotic words; keep everything simple. • Read the story aloud. Listen to what it sounds like. • Use the script and storyboard forms to map out the
The script is divided into a video portion and an audio portion. The video section is used to tell what will be seen, and the audio section tells what will be heard at the same time: the dialogue, the music, sound effects, etc. This is like a print layout sheet, only it maps out the broadcast.
The storyboard is a visual, graphic depiction of a narrative. It is used to visually map out scenes and camera angles and tie them to the audio portion of the broadcast.
13:3 Selected Video Terminology Terms Frame: A single picture on a piece of film.
Individual frames are run through the projector quickly (30 frames per second for standard videotape.
Shot: A single set of images taped from the time the camera starts to the time it stops.
Cut: (1) The place where two separate shots or sections of a shot are joined together in a tape. The instantaneous change from one shot to another. (2) Director’s command to stop action and recording immediately.
Fade in/Fade out:
The gradual appearance or disappearance of an image from or into darkness.
Dissolve: A transition from one shot to another in which one shot fades out while the other fades in. One shot is superimposed over another.
Rule of Thirds:
As in photography. An element of shot composition based on the screen being divided into thirds horizontally and vertically, and then placing important elements along those lines.
Essential Area:
The area that will be seen on most TV screens. Encompasses 80 percent of the screen measured from the center.
Headroom:
Space between the top of a subject’s head and a monitor’s upper screen edge.
A shot in which the camera is very close to the subject. If the subject is a person’s face, only features such as the eyes or mouth are shown. Often used to exaggerate features so that the characters look ugly or provocative.
Close-up:
Figure 171
A shot in which the camera is close to the subject. When the subject is a person, this usually means only the person’s face or face and shoulders are shown. Often used to show emotion.
Medium Shot or Mid Shot:
Figure 172
The shot between a long shot and a close-up. With characters, it usually shows them from the waist up.
Long Shot:
Figure 173
A shot that uses the camera’s full angle of view (the camera is zoomed out all the way), so that the subject is a distance from the camera, and you can see the whole object. Also called a full shot.
Extreme Long Shot:
Figure 174
A shot in which characters appear very small in the distance.
14:1 Newspaper Editorial Policy Your newspaper will need to establish a policy before publishing so that the staff will know how to handle certain situations. Discuss and answer the following questions: • Is the paper an open forum? Will you accept submissions
from outside the staff? Who makes the editorial decisions on what to include in the paper?
• Will you accept advertising? o What types of ads are acceptable? o What types of ads are not acceptable?
• How will you handle the death of a student or faculty member? (Establish a basic policy with the idea that circumstances might warrant additional coverage.)
• Use the SPLC Model Guidelines (http://www.splc.org/legalresearch.asp?id=6) to establish a policy, and add in the topics not covered.
o Oversees the production of all ads. o Maintains a list of advertisers for each issue, ad sizes,
contact information, who has paid, who is to be billed. o Checks to make sure all ads are in place.
• Business Manager o Prepares tear sheets and invoices to send to advertisers. o Keeps all records of accounts to be billed.
• Photography and Art Editors o Receive art and photo assignments from editorial staff. o Assign or take photos/draw cartoons by deadline. o Communicate with editorial staff.
• Photographers, Artists o Take pictures, draw illustrations as assigned.
• Reporters o Interview, do research, write stories as assigned.
• All staff o Meet deadlines. o Communicate with one another. o Copyedit as assigned. o Extra duties as assigned.
Production of the publication is a team effort. It may require that you put in some extra time in order to get everything done.
14:3a Production Steps • Editor and adviser prepare production calendar, working
backward from the distribution date. • If necessary, staff will need to decide on:
o Nameplate o Typeface for text, headlines, captions o Style for folios, bylines and other standing features
• Staffers submit story ideas to editor.
Figure 178
• Staff meets, discusses story ideas. • Editor assigns stories, or staffers volunteer for stories. • Staffers work with photographers, artists to coordinate
photos and art. • Staffers interview, research and write stories. • Editors read rough drafts, make suggestions for
improvement. • Staffers rewrite and submit final stories. • Copy editor and helpers edit for style, spelling, punctuation,
14:3b Production Steps • Staffers correct stories. • Staffers prepare pages with the help of the layout editor. • Photographers, artists submit photos and illustrations, along
with caption information.
Figure 179
• Staffers proof pages, submit to section editors. • Section editors proof pages, submit to editor. • Editor proofs pages, submits to adviser. • Paper goes to press.