INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Differentiate the three main components of a modern power system.

2. Explain the types of connection used in power system.

3. Describe various energy resources used to generate electricity.

4. Explain the impact of electricity industry to human and environment.

5. Explain the power industry in Malaysia.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Harnessing and utilizing energy has always been a key factor in improving the quality of

life. The use of energy, has aided our ability to develop socially, and live with physical

comfort. As a matter of fact, there is a close relationship between the energy used per

person and his standard of living. The greater the per capita consumption in a country,

the higher is the standard of living of its people.

Energy exists in different forms in nature, but the most important form is the electric

energy. The modern society is so much dependent upon the use of electrical energy that

it has become a part and parcel of our life. It is the most popular form of energy, because

it can be transported easily at high efficiency and reasonable cost.

1.2 HISTORY OF ELECTRICAL POWER

The first electric network was established in 1882 at the Pearl Street Station in New York

City by Thomas Edison. The station supplied dc power for lighting the lower Manhattan

area. The power was generated by dc generators and distributed by underground cables.

In the same year the first water wheel driven generator was installed in Appleton,

Wisconsin. Within a few years many companies producing energy for lighting were

established operated under Edison’s system. However due to excessive power loss (RI2

at low voltage), Edison’s companies could deliver energy only a short distance from their

stations.

The invention of the transformer by William Stanley in 1885, and the invention of the

induction motor by Nikola Tesla in 1888, paved the way for ac system to be established.

The advantageous of the ac system became apparent, thus made it prevalent. Due to lack

of commutators in the ac generators, more power can be produced conveniently at higher

voltages.

The first single-phase ac system in the USA was at Oregon City where power was

generated by two 300 hp waterwheel turbines and transmitted at 4 kV to Portland.

Southern California Edison Company installed the first three-phase system at 2.3 kV in

1893. Many electric companies were developed. In the beginning, individual companies

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were operating at different frequencies anywhere from 25 Hz to 133 Hz. However, as the

need for interconnection and parallel operation became evident, a standard frequency of

60 Hz was adopted through-out US and Canada. Most European and other parts of the

world selected 50 Hz system.

Transmission voltages have risen steadily. The extra high voltage (EHV) of 765 kV was

put into operation in USA in 1969.

1.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The electrical power system can be divided into three major parts:

1. Generation, the production of electricity.

2. Transmission, the system of lines that transport the electricity from the generating

plants to the area in which it will be used.

3. Distribution, the system of lines that connect the individual customer to the

electric power system.

The parts of the power system are illustrated in Figure 1.1. The generation plants are

generally located away from heavily populated areas when possible. Land is less

expensive and few people want a generating plant next door.

Figure 1.1: Major power system components

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1.4 GENERATION

One of the important components of power system is the three-phase ac generator known

as synchronous generator or alternator. Synchronous generators have two synchronously

rotating fields: One field is produced by the rotor driven at synchronous speed and

excited by dc current. The other field is produced in the stator windings by the three

phase armature currents. The dc current is provided by excitation systems. In today’s

system the excitation current is provided from rotating rectifiers, known as brushless

excitation systems. Because they lack commutator, modern ac generators can generate

high power at high voltage, typically 30 kV. In a power plant, the size of generators can

vary from 50 MW to 1500 MW.

The source of the mechanical power, commonly known as the prime mover, may be

hydraulic turbines at waterfalls, steam turbines whose energy comes from burning coal,

gas and nuclear fuels, gas turbines or internal combustions engines burning oil.

Steam turbines operate at relatively high speeds of 3600 or 1800 rpm. The generators to

which they are coupled are cylindrical rotor, two-pole for 3600 rpm or four-pole for 1800

rpm operation. Hydraulic turbines, especially those with low pressures, operate at low

speed. Their generators are usually a salient type rotor with many poles. In a power

station several generators are operated in parallel in the power grid to provide the total

power needed. They are connected at a common point called a bus.

With today’s emphasis on environmental consideration and conservation of fossil fuels,

many alternate sources are considered for employing the untapped energy sources of the

sun and the earth for generation of power. Some of these alternate sources are solar,

geothermal, wind, tidal and biomass.

The insulation requirements and other practical design problems limit the generated

voltage to low values, usually up to 30 kV. Hence, step-up transformers are used for

transmission of power. At the receiving end of a transmission lines, step-down

transformers are used to reduce the voltage to suitable values for distribution or

utilization. In a modern power system, the power may undergo four or five

transformations between generator and ultimate user.

1.5 TRANSMISSION

Large amounts of electric power must be moved from the sites where it is generated to

the points where it is distributed for use. Transmission lines also interconnect

neighboring utilities which permits not only economic dispatch of power within regions

during normal conditions, but also the transfer of power between regions during

emergencies.

As in other parts of electrical power system this must be done as efficiently as possible.

If a transmission line is to move 1000MW at 95% efficiency and an additional investment

can improve the efficiency to 96%, the additional investment must be seriously

considered. The 1% saving is 10 MW. At say RM 0.05 per kWh this represents a saving

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of 0.05 × 10,000 kW = RM500 per hour. If the line has an expected life time of 40 years

the total savings will be: RM 500/h × 24 h/day × 365 days/year × 40 years = RM 175.2

million. Hence a lot of money is spent to obtain as much efficiency as possible in

transmission lines.

The losses will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3 of this text but are briefly discussed

here:

1. Resistance: The series resistance of a conductor depends on the resistivity of

the conductor material, its length, which is affected by the amount of spiraling

of its strands, temperature and the skin effect. Resistance losses are kept low

by making transmission voltages as high as practical.

2. Inductance: The magnetic flux produced by the ac current produces series

inductive reactance because of both self inductance along a conductor and

mutual inductance between conductors. It does not dissipate power, but

results in a voltage drop along the line and volt-amperes-reactive. Any

reactive power on the line must be supplied by the generator in addition to the

load power.

3. Capacitance: Conductors separated by a distance have capacitance. The

capacitance of a transmission line depends on a conductor size, spacing,

height above the ground, and voltage. Transmission line capacitance must be

charged before a line can transfer power, and even though the shunt loading of

a line is low, some power is shunted to ground from the line through the

capacitance reactance.

4. Corona: Corona is caused by the breakdown of air around a transmission line

because of high voltage. The effect is most severe around small conductors

and at sharp points and corners. Corona absorbs energy from the line.

Bundling of high voltage conductors, separating conductors with spacers

placed periodically along the line, can reduce corona loss.

Large amounts of power are transmitted from the generating stations to load centers

substations at extra high voltage (EHV) transmission 345kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV for ac,

and around 500 kV (±250 kV), 800 kV (± 400 kV), and 1000 kV (± 500 kV) for dc

systems. Typical voltage for transmission lines are 138 kV and 230 kV. The typical

values for sub-transmission lines are 34.5 and 69 kV. Some large industrial customers

may be served from the sub-transmission system. Capacitor banks and reactor banks are

usually installed in the sub-stations for maintaining the transmission line voltage.

Figure 1.2 shows an elementary diagram of a transmission and distribution system.

High voltage transmission lines are terminated in substations, which are called high-

voltage substations, receiving substations, or primary substations. The function of some

substations is switching circuits in and out of service; they are called switching stations.

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Figure 1.2: Typical Modern Power System

1.6 DISTRIBUTION

Distribution networks differ from transmission networks in several ways. Distribution is

mainly concerned with the conveyance of power to consumers by means of lower voltage

networks. The number of branches and sources is much higher in distribution network

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compared to transmission. A typical system consists of a step-down transformers (e.g.

132/11 kV) on-load tap-changing transformer at a bulk supply point feeding a number of

lines which can vary from a few hundred metres to several kilometers. A series of step-

down three phase transformers, e.g. 11 kV/415 V, are spaced along the route and from

these are supplied the consumer three-phase, four-wire networks which give 240 V,

single-phase supplies to houses and similar loads.

The typical voltage levels for distribution networks are 33 kV, 22 kV and 11 kV for

industrial and commercial consumers. Residential consumers may be connected to 415 V

three-phase or a 240 V single phase supply.

The three types of distribution systems are:

a) the radial system

b) the ring or loop system

c) the mesh system.

a) The radial distribution system

A radial system has only one supply source and it feeds a number of loads. Figure 1.3

shows one feeder (circuit) of a simple radial system.

Figure 1.3: A radial distribution system

The advantages of a radial distribution system are:

i. simple to design – load estimation and sizing of components is easy

ii. estimation of the fault level is easy

iii. grading of the protection relay is easy.

The disadvantage of a radial distribution system is that there is no alternative route of

supply to any consumer. A fault on a feeder will result in power outage to all consumers

after the fault location on the feeder.

To other

circuits

Load Load

Load

Supply

Source

Transformers

Circuit Breakers

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b) The ring distribution system

A ring system has two or more supply sources. Figure 1.4 shows a simple ring

distribution system.

Figure 1. 4 A simple ring distribution system

The system provides two separate routes of supply to any load. A faulty feeder is easily

disconnected and the supply to the affected load re-routed.

The disadvantages of a ring system are:

To other

circuits

Load

Load

Supply

Source 1

Load

Supply

Source 2

Load

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i. It costs more than a radial system with the same number of secondary sub-stations

and serving the same consumers.

ii. Coordination of the protection relays is also difficult when compared with a radial

system.

iii. Estimation of fault level is relatively more difficult when compared with aradial

system.

c) The mesh distribution system

A mesh distribution system consists of a number of inter-connected ring systems. Figure

1.xx shows a mesh distribution system.

Figure 1.5: A mesh distribution system

To other

circuits

Load

Load

Power

Source 1

Load

Power

Source 2

Load

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The advantages of a mesh distribution system are:

i. More than one alternate route of supply

ii. Very flexible in load transfer

iii. No interruption of power supply if faulty equipment/section is isolated quickly

The disadvantages are:

i. Extremely difficult in grading of protection relays

ii. Extremely difficult to estimate fault level

iii. System is more expensive than the radial and ring networks.

1.7 CONSUMERS DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The widely used systems in the electrical installations of commercial and industrial

buildings are radial distribution systems. Figure 1.6 shows a typical 22 kV distribution

system in a high rise building and Figure 1.7 shows the 400V/230V distribution system.

Electricity is supplied to a consumer through switchboards. Equipment in the

switchboards includes the following items:

1. Circuit breakers – a switch which can be switched on/off manually or

automatically to connect or disconnect the electricity supply from the

power supply company or electricity to the various loads.

2. Busbars – a set of copper or aluminum bars for distributing the

electricity to the various loads.

3. Indicating and measuring instruments – includes indicating lights,

voltmeters, ammeters, kilowatt meters, power factor meters, kilowatt-

hour meters and current transformers.

The consumers distribution system can also be remotely monitored and controlled by a

microprocessor system – in this case, it is usually part of the complex’s building

automation system.

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Figure 1.6: A typical 22 kV distribution system in a high rise building

Figure 1.7: A typical 400V/230V distribution system

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1.8 GRID NETWORK

The network formed by the very high voltage transmission lines is called the super-grid.

Most of the large and efficient stations feed through transformers directly into this

network. This grid in turns feeds a sub-transmission network operating at 132 kV -115

kV.

1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Conversion of one form of energy to another produces unwanted side effects, as well as

pollutants which need to be controlled and disposed of. Increasingly, worldwide,

environmental pressure groups are having an impact on development of energy sources,

especially electricity production, transmission and distribution. Safety and health are

subject to increasing legislation by national and international bodies. Engineers are now

required to be aware of the laws and regulations governing the practice of their

profession.

The extraction of fossil fuels from the earth is not only hazardous business but also

controlled through licensing by governments. Every type of power plants, even hydro

plants require careful study and investigation through modeling, widespread surveys and

impacts statements to gain acceptance.

In recent years, considerable emphasis has been placed on ‘sustainable development’, by

which is meant the use of technologies that do not harm the environment, particularly in

the long term. It also implies that anything we do now to affect the environment should

be recoverable by future generations. Irreversible damage, e.g. removal of the ozone

layer or increase in CO2 in the atmosphere, should be avoided.

a) Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect in its natural form has existed on the planet for hundreds of

millions of years and is essential in maintaining the Earth’s surface at a temperature

suitable for life. Without it, we would all freeze.

The sun’s radiant energy, as it falls on the earth, warms its surface. The earth in turn re-

radiates heat energy back into space in the form of infra-red radiation. The temperature of

the earth establishes itself at an equilibrium level at which the incoming energy from the

sun exactly balances the outgoing infra-red radiation.

If the earth had no atmosphere, its surface temperature would be approximately minus 18

°C, well below the freezing point of water. However our atmosphere, whilst largely

transparent to incoming solar radiation in the visible part of the spectrum, is partially

opaque to outgoing infra-red radiation. It behaves in this way because, in addition to its

main constituents, nitrogen and oxygen, it also contains very small quantities of

‘greenhouse gases’. Put simply, these enable the atmosphere to act like the panes of glass

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in a greenhouse, allowing the sun to enter but inhibiting the outflow of heat, so keeping

the earth’s surface considerably warmer than it would otherwise be. The average surface

temperature of the earth is in fact around 15 °C, some 33 °C warmer than it would be

without the greenhouse effect.

The most important greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane,

though other gases such as the Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) also play significant but

lesser roles.

Water vapour evaporating from the oceans plays a major part in maintaining the natural

greenhouse effect, but human activities have very little influence on the vast processes

through which water cycles between the oceans and the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also primarily generated by natural processes. These include the

process of respiration, in which organisms ‘breathe out’ carbon dioxide; and the

emissions of CO2 that occur when organisms die and the carbon compounds of which

they are composed decay. But since the industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels

by humanity has been adding substantial quantities of CO2 to our atmosphere. The fossil

fuels are essentially compounds of carbon and hydrogen. Coal consists mostly of carbon,

the chemical symbol for which is C. Natural gas, the chemical name for which is

methane, consists of carbon and hydrogen. Each carbon atom is surrounded by four

hydrogen atoms, so in chemical shorthand its symbol is CH4. Oil is a more complex

mixture of many different hydrocarbon molecules. When any of these fuels is burned,

carbon dioxide is produced, along with water.

The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere in pre-industrial times was around 280 parts

per million by volume (ppmv) but levels have been steadily rising since then, reaching

some 360 ppmv in 2000.

The other main greenhouse gas, methane, is given off naturally when vegetation decays

in the absence of oxygen – for example, under water. However various human activities,

including increasing rice cultivation, which causes methane emissions from paddy fields,

and leaks of fossil methane from natural gas distribution systems, have caused the levels

of methane in the atmosphere to increase sharply. Concentrations have risen from about

750 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) in pre-industrial times to around 1750 ppbv in

2000.

These additional emissions of carbon dioxide and methane are the main causes of the so-

called anthropogenic – that is, human-induced – greenhouse effect. Unlike the operation

of the natural greenhouse effect, which is benign, the anthropogenic greenhouse effect is

almost certainly the cause of a global warming trend that could have very serious

consequences for humanity. The majority of scientists now believe that the anthropogenic

effect, acting to enhance the natural processes, has already caused the mean surface

temperature of the earth to rise by about 0.6 °C during the twentieth century

(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001). Moreover, if steps are not taken to

limit greenhouse gas emissions, atmospheric CO2 levels will probably rise by 2100 to

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between 540 and 970 ppmv (depending on the assumptions made). These levels would be

between two and three times the pre-industrial CO2 concentration, and would be likely to

lead to rises in the earth’s mean surface temperature of between 1.4 and 5.8 °C by the end

of the century. Such temperature rises would be unprecedented since the ending of the

last major Ice Age, more than 10,000 years ago.

These temperature rises would be very likely to result in significant changes to the earth’s

climate system. Such changes would probably include more intense rainfall, more

tropical cyclones, or long periods of drought, all of which would disrupt agriculture.

Moreover, ecosystems might be damaged with some species unable to adapt quickly

enough to such rapid changes in climate.

In addition, due to thermal expansion of the oceans, sea levels would be expected to rise

by around 0.5 metres during the twenty-first century, sufficient to submerge some low-

lying areas and islands. In the longer term, further sea level rises would result if the

Antarctic ice sheets were to melt significantly.

One way of mitigating climate change that could be important is called ‘carbon

sequestration’. To sequester means to ‘put away’, and sequestration of carbon essentially

involves finding ways of removing the carbon generated by fossil fuel burning and

storing it so that it cannot find its way back into the atmosphere.

One way of sequestering carbon is to plant additional trees which ‘soak up’ CO2 from the

atmosphere while they are growing. However, whilst this could provide a partial response

to the problem of rising CO2 levels, the sheer magnitude of world emissions is now so

great that sequestration in forests alone is probably impractical

Another approach to sequestering CO2 is to extract it after combustion in, for example, a

power station and store it in some suitable location. It appears to be technically possible

to transport by pipeline large quantities of post-combustion CO2 and store it indefinitely

in disused oil or gas wells or in saline aquifers beneath the sea bed. Further research is

required to confirm the feasibility, security, safety and economic viability of such

techniques. They would only be a realistic option in the case of power stations or similar

large installations: it would hardly be practicable to apply this approach to emissions

from vehicles or homes.

b) Atmospheric pollution

As mentioned above the emissions associated with power plants are mainly sulfur oxides,

particular matter, and nitrogen oxides. Sulfur dioxide accounts for about 95% of these

emissions and is a by-product of the combustion of coal or oil. The sulfur content of coal

varies from 0.3 to 5 percent, and for generation purposes is specified internationally to be

below a certain percentage.

A 1000 MW(e) coal power plant burns approximately 9000 t of coal per day. If this has

sulphur content of 3%, the amount of SO2 emitted per year is 2×105 t. Such a plant

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produces the following pollutants per hour in kg: CO2 8.5 ×105, CO 0.12 ×10

5, sulphur

oxides 0.15 ×105, nitrogen oxides 3.4 ×10

3 and ash. Both SO2 and NOx are reduced

considerably by installation of special corrective systems. Gas fired CCGT plants

produce very little NOx or SO2. Their CO2 output is about 55% of an equivalent size

coal-fired generator.

Sulfur dioxides forms H2SO4 in the air which causes damage to buildings and vegetation.

Sulphate concentrations of 9 – 10 µg/m3 of air aggravate asthma, lung and heart disease.

Sulphur oxide emission can be controlled by:

• The use of fuel with less than 1% sulphur;

• The use of chemical reaction to remove the sulphur, in the form of

sulphuric acid, from the combustion products, e.g. limestone scrubbers or

fluidized-bed combustion;

• Removing the sulphur from the coal by gasification or flotation processes.

In most countries the governments now limit the amount of SO2, NOx, and particulate

emission. This has lead to the retrofitting of ‘flue gas desulphurization’ (FGD) scrubbers

to some coal-burning plants, thus increasing the cost of production by up to 20%.

Emission of NOx can be controlled by fitting advanced technology burners which ensures

a more complete combustion process, hence reducing the oxides going up the chimney.

Particulate matters refer to particles in the air. In sufficient concentration particulates are

injurious to the respiratory system, and by weakening resistance to infection may affect

the whole body. Particulates settled on the ground or building to produce dirt, and may

reduce the solar radiation entering the polluted area (haze). Reported densities

(particulate mass in 1 m3 of air) are 10 µg/m

3 in rural (less polluted) areas to 2000 µg/m

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in polluted areas.

About one-half of the oxides of nitrogen in the air is due to the power plants and originate

in high temperature combustion processes. At levels of 25 – 100 parts per million, oxides

of nitrogen can cause acute bronchitis and pneumonia.

c) Thermal Pollution

Steam from the low-pressure turbine is liquefied in the condenser at lowest possible

temperatures to maximize the steam-cycle efficiency. Where large supplies of water

exist, the condenser is cooled by ‘once-through’ circulation of sea or river water. Where

water is more restricted in availability, e.g. away from coast, the condensate is circulated

in cooling towers in which it is sprayed in nozzles into a rising volume of air. Some of

the water is evaporated, providing cooling. The latent heat of water is 2 ×106 J/kg

compared with 4200 J/kg per degree C in ‘once-through’ cooling. A disadvantage of

such towers is the increase in humidity produced in the local atmosphere.

Dry cooling towers in which the water flows through enclosed channels, past which air is

blown, avoid local humidity problems, but at a much higher cost than ‘wet towers’.

A crucial point of once-through cooling in which the water flows directly to sea or river

is the increased temperature of the latter due to the large volume per minute of heated

coolant. The chemical reaction rate doubles for each 10º C rise in temperature, causing

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an increased demand for oxygen, but the ability of the water to dissolve oxygen is less at

the higher temperatures. Therefore, extreme care must be taken to safeguard marine life,

although the higher temperatures can be used effectively for marine farming if conditions

can be controlled.

d) Electromagnetic radiation

The biological effects of electromagnetic radiation have produced considerable concern

among the general public as to the possible hazards in the home and work place.

Proximity of dwellings to overhead lines and even buried cables has led to concerns of

possible cancer-inducing effects, with the consequence that research effort has been

needed to allay such fears to show that they are unfounded

The electric field and magnetic field strengths below typical high voltage transmission

lines are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Likely maximum electric and magnetic field strengths directly under

over-head lines.

Note that magnetic field is dependent upon current carried.

Line Voltage (V) Electric field strength

(V/m)

Magnetic flux density

(µT)

400 000 11 000 40

275 000 6 000 40

132 000 2 000 11

33 000 350 7

11 000 120 7

415 < 1 1

UK National Radiation

Protection Board Guidelines

for safety

10 000 – 15 000 1600

Earth’s magnetic field - 40 – 50

e) Visual and audible noise impacts

The presence of overhead lines constitutes an environmental problem on several counts:

1. Space is used which could be used for other purposes. The land allocated

for the lines is known as the right of way (or wayleave). The area used for

this purpose is already very appreciable.

2. Lines are considered by many to mar the landscape. It cannot be denied

that several lines converging on a substation or plant, especially from

different directions, may be offensive to some eyes.

3. Radio interference (RI), audible noise (AI), and safety considerations must

also be considered.

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1.10 ELECTRICITY SUPPLY INDUSTRY IN MALAYSIA

Electricity was first generated in the country in 1894 when two enterprising tin miners

operated a generator in a tin mine in Rawang, a small town at the outskirts of Kuala

Lumpur, for supplying electricity to run the water pumps in the mine. In 1905, the first

public power station, the Ulu Gombak Power station, was commissioned supplying

electricity to Kuala Lumpur.

On 1st September 1949, the Central Electricity Board (CEB) was established under the

Electricity Supply Act 1949, and was responsible for the generation, transmission and

distribution of electricity in most part of Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia). Besides CEB,

there were also some smaller regional electricity generation and supply companies in the

country such as Perak Hydro and Kinta Electricity Distribution in the State of Perak and

City Council in the island of Penang. On 22nd

June 1965, CEB was named the National

Electricity Board (NEB) or Lembaga Letrik Negara (LLN). NEB took over all the other

major regional electricity generation and supply companies in the Peninsular.

The Sabah Electricity Board (SEB) is the utility responsible for the electricity supply in

the State of Sabah, while the Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation (SESCO) is

responsible for the State of Sarawak.

On 1st September 1990, the National Electricity Board was corporatised as Tenaga

Nasional Berhad (TNB) bringing the electricity supply industry into the privatization era.

This is in line with the global trend in turning to the private sector for development funds,

to increase efficiency in the utilities and to allow competitive market forces to shape the

electricity industries.

As result of privatization, besides TNB, SEB and SESCO, many independent power

producers (IPP) licenses have been issued. By 1997, 15 IPPs have been approved,

contributing 35% of energy generated in the country. In 2004, IPP with installed capacity

of 46.7% of 20,580 MW, generated 54.8% of the electricity consumed. TNB, SEB and

SESCO, also undertake transmission, distribution and supply activities in their respective

areas of supply.

The power sector in Malaysia is likely to remain, in the near future, as regulated industry

with vertically integrated utilities while the government is searching for an industry

structure, which is most suitable for the country. This structure is believed, at least for

now, to be most suitable in meeting the social-economic objectives of the country and the

national interest.

In order to ensure security, reliability and quality of power supply, the industry is

governed by policies, regulations and acts such as Fuel Policy for Electricity Generation,

Electricity Regulation 1994, Malaysia Grid Code, Power Purchase Agreements etc. The

government also has embarked on programs in promoting efficient use of energy and use

of renewable energy as contribution to the reduction of green house gases.

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The following data would give some indication about the development of electricity

industry in Malaysia.

Table 1.2: Selected data on past, present and future status of electricity industry in

Malaysia

Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004 2010*

Consumption

(GWh)

8682 12540 19932 39225 60299 77258 137909

Maximum Demand

–Peninsular (MW)

NA NA NA 6381 9712 12023 18187

Generation Mix (%)

Oil 84.9 61.8 49.2 20.8 8.9 2.9 0.2

Natural Gas 1.2 13.2 22.4 57.0 71.4 66.5 55.9

Hydro 13.9 25.0 15.1 13.7 11.6 5.8 5.6

Coal 0 0 13.4 8.5 7.6 23.5 36.5

Biomass 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.6 NA

National Energy Balance Malaysia

* Ninth Malaysia Plan

NA = Not available.