Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics Helena H. Gao Graduate Institute of Linguistics Fu-Jen University 2005.

Introduction to Introduction to Cognitive Cognitive

Linguistics Linguistics Helena H. GaoHelena H. Gao

Graduate Institute of LinguisticsGraduate Institute of LinguisticsFu-Jen UniversityFu-Jen University

20052005

Lecture 2; 5 Oct. 2005

Required readings:Required readings:

Whorf, B. L. (1956) Language, mind, and reality. In: J.B. Carroll Whorf, B. L. (1956) Language, mind, and reality. In: J.B. Carroll (ed.), (ed.), Language, thought and reality. selected writings of Benjamin Language, thought and reality. selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf.Lee Whorf. Cambridge, Massachusetts: the MIT Press. pp. 246-270. Cambridge, Massachusetts: the MIT Press. pp. 246-270.

Fodor, J. (1990). Defending the “language of thought”. In W. G. Fodor, J. (1990). Defending the “language of thought”. In W. G. Lycan (ed.), Lycan (ed.), Mind and congnitionMind and congnition. . A readerA reader. Basil Blackwell. pp. . Basil Blackwell. pp. 282-310282-310

Jackendoff, R. (2002). Jackendoff, R. (2002). Foundations of Language: Brain, Meaning, Foundations of Language: Brain, Meaning, Grammar, Evolution. Grammar, Evolution. Oxford University Press. Chapter 2: Language Oxford University Press. Chapter 2: Language as a Mental Phenomenon. pp. 19-37as a Mental Phenomenon. pp. 19-37

Recommended readings:Recommended readings: Whorf, B. L. (1956) The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behavior Whorf, B. L. (1956) The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behavior

to Language. In: J.B. Carroll (ed.), to Language. In: J.B. Carroll (ed.), Language, thought and reality. Language, thought and reality. selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf.selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, Cambridge, Massachusetts: the MIT Press. pp. 134-159.Massachusetts: the MIT Press. pp. 134-159.

Shapiro, K., & Caramazza, A. (2003). The representation of Shapiro, K., & Caramazza, A. (2003). The representation of grammatical categories in the brain. Trends in Cognitive Science, grammatical categories in the brain. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7(5), 201-206.7(5), 201-206.

Language, Mind, and Language, Mind, and ThoughtThought

Lecture 2 5 Oct., 2005Lecture 2 5 Oct., 2005

What is ThoughtWhat is Thought Thought or thinking is a mental process which Thought or thinking is a mental process which

allows beings to model the world, and so to allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. Concepts akin goals, plans, ends and desires. Concepts akin to thought are sentience, consciousness, idea, to thought are sentience, consciousness, idea, and imagination. (Wikipedia Encyclopedia)and imagination. (Wikipedia Encyclopedia)

The meanings of Thought revealed in its use in The meanings of Thought revealed in its use in language:language:

““The thought never entered my mind." The thought never entered my mind." ““Thinking always made him frown."; “She paused for Thinking always made him frown."; “She paused for

thought." thought." "19th century thought"; "Darwinian thought" "19th century thought"; "Darwinian thought" ““My opinion differs from yours"; “What are your My opinion differs from yours"; “What are your

thoughts on this proposal?" thoughts on this proposal?"

What is MindWhat is Mind

The mind is the term most commonly The mind is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions used to describe the higher functions of the human brain, particularly those of the human brain, particularly those of which humans are subjectively of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as personality, conscious, such as personality, thought, reason, memory, intelligence thought, reason, memory, intelligence and emotion. (Wikipedia Encyclopedia)and emotion. (Wikipedia Encyclopedia)

Understanding Mind by its use in Understanding Mind by its use in LanguageLanguage

His mind wandered.His mind wandered. The idea came to mind.The idea came to mind. Follow your mind, not your heart.Follow your mind, not your heart. I don't mind your behavior.I don't mind your behavior. She changed her mind.She changed her mind. The great minds of the 20th centuryThe great minds of the 20th century Don't pay him any mind.Don't pay him any mind. He had in mind to see his old teacher.He had in mind to see his old teacher. He reads to improve his mind.He reads to improve his mind. Things to keep in mind when preparing a Things to keep in mind when preparing a

talk.talk.

Different TheoriesDifferent Theories

Mind is a device that operates Mind is a device that operates according to strict rules concerning the according to strict rules concerning the manipulation of symbolsmanipulation of symbols The mind is some sort of digital processor The mind is some sort of digital processor

that runs on the highly parallel neural that runs on the highly parallel neural structure of the brainstructure of the brain

Since about the mid-1980s researchers Since about the mid-1980s researchers have increasingly challenged the idea have increasingly challenged the idea that the mind is a computational that the mind is a computational device.device.

Three dominant theories in Three dominant theories in the past hundreds of yearsthe past hundreds of years The blank slate (John Locke: 1632-1704 )The blank slate (John Locke: 1632-1704 )

compares mind to white paper inscribed compares mind to white paper inscribed gradually by experiencegradually by experience

The noble savage (Jean Jacques The noble savage (Jean Jacques Rouseau:1712-1778)Rouseau:1712-1778) ““nothing could be more gentle than nothing could be more gentle than

[man] in his primitive state” (Translated [man] in his primitive state” (Translated by G.D. Cole, 1913, p. 207)by G.D. Cole, 1913, p. 207)

The ghost in machine (Rene Descarte: 1596 The ghost in machine (Rene Descarte: 1596 - 1650)- 1650) belief in the division of soul and bodybelief in the division of soul and body

Challenges to the trilogy of Challenges to the trilogy of theoriestheories

Modern sciences – particularly Modern sciences – particularly cognitive understanding, evolutionary cognitive understanding, evolutionary psychology, and neurologypsychology, and neurology

““There have to be some innate There have to be some innate mechanisms to do the learning, to mechanisms to do the learning, to achieve the socializing, to create and achieve the socializing, to create and transmit the culture” upon which transmit the culture” upon which experiences are based (Pinker, experiences are based (Pinker, August, 2005).August, 2005).

Innate Mechanisms Innate Mechanisms (Pinker, 2005)(Pinker, 2005)

From a cognitive perspective, such From a cognitive perspective, such mechanisms include mechanisms include a sense of spatial representationa sense of spatial representation the ability to grasp the thoughts of othersthe ability to grasp the thoughts of others a language instincta language instinct decision rules that govern behaviordecision rules that govern behavior

Other human drives can only be Other human drives can only be understood within the context of understood within the context of evolution.evolution.

Different TheoriesDifferent Theories - - The modularity hypothesis of The modularity hypothesis of

languagelanguage

LanguageLanguage General CognitionGeneral Cognition

Lexicon‘irregulars’Lexicon

‘irregulars’Rule System

‘regulars’Rule System

‘regulars’

The Mind/BrainThe Mind/Brain

{Big Modularity

} Little Modularity

Different Theories – Different Theories – “Mentalese”“Mentalese” The medium of thought is an innate, behind-the-The medium of thought is an innate, behind-the-

scenes language known as scenes language known as mentalesementalese. (e.g., . (e.g., Fodor, 1975; Pinker, 1994) Fodor, 1975; Pinker, 1994)

"Mentalese" is supposed to be an inner "Mentalese" is supposed to be an inner language that contains all of the conceptual language that contains all of the conceptual resources necessary for any of the propositions resources necessary for any of the propositions that humans can grasp, think or express--in that humans can grasp, think or express--in short, the basis of thought and meaning. short, the basis of thought and meaning.

Natural language would not in itself shape the Natural language would not in itself shape the

human mind in any fundamental way, although human mind in any fundamental way, although the internal mentalese thoughts being the internal mentalese thoughts being represented by the natural language sentences represented by the natural language sentences would. would.

Fodor's Language of Fodor's Language of Thought (LOT) HypothesisThought (LOT) Hypothesis Including five components:Including five components: (1) Representational Realism: Thinkers

have explicit representational systems; to think a thought with a given content is to be appropriately related to a representation with the right meaning, e.g., to have the belief that capitalism breeds greed is to have a representational token with the content "capitalism breeds greed" in one's belief box.

Fodor's Language of Fodor's Language of Thought (LOT) HypothesisThought (LOT) Hypothesis Including five components:Including five components: (2) Linguistic Thought: The (main)

representational system that underlies human thought, and perhaps that underlies thought in other species too, is semantically and syntactically language-like, i.e., it is similar to spoken human languages. Specifically, this representational system consists of syntactic tokens that are capable of expressing propositional meanings in virtue of the semantic compositionalilty of the syntactic elements. E.g., there are mental words that express concepts (and the like) that can be formed into true or false mental sentences.

Fodor's Language of Fodor's Language of Thought (LOT) HypothesisThought (LOT) Hypothesis Including five components:Including five components: (3) Distinctness: The language of thought is

not identical to any spoken language. (4) Nativism: There is a single genetically

determined mental language possessed by humans, and perhaps (at least partially possessed) by all other thinking species.

(5) Semantic Completeness: This language is expressively semantically complete--any predicate that we are able to semantically comprehend is expressible in this language.

Jackendoff, R. (2002) Foundations of Jackendoff, R. (2002) Foundations of Language: Brain, Meaning, Grammar, Language: Brain, Meaning, Grammar, EvolutionEvolution

If UG is not learned, how does the If UG is not learned, how does the child acquire it? The only child acquire it? The only alternative is through the structure alternative is through the structure of the brain, which is determined of the brain, which is determined through a combination of genetic through a combination of genetic inheritance and the biological inheritance and the biological processes resulting from processes resulting from expression of the genes, the latter expression of the genes, the latter in turn determined by some in turn determined by some combination of inherent structure combination of inherent structure and environmental input. and environmental input.

Jackendoff, R. (2002) Foundations of Jackendoff, R. (2002) Foundations of Language: Brain, Meaning, Grammar, Language: Brain, Meaning, Grammar, EvolutionEvolution Generative grammar was mistaken to assumeGenerative grammar was mistaken to assume

the syntactic component is the sole course of the syntactic component is the sole course of combinatoriality, and everything else is combinatoriality, and everything else is "interpretive.“"interpretive.“

The proper approach is a parallel architecture, The proper approach is a parallel architecture, in which phonology, syntax, and semantics are in which phonology, syntax, and semantics are autonomous generative systems, linked by autonomous generative systems, linked by interface components. interface components.

The parallel architecture leads to an integration The parallel architecture leads to an integration within linguistics, and to a far better within linguistics, and to a far better integration with the rest of cognitive integration with the rest of cognitive neuroscience neuroscience

Actually, thinking is most mysterious, and by far the Actually, thinking is most mysterious, and by far the greatest light upon it that we have is thrown by the study greatest light upon it that we have is thrown by the study of language. This study shows that the forms of a of language. This study shows that the forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is-unconscious. These patterns are pattern of which he is-unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language--shown readily enough by a candid comparison language--shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. … every language is a vast different linguistic family. … every language is a vast pattern-system, different from others, in which are pattern-system, different from others, in which are culturally ordained the forms and categories by which culturally ordained the forms and categories by which the personality not only communicates, but also analyzes the personality not only communicates, but also analyzes nature, notices or neglects types of relationship and nature, notices or neglects types of relationship and phenomena, channels his reasoning, and builds the house phenomena, channels his reasoning, and builds the house of his consciousness. of his consciousness. (whorf, 1956. p. 252)(whorf, 1956. p. 252)

Sapir Whorf HypothesisSapir Whorf Hypothesis

Different TheoriesDifferent Theories

The other theory states that a The other theory states that a person's language of thought is their person's language of thought is their native natural language -- for native natural language -- for example, English for English example, English for English speakers, French for French speakers, French for French speakers, or Japanese for Japanese speakers, or Japanese for Japanese speakers. speakers.

Different Theories – Different Theories – Sapir and Whorf HypothesisSapir and Whorf Hypothesis

Our thoughts are constructed from Our thoughts are constructed from sentences of natural language. (e.g., sentences of natural language. (e.g., Sapir and Whorf on linguistic Sapir and Whorf on linguistic determinism; Wittgenstein's work on determinism; Wittgenstein's work on meaning and representation)meaning and representation)

Sapir Whorf HypothesisSapir Whorf Hypothesis

The structure of one’s language The structure of one’s language influences the manner in which one influences the manner in which one perceives and understands perceives and understands the worldthe world

Therefore, speakers of different Therefore, speakers of different languages will perceive languages will perceive the worldthe world differentlydifferently

Whorf , B. (1939). The Relation of Habitual Whorf , B. (1939). The Relation of Habitual Thought & Behavior to LanguageThought & Behavior to Language

1)1) Are our own concepts of time, space, and Are our own concepts of time, space, and matter given in substantially the same form matter given in substantially the same form by experience to all men, or are they in part by experience to all men, or are they in part conditioned by the structure of particular conditioned by the structure of particular languages?languages?

2)2) Are there traceable affinities between (a) Are there traceable affinities between (a) cultural and behavioral norms and (b) large-cultural and behavioral norms and (b) large-scale linguistic patterns?scale linguistic patterns?

Degrees of WhorfianismDegrees of Whorfianism

Linguistic DeterminismLinguistic Determinism (strong (strong Whorfianism) = Language Whorfianism) = Language determinesdetermines our perception of the worldour perception of the world

Linguistic RelativismLinguistic Relativism (weak (weak Whorfianism) = Language Whorfianism) = Language biasesbiases our our perception of the worldperception of the world

Different Whorfian Different Whorfian QuestionsQuestions

(Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003)(Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003) Language as a Category MakerLanguage as a Category Maker: Does the : Does the

language we acquire influence language we acquire influence where we where we make our category distinctionsmake our category distinctions??

Language as a LensLanguage as a Lens: Do grammatical : Do grammatical characteristics of a language shape characteristics of a language shape speakers’ speakers’ perceptions of the worldperceptions of the world??

Language as a ToolkitLanguage as a Toolkit: Does language : Does language augment our capacity for reasoning and augment our capacity for reasoning and representationrepresentation?? Gentner, Dedre and Susan Goldin-Meadow. 2003. Whither Whorf? In Gentner, Dedre and Susan Goldin-Meadow. 2003. Whither Whorf? In

Gentner & Goldin-Meadow (eds.) Language in Mind. MIT Press. Gentner & Goldin-Meadow (eds.) Language in Mind. MIT Press.


(Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003)(Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003)

Language as a Category MakerLanguage as a Category Maker:: Does the language we acquire influence Does the language we acquire influence where where

we make our category distinctionswe make our category distinctions??

Sound inventory of a language and perception of Sound inventory of a language and perception of speech sounds in native & foreign languagesspeech sounds in native & foreign languages

Color terms and color perceptionColor terms and color perception


(Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003)(Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003)

Language as a LensLanguage as a Lens: : Do grammatical characteristics of a Do grammatical characteristics of a

language shape speakers’ language shape speakers’ perceptions of perceptions of the worldthe world??

Spatial Frames of Reference (relative vs. absolute)Spatial Frames of Reference (relative vs. absolute)

Motion Events (manner encoded in verb or PP)Motion Events (manner encoded in verb or PP)

Language for Spatial Location Relationships Language for Spatial Location Relationships


(Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003)(Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003) Language as a ToolkitLanguage as a Toolkit: : Does language Does language augment our capacity for augment our capacity for

reasoning and representationreasoning and representation??

Navigation (combining core knowledge systems info Navigation (combining core knowledge systems info [geometric & color])[geometric & color])

Number (combining core knowledge systems info Number (combining core knowledge systems info [small, exact numbers & large, approximate [small, exact numbers & large, approximate numbers])numbers])

Theory of Mind (realizing that someone can have a Theory of Mind (realizing that someone can have a different point of view than you - when does this different point of view than you - when does this realization come, and how?)realization come, and how?)

Children’s developing Children’s developing theory of mindtheory of mind

2 y-olds: Starting to use terms 2 y-olds: Starting to use terms referring to mental states. referring to mental states.

3-4 y-olds: starting to acquire an 3-4 y-olds: starting to acquire an understanding that others can hold understanding that others can hold false beliefsfalse beliefs

6 y-olds: starting to understand that 6 y-olds: starting to understand that others can have knowledge through others can have knowledge through inferenceinference

Wimmer and Perner Wimmer and Perner (1983)(1983)

False-Belief taskFalse-Belief task Can a child understand that Can a child understand that

someone else can have a different someone else can have a different belief (a false belief) despite the belief (a false belief) despite the child possessing the correct belief?child possessing the correct belief?

Allows researchers to separate the Allows researchers to separate the beliefs of the research participant beliefs of the research participant from the beliefs of the model.from the beliefs of the model.

The False-Belief Task








Where will bunny look for her toy?




•To succeed, child must separate their own beliefs (the true belief) and attribute a false-belief to Bunny.




4-year-olds




4-year-olds

3-year-olds

False-belief taskFalse-belief task

Why do 3-year-olds fail the task?Why do 3-year-olds fail the task? (1) Age-related conceptual (1) Age-related conceptual

difficultiesdifficulties




3-year-olds have difficulty coordinating two different

representations of a single situation




Smarties task




Smarties task




Smarties task

E: What do you think is in the box?C: Smarties




Smarties task

E: What’s really in the box?C: Ribbons.E: What did you think was in the box before?




Smarties task

E: What’s really in the box?C: Ribbons.E: What did you think was in the box before?

3-year-olds say ribbons




Appearance-Reality Task





E: What does it look like?C: A rock





Child discovers the rockis actually a sponge





E: What is it really?C: A spongeE: What does it look like?





E: What is it really?C: A spongeE: What does it look like?

3-year-olds say it looks like a sponge



difficultiesdifficulties Performance in a variety of tasks Performance in a variety of tasks

suggest that 3-year-olds have difficulty suggest that 3-year-olds have difficulty coordinating two different coordinating two different representations of a single situationrepresentations of a single situation

(2) Problems of response control(2) Problems of response control

Can we find any language data to Can we find any language data to support Sapir and Whorf Hypothesis?support Sapir and Whorf Hypothesis?

Swedish expressions that have direct Chinese Swedish expressions that have direct Chinese equivalents but are associated with differentequivalents but are associated with different animalsanimals

När katten är borta dansar råttorna på bordet.När katten är borta dansar råttorna på bordet. When the cat is gone, the rats dance on the table.When the cat is gone, the rats dance on the table.

Shan zhong wu laohu, houzi cheng da wang.Shan zhong wu laohu, houzi cheng da wang. When there are no tigers in the mountain, When there are no tigers in the mountain,

monkeysmonkeys will be kings will be kings. .

flitig som en myraflitig som en myra as diligent as an ant as diligent as an ant

xiàng mìfëng yíyàng qínfènxiàng mìfëng yíyàng qínfèn as diligent as beesas diligent as bees

Same expressions that exist in both Same expressions that exist in both Swedish and Chinese:Swedish and Chinese:

Bättre en fågel in handen än tio i Bättre en fågel in handen än tio i skogen.skogen. A bird in the hand is better than ten in the A bird in the hand is better than ten in the

bush.bush. Yì niâo zài shôu yuân shèng liâng niâo Yì niâo zài shôu yuân shèng liâng niâo

zài lín.zài lín.

frogen som en hund frogen som en hund xiàng gôu yíyàng zhöngshïxiàng gôu yíyàng zhöngshï

as faithful as a do as faithful as a do

Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics Helena H. Gao Graduate Institute of Linguistics Fu-Jen University 2005.

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