Introduction to Argumentation Objectives: Students will have a
basic understanding of the history of formal argumentation.
Students will compare and contrast disagreement and contradiction
to argumentation and debate. Students will summarize the definition
of an argument. The Argument Clinic No it isntYes it is An formal
argument is NOT Just disagreement Just a contradiction The
automatic gain-saying of whatever your opponent says. An Argument
can be A contrary position Supporting a different point of view
Emotional Where does it come from Socrates and his method The
Dialectic- discovering and testing knowledge through questions and
answers. Aristotle observed persuasion. Believed that diction, and
speaking directly too, were also needed. Rhetoric Rhetoric concerns
the audience The study of how messages influence people. Aristotles
definition- the faculty or skill of discovering the available means
of persuasion in a given case. **Symbolic Persuasive Communication
Everything is Rhetoric Logic Organized principles of reasoning.
Associated with mathematical reasoning Socially accepted truths
Evidence Observable data. Forensics Seeking truth We do this by
utilizing Dialectic, Rhetoric and Logic This is the foundation of
argumentation and debate. There are many Truths to be found.
Argumentation The field of study where these concepts work
together. Intellectual Process Collective series of statements to
establish a specific proposition Argumentation is the process of
making claims and using reasoning and evidence to support the
truthfulness or validity of those claims. Debate is Different from
Argumentation Has a winner Has rules Is focused on the audience not
the opponent. Has many positions Requires skill and passion The
Beauty of Argument Aristotle The Man-Considered the Father of
Rhetoric & Persuasion First known person to really study and
write about the elements of persuasion Identified 3 Elements Ethos
Pathos Logos Ethos-Establishing credibility Ones personal power or
credibility How can you build your credibility? Personal Appearance
Smooth beginnings Credentials of Experts-Quotes Enthusiasm Thorough
preparation Trustworthiness 3 types of Ethos Perceived-Look
believable Derived-Sound Believable Terminal- Be Believable
Pathos-emotional response Appealing to emotions Pictures and
graphics Emotional Stories Propaganda Devices Addressing Maslows
Hierarchy of Needs Analyzing audience Logos- reasoning The process
of drawing logical conclusions and formulating arguments from
evidence Associated with mathematical reasoning Socially accepted
truths Evidence Observable data. Logos- Logical Reasoning Cont 2
types of reasoning Inductive Reasoning Starts with specific facts
or arguments and then leads to a conclusion. Deductive Reasoning
Starts with an argument or main premise then produces specific
evidence to support it. Ice Cream Debate Analyzing your audience
Build Rapport Tell a good and effective story Understand how to
make connections Strike a balance between effective argumentation
and story telling. Dont burden the judge with jargon and
technicalities. Ethos, Pathos, Logos Ethos and Pathos are just as
important as logos. Your case, arguments, evidence and reasoning
are logos. Your professional dress, confidence, poise, courtesy and
ethics build your ethos/credibility. The way you build connections
with your audience on an emotional level is your pathos. Reasoning
The Toulmin Model Claim Data Warrant Toulmin Model of Argumentation
Claim: The conclusion of the argument or the statement the speaker
wishes the audience to believe. Data: The foundation or basis for
the claim, the support. The evidence. Warrant: The reasoning that
authorizes the inferential leap from the grounds to the claim.
Citation: Giving credit to the source of quoted material. ALWAYS
presented in this format Authors name, Date of publication, Title
of Publication. Reasoning Claim What you are trying to prove;
thesis statement Reasoning Data Materials used to convince an
audience Evidence Facts Statistics Testimony from experts
Motivational appeals Appeals to the values or attitudes of the
audience Reasoning Warrant Inference, assumption, belief, or
principle that connects support to claim. Many times the warrant is
implied rather than expressed directly. Take a closer look at
Toulmin Example Claim: School uniforms should be required. Data
with Source: According to Wendell Anderson 2002 school uniforms
decrease violence by 23% in urban schools. Warrant: A school should
be a safe place. Anything a school can do to decrease violence
would increase safety. We should strive to promote safe schools.
Source: Anderson, Wendell. School Dress Codes and Uniform Policies.
Policy Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, ERIC document ED Make your claim! Resolved: That, on
balance, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 has improved academic
achievement in the United States. Choose to support or oppose this
resolution On a sheet of paper make a list of claims to advocate
your position. Example Resolved: That, on balance, social
networking Web sites have a positive impact on the United States.
Support Social Networking promotes technology integration. Social
Networking improves communication Social networking creates and
supports a global community Making an Argument An argument is just
one claim in support of a proposition or resolution. It must also
include reasoning and examples. You must know what your opponent is
saying to make an effective argument. Credible Research Find
accurate and up to date information Establish credibility
Credibility- The quality of being believable. Never Lie,
plagiarize, or make up sources. Plagiarism- using someone elses
words as if they were your own. Source Cite EVERYTHING! Citation-
giving credit to the source of quoted material. **Tips on doing
research Start with general ideas and move toward more specific.
The computer is a machine, it cant read your mind. Think about the
kind of answer you want: quote, story, statistics Remember you dont
have to use every filler word: of, in, the Investigate your
sources, make sure they are reliable. A blog is NOT reliable.
Source Citation In text citation according to Aristotle In an
article from Time Magazine Works cited You must include Authors
name, Publication date, and the Title of the magazine, book,
newspaper or article. A website alone is NOT a citation. Its true,
its right, it does. In debate we make many different types of
claims Propositions of Fact asserting the existence, occurrence or
relationship of something. Also used to define things. Propositions
of Value asserting the rightness, wrongness, goodness or badness,
or usefulness of something that exists or occurs. Propositions of
Policy Calling for or opposing specific courses of action. There
are 3 styles of Competitive Debate. Policy Lincoln-Douglas Public
Forum Each has its own unique set of rules and standards but they
are all based in a foundation of formal argumentation. Resolution:
The Subject of the Argument A single statement capturing the
substance of the controversy. Should be recognized by all
participants in a dispute the presence of an unclear resolution or
multiple resolutions indicate unclear argument and predicts
trouble. Types of Resolutions Resolution of Fact involve
description concern that which, theoretically, can be described and
verified independently. May relate to the past, present, or future.
Resolved: Aliens exist. Types of Resolutions Resolutions of
Definition involve interpretation categorize concepts
interpretation is very important because definitions are not
neutral Resolved: Abortion is murder. Types of Resolutions
Resolutions of Value involve judgment appraisal or evaluation
evaluation can be absolute or comparative can involve instrumental
or terminal values Resolved: When in conflict, academic freedom in
U.S. high schools ought to be valued above community standards.
Types of Resolutions Resolutions of Policy involve action
assertions about what should be done characteristic of deliberative
bodies I.e. Congress Resolved: That the United States Federal
Government should establish an ocean policy substantially
increasing protection of marine natural resources. Debate Styles
Policy Lincoln-Douglas Public Forum Competitive Forensics Rules and
regs Time limits Idaho Debate code Tournament expectations
Analyzing a resolution Identify key terms Define terms Brainstorm
Analyze Resolved: That the United States should intervene in
another nation's struggle for democracy. Analyzing a resolution
Definition Both parties must be discussing the same issue If the
topic is justice, is it individual justice or community justice?
When discussing the Social Contract, is it Hobbes, Rawls,
Rousseaus, or Lockes? Issues Understanding Definitions Is the
interpretation relevant? Is the interpretation fair? How should we
choose among competing interpretations? Issues Each type of
resolution implies certain issues that must be addressed. Issues in
debate are questions that are inherent in a controversy and vital
to the success of the resolution. Issues Resolution of Fact What is
the criterion for discovering the truth? Criterion: a standard by
which to determine the correctness of a judgment or decision. Has
the criterion been satisfied? Issues Resolutions of value Is the
value truly good or bad as alleged? Which among competing values
should be preferred? Has the value been properly applied to the
specific situation? Issues Resolutions of Policy Is there a
problem? Where is the credit or blame due? Will the proposal solve
the problem? On balance, will the proposal be better?
Responsibilities AKA Burdens Presumption Burden of Proof Burden of
Rejoinder Burdens Presumption determines who must initiate the
dispute those who wish to see a change Presumption lies with the
status quo Status Quo: existing state of affairs at a given time
establishes the minimum threshold of proof that is required Keeping
the Argument Going Presumption Preoccupation of ground. An accepted
idea, concept, or procedure must stand good until some sufficient
reason exists to dislodge it. Presumed innocent until proven guilty
Keeping the Argument Going Presumption provides the standard for
decision Strategic advantage to presumption Advocates of the
resolution attempt to seize presumption. Define the situation as a
crisis Offer the first proposal Associate their position with a
preferred value Keeping the Argument Going Sometimes presumption is
stipulated environmental impact statements rules of law Rescission
agreements (In legal agreements Rescission is the unwinding of a
transaction) Strength of presumption is relative to the
consequences of being wrong. Keeping the Argument Going Burden of
Proof The opposite of presumption The advocates of the resolution
have the ultimate responsibility to support ones position on the
resolution. the advocates of the resolution must cast a sufficient
amount of doubt on the on the status quo that those defending the
status quo must make an answer. Keeping the Argument Going The
burden of proof lies with any advocate making a claim. Advocates
must present proof of a needed change. prima facie case one that on
first glance raises significant question about the status quo.
Keeping the Argument Going Advocates of the resolution attempt to
seize presumption. Define the situation as a crisis Our economy is
rocketing downward, to avoid another Great Depression, we must
approve Bushs tax plan now. Offer the first proposal The Virginia
Plan at the Constitutional Convention Associate their position with
a preferred value Thousands of Iraqi children die every year
because of US imposed sanctions. These children are innocent of any
wrongdoing; we have a moral obligation to change our policy and
save these innocents. Keeping the Argument Going Burden of
rejoinder/clash- to keep the discussion going Presents counter
arguments Shifts back and forth between arguers keeps argument
going prevents simple repetition of a position without extension
Keeping the Argument Going Burden of rejoinder Obligation to find
faulty reasoning or respond to an argument. Met by offering proof
proof offers support for a claim, but does not ensure its truth
Proof is reasonable if it would be taken seriously by a broad and
diverse group of listeners exercising their best critical judgment.
Presentation & Communication Clarity and Articulation Good
Personal Hygiene and Professional Dress Effective Hand Gestures Eye
Contact Talking to the judge NOT at them Summarizing and
Crystalizing Other Elements of Reasoning Logic Inductive Deductive
Fallacies Other Elements of Reasoning Language Use of jargon Words
selected for connotation Analogies Metaphors and Similes