Introduction Liberalism seeks to promote individual liberty by trying to guarantee equality of opportunity within a tolerant society Hallmark of liberalism is promotion of individual liberty Liberals disagree over what exactly liberty is and how to best promote it Human nature: Human beings are fundamentally rational Self-interest is primary motivation Humans are naturally competitive Liberals consider the individual to be the best judge of her or his own interests 1
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Introduction Liberalism seeks to promote individual liberty by trying to guarantee equality of opportunity within a tolerant society Hallmark of liberalism.
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IntroductionLiberalism seeks to promote individual liberty by
trying to guarantee equality of opportunity within a tolerant society Hallmark of liberalism is promotion of individual liberty Liberals disagree over what exactly liberty is and how
to best promote it
Human nature: Human beings are fundamentally rational Self-interest is primary motivation Humans are naturally competitive
Liberals consider the individual to be the best judge of her or his own interests
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Liberalism, Human Nature, and Freedom
Some conception of human nature provides the underpinnings for every political ideology. For liberalism, human beings are typically rational,
self-interested, and competitive, making them capable of living freely
Liberals want to promote the freedom not of a particular group or class of people but of each person as an individual
The individual must be free to decide for himself and herself what goals to pursue in life
Each person ought to be free to live as he or she sees fit — as long as the person does not choose to interfere with others’ freedom to live as they see fit Everyone should have an equal opportunity to succeed
The French Revolution Enlightenment thinkers in France began to
challenge the three leading features of the ancien régime (old order):
1. Religious conformity – Catholicism2. Aristocratic privilege – hereditary aristocracy3. Political absolutism – king is above the law
French Revolutionaries originally set out to establish a limited government to protect the rights of citizens The revolution became increasingly radical Demands for greater democracy superseded
property rights 17,000 suspected enemies of the Republic were
guillotined during the “reign of terror” (June 1793-July 1794)
French republic abolished by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799
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Liberalism and Capitalism, I
17th and 18th century liberals began to focus on economic liberties, particularly important to the middle class, or, bourgeoisie.
Prevailing economic theory was mercantilism – economic policy is meant to promote national interests at the expense of individual liberty Zero-sum game: one country can improve its economic
strength only at the expense of another country Resulted in colonization, high tariffs, and government supported
monopolies in certain sectors of the economy Economic opportunities of the middle class were limited
Acquisition of wealth was primary means of social advancement Mercantilism favored elites who were able to secure government
privileges Middle class began to push for more equal opportunity in
• Government should have little to do with economic exchanges
• Restraints on economic competition led to higher prices and scarcer goods
• Governments should also eliminate trade barriers on foreign imports because free trade benefits consumers
• An “invisible hand” directs the private interests of individuals toward the common interest of society
• Three functions of government: • National defense, protection of property rights, and provision of “public works”
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Liberalism in the 19th Century
From France to South America, liberalism in the early 1800s remained a revolutionary force Wars of Liberation in the Spanish Colonies Creation of the Napoleonic Code Abolition of Serfdom in Prussia
In Britain, the Industrial Revolution made England the world’s first great industrial power “The workshop of the world” Increased social division along class lines; the
working class labored under extremely harsh and insecure conditions
Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham attempted to make society and its
legal institutions more rational Principle of “utility” – humans naturally seek pleasure
and avoid pain Government should use this insight to promote “the
greatest happiness for the greatest number”
John Stuart Mill built upon Bentham’s utilitarianism to defend and extend individual liberty Stressed the “educative theory of democracy”
rather than the “protectionist theory” of democracy Like Tocqueville, Mill thought democracy was
susceptible to “the tyranny of the majority”
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Mill on the Limits of Government
The harm principle – all sane adults should be free to do as they choose as long as their actions do not harm or threaten harm to others Establishes the only legitimate purpose for the use of
government power over its citizens Mill defended this principle by appealing to utility
Freedom promotes “the permanent interests of man as a progressive being”
Mill does NOT appeal to natural rights as early liberals had
Mill stressed the importance of freedom of thought Progress depends on the right of “nonconformists” to
express their views without censorship by the majority
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Liberalism DividedNeoclassical liberals
believe that government should be limited to protection against force and fraud
Social Darwinists argued that the struggle for survival was a natural phenomenon
Government should be a “nightwatchman”
Welfare liberals believe government can be a positive force to ensure equal opportunity
T.H. Green (1836-82) drew a distinction between positive and negative freedom Negative freedom:
John Rawls (1921-2002) defends the modern welfare state by reverting back to social contract theory Justice requires an equal distribution of wealth as a
starting point
Robert Nozick (1938-2002) draws on the idea of the state of nature to support the protection of individual rights Libertarianism - only the “minimal state” is legitimate
because it does not violate property rights
Murray Rothbard (1926-95) and libertarian anarchists advocate abolition of the state Individuals are free and private enterprise replaces
government services
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The Libertarian VisionFor libertarians, government is necessary to
secure and order society But it should be a government that does little or
nothing more than protect people against threats to their property and safety.
Deregulation – phasing out of government regulations
Libertarians envision a market-driven society in which formerly public services would be bought and sold in presumably competitive markets Advocates say that goods and services would be
delivered more cheaply, abundantly, and efficiently under competitive market conditions
Critics respond that competitive markets are open to the machinations of manipulators 17
1. Explanation: Social conditions are the result of individual choices
2. Evaluation: Best conditions are those in which individuals have
equal opportunity to freely choose for themselves how to best succeed
3. Orientation: People are rational, self-interested individuals who want
the freedom to choose how to live
4. Program: Oppose religious conformity, ascribed status, economic
privileges, political absolutism, and tyranny of the majority
Neoclassical and welfare liberals disagree on how best to secure equal opportunity
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Conclusion: Liberalismand Democracy
Liberals favor democracy for its ability to protect individual rights and liberties Based on the premise of equality among humans Voting as a way to protect individual liberties Enables citizens to hold government accountable State should be neutral to the pursuit of private
goods
Liberal democracy is meant to protect individuals from outside interference in private matters Political participation is valuable, but secondary
to the primary concern of protecting the private affairs of individuals 20