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PART
IIntroduction
1Transportation Security
and Its Impact
Clifford R. Bragdon, Ph.D., AICP, FASA
Objectives of This Chapter:� Provide an overview of transportation security and its societal impact
� Explain the purpose of this text, Transportation Security
� Describe the text’s organizational framework and four distinct sections
� Discuss modal aspects of security
� Discuss technology applications
� Discuss transportation security solutions
“Where there is no vision, the people perish.”
—Proverbs 29:18, King James Bible
Overview
Mobility represents the cultural lifeline of civilization throughout human history, com-
prising all methods of transport for both economic and social survival. It is the basis
by which civilization has supported the character and lifestyle of its population, surviving
and evolving through time. The level of effective mobility is directly related to the trans-
portation support system. Ideally a transport system is based on the safe, secure, sustain-
able, and efficient movement of people, goods, and information utilizing air, land, sea,
and space. It is characterized by two mobility components: physical (e.g., nonmotorized
transport, aviation, roadways, maritime, rail, transit, etc.) and electronic (e.g., utilities,
satellites, distance communication, information technologies, etc.). This concept can be
referred to as transcommunication (Figure 1.1). Transcommunication was collaboratively
developed as part of the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements by a Habitat
II task force examining the basis for an effective human habitat, in which this author par-
ticipated (Habitat II, June 1996, Istanbul, Turkey).
It appears that the concept of mobility may have both social and physical character-
istics. Not only is movement necessary for cultural reasons (e.g., economic and social
well-being), but there also are indicators that it may have fundamental genetic roots.
In other words, as humans we physiologically and psychologically require mobility as
part of a comprehensive human life support system. A loss or decline in this mobility sys-
tem individually and collectively brings about diminished enjoyment and freedom, while
also impairing both economic and social well-being. This means that reliance on a secure
system for moving people, goods, and information seamlessly is absolutely essential.
However, society is at risk, because we do not have a securely integrated mobility system
in place. This is evidenced by our response to both natural and man-made disasters in
a growing world already containing over 6 billion people.
Today we are at risk because we have used a stovepipe management approach,
addressing each transportation mode separately and independently from one another,
with limited communications technology and organizational integration. Consequently,
gridlock and logistical inefficiency prevail. Underoptimized movement is reducing our
world’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) annually by approximately 5% (Figure 1.2). This
TRANSCOMMUNICATION*
ELECTRONIC PHYSICAL
MOBILITY
MOBILITY
Movement
TRANSCOMMUNICATION
TRANSCOMMUNICATION
*Terminology Developed for United Nations Habitat II
Movement
FIGURE 1.1 Transcommunication
Natural Disasters-Manmade Disasters-Gridlock
COST OF GLOBAL
CONGESTION
5% Gross Domestic Product
World Population: 6.7 Billion 2009
The Bottom Line
FIGURE 1.2 Cost of Global Congestion: GDP
4 TRANSPORTATION SECURITY AND ITS IMPACT
general GDP percentage has been receiving validation reported in both the United States
and Latin America. Transportation as a support system for the economy is further being
exacerbated by a growing number of natural and man-made disasters that are affecting
the global effectiveness of all transportation modes. Not only is there an increasing
number of disasters, but also the magnitude of damage and costs inflicted on our
infrastructure is rapidly rising. The infrastructure attack on the World Trade Center by
terrorists commandeering commercial aircraft on September 11, 2001, represented a
global wake-up call. This event demonstrated to the world that transport systems
themselves could inflict profound damage upon our infrastructure and population.
Worldwide the total annual cost is estimated to be between $2.5-$4.0 trillion, if
natural disasters, man-made disasters, and associated transportation gridlock are com-
bined (Figure 1.3). The basis for this financial estimate involves combining both direct
and indirect costs of impact. Sizeable numbers of the population and associated infra-
structure have been severely impacted by natural disasters inflicted by hurricanes,
tsunamis, cyclones, tidal waves, and earthquakes throughout the world. Hurricane
Katrina has now become the costliest natural disaster in United State’s history, calculated
to be over $86 billion.
The loss of life from these naturally induced events is substantial. Tsunamis occur
mostly in the Indian and Pacific Oceans (85% of the time) and disturb heavily populated
coastal areas, with the total number of victims from the most recent such event exceeding
200,000 fatalities. Damage was inflicted across two continents and 12 countries.
Tsunamis are not new phenomena, dating back to 1480 B.C. with the destruction of the
city of Knossos, which was the capital of the Minoan civilization. The Myanmar cyclone
in Spring 2008 has accounted for 70,000 lives, while in China the toll is reaching 50,000.
The incidence of natural disasters appears to be on the increase, and the magnitude of
their economic impact is growing substantially. The world’s buildup of more densely
populated coastal communities with increasingly valuable assets (i.e., dwellings, vehicles,
roads, bridges, utilities, etc.) is escalating the financial magnitude of damage.
EXAMPLES:
NATURALDISASTERS
MANMADEDISASTERS
ImpairedSafety & Security
* Direct & Indirect Costs
TRANSPORTATIONGRIDLOCK
COST OF IMPAIRED GLOBALMOBILITY IN THE WORLD*
AIR • LAND • SEA • SPACE
YEARLY $ 2.5 - $ 4.0 TRILLIONDAILY $2.75 - $3.75 BILLION
Tsunami-200,000victims
Southeastern UnitedStates Hurricanes14,000 fatalities(1900-2006)
Pakistan-78,000victims
Peru-510 earthquakevictims
EXAMPLES:
Twin Towers-NYC2,948 victims
Transit: Spain,India, England,
Russia
539 Victims
Overall Terrorism(1968-2006)
Fatalities 35,023Injuries 86,570
FIGURE 1.3 Estimated Cost of Impaired Global Mobility
Overview 5
Today there are global examples of terrorist acts inflicted on transportation and
associated infrastructure in four continents and over 40 countries worldwide. Major
world cities, including New York, London, Moscow, Tokyo, Paris, Bombay, and Madrid,
have been victims of physically inflicted terrorism. Certainly 9/11 and the loss of 2,948
lives caused by the use of terrorist-directed commercial aircraft gave more attention to
the problem. All transport modes are at risk. It appears that public transit has become
a new operational theater for terrorists, especially involving rail and bus intermodal sta-
tions. From 2003 to 2007 there have been 539 transit fatalities in the five largest terrorist
attacks, with 3,363 passengers and crew injured.
Since September 11, 2001, the nation’s seaports have also been increasingly
viewed as potential targets for terrorist attacks. Security experts are very concerned that
the ports can be an entry point for the smuggling of weapons and other dangerous
materials into the United States, and cargo and cruise ships could present potentially
desirable terrorist targets as well. The ports are gateways for the movement of people
and goods and are industrial hubs located very close to population centers, presenting
additional opportunities for terrorists. A coordinated port security program is critical
to protecting the American people. The 9/11 Commission stated, “. . . while commercial
aviation remains vulnerable it appears that ports are an even greater risk.” Maritime
piracy near ports is also on the rise, up 20%, compared with comparable 2007 figures.
The highest number of attacks occur in the West African nation of Nigeria (22% of
the total attacks, according to the International Maritime Bureau: Piracy Reporting
Center), or 11 of the 49.
Clearly the entire transportation system is vulnerable to terrorism. The federal
government, with congressional support, has initiated efforts, generally by mode of
transport, to address this problem, primarily through the Department of Homeland
Security. It has been estimated that 1,500 sites (e.g., airports, seaports, rail, transit,
etc.) need to be “hardened.” Airports have received the most financial attention and
come closest to comprehensively addressing terrorism. However, vulnerability remains
with all transportation modes. In terms of modal vulnerability, air transport has
addressed the possibility of terrorism to the greatest extent but has not eliminated the
problem (e.g., incomplete screening of cargo). Air transport also received by far the larg-
est share of federal dollar support, compared with all other transportation modes (i.e.,
nearly 80% of the total civilian security budget). Transit, maritime, and intermodal
modes of movement appear to have the highest risk potential from a possible terrorism
incident perspective (Figure 1.4), since their terrorist prevention efforts still remain in
the earliest stages of development and effectiveness. This could be partially explained
by the budgetary resources allocated, compared with those going to aviation. In 2005 air-
ports received $18 billion ($9 per passenger) for security, in contrast to $250 million
($0.01 per passenger) for transit and rail security, from the federal government. Begin-
ning in 2006–2007 there began to be a slight shift in the financial allocation by transport
mode, reducing the percentage given to aviation. Railroads (e.g., Amtrak) and mass tran-
sit are now beginning to show some interest in security.
All modes of transportation play an important part in the logistical system sup-
porting movement. For example, the U.S. maritime ports offer multiuse facilities for
both commercial and military transportation activities. Approximately 95% of our
nation’s trade, valued at nearly $1 trillion, enters or leaves our 361 seaports annually.
Port safety, security, and sustainable operation are essential to the nation’s economic
well-being. Maritime operations and the movement of people, goods, and information
6 TRANSPORTATION SECURITY AND ITS IMPACT
do not occur in an isolated manner. A cross-modal system of road and rail is an impor-
tant feature in this transportation infrastructure, along with electronic communication
interface. Similarly airports, which now move higher-end commodities (5% by weight
but over 35% in value), along with over 50% of all commercial passengers, cannot
exist in physical isolation. Landside operations are equally important to airside
operations at an airport.
This nation’s lack of energy independence is impacting how we pursue needed
energy resources, which remain dominated by the use of fossil fuel and petroleum-based
energy resources. Until that pattern of demand is significantly modified, the United States
will remain influenced by foreign interests, including terrorists who seek retribution
(60% of the fuel consumed in the United States is imported, with the percentage rising
annually). Record fuel costs, increasing global demand, and ethanol based fuels that
are contributing to an increase in food costs all are adversely impacting non–petroleum-
based countries. Energy conservation and sustainability are at the forefront of problems
that need to be addressed along with global warming.
It appears that through technological innovation, the transportation system can be
sustained with a combination of electro-hybrid alternatives by no later than 2020. Such a
change would reduce foreign energy dependence and enhance the economy, while at the
same time improving this nation’s air quality and reducing the heat island effect.
A hydrogen-based system, supplemented by regenerative electric and lithium–
polymer recharge systems, will become the dominant player in terms of energy delivery,
thereby reducing this societal concern of fuel-based mobility (Figure 1.5). A “carhenge”
petroleum-based society will be replaced by energy independence. Gas stations will be
replaced by “energy centers.” From cellulosic ethanol to plug-in hybrids, and ultimately
hydrogen-powered fuel-cell vehicles, a permanent sustainable alternative to fossil fuel deple-
tion is on the horizon in little more than a decade. A potential positive by-product may
well be a reduction of global warming and the carbon footprint, if a concerted international
initiative can be universally advanced and implemented among 211 nations worldwide.
Transportation demand and the use of space for movement (i.e., air, land, and sea)
will be the next societal issue due to the supersizing of our urban habitat (Figure 1.6).
This will also bring onto the transportation scene supersized modes of movement includ-
ing the world’s largest aircraft (the Airbus A380 with a passenger capacity of 853); and
the world’s largest commercial ship (Royal Carribean International Project Genesis with
a passenger capacity of 5,400). All these new modes, and their respective supporting
AIR
VULNERABILITY THREAT INDEX
POTENTIAL LOGISTICAL MODALIMPACTS
LAND
SEA
INTERMODAL
TRANSIT/RAIL
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
FIGURE 1.4 Vulnerability Threat Index
Overview 7
infrastructure, need to address safety and security, logistics, and emergency response and
recovery. Supersizing could bring about spatial gridlock with the bloating of our city
infrastructure.
The global population will also continue growing in size, with our habitat becom-
ing more urbanized. By 2009 the world’s population will be 6.7 billion, with 50% of the
earth’s inhabitants living in urban areas. Urbanization will be accelerating by 2050, with
70% of the population being city dwellers and the population reaching 9.2 billion inha-
bitants (a 37% increase in our total population). Urban areas, according to the United
Nations Population Division, will absorb all the growth, with 27 megacities having more
than 10 million inhabitants. These populated corridors are becoming more financially
vulnerable to natural disasters, whose costs appear to be doubling every decade.
Regardless of societal transitions, the acquisition of world resources, and advancing
technology to deal with globalization, the world will remain at risk as long as terrorists
ISSUES
NEWTRANSPORTATIONSYSTEMS
Queen Mary 2;
Airbus A380;
World City Ship;
Freedom of the
Seas
Supersized TransportationSystems: Potential Future Risks
InfrastructureLogistics
Safety/SecurityImpact/CostEmergencyResponse
FIGURE 1.6 Supersized Transportation Systems and Potential Future Risks
RIP
Fossil Fuel
CARHENGE
CIRCA
3000
RESTINPEACE
Electro-Hydrogen Power by 2020 But What About theTransportation Demand and Space Problem?
WE ARE SUPERSIZING THE URBAN HABITAT
The World Will Solve the Transportation Energy Problem With
FIGURE 1.5 Carhenge Circa 3000
8 TRANSPORTATION SECURITY AND ITS IMPACT
believe there are cultural inequities and opportunities for advancement. Transportation
Security identifies the foundations of the problem, how the various modes of transport
are underprepared to address the issue, the role of technology to assist with this problem,
and various examples for developing solutions to mitigate the elements of natural disas-
ters and man-made disasters at the present time. Approaches for creating smart, sustain-
able solutions to enhance the safety and security of our urban society in the future
will also be addressed. At least one country, Saudi Arabia, is examining how they can
rebuild their country using safety and security principles. This is being proposed with
the development of King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC) in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia (KSA). This need is consistent with the passage from the Old Testament, Proverbs
29:18, “Where there is no vision, the people perish.”
Purpose and Organizational Framework
Transportation Security is intended to be a one-stop resource for educators, students, and
the practicing professional community of planners, engineers, architects, managers, logis-
ticians, and public officials who are involved or interested in any aspect of public and pri-
vate transportation security risk assessment, situational awareness, management, and
control. It should also be appealing to both the private sector and nonprofits that are
important players in identifying, addressing, and developing collaborative solutions.
Section I: Introduction
Organizationally this book is divided into four distinct sections. The Introduction
(Section I) consists of four chapters that provide the overall framework to Transporta-
tion Security. Chapter 1 includes the general status of transportation security and its
impact on our logistically based global society. This chapter addresses terminology that
needs to be applied to understand the total modal integrated approach. It also analyzes
the collective economic and social impacts associated with both natural and man-made
disasters in a changing global environment. Certain energy improvements are projected
and discussed that could make our society more sustainable; however, this may be some-
what offset by how urban space is perceived (three-dimensionally: aerial, surface, and
subsurface) and managed in an ever-increasingly populated world. Bloated cities could
have an unfavorable impact on addressing potential disaster response and recovery.
The importance of logistics in the transportation security process is the theme of
Chapter 2. It presents a strategic perspective of logistics transformation that will allow
industry to succeed in the atmosphere of hardened supply-chain management. Experi-
ences are presented working with a European Union port in Greece and the challenges
faced with integrating new technology into an existing workforce. The chapter’s last sec-
tion deals with the military in the area of integration and command and control of
resources, including initiatives using a risk–reward analysis. Chapter 3 emphasizes the
need for a transportation systems approach, which is now conspicuously absent, thereby
making nations more vulnerable than they should be. Impediments to achieving both hor-
izontal and vertical integration are described. This is followed by identifying all the
modal elements in a transportation systems approach. Chapter 4 explores for the first
time a social–psychological perspective by examining security behaviors and intentions
that include the use of RFID, biometrics, and a national ID system that is rapidly
Purpose and Organizational Framework 9
evolving. The implications of omnipresent surveillance and monitoring of individuals and
the impacts these procedures have on psychosocial functioning are discussed from a
behavioral security perspective. George Orwell’s “big brother” concept from his book
1984 could become a reality in a continuous surveillance-based urban society.
Section II: Modal Aspects of Transportation Security
Section II focuses on selected modal aspects of transportation security, involving three
chapters. These chapters include “Road Transportation and Infrastructure Security”
(Chapter 5), which addresses roadways, bridges, and parking; “Aviation Security” (Chap-
ter 6), which describes airside and landside aspects of airports including passenger,
freight, and support personnel; and “Maritime Security” (Chapter 7), which discusses
international and national maritime law, as well as vessel and port measures for
passengers and freight.
The first chapter in this section (Chapter 5) describes the National Highway System
and the critical role it plays, supporting interstate and defense needs, including evacua-
tion. There are also discussions about security issues and threats to the entire road net-
work and its related infrastructure of tunnels, bridges, and traffic operation centers.
Although the probability of a terrorism occurrence is less likely than traffic collisions
and vandalism, it must not be dismissed. The history of each of these modes is the subject
of discussion in Section II, along with problems associated with terrorist incidents, risk
assessment and security planning, programs, technologies that appear to have potential
benefits for mitigation, and the general trends for funding.
In Chapter 6 the evolution of aviation security from skyjackings (1961) to the 9/11
incident is discussed, recognizing that the total cost of the attack in September 2001 was
approximately $2 trillion. The federal government has taken the lead, since interstate
commerce airspace is the responsibility of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
Security-related subjects are the focus of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
and the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). Airport security procedures and
technologies are the theme of the remaining portion of this chapter. Maritime security,
both at sea and in port (Chapter 7), concludes Section II. Piracy and its evolution to pres-
ent-day terrorism are presented in a historical context. Since ships can operate on open
seas, they are subject to international law, including methods of protection, which are
now applicable to every seaport that wants to deal with trade. New security regulatory
regimes are now in place both internationally, through the International Maritime Organi-
zation (IMO), and nationally, through the U.S. Maritime Administration, (MARAD), and
the U.S. Coast Guard.
Section III: Technology Applications to Transportation Security
This section emphasizes the use of technology applications to transportation security,
involving three chapters. Cybersecurity and the use of the computer-based targeted hos-
tile software associated with viruses, worms, bots, Trojan horses, and bombs, among
others, is discussed in the context of “Computer and Transportation Systems Security”
(Chapter 8). Cybersecurity is a major threat to the electronic side of transportation
systems, and this chapter addresses this problem in a practical manner.
The expanding base of new technologies associated with real-time intermodal trans-
portation surveillance, covering the entire logistical process, is the theme of “Intermodal
10 TRANSPORTATION SECURITY AND ITS IMPACT
Transportation Security Technology” (Chapter 9). Cargo containers, which carry 95% of
the world’s international trade, are a principal way of transporting goods and material
globally. Recognizing the potential threat to maritime commerce, the Department of
Homeland Security issued its “Comprehensive Approach to Port Security,” which applies
to 361 seaports. The total logistical supply-chain process must be part of the security sur-
veillance process, covering the container passage by ship and the associated intermodal
transport process. Container tracking involves a number of handoffs including manu-
facturers, shipping lines, ports, marine vessels, dray operators, and other players in the
supply chain. The need for intelligent containers should remain the goal of an effective
maritime system, which is essential for maintaining the security of world trade and com-
merce. Prior to port vessel and cargo screening to combat piracy and terrorism is being
developed using off-shore platforms and smart buoys.
The fact that any means of transportation can become a potential weapon of mass
destruction requires a situation awareness system technology advanced by the military
(Chapter 10). Experiences of the military in situational analysis, intelligence gathering,
information dissemination, network connectivity, and data fusion provide important
insights for civilian applications to transportation security and the important surveillance
of operational space. Military technologies can assist in advancing command and control
communications applications to effectively manage incidents. Now available are third-
generation product suites that are network-based Situational Awareness Systems that
can be adapted to peaceful uses. The interoperability of military and civilian means of
secure communications is essential.
Section IV: Transportation Security Solutions
Case studies that can be applied to the task of developing transportation security solu-
tions are the theme in Section IV. The utilization and distribution of medical facilities
in a time-sensitive manner by the U.S. military is presented as a case study in Chapter
11: “AIDC-The Foundation of Military Transportation Logistics.” The military deploy-
ment of assets worldwide requires an effective Automatic Identification Technology
(AIT). As of November 2007, according to the House of Representatives Fact Sheet
(House Speaker Nancy Pelosi), there have been 65,354 steel shipping containers lost in
transit to Iraq and Afghanistan while in the U.S. Central Command logistics system.
An AIT suite of technologies enables the automatic capture of source data, thereby
enhancing the ability to identify, track, document, and control deploying and redeploying
forces, equipment, personnel, and sustainment cargo. The Naval Expeditionary Medical
Support Command (NEMSCOM) instituted an effective medical automated tracking
system for rendering medical assistance through its military medical warehouse facility
on a global basis. Regrettably FEMA did not avail themselves of this medical assistance
resource during Hurricane Katrina, when offered by NEMSCOM.
Chapter 12, “Infrastructure Recovery Initiatives: A Retrospective Assessment,” is
an important approach to transportation security. This chapter describes the notable
reconstruction of Kuwait, which is now being used as a lessons-learned training model
by the U.S. Corps of Engineers for the rebuilding of New Orleans due to Hurricane
Katrina. Chapter 12 proposes a more responsive recovery system, based on the Kuwait
experience, and the development of multistate regional recovery centers that are not
limited by geopolitical boundaries (e.g., city, township, county, or state). Often these
Purpose and Organizational Framework 11
political boundaries inhibit emergency response and recovery. Rather than reinventing an
infrastructure recovery system, lessons should be applied from previous military and
civilian initiatives.
Chapter 13 addresses immigration and national security as this subject relates to
proper documentation and legal entry. This chapter covers the subject area of biometrics;
RFID and implants; surveillance devices; use of national identification systems and
machine-readable travel documents (MRTD) such as ePassport, eVisa, eID; and deporta-
tion solutions. It discusses the importance of immigration and national security issues
that countries must focus on to protect their boundaries. The chapter finishes by providing
a background on best practices implemented in the national security arena through exam-
ples. Currently the most advanced passport documentation systems in use are outside of
the United States. The recently adopted Bahamas passport system is described.
The final chapter in the book (Chapter 14: “Fast Integrated Response Systems
Technology [FIRST] and Establishing a Global Center for Preparedness”) is based on
an integrative concept. The GCP is gaining increasing interest from stakeholders
(e.g., Joint Chiefs of Staff, Lockheed Martin, Raytheon, Harris, EMC, Pearson Learning
Solutions, etc.). It collectively links the public–private–nonprofit organizations together
in addressing any regional–national–global natural or man-made disasters in a sustain-
able and efficient manner. This combines the comprehensive interest of natural and
man-made preparedness, response, and recovery with the concern for establishing a
smart, sustainable infrastructure. All too often the “bureaucratic rebuild” does not
address a more preventable and sustainably designed community that should be a model
for the inhabitants of the future. Preventable green design and more secure community
well-being mean we do not want to return to do another ill-conceived “makeover.” Since
the cost of reconstruction is reaching astronomical heights (e.g., Twin Towers over $2
trillion) we need to rebuild intelligently. The general content of this book, Transportation
Security, has been shared with the Office of the President, Washington, D.C.
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