Introduction

INTRODUCTION OF PRIMARY DATA This project sets out to explain what primary data are, to examine the main approaches that are used to collect primary data and to discuss the nature of the data collected through the use of each approach. The aim of all of this is to provide you with a basic understanding of the methods and techniques that are available for you to use when you wish to collect particular types of primary data. DEFINITIONS Primary research is research that produces data that are only obtainable directly from an original source. In certain types of primary research, the researcher has direct contact with the original source of the data. Primary data are data that were previously unknown and which have been obtained directly by the researcher for a particular research project. Primary information is primary data to which meaning has been added; in other words, the data have been analyzed, inferences have been drawn from them and, thereby, meaning has been added.

NEED FOR PRIMARY INFORMATIONThe decision to collect primary data for your research project is influenced by the kind of research you are carrying out. The need for primary information is far more frequently related to the practical, rather than the academic aspects of study. For example, part-time students on professional courses are required to carry out investigative assignment and project work that is related to real organizations, usually their own sponsoring organizations. Primary data is less frequently needed for essays, which, by their nature, are traditional features of degree courses. A third-year dissertation or a thesis for a higher degree such as an MBA, however, very often includes primary information. You carry out primary research when the data you need is not available from published sources. For example, if you are carrying out an assignment, a major project or a degree dissertation, you may need information that is only available from key individuals, such as managers, a group of employees in an organization, customers or other members of the public. Conversely, you may need to know how groups and individuals react to particular situations and ideas, or how they behave when they are carrying out their jobs.

THREE PRIMARY METHODSThere are three main methods you can use to collect primary data, and the method/s that you decide upon are determined by the type/s of data you need. The methods are: The survey method The interview method The observational method.

In a sense, the interview method is also a survey, but the word survey has become most frequently associated with questionnaires, so that when someone says Im carrying out a survey, it is generally assumed that there is a questionnaire involved. The objectives when carrying out interviews are more or less the same as those when using questionnaires. However, the techniques used are different for each of the two approaches, so we will refer to them as questionnaire and interview techniques. Unlike questionnaires or interviews, the observational method does not put questions to respondents; it collects data about behaviour. The researcher observes and records behaviour that is relevant to his or her research.

I. SURVEY METHODBoth are popular means of gathering data and can reach a large number of people, but they need to be designed and reedited repeatedly to make them acceptable to people. You can either print out copies to hand them out to people or send them to your respondents through email. Though this method is relatively cheap to conduct and requires no prior arrangements, surveys and questionnaires have the risk of low response rates and some may turn out to be incomplete.

MAIL SURVEY: The mail survey method is another method for generating the primary data needed to successfully complete the research project. This method assumes that the respondent can read, write and answer open ended questions or check the appropriate box or answer when the questionnaire is highly structured and contains closed ended and multiple choice questions. The questionnaire used in the mail survey is known as self-administered questionnaire because they potential respondent reads the questions and answers them. Mail questionnaire should be simple as possible because most of the Indian Population is illiterate. To select the potential respondents for the questionnaire, the researcher should prepare or buy a mailing list- which serves as the sampling frame. Researchers can develop mailing list by selecting addresses from a local telephone directory and zip code directory. The cover letter explaining to the potential respondent the purpose of study and soliciting his cooperation in providing the needed information accompanies the questionnaire. The mail survey method will reach potential respondents dispersed geographically effectively and economically. The mail survey also may be the only way a researcher can contact physicians, executives, and other busy professionals. The rate of return of first mailing usually is low. A researcher normally waits about six to eight weeks for the return of completed questionnaires. Studies on rate of return have shown that about 90 percent of all returns will come within two weeks after survey instruments are mailed.

The low response rate to the mail survey can be increased substantially with certain techniques. The techniques are:i. Providing advance information to the potential respondents:Advance information can be provided to potential respondents in several ways, i.e. giving telephone call to the respondents informing them that they will soon receive questionnaire by mail. They have to corporate by completing the questionnaire and mailing it back earliest at their convenience on the self addressed envelope enclosed with the questionnaire.ii. Offering Incentives:Incentives, money, tie-tags, stamps, for, collection, and other incentives have been used to induce potential respondents to complete and return mail questionnaires. Studies have shown that such incentives result in a substantial increase in the response rate. In selecting an item as an inducement for response, four factors should be remembered.a) Should increase the rate of response,b) Should increase the response rate without introducing respondent bias,c) Must not be too expensive, andd) Should be easy and inexpensive to mail.Of several possible incentives, money seems to be the mot common, effective inducement for increasing the response rate.iii. Using follow-up mailings:The purpose of follow up mailings is to reduce the number of individuals who do not respond to a mail survey and thus, to make the sample more representative. High percentage of completed questionnaires are received after the first mailing, a follow up mailing often will help the researcher or a firm to get more returns. The technique is used to induce higher rate of return. Subsequent mailings that are second mailings are worthwhile, and third ones usually are sent.The potential respondents to whom questionnaires are mailed can be classified into three main categories:a) Those who eagerly answer everything they received by mail.b) Those not too eager to answer questionnaires, but who can be induced to answer by appealing to them with a reminder, andc) Those who do not want to be bothered by an interviewer or a mail survey and do not care to answer.Follow up mailings are needed to get completed questionnaires from potential respondents belonging to second criteria. It is practice to send a reminder postcard during the first week following the first mailing. The post card is sent to all the respondents in the sample to which the questionnaire was mailed. If the researcher cannot identify the respondents in the sample to which the questionnaire was mailed. If the researcher cannot identify the respondents who have returned the questionnaire, the second mailing should be confined only to those who have not returned completed questionnaires. The second mailing should be sent a few weeks later after the initial mailing, preferably three to four weeks. Such a follow-up mailing gives the researcher a better chance of reaching people who have been out of town or who have been particularly busy.

II. INTERVIEWSThere are three different ways to conduct interviews, and they are: Face-to-face interviews can be conducted by having question and answer sessions with one or more people. Ask people on the streets, go door-to-door to gather information, or make an appointment with an expert. Web-based interviews, on the other hand, make use of the internet to gather information so you will not have to the field for it. This latter method is also less costly and more convenient to use. Telephone interviews are very much similar to face-to-face interviews, but they are shorter in comparison and more structured. You may also have to send a letter to inform the interviewee in advance so they would expect your call.

1) PERSONAL INTERVIEW: In personal interview method the researcher asks each potential respondent specific question and records the responses. This method has the advantage of providing the greatest degree of control over the questions and responses to the interviewing process. The successful collection of data by a personal interview depends to a great degree of attitude and behavior of the interviewer. There are two persons involved Interviewer and Interviewee or Respondent. Interviewer is a person who takes the interview and Interviewee is the person who gives response or answers to the questions asked by the interviewee. This method involves face-to-face communication, with the help of questionnaire.

Guidelines, which helps researcher in collecting meaningful and worthwhile information.i. Make an appointment for the interview,ii. Avoid the presence of third party,iii. Keep the interview on track,iv. Let the respondent do the talking.The interviewer should also use electronic devices such as tape recorders whenever possible. Recording an interview with the permission of the respondent adds another dimension to data collection. In addition to providing an exact record of the questions and answers, tape recorders reveal the pauses, inflections of the voice, and so on, which cannot be noted in paper. Visual aids such as photographs can be shown to the respondents during a personal interview to assist in getting precise answers.Advantages of Personal Interview Method:i. Few potential respondents will refuse to cooperate with a qualified and experienced interviewer.ii. An interviewer is trained to ask questions in a specific order.iii. An interviewer can explain questions to the respondent(s), if desired or needed.Disadvantages of Personal Interview:i. Improperly conducted interviews can seriously affect the quality of information obtained.ii. An interviewer, however well qualified and experienced, cannot question those who are not at home.iii. In an area of low population density, the cost of interviewing individual households will be high.The advantage of personal interviewing overweighs the disadvantages. As a result, a researcher waiting to collect primary data will rely on personal interview method provided he has sufficient and qualified and experienced supervisory personnel and interviews. Although the cost of generating primary data by this method is high, the quality of information obtained normally will be better than that obtained using any other method.2) TELEPHONE INTERVIEW: Contacting potential respondents by telephone are another technique that can be used for generating primary data. This method helps to contact large number of individuals or households can be contacted in a relatively short time. The prime time for such calls is 7 p.m to 10 p.m, when a large no of potential respondents are at home. Information can be obtained rapidly from several hundred households can be contacted quickly results in a lower cost per telephone interview completed as compared with the personal interviewing method of data collection.Advantages of Telephone Interview:i. The interviewer is in contact with respondent, and the respondent feels a personal involvement in answering questions,ii. As the respondent answers only one question at a time, he is not biased by subsequent questions,iii. Because questions can be asked in rapid succession, responses can be obtained faster,iv. No field work is involved,

Disadvantages of Telephone Interview:i. The relatively short questionnaire which must be used, limits the amount of data which can be gathered,ii. Only those households that have telephones can be called,iii. It is rather difficult to establish rapport between the interviewer and the respondent,The advantage in cost and time outweigh the disadvantages. It is not usual for one interviewer to make between 10 to 15 calls per hour. This means that 80 and 120 telephone interviews could be completed in an eight- hour day. Because many interviews can be completed in a relatively short time and the cost of completed interview is lower than in other methods, telephone interviews are used to generate primary data. The telephone interviewing method to measure the effectiveness of television commercials.3) GROUP INTERVIEW: The group interview is also called as focused group interview, can be defined as a method of collecting primary data in which number of individuals have common interest interact with each other. The group members must have a common interest and it should be relevant to the topic under discussion. Group interview is used by marketing researchers, with the objective to gain insight into the behavior and thinking of the group members. This method yields a variety of conclusions and actions. The group interview technique has innumerable uses in the development and marketing of many products and product lines. This method involves interviewing by two or more individuals at the same time. Free discussion is encouraged among group members and the interviewer. As it is flexible it can be adapted to meet the needs of any project. Eg Group interview can be a vehicle for introducing a new product. The size of the group involved in each discussion period is important. Experience has shown that the most workable size group includes about six to eight individuals. Groups smaller than that tend not to be self-generating, for each respondent feels that he is responsible for the success of the entire discussion. Groups larger than that are rather difficult to handle.Advantages of Group Interviewsi. Respondents comment freely and in detail,ii. Flexibility,iii. Visual aids can be used,.Disadvantages of Group Interviewsi. The difficulty of getting a representative sample,ii. The possibility of the group being dominated by one individual, andiii. Respondents may answer to please the interviewer or because others in the group are answering.

III. OBSERVATIONObservation is one of the simplest methods for primary data research and would not cost much. All you have to do is simply take note of the behavior of people towards your company's products and services. You can also try to observe how your competitors behave, and how they provide their products and services. Make sure that you are not alone in observing and have a number of colleagues to do the same thing so you can differentiate between fact and opinion. Collecting primary data maybe difficult and may take a long time to finish, but the end result is that you have the necessary information you can use to make improvements to your company's products and services.Advantages of observation method:i. The researcher or observer gets first hand information he observes,ii. Data is collected under normal behavioral situations with little or no involvement with the individual being observed,iii. Observation of the behavior and recording what the observer Disadvantages of observation method:i. When a consumer becomes aware that he is being observed, this awareness can result in unnatural behavior;ii. It is impossible to observe behavioral patterns which occur sporadically,iii. Only overt behavior can be observed.The observation method can be used to obtain data for meant purpose related to marketing decisions. Managers of supermarkets and departmental stores get information about the quality of service, sales effort of salespersons, and efficiency at the checkout counter and potential shoplifters from concealed recording devices.QUESTIONNAIRESMost people are familiar with questionnaires. We see them being administered for a variety of reasons in many walks of life. TV companies use them to assess their programmes and viewing figures; marketing researchers use them to obtain peoples opinions of their products and services; and psychologists, who are briefed by the media and political parties, use them to obtain data about trends and habits in voting. Occasionally, however, we receive questionnaires in the workplace asking our opinions of say, the pension scheme, or the organizations policies on health and safety, pay, holiday entitlement or promotion. The purposes of surveys that are carried out in organizations usually set out to: Identify employees attitudes towards something Elicit employees opinions of something Obtain data about employees characteristics Ask employees about their behaviour Obtain information about their perceptions of something in particular, such as the cause of a continuing problem.

At first glance, some of these purposes may seem similar, but there are subtle differences which, if ignored, could affect the quality of the data you ultimately collect. An opinion, for example, is an unproven belief or judgement about something such as the effects of mobile telephone masts on peoples health, whereas an attitude may be a disposition to act for or against something or a predisposition to respond consistently in a positive or negative way to some person, object or situation.

An attitude, however, is not actual behaviour, but attitudes do cause people to behave in the way they do. Individual perception is a mental process. It is the process that gives us the ability to make sense of things in the world around us. Truly, these words are used conversationally and different meanings are attributed to them. In scientific terms, however, the true, non-colloquial differences are of paramount importance when we come to construct the question items for a questionnaire or for a series of interviews, since it is the precise wording of the questions that determines the relevance and types of responses we obtain. This brings us back to considering the kind of data we wish to collect. Do you, for example, want peoples opinions of some event, object, policy or idea? Or do you want to elicit their attitudes towards it? If you consider the meanings of these words as they are stated above, you should be able to see how they influence the way you formulate your questions.

ADVANTAGES OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE1. The questionnaire is easy to construct. 2. Distribution is easy and inexpensive. 3. Tabulation of responses is easy. 4. The respondents replies are of his own. 5. Confidential information may be given freely. 6. Respondents can fill out the questionnaire at their own convenience. 7. More accurate replies may be given.DISADVANTAGES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE1. The questionnaire cannot be used with illiterates. 2. Some or many respondents may not return the questionnaire. 3. A respondent may give wrong information. 4. Respondents may leave some or many items unanswered. 5. Some questions or items may be vague to the respondents. 6. The number of choices may be very limited.

THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIREThe design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory information (i.e. qualitative information for the purposes of better understanding or the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific hypotheses that have previously been generated). Exploratory questionnaires: If the data to be collected is qualitative or is not to be statistically evaluated, it may be that no formal questionnaire is needed. For example, in interviewing the female head of the household to find out how decisions are made within the family when purchasing breakfast foodstuffs, a formal questionnaire may restrict the discussion and prevent a full exploration of the woman's views and processes. Instead one might prepare a brief guide, listing perhaps ten major open-ended questions, with appropriate probes/prompts listed under each. Formal standardized questionnaires: If the researcher is looking to test and quantify hypotheses and the data is to be analyzed statistically, a formal standardized questionnaire is designed. Such questionnaires are generally characterized by: prescribed wording and order of questions, to ensure that each respondent receives the same stimuli prescribed definitions or explanations for each question, to ensure interviewers handle questions consistently and can answer respondents' requests for clarification if they occur prescribed response format, to enable rapid completion of the questionnaire during the interviewing process.Given the same task and the same hypotheses, six different people will probably come up with six different questionnaires that differ widely in their choice of questions, line of questioning, use of open-ended questions and length. There are no hard-and-fast rules about how to design a questionnaire, but there are a number of points that can be borne in mind: 1. A well-designed questionnaire should meet the research objectives. This may seem obvious, but many research surveys omit important aspects due to inadequate preparatory work, and do not adequately probe particular issues due to poor understanding. To a certain degree some of this is inevitable. Every survey is bound to leave some questions unanswered and provide a need for further research but the objective of good questionnaire design is to 'minimize' these problems. 2. It should obtain the most complete and accurate information possible. The questionnaire designer needs to ensure that respondents fully understand the questions and are not likely to refuse to answer, lie to the interviewer or try to conceal their attitudes. A good questionnaire is organized and worded to encourage respondents to provide accurate, unbiased and complete information. 3. A well-designed questionnaire should make it easy for respondents to give the necessary information and for the interviewer to record the answer, and it should be arranged so that sound analysis and interpretation are possible. 4. It would keep the interview brief and to the point and be so arranged that the respondent(s) remain interested throughout the interview.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE1. Structured questionnaire a) Have definite and concrete questions.b) Is prepared well in advance.c) Initiates a formal inquiry.d) Supplements and checks the data, previously accumulated.e) Used in studies of the economics and the social problems, studies of the administrative policies and changes etc.2. Unstructured questionnaire a) Used at the time of the interview.b) Acts as the guide for the interviewer.c) Is very flexible in working.d) Used in studies related to the group of families or those relating to the personal experiences, beliefs etc.A questionnaire can also be divided as the follows depending on the nature of the questions 1. Open ended questionnaire a) Respondent is free to express his views and the ideas.b) Used in making intensive studies of the limited number of the cases.c) Merely an issue is raised by such a questionnaire.d) Do not provide any structure for the respondents reply.e) The questions and their orders are pre determined in the nature.

2. Close ended questionnaire a) Responses are limited to the stated alternatives.b) One of the alternatives is simply YES or NO.c) Respondent cannot express his own judgment.3. Mixed questionnairea) Questions are both close and open ended.b) Used in field of social research.4. Pictorial questionnaire a) Used very rarely.b) Pictures are used to promote the interest in answering the questions.c) Used in studies related to the social attitudes and the pre judices in the children.

DESIGNING EFFECTIVE QUESTIONNAIRESThe primary purpose of a questionnaire is to help extract data from respondents. It serves as a standard guide for the interviewers who each need to ask the questions in exactly the same way. Without this standard, questions would be asked in a haphazard way at the discretion of the individual. Questionnaires are also an important part in the data collection methodology. They are the medium on to which responses are recorded to facilitate data analysis.

There are five people to take into consideration when designing a questionnaire:Client the client wants answers to their particular problem and even, on occasion, to have their worst fears shown up to be unlikely or improbable.Researcher the researcher needs to uncover information and balance the needs of three groups of people. She or he needs to ensure that the interviewer can manage the questionnaire easily, that the questions are interesting for the respondent and that the questionnaire matches the clients needs.Interviewer the interviewer wants a questionnaire which is easy to follow and which can be completed in the time specified by the researcher.Respondent respondents generally want to enjoy the interview experience. They need to feel that the questions are phrased so that they can be answered truthfully, and so that they allow the respondent to actually say what he or she thinks. They may also want to know if they will receive anything in return for giving their opinion.Data-processor the data processor wants a questionnaire which will result in data which can be processed efficiently and with minimum error.If questionnaires fail it is usually because they are dashed off with insufficient thought. Questions may be missed out; they could be badly constructed, too long, or too complicated and sometimes unintelligible. Good questionnaires are iterations which begin as a rough draft and, through constant refinement, are converted to precise and formatted documents.

There are normally five sections in a questionnaire: The respondents identification data such as their name, address, date of the interview, name of the interviewer. The questionnaire would also have a unique number for purposes of entering the data into the computer. An introduction this is the interviewers request for help. It is normally scripted and lays out the credentials of the market research company, the purpose of the study and any aspects of confidentiality. Instructions the interviewer and the respondent need to know how to move through the questionnaire such as which questions to skip and where to move to if certain answers are given. Information this is the main body of the document and is made up of the many questions and response codes. Classification data these questions, sometimes at the front of the questionnaire, sometimes at the end, establish the important characteristics of the respondent, particularly related to their demographics.

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUESThe most frequent question I am asked by students who wish to design a questionnaire is where do I start? I always advise them to start by drafting the questions. It is the most difficult task in questionnaire design, but how the questions are asked does determine the rest of the design. One approach to this task is to brainstorm ideas about the questions that need to be answered and write them down. It is a random process, but the questions you come up with can be modified and placed in order afterwards. Doing it this way, you will probably finish up with too many questions, some that you can immediately reject. After discarding the obvious ones, check the remainder to see if you can improve the wording with a view to achieving exact and unambiguous meanings. You may still have too many a large number of questions will reduce your response rate but you should not discard questions arbitrarily. Again, study each question separately and carefully to see if it needs to be amended. When you have developed all of the questions you can, list them in a logical sequence and carry out a pilot study on a group and people who understand the subject of your research and your objectives. Show them to your tutor, who might have some suggestions for further questions or for amending the ones you do have. Remember that you have been deeply absorbed in the task, and to have someone look at the questions with an objective eye is usually very useful.

The key principles of effective questionnaire designThere are seven steps in the design of a questionnaire:

Step 1 Decide what information is requiredThe starting point is for the researcher to refer to the proposal and brief and make a listing of all the objectives and what information is required in order that they are achieved.

Step 2 Make a rough listing of the questionsA list is now made of all the questions that could go into the questionnaire.The aim at this stage is to be as comprehensive as possible in the listing and not to worry about the phrasing of the questions. That comes next.

Step 3 Refine the question phrasingThe questions must now be developed close to the point where they make sense and will generate the right answers. Tips on how to write good questions are provided later in this chapter.

Step 4 Develop the response formatEvery question needs a response. This could be a pre-coded list of answers or it could be open ended to collect verbatim comments. Consideration of the responses is just as important as getting the questions right. In fact, considering the answers will help get the questions right.

Step 5 Put the questions into an appropriate sequenceThe ordering of the questions is important as it brings logic and flow to the interview. Normally the respondent is eased into the task with relatively straightforward questions while the more difficult or sensitive ones are left until they are warmed up. Questions on brand awareness are asked first unprompted and then they are prompted.

Step 6 Finalize the layout of the questionnaireThe questionnaire now needs to be fully formatted with clear instructions to the interviewer, including a powerful introduction, routings and probes. There needs to be enough space to write in answers and the responses codes need to be well separated from each other so there is no danger of circling the wrong one.

Step 7 Pretest and reviseThe final step is to test the questionnaire. It usually isnt necessary to carry out more than 10 to 20 interviews in a pilot because the aim is to make sure that it works, and not to obtain pilot results. In theory the questionnaire should be piloted using the interviewing method that will be used in the field. Time and money can preclude a proper pilot so at the very least it should be tested on one or two colleagues for sense, flow and clarity of instructions. The whole purpose of the test is to find out if changes are needed so that final revisions can be made.

10 Things to think for effective questionnaire design1. Think about the objectives of the survey: at the outset, the researcher should sit down with the research plan (the statement of what is to be achieved and the methods which will be involved) and list the objectives of the study. This will ensure that the survey covers all the necessary points and it will generate a rough topic list which will eventually be converted into more explicit questions.

2. Think about how the interview will be carried out: the way that the interview will be carried out will have a bearing on the framing of the questions. For example, interviews carried out over the telephone have some limitations compared with face to face interviews. Self-completion questionnaires need to be very precise and explicit in the way they are designed.

3. Think about the introduction to the questionnaire: scripted introductions can sound wooden. However, each interviewer should say the same thing so there has to be a standard introduction. It should quickly and succinctly communicate the purpose of the survey, any aspects of confidentiality and what is required of the respondent. The introduction is arguably one of the most important components of a questionnaire because if it fails to engage with the respondent, there will be no interview at all.

4. Think about the formatting: the questionnaire should be clear and easy to read. It should be easy for the interviewer to navigate around. Questions and response options should be laid out in a standard format and if the questionnaire is to be administered on a doorstep in winter, the typeface should be large enough to read. Where appropriate, there should be ample space to write in open ended comments. There should be somewhere (front or back) to write down the details of the respondent, the date of the interview and the name of the interviewer.

5. Think about questions from the respondents point of view: questions should be framed in a respondent friendly manner. Researchers usually know what they want from a survey but this seldom converts into a straight question. The question usually has to be broken down into two or three parts to make it relevant from the respondents point of view. Furthermore, researchers can be greedy for information and design questionnaires that are too long and impose impossible tasks for the respondent.

6. Think about the possible answers at the same time as thinking about the questions: the whole purpose of a question is to derive answers and so it is essential that some thought is given to all the possible replies that could be received. It is the anticipation of the complete range of possible answers that throws up the faults in the question. For example, it is no good asking people how many loaves of bread they buy in a year if they think in terms of loaves purchased per week

7. Think about the order of the questions: the questions should flow easily from one to another and be grouped into topics in a logical sequence.

8. Think about the types of questions: texture in the interview can be achieved by incorporating different styles of questions. The researcher can choose from open ended questions, closed questions and scales.

9. Think about how the data will be processed: the questionnaire is simply the vehicle by which data is collected from many individuals before being stirred in the analysis pot. Consideration of how the data will be analyzed at the time of designing the questionnaire will make things easier later on.

10. Think about interviewer instructions: questionnaires are administered by interviewers who, skilled as they are, need clear guidance what to do at every stage of the interview. These instructions need to be differentiated from the text either by capital letters, emboldened or underlined type.

PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

It is good practice to pilot or pre-test your questionnaire with a small sample of respondents before use. The pilot should check peoples understanding and ability to answer the questions, highlight areas of confusion and look for any routing errors, as well as providing an estimate of the average time each questionnaire will take to complete. Any amendments highlighted by the pilot should be made to the questionnaire before issuing a final version.

Carry Out the Main questionnaireIdentify Respondents and Keep Track of Status Computer databases are available that enable you to pinpoint particular types of organizations and individuals. Sometimes it is worthwhile to pay a list-broker to provide a specific list (sampling frame). A simple database is useful to keep track of when questionnaires were sent out and to whom. This can be updated with details of follow-up contact and dates of reminders. Number Each Questionnaire Each individual questionnaire must be uniquely identified by you, preferably before it is distributed or, to preserve anonymity, afterwards. This identification could be via a number, or letters and numbers, e.g. if you want to use area codes as part of an identifier. This code should be transferred to all the computer records that will be produced from your questionnaire. The unique code enables you to match computer records with completed questionnaire form and thus allows you to check queries back to individuals.

Deliver the Questionnaire Here you follow through on the decisions made earlier about how the questionnaires should be administered and who the recipient should be. Deadlines for distribution should have been decided earlier with allowances for sending out reminders or carrying out follow up calls.Analyze the Data A precursor to analysis is the coding, entry and checking of data. Some comments were made earlier about the statistical analysis packages that are available (e.g. SAS, Minitab and SPSS). In all instances data can either be entered direct or imported from other packages such as Excel, provided the instructions for the receiving package are adhered to. In all cases a similar approach is used for coding and formatting data. Usually the data is help on the computer in a rectangular data table where each row represents a case, i.e. a specific respondent and their data. Each column represents a specific variable, i.e. the data for that variable for all respondents. Note that a question on the questionnaire may require more than one variable to specify the data collected by that question. A variable will have a unique title and a specific level of measurement. The measurement level of a variable is important because it determines the type of analysis that can be undertaken. Putting these data entry codes on the distributed questionnaire can help at data entry time, but obviously has the downside of putting numbers on the questionnaire that are of no relevance to the respondent and therefore could make the questionnaire look messier than it needs to. Analysis packages usually make arrangements for missing values to be coded automatically; if they do not, this will have to be specifically taken care of when entering data. CONCLUSION

This chapter has elaborated a number of basic principles that should guide the design and administration of structured interview schedules, self-completed questionnaires and structured observation schedules. First, we discussed the importance of preliminary conceptual work and expressing the aims and objectives of your study so that good conceptindicator links could be established. The chapter also summarized the advantages and disadvantages of different kinds of self-completed questionnaires and interviews.

The chapter then turned to the design of questions and questionnaires, emphasizing the importance of good layout, design and question order, as well as other factors that influence response rates. Different levels of measurement and different response formats for questions were described and illustrated. The chapter then discussed the piloting, or testing, of questionnaires and interview schedules in order to develop them. Familiarity with these topics should equip you to design and carry out a study involving one of these instruments with a high degree of competence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WEBSITES

1. www.surveymonkey.com/mp/online-questionnaires2. www.nepjol.info3. www.quickmba.com REFERENCE BOOKS1. JANKOWICZ, A. D. (1995) Business Research Projects, 2nd edn. London: Chapman and Hall. 2. JANKOWICZ, A. D. (2000) Business Research Projects, 3rd edn. London: Chapman and Hall. 3. KAHN, R. and CANNELL, C. (1957) The Dynamics of Interviewing. Chichester: Wiley.30