Introduction 1 TRADITIONAL MEDICINES Medicinal plants have played a vital role in nature as a repository of treasures, since times immemorial. Ample of notable modern medicines that have been sequestered in nature, originate from plants (Cowan, 1999). Plant materials have always been an important source to contend many serious diseases all over the world in conventional medical systems and provide solutions for health related issues in developing countries. The human body has a definite physiological reaction when it intakes chemical substances or group of compounds obtained from medicinal plants. These chemical compounds are known as secondary metabolites (Edeoga et al., 2005). In plants, these phytochemicals are classified into two broad categories according to their function in the metabolism process, viz., primary metabolites and secondary metabolites. Phytochemicals or phytoconstituents or plant secondary metabolites are all synonyms. Phytoconstituents are responsible for pharmaceutical activities in plants (Savithramma et al., 2011). Primary metabolites are necessary to fulfill all metabolic activities which directly regulate growth, nutrition and development process in plants but secondary metabolites do not play a direct role in growth, nutrition and reproduction but have other roles such as allelopathic interactions and protection from herbivory. Primary metabolites include simple carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids , proteins, all types of vitamins and chlorophylls while in secondary metabolites we include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, antraquinones, phytosteroids, saponins and others (Parekh and Chanda, 2008; Kumar et al., 2009). To resist and alleviate diverse diseases secondary metabolites are acknowledged suitably and are abundant in medicinal plants. At global level, many vigorous and strong drugs have been extracted from herbal sources. Approx. 35,000 varieties of plants are used for medicinal purposes. It is a popular belief that the traditional medicines also known as Green medicines, are much safer, simply available and have very less after effects (Savithramma et al., 2011). Herbal plants are pioneers for novel drug findings and many phytoconstituents are directly used as starting components for the formation of medicinally active components and some
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Introduction 1
TRADITIONAL MEDICINES
Medicinal plants have played a vital role in nature as a repository of
treasures, since times immemorial. Ample of notable modern medicines that have
been sequestered in nature, originate from plants (Cowan, 1999). Plant materials
have always been an important source to contend many serious diseases all over the
world in conventional medical systems and provide solutions for health related
issues in developing countries. The human body has a definite physiological reaction
when it intakes chemical substances or group of compounds obtained from
medicinal plants. These chemical compounds are known as secondary metabolites
(Edeoga et al., 2005).
In plants, these phytochemicals are classified into two broad categories
according to their function in the metabolism process, viz., primary metabolites and
secondary metabolites. Phytochemicals or phytoconstituents or plant secondary
metabolites are all synonyms. Phytoconstituents are responsible for pharmaceutical
activities in plants (Savithramma et al., 2011). Primary metabolites are necessary to
fulfill all metabolic activities which directly regulate growth, nutrition and
development process in plants but secondary metabolites do not play a direct role in
growth, nutrition and reproduction but have other roles such as allelopathic
interactions and protection from herbivory. Primary metabolites include simple
carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids , proteins, all types of vitamins and chlorophylls
while in secondary metabolites we include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins,
antraquinones, phytosteroids, saponins and others (Parekh and Chanda, 2008;
Kumar et al., 2009).
To resist and alleviate diverse diseases secondary metabolites are
acknowledged suitably and are abundant in medicinal plants. At global level, many
vigorous and strong drugs have been extracted from herbal sources. Approx. 35,000
varieties of plants are used for medicinal purposes. It is a popular belief that the
traditional medicines also known as Green medicines, are much safer, simply
available and have very less after effects (Savithramma et al., 2011). Herbal plants
are pioneers for novel drug findings and many phytoconstituents are directly used as
starting components for the formation of medicinally active components and some
Introduction 2
are directly used as therapeutic agents. Human being have utilised these plant based
medicines in various forms like powder, mixture of more than two plant extracts or
in liquid form. The concept of Herbal medicines was very much popular in India and
over the whole world and the utilization of herbal medicines has increased
tremendously in last few 20- 25 years (Rios and Recio, 2005).
Traditional herbal medicines are employed as crude drugs throughout the
world within their own designed medical systems for e.g. in Asia, China follows
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Korea follows Korean Chinese medicine,
Japan follows Japanese Chinese medicine also known as Kampo, Indonesia follows
Jamu and India follows Ayurveda. In Europe, this system is followed as
Phytotherapy and Homeopathy. In America, these systems are named as alternative
medicinal systems where they combine with different herbal therapies to cure some
serious ailments. Integrative medicine (Western medicine) has come in existence
due to combination of Traditional medicines with Modern medicine (Feher and
Schmidt, 2003; Piggott and Karuso, 2004; Clardy and Walsh, 2004; Koehn and
Carter, 2005; Lee et al., 2001).
TRADITIONAL v/s MODERN MEDICINES
Western medicine is a very popular form of medicine in the present time, but
simultaneously, this system has also created problems in the form of some side-
effects like carcinogenicity caused by the synthetic drugs. So, Phytotherapy is
considered as the best alternative tool to alleviate the side- effects of synthetic drugs
(Sanchez-Lamar et al., 1999).The plant based medicines which are used to combat
various diseases are considered under separate branch of science called as herbal
medicines or botanical medicines or Phytomedicines. After many years, another
word emerged which replaced the word herbal medicine or Phytomedicine with
Phytotherapy. The twentieth century healthcare system was totally dependent on
natural drugs obtained from plant origin but gradually these natural drugs loss their
popularity. Later on Phytotherapy was completely taken over by the allopathic
system of treatment in which people sought immediate therapeutic effects of
synthetic medicines without knowing their future side effects (Singh, 2007).
Introduction 3
A person who deals with the formation of plant based medicines is called
chemist of natural products or Phytochemist. Plant material is first identified,
collected by Phytochemist and further subjected to purification process. Different
parts of the plants are subjected to form crude extract in which all phytochemicals
are equally present. The crude extract of the various plant parts is tested against
selected biological agents and active phytochemicals are isolated and further
characterized by specific techniques. This whole protocol is known as bioassay-
guided fractionation. So, without the knowledge of molecular biology, it would be
very much difficult to discover a novel drug from medicinal plants.
Pharmacognosy is an interdisciplinary approach which encloses many
suitable fields of science. The term Pharmacognosy has been utilized and practiced
by Phytochemists, since 18th century, to formulate many crude medicines
(Samuelsson, 2004; Kinghorn, 2001). A detailed definition according to the
American Society of Pharmacognosy defines it as ‘‘the study of the physical,
chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances, or
potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new
drugs from natural sources’’. Pharmacognosy includes the current research on drugs
obtained through not only the medicinal plants but it also incorporate all kinds of
unicellular as well as multicellular organisms like bacteria, algae, fungi, plants,
animals and aquatic organisms. In broader sense, Pharmacognosy is the study of a
number of criterions of herbal dietary additives and medicines which may be further
tested by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to design approved medicines
(Cardellina, 2002; Tyler, 1999). According to Bruhn and Bohlin, pharmacognosy
can be stated as ‘‘a molecular science that explores naturally occurring structure–
activity relationships with a drug potential’’ (Bruhn and Bohlin, 1997).
People are again focusing on herbal products because of increasing side
effect of these synthetic drugs. In recent times, the whole world is turning towards
natural products from artificial synthesized products and it is very well known that
medicinal plants with their various therapeutic components aid to provide protection
from diseases and disorders (Sharma et al. 2008). The early man was dependent on
Introduction 4
these plants for seeking instant relief from critical ailments and pain which also
helped them to survive long with enduring health (Nair and Chanda, 2007).
A survey of top-selling medicines conducted in 2001-2002 shows that
approximately 25% drugs are natural compounds or procured from plants (Butler,
2004). World Health Organization (WHO) also published a list of 252 medicines of
which 11% are solely plant based. It has also been concluded by WHO that 65–80%
of world’s population is still dependent on herbal medicines for major health related
issues (Rates, 2001; Arora et al., 1999; Savithramma et al., 1996). The number of
drugs that have been isolated from plants indicates their activity against broad range
diseases (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001).
All plants have some unique properties and at the same time it has also been
reported in different tribal areas or countries that an individual plant may also be
utilized for different purpose. This indicates that plants tremendously have a wide
range of healing powers because of their chemical composition (De Silva, 1997). In
the present scenario, pharmaceutical industries are trying to focus on plant based
medicines and research is continuously going on in the field of exploration of new
medicinal plants. This is due to the increasing demand of herbal products which
have lesser side effects as in contrast to other medicinal combinations (Pandey et al.,
2008). In drug making industries, adulteration and substitution has also
exponentially increased & this is another reason why people are returning towards
nature. Almost every third plant and its parts are accounted in for discovering
conventional drugs in India. In Vedas also, which highlights the glorious Indian
history of herbal drugs, plants are referred to as alleviative agents (Jayabalan et al.,
2011).
Now days, many new phytoconstituents have been broadly interrogated as
medicinal agents which were earlier not reported to have any pharmacological
activity (Krishnaraju et al., 2005). All natural products obtained from plants are also
a novel source of antimicrobial drugs (Ahmad and Aqil, 2007; Barbour et al., 2004).
Over the world, a large number of medicinal plants are analysed for their
antimicrobial potential but few of them have been systematically studied (Arora et
Introduction 5
al., 2009; Rojas et al., 2006). A host of infectious diseases can be treated with the
help of these antimicrobial agents (Iwu et al., 1999).
Many scientists have been trying to isolate pure compounds which are
pharmaceutically more active. Such kinds of compounds are further characterized
and standardized by various drug designing techniques. We all know that, extraction
of chemicals in the form of drugs from plants is a very complicated process. It
includes knowledge and expertise in various analytical techniques.
The first step for designing a drug begins with a botanist who specialized in
Ethnobotany, known as Ethnobotanist or Ethanopharmacologist or with a plant
ecologist who can identify and collect the required plants. The collection procedure
is completely dependent on the biological activities of the plants which further need
to be analysed for the isolation of already existing active compounds as well as some
new compounds or may also include those taxon which are randomly screened for
collection purpose. Another crucial point that collectors always keep in their mind is
the claim in the form of Intellectual property rights of that country or region from
where the required plants are gathered (Baker et al., 1995).
There are many common structural features which are present in natural
plant products that support to discover new drugs e.g. presence of aromatic rings,
molecule saturation, chiral centers, complexity in ring structure and number of
hetero atoms etc. ( Feher and Schmidt, 2003; Piggott and Karuso, 2004; Clardy and
Walsh, 2004; Koehn and Carter, 2005; Lee et al., 2001). The structural similarities
between compounds opens a new way for the chemist who designs synthetic drugs
as to how to use these features to form a new compound which is combination of
chemistry and nature ( Eldridge et al., 2002; Burke et al., 2004; Hall et al., 2001;
Ganesan, 2004; Tan, 2004). The natural products which have been abstracted from
medicinal plants sometimes act themselves as new drugs and sometimes these
products are used to design some more complex and modified medicinal products.
Such kind of modification in these components leads to an increase in the biological
activity and a list of such modified compounds have been approved or some are still
on clinical trials against distinct diseases like cancer, malaria, pulmonary diseases,
Introduction 6
HIV/AIDS , Alzheimer’s and many other diseases (Butler, 2004; Newman et al.,
2000).
There is increasing concern that resistance characteristics of microbes against
antibiotics have increased (Westh et al., 2004). In the last few years, a number of
pathogenic microorganisms have been observed that show multiple resistances
against several commercially available antimicrobial medicines due to extensive use.
To overcome this problem, scientists are trying to discover more and more
antimicrobial drugs from various medicinal plants to resolve this problem. Several
plant species and their respective families have been screened out in an ongoing
process (Iwu, 2002). List of adequate antibiotic components have been identified
from plants (Basile et al., 2000). A number of resistant microorganisms are treated
with plant elicited antimicrobial compounds and have the capability to inhibit the
growth of these microorganisms (Torsten, 2005). There are thousands of
antibacterial drugs used for pharmaceutical purposes that are somehow linked to the
nature itself (Newman et al., 2003). So there is a constant need to develop some
such antimicrobial drugs through different herbs. For this purpose, some higher
plants are chosen due to their better defence mechanisms to oppose infections
comprising cellular metabolism (Devanaboiyan et al., 2013).
Numerous screened plant extracts and their related products represent a
promising source of unique antibiotics precursors (Afolayan, 2003). Conventional
healing setup also motivates to discover new antibiotics for the reason that whole
world exploit herbal assistance (Okpekon et al., 2004); Out of these herbal remedies,
some have produced effective compounds against antibiotic-resistant strains of
bacteria (Kone et al., 2004). The results of this indicate the need for further research
into traditional health systems (Romero et al., 2005). Synthesis of more biologically
active drugs with minimum toxicity has been facilitated by pharmacological studies
(Ebana et al., 1991; Manna and Abalaka, 2000).
The revitalization of plant based remedies and therapies have been supported
by society also (WHO, 2003; WHO, 2004; Calixto, 2000; Kong et al., 2003). Some
of the reasons ascribed for their use are as follows-
Introduction 7
• The effectivity of herbal medicines
• Source of direct therapeutic agents
• Affordability
• Raw material base for the elaboration of more complex semi-synthetic
chemical compounds
• Models for new synthetic compounds
• Taxonomic markers for the discovery of new compounds
• The production, consumption and international trade in medicinal plants and
phytomedicine is growing and expected to grow in future quite significantly
• Renewable source
• The preference of consumers towards natural therapies has increased with a
common belief that they are safer
• A dissatisfaction with the results from synthetic drugs
• Inadequacy in the result of synthetic drugs
• The high cost and side effects of most modern drugs
• Improvements in the quality, efficacy, and safety of herbal medicines with
the development of science and technology
• A movement towards self-medication
INDIAN SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
India has been an Emperor of sorts in the field of herbal medicines which
mainly consist of two important systems of diagnosis i.e., Ayurvedic system and
Unani system (Surana et al., 2008).
Ayurveda, the oldest Indian traditional medicinal system, which means
“science of life”, has been practiced since 5000 B.C. all around the world. Nobody
can deny the assistance of marvellous treatment procedures of Ayurveda which have
been recognised at global level. Ayurveda not only includes ethno- medicine but it is
considered as a complete medical system that takes care of all kinds of ailments that
are related to physical, physiological as well as spiritual wellbeing of human. It
strives to achieve consensus between nature, universe and science. These ubiquitous
and comprehensive approaches make it an exclusive and noticeable medical system.
Introduction 8
Ayurveda favours the maintenance of positive health with appropriate life style
(Ravishankar and Shukla, 2007). In this system, some unique and specially designed
diagnostic procedures are used which are still authentic due to their fundamental
principles of Panchamahabhutha, i.e., combination of all five elements of nature,
tridosha (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha, i.e., three humours) and prakrithi which denotes