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Muhammad Irfan Arshad
Roll No: AX846575
Professor Dr. Syed Aamir Shah
LEVEL: MS (MANAGEMENT SCIENCES)
Date: 30th July 2014
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND FINANCE (8702)
SEMESTER: SPRING 2014
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
(Units: 48)
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD(Department of Business
Administration)
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Question 1: Make a comparative study of Mercantilists view
regarding trade andabsolute theory of international trade?
Mercantilism and its influence on International Trade
Mercantilism was found in early 16th century England, from where
it later spread to France and
other European countries. Its origin was associated with many
geographical and technological
breakthroughs of that period including discovery of America by
Columbus in 1492 and vasco
de Gamas navel route to India in 1498. A new class was born
merchants and mercantilism
was the political economy of state building.
The term Mercantilism was coined be Maques de Mirabeau (a
Physiocrat) and ranges the
period roughly from 1600-1800. It is a system closely associated
with the rise of nations and
concept of Nationalism. It was a system prevalent in France,
Spain, England and Holland.
Thomas Mun is considered as the most widely known mercantilist
thinker.
The basis of mercantilist view can be summarized into following
two statements:
i. Economic health of nations is measured by the amount of
precious metals (gold and
silver) it poses.
ii. The only way for a nation to increase its wealth, is the
import of precious metals from
abroad; either direct import from colonies or international
trade.
Mercantilists therefore considered positive trade balance as
essential and used any economic
policy measures to promote this goal. They regarded
international trade as zero sum game.
There are two basic types of Mercantilism:
i. Early mercantilism or bullionism: its main goal was to
accumulate precious metals
and any export of precious metals was strictly prohibited.
ii. Developed mercantilism: Its main goal was to ensure active
trade balance and to
provide support of manufacture production. It preached the
necessity of maintaining
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domestic consumption to a minimum in favour of exports and the
need to maintain
wages at lowest level (labor theory of value)
Mercantilists considered following economic policies:
Strict prohibition of the outflow of precious metals abroad.
Obligation to pay for imports with exports
Restriction on imports of finished products from abroad.
Support for the establishment of manufactories
Establishment of commercial monopolies
Ban on export of raw materials and semi products and promotion
of their imports.
Laws of trade and navigation
Regulation of wages
Maintaining a trade surplus
Intervening through trade activities through Govt.
Intervention
Colonising new territory.
Support for population growth and immigration
Mercantilism faced a heavy criticism. David Hume in his Theory
of self regulation of trade
balance pointed out that accumulation of precious metals will
inevitably lead to increase in
prices and wages hence increasing inflation, ultimately the
country will lose its competitive
advantage. Similarly Adam Smith also criticised that the source
of wealth is labor and active
balance of trade leads to an impoverished country. He also
explained that liberalism is better
than protectionism and trade is a positive sum game.
Theory of Absolute Advantage of International Trade
Adam Smith (1723 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a
pioneer of political
economy proposed a famous Theory of Absolute Advantage of
International trade in 1776.
Theory states that a country that has an absolute advantage can
produce a more substantial
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output of goods or services, than other nations using the same
amount of, or fewer resources.
Theory is based on the following assumptions:
2*2*1 model (2 countries, 2 goods and 1 factor of
production)
Homogeneous goods
Labor is homogeneous within the country but heterogeneous across
the countries
Complete mobility of labor in the country but strict immobility
of labor across the
country.
No transportation costs
Full employment
Production technology difference exists across industries and
across countries and is
reflected in labor productivity parameters.
The labor and goods markets are assumed to be perfectly
competitive in both countries
Firms are assumed to maximise profit while consumers (workers)
are assumed to
maximise utility.
The basic idea of theory lies in the fact that biggest and
natural advantages of international
division of labor occur, when countries specialise in producing
those good that they can
produce with the lowest overall costs and import goods that
other countries produce at the
absolute lowest costs. Smith demonstrated his idea on the
example of wine production in
Scotland.
Slovakia and Hungary produce two goods: sheep cheese (bryndza)
and sausage
Bryndza SausageSlovakia 5 hrs/1Ton 10 hrs/1 Ton
Hungary 10 hrs/1 Ton 2 hrs/1 Ton
Here absolute advantage exists because of difference in natural
and climatic conditions andtechnologies.
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Wheat Milk
England 1 hrs/1Ton 5 hrs/1 Ton
Germany 2 hrs/1 Ton 4 hrs/1 Ton
England uses 300 hours (200 wheat 100 milk) and Germany uses 600
hours (300 wheat- 300Milk
Question 2: Discuss H.O. Model with its assumptions and also
explain that howcountries trading under this theory gain from
trade.The Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) theory provides the basis for
significant theoretical
developments of international trade by explaining that countries
trade depends on their factor
endowments and that the earnings of factors are affected by
trade. It also tells us why
countries involve in trade of goods and services with other
countries. Technically, Heckscher-
Ohlin model is the general equilibrium mathematical model of
international trade theory
based on the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage by making
prediction on trade
patterns and production of goods based on the factor endowments
of nations.
Empirically, its most basic proposition lies on the fact that a
country exports goods that use
their abundant factors intensively and imports goods that use
their scarce factors intensively.
The theory implicates two things: first, different supply
conditions in terms of resource
endowments explain comparative advantage and second, countries
export goods that use
abundant and cheap factors of production and import goods that
use scarce and expensive
factors.
According to Heckscher-Ohlin theory, international and
interregional differences in
production costs occur due to the differences in the supply of
factors of production. Under
free trade, countries export the commodities whose production
requires intensive use of
abundant factors and import the commodities whose production
requires the scarce factors.
Hence, international trade compensates for the uneven geographic
distribution of factors of
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production. The theory gives insight to the fact that
commodities are the bundles of factors
(land, labour and capital). Thus, the exchange of commodities is
indirect arbitrage of factors
of production and the transfer of services of otherwise immobile
factors from regions where
factors are abundant to regions where they are scarce.
A nation exports the commodities which are produced out of its
relatively abundant and
cheap factors or resources and imports the commodity which is
produced out of relatively
scarce factors or resources. In another words, relatively labour
abundant country exports
relatively labour intensive commodity and imports the relatively
capital-intensive
commodity.
Assumptions of the Heckscher- Ohlin Model
Heckscher Ohlin mode is based on a number of explicit and
implicit assumptions. The
important assumptions of the model are:
1. There are only two nations, with two goods for trade two
factors of production
(capital and labour).
2. Both nations use the same technology and they use uniform
factors of production.
3. In both countries, good X is labour intensive and Y is
capital intensive.
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production. The theory gives insight to the fact that
commodities are the bundles of factors
(land, labour and capital). Thus, the exchange of commodities is
indirect arbitrage of factors
of production and the transfer of services of otherwise immobile
factors from regions where
factors are abundant to regions where they are scarce.
A nation exports the commodities which are produced out of its
relatively abundant and
cheap factors or resources and imports the commodity which is
produced out of relatively
scarce factors or resources. In another words, relatively labour
abundant country exports
relatively labour intensive commodity and imports the relatively
capital-intensive
commodity.
Assumptions of the Heckscher- Ohlin Model
Heckscher Ohlin mode is based on a number of explicit and
implicit assumptions. The
important assumptions of the model are:
1. There are only two nations, with two goods for trade two
factors of production
(capital and labour).
2. Both nations use the same technology and they use uniform
factors of production.
3. In both countries, good X is labour intensive and Y is
capital intensive.
Irfan Arshad 6
production. The theory gives insight to the fact that
commodities are the bundles of factors
(land, labour and capital). Thus, the exchange of commodities is
indirect arbitrage of factors
of production and the transfer of services of otherwise immobile
factors from regions where
factors are abundant to regions where they are scarce.
A nation exports the commodities which are produced out of its
relatively abundant and
cheap factors or resources and imports the commodity which is
produced out of relatively
scarce factors or resources. In another words, relatively labour
abundant country exports
relatively labour intensive commodity and imports the relatively
capital-intensive
commodity.
Assumptions of the Heckscher- Ohlin Model
Heckscher Ohlin mode is based on a number of explicit and
implicit assumptions. The
important assumptions of the model are:
1. There are only two nations, with two goods for trade two
factors of production
(capital and labour).
2. Both nations use the same technology and they use uniform
factors of production.
3. In both countries, good X is labour intensive and Y is
capital intensive.
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4. The tastes and preferences of both nations are the same.
5. In both nations, constant returns to scale are applicable for
the production of goods.
6. In both nations, there is incomplete specialization in
production.
7. Goods and factor markets in both nations are perfectly
competitive.
8. There exists perfect mobility of factors of production.
9. There is free flow of international trade. That is, there
exist no transportation costs,
tariffs, or like other obstructions either to control or to
restrict the exports or imports.
10. There exists full employment of all resources in both
nations.
11. The exports and imports between the nations are
balanced.
Example:
Imagine two countries Pakistan and USA; each produces both jeans
and cell phones by using
the same production technologies: USA has a lot of capital but a
limited number of workers,
while the Pakistan has little capital but lots of workers.
USA can produce many cell phones but few pairs of jeans because
cell phones are capital
intensive and jeans are labor intensive. Pakistan, on the other
hand, can produce many pairs
of jeans but few cell phones.
According to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, trade makes it possible
for each country to
specialize. Each country exports the product the country is most
suited to produce in
exchange for products it is less suited to produce. USA
specializes in the production of cell
phones, whereas Pakistan specializes in the production of
jeans.
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In this case, neither country has specialized in producing more
of one of the two particular
products - both countries produce about the same number of jeans
and cell phones.
Millions of Jeans Thousands of CellPhones
U.S. -10 +100
Pakistan +10 -30
Total 0 +70
Country A (U.S)- having more capital than labor - has
specialized in producing more cell
phones. Country B (Pakistan) - having more labor than capital -
has specialized in producing
more jeans. In this case, trade may benefit both countries
involved.
Question 3: Discuss main assumptions of Leontif Paradox model
and how this model canbe beneficial for international trade.A 195,
Leontief tested H-O theory and showed that that pattern of trade
did not fit the
conclusions of the H-O theorem. This surprising result is known
as Leontief's Paradox.
The test assumed a two factor world which required assumptions
about what is capital
and what is labor.
Irfan Arshad 8
In this case, neither country has specialized in producing more
of one of the two particular
products - both countries produce about the same number of jeans
and cell phones.
Millions of Jeans Thousands of CellPhones
U.S. -10 +100
Pakistan +10 -30
Total 0 +70
Country A (U.S)- having more capital than labor - has
specialized in producing more cell
phones. Country B (Pakistan) - having more labor than capital -
has specialized in producing
more jeans. In this case, trade may benefit both countries
involved.
Question 3: Discuss main assumptions of Leontif Paradox model
and how this model canbe beneficial for international trade.A 195,
Leontief tested H-O theory and showed that that pattern of trade
did not fit the
conclusions of the H-O theorem. This surprising result is known
as Leontief's Paradox.
The test assumed a two factor world which required assumptions
about what is capital
and what is labor.
Irfan Arshad 8
In this case, neither country has specialized in producing more
of one of the two particular
products - both countries produce about the same number of jeans
and cell phones.
Millions of Jeans Thousands of CellPhones
U.S. -10 +100
Pakistan +10 -30
Total 0 +70
Country A (U.S)- having more capital than labor - has
specialized in producing more cell
phones. Country B (Pakistan) - having more labor than capital -
has specialized in producing
more jeans. In this case, trade may benefit both countries
involved.
Question 3: Discuss main assumptions of Leontif Paradox model
and how this model canbe beneficial for international trade.A 195,
Leontief tested H-O theory and showed that that pattern of trade
did not fit the
conclusions of the H-O theorem. This surprising result is known
as Leontief's Paradox.
The test assumed a two factor world which required assumptions
about what is capital
and what is labor.
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The test assumed consistent technology between nations. However,
technology varies
so this assumption may have biased the test.
The test assumed a two factor world which required assumptions
about what is capital
and what is labor.
The test assumed consistent technology between nations.
The test assumes perfect mobility between factors of production.
In practice, some
factors of production are specific to sectors of the economy.
Sector specific factors
alter the predictions of the H-O theory and require a different
testing procedure. More
current test of the H-O theory is built on multiple factor
(including sector specific
factors) models that extend the basic H-O framework. These show
good predictive
ability.
1. It is assumed that human capital is an important ingredient
of capital input of a
product, and that it could manifest itself in several ways.
Besides knowledge, human
capital should include technological awareness, attitude,
intensity, institutional and legal
framework as well.
2. It is assumed that factor-intensity of import- substitutes
are used instead of actual imports.
3. It is assumed that capital-abundant country may have not a
shortage of some minerals and
other important natural resources. The technologies involved in
producing several mineral
products like oil and natural gas are highly capital-intensive.
And if they are being
exported by an otherwise labour-abundant country,
factor-intensity tests shall reveal a
Leontief Paradox.
4. It is also assumed that trade and tariff policies does not
favour capital-intensive imports.
In recent years, US has adopted the stance of discouraging the
import of certain goods
produced with sweat labour (that is, labour earning low wages)
and from countries
which have poor labour standards.
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5. There is a shared demand between the countries; demand may
play a more important role
than comparative advantage as a determinant of trade.
6. There is a product differentiation among the trading
countries.
7. Technology may be a substitute of labor; in US there are
large agricultural farms that are
managed by heavy machinery and self controlling technology
instead of labor.
8. Capital abundant country may be labor intensive as well but
it exports surplus labor to
other countries.
The labor and capital intensities of U.S. agricultural trade
during 1973, 1974, and 1976 are
examined through an input-output model. The empirical results
indicate that U.S. agricultural
exports tend to be more capital intensive while agricultural
imports are more labor intensive,
a result counter to Leontief's paradox. Agricultural trade has
been increasingly important in
U.S. total trade, but consideration of the factor intensity of
agricultural trade has not received
attention commensu rate
with its increasing importance. This paper has specifically
addressed the capital and labor
intensities of U.S. agricultural trade and thereby tested the
applicability of the Leontief
paradox in U.S. agricultural trade. On the basis of an empirical
testing of the model with
three years of trade data we found that the U.S. agricultural
exports were more capital-
intensive while agricultural imports were more labor-intensive.
This condition is the opposite
of Leontiefs findings. Our finding is also more in line with the
expected characteristics of the
U. S. trade given its relative capital and labor endowments. The
results of both studies are
easier to accept once one realizes the capital intensiveness
(particularly in machinery and
equipment) of U.S. farm production. Those farm subsectors which
can best utilize machinery
and equipment capital have been export-oriented and have become
increasingly important to
the overall U.S. balance of trade. Perhaps the scarcity of labor
in the U.S. relative to other
countries explains our resort to capital-intensive production
technologies to compete with
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foreign goods. Recent trade experiences may be signaling this
condition. If so, our finding
indicates an important policy implication. That is, to compete
with other countries in world
trade, we must reallocate our resources toward producing goods
such as agricultural products
which are more capital intensive.
Question 4: Differentiate between tariff and non-tariff
barriers. Also analyze theireconomic effects. In your view which
one is more effective in order to regulate internationaltrade?Trade
barriers are restrictions imposed on movement of goods between
countries. Trade
barriers are used to encourage and protect existing domestic
industry. Trade barriers have
following economic effect:
i. a reduction effect which is a lowering of overall trade due
to the imposition of
barriers,
ii. a compression effect which is a concentration of the source
of imports into the largest
iii. a diversion effect which is a shift in trade patterns
across exporters
iv. Tariffs increase the prices of imported goods.
v. Government will see increased revenue as imports enter the
domestic market
vi. Have direct effect on trade, profit, labor and FDI
The trade barriers can be broadly divided into two broad
groups:
1. Tariff Barriers
2. Non-tariff Barriers.
TARIFF BARRIERS
Tariff is a customs duty or a tax on products that move across
borders. The main important
tariff barriers are as follows:
1. Specific Duty is a fixed sum of money, keeping in view the
weight or measurement
of a commodity. For instance, a fixed sum of duty levied on the
import of every
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barrel of oil. By discouraging cheap imports, specific duties
are easy to administer.
However, a specific duty cannot be levied on certain articles
like works of art. For
instance, a painting cannot be taxed on the basis of its weight
and size.
2. Ad valorem Duty is imposed according to value as a fixed
percent of value
ignoring the consideration of weight, size or volume of
commodity. It is used in case
of those goods whose values cannot be determined on the basis of
their physical and
chemical characteristics, such as costly works of art, rare
manuscripts, etc.
3. Combined or Compound Duty is a combination of the specific
duty and ad valorem
duty on a single product. For instance, there can be a combined
duty when 10% of
value (ad valorem) and Re 1/- on every meter of cloth is charged
as duty.
4. Sliding Scale Duty varies with the prices of commodities.
Also called seasonal duty,
it is confined to agricultural products, as their prices
frequently vary, mostly due to
natural factors.
5. Countervailing Duty is imposed on certain imports where
products are subsidised by
exporting governments. As a result of government subsidy,
imports become cheaper
than domestic goods. To nullify the effect of subsidy, this duty
is imposed in addition
to normal duties.
6. Revenue Tariff is designed to provide revenue to the home
government, by imposing
duty on consumer goods, luxury goods whose demand from the rich
is inelastic.
7. Anti-dumping Duty is imposed to protect exporters attempt to
capture foreign
markets by selling goods at rock-bottom prices.
8. Protective Tariff is heavily levied on imports to protect
domestic industries from
stiff competition of imported goods. Normally, a very high duty
is imposed, so as to
either discourage imports or to make the imports more expensive
as that of domestic
products.
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NON-TARIFF BARRIERS
A trade barrier, other than a tariff, that raises an obstacle to
free flow of goods in overseas
markets. They do not affect the price of the imported goods, but
only the quantity of imports.
Unlike tariffs, non-tariff barriers are often hidden. Sometimes
referred to as red tape,Some
of the important non-tariff barriers are as follows:
1. Quota System, where a country may fix in advance, the
permitted limit of import
quantity of a commodity from various countries. The quota system
can be divided into
the following categories:
Tariff/Customs Quota: Certain specified quantity of imports is
allowed at duty free
or at a reduced rate of import duty. Additional imports beyond
the specified quantity
are permitted only at increased rate of duty.
Unilateral Quota: The total import quantity is fixed without
prior consultations with
the exporting countries.
Bilateral Quota: It is fixed after negotiations between the
quota fixing importing
country and the exporting country.
Multilateral Quota: A group of countries can come together and
fix quotas for
exports as well as imports for each country.
2. Product Standards: Most developed countries impose product
standards, if not me,
the imports are not allowed.
3. Domestic Content Requirements are imposed to boost domestic
production. i.e in
the US bailout package, Govt. introduced Buy American
Clause.
4. Product Labelling is insisted on the products. For instance,
the European Union
insists on product labeling in major languages spoken in EU.
5. Packaging Requirements: Certain nations insist on particular
type of packaging i.e
recyclable packing materials; otherwise, the imported goods may
be rejected.
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6. Consular Formalities like shipping documents should include
consular invoice
certified by their consulate stationed in the exporting
country.
7. State Trading, where individual importers or exporters are
not allowed to import or
export canalised items directly on their own but through
agencies like MMTC.
8. Preferential Arrangements like MFN (Most Favourite Nation)
status, whereas other
countries are subject to various tariffs and other
regulations.
9. Foreign Exchange Regulations by obtaining a clearance from
exchange control
authorities prior to the concluding of contract with the
supplier.
10. Other Non-Tariff Barriers such as health and safety
regulations, technical
formalities, environmental regulations, embargoes, Import
bans,
Complex/discriminatory Rules of Origin, Employment law, State
subsidies, Product
classification, Inadequate infrastructure, Over-valued
currency.
In practice, tariff barriers are mostly levied on majority of
items for the purpose of revenue
generation. Due to the introduction of international
organizations designed to improve free
trade, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), role of
tariffs is declining and countries
have shifted to non-tariff barriers. Organizations like the WTO
attempt to reduce production
and consumption distortions created by tariffs. These
distortions are the result of domestic
producers making goods due to inflated prices, and consumers
purchasing fewer goods
because prices have increased.
Question 5: Discuss the application of Product Life Cycle
Hypothesis in explainingthe modern trends of international trade.
Give examples from Pakistans experience.In response to this
changing environment, the manager must have a continuing program
to
analyze the future directions of international trade i.e demand
biasness and rising income
patterns to introduce new products so that he may plan early
enough for appropriate policies.
The product cycle model provides a useful tool in this analysis.
The new product will have
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two principal characteristics: (a) it will cater to high-income
demands because the United
States is a high-income country; and (b) it promises, in its
production process, to be labor-
saving and capital-using in nature. (It is also possible that
the product itself
The product life-cycle theory is an economic theory that was
developed by Raymond Vernon
in response to the failure of the Heckscher-Ohlin model to
explain the observed pattern of
international trade. The theory suggests that early in a
product's life-cycle all the parts and
labor associated with that product come from the area in which
it was invented. After the
product becomes adopted and used in the world markets,
production gradually moves away
from the point of origin. In some situations, the product
becomes an item that is imported by
its original country of invention. The model applies to
labor-saving and capital-using
products that (at least at first) cater to high-income
groups.
The product life-cycle theory is an accurate explanation of
international trade patterns.
Consider photocopiers; the product was first developed in the
early 1960s by Xerox in the
United States and sold initially to US users. Originally Xerox
exported photocopiers from the
United States, primarily to Japan and the advanced countries of
Western Europe. As demand
began to grow in those countries, Xerox entered into joint
ventures to set up production in
Japan (Fuji-Xerox) and Great Britain (Rank-Xerox). In addition,
once Xerox's patents on the
photocopier process expired, other foreign competitors began to
enter the market (e.g., Canon
in Japan, Olivetti in Italy). As a consequence, exports from the
United States declined, and
US users began to buy some of their photocopiers from lower-cost
foreign sources,
particularly from Japan. More recently, Japanese companies have
found that manufacturing
costs are too high in their own country, so they have begun to
switch production to
developing countries such as Singapore and Thailand. As a
result, the United States and
several other advanced countries (e.g., Japan and Great Britain)
have switched from being
exporters of photocopiers to being importers. This evolution in
the pattern of international
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trade in photocopiers is consistent with the predictions of the
product life-cycle theory. The
product life-cycle theory clearly explains the migration of
mature industries out of the United
States and into low-cost assembly locations.
There are four stages in a product's life cycle:
(1) Introduction: The product is introduced in the market
through a focused and intense
marketing effort designed to establish a clear identity and
promote maximum
awareness. Many trial or impulse purchases will occur at this
stage. Product is
consumed in producing country only. No international trade takes
place.
(2) Growth: Can be recognized by increasing sales and the
emergence of competitors. At
the vendor's side, the Growth stage is also characterized by
sustained marketing
activities. Some customers make repeat purchases. Mass
production techniques start
to be adopted, with more standardization in the production
process and economies of
scale start to be realized.
(3) Maturity: This phase can be recognized when competitors
beginning to leave the
market. Also, sales velocity is dramatically reduced, and sales
volume reaches a
steady level. At this point in time, typically loyal customers
purchase the product. In
addition, foreign demand for the product grows, but it is
associated particularly with
other developed countries, since the product is catering to
high-income demands. This
rise in foreign demand (assisted by economies of scale) leads to
a trade pattern
whereby the United States exports the product to other
high-income countries.
(4) Decline: The lingering effects of competition, unfavourable
economic conditions,
new trends, etc, often explain the decline in sales.
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In the new product stage, the product is produced and consumed
in the US; no export trade
occurs. In the maturing product stage, mass-production
techniques are developed and foreign
demand (in developed countries) expands; the US now exports the
product to other developed
countries. In the standardized product stage, production moves
to developing countries,
which then export the product to developed countries. The model
demonstrates dynamic
comparative advantage. The country that has the comparative
advantage in the production of
the product changes from the innovating (developed) country to
the developing countries.
Theory postulates a dynamic comparative advantage because the
country source of exports
shifts throughout the life cycle of the product. Early on, the
innovating country exports the
good but then it is displaced by other developed countries -
which in turn are ultimately
displaced by the developing countries. A casual glance at
product history yields this kind of
pattern in a general way.
Example
Prospects of Pakistan based MNE Top quality brands like Olpers,
Olwell, Tarang, Omoreand Owsum have been successfully launched
under the helm of Engros dairy products. To
support these brands and their highest standards of quality,
Engro Foods has invested heavily
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in milk processing and milk collection infrastructure. With an
acquisition of Al Safa a fast
growing and established Halal meat brand Engro Foods is now
venturing into North
American market starting from Halal Foods category. The new
organization, Engro Foods
Canada Ltd. with a subsidiary Engro Foods USA, LLC, intends to
aggressively grow the
business in this market. With the vision of Elevating Consumer
Delight Worldwide,
Companys significant focus will be towards the global operations
in the years to come.
Engro Foods is in stiff competition with the Swiss based Nestle
in packaged milk products
and with Walls (Unilever) in ice-cream.
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Question No 1: What is economic integration? Discuss its short
run economic effects
for the member and non members in detail. Also discuss the
reasons why it is not
successful among the developing countries.
Economic integration refers to agreements between countries in a
geographic region to
reduce tariff and non-tariff barriers to the free flow of goods,
services, and factors of
production between each other.
Types of regional economic integration:
Preferential trade agreement (PTA) provides lower barriers trade
among participating
nations than trade with non member.
Free trade area (EFTA, NAFTA) eliminates all barriers to the
trade of goods and
services among member countries. Each member maintains own level
& form of
protection against non members.
Customs union (EEC) eliminates trade barriers between member
countries and adopts a
common external trade policy consisting on duty-free movement of
products/services,
Common external tariff to non members.
A common market has no barriers to trade between member
countries, a common
external trade policy, and the free movement of the factors of
production for example
MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay) having
Supranational
authority for joint economic policy making.
Economic union; EMU has the free flow of products and factors of
production between
members, a common external trade policy, common central bank, a
common
currency, a harmonized tax rate, and a common monetary and
fiscal policy
A political union involves a central political apparatus that
coordinates the economic,
social, and foreign policy of member states. EU is headed toward
at least partial
political union, and the U.S. is an example of even closer
political union.
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Irfan Arshad 20
Short run effects of Economic Integration
1. Trade creation vs trade diversion
Trade creation higher priced domestic output replaced by lower
priced
imports increases welfare
Trade diversion trade diverted from low cost to high cost
supplier
decreases welfare
Trade Creation (Positive impact on member countries)
Replacement of domestic expensive goods results in net gain of
JCM (Pdn component) AND
BHN (consumption component)
Trade Diversion (Negative impact on Non Member countries)
Lower cost imports from outside the customs union are replaced
by higher cost
imports from member unions.
Preferential trade treatment result in the financing of
inefficiency within a customs
union.
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Irfan Arshad 21
Trade diverting customs union results in both trade creation and
diversion and
strength depends on the relative strength.
Can increase or reduce welfare of members
Static Welfare effects
CJJ and BHH is the welfare gain from pure trade creation, while
MNHJ is the
welfare loss from diverting the initial 30X(JH) of imports from
lower cost Nation 1 to
higher cost Nation 3
2. Market extension: Efficient producers enjoy free access to
national markets of all
member countries.
3. Temporary unemployment: When inefficient firms exit from the
market, workers in
such firms become unemployed. Eventually, they need to move to
other industries.
4. Increased Competition
5. Replacement of small national markets with a large
supernational market
6. Reaping benefits of economies of scale and learning
effects
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Irfan Arshad 22
7. Increased political cooperation and reduced violent
conflict.
Economic Integration among developing countries
The reasons usually mentioned why regional integration is
unsuccessful in developing
countries include:
1. Similarity of their economic structure,
2. Uniform market size,
3. Lack of dynamism in their economic development
4. Lack of commitment.
5. Lack of opportunity
6. Lack of opportunity
7. Risk of divergence due to trade diversion
8. Agglomeration effects
9. Economic integration leads to Pareto-reallocation of the
factors (labor and capital)
which move towards their better exploitation. Labor moves to
area of higher wages,
while capital - to area with higher returns.
10. All countries gain from free trade and investment, regional
economic integration is an
attempt to exploit the gains from free trade and investment
11. It implies a loss of national sovereignty
12. It allows firms to realize cost economies by centralizing
production in those locations
where the mix of factor costs and skills is optimal
13. Regional economic integration is only beneficial if the
amount of trade it creates
exceeds the amount it diverts
14. There is a risk of being shut out of the single market by
the creation of a trade
fortress
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Irfan Arshad 23
Question No 2: What are Multinational Corporations? Why and how
they decide to invest
abroad.
Multinational Company (MNC) is a company that is registered and
operates in more than
one country at a time. Generally the corporation has its
headquarters in one country and
operates wholly or partially owned subsidiaries in other
countries. Thus, companies that
have a joint venture abroad, established a foreign subsidiary or
acquired an existing operation
in a foreign country are considered MNCs. Madura and Fox,
describes three alternatives to
becoming a MNC.
1. A company simply chooses international trade by exporting its
goods and/or imports
material or tools. The advantage of international trade is that
it is relatively cheap to
pull out, if it turns out not to be profitable.
2. Via licensing a company allows other firms to produce, sell
and market its products in
foreign markets.
3. A company chooses to become a franchisor. According to Madura
and Fox a franchisor
provides a specialized sale or service strategy, support
assistance and possibly an
initial investment in the franchise in exchange for a periodic
fee.
Why Multinational Corporations invest abroad
According to OLI model, following three factors that are thought
to spike foreign
investments:
Ownership Advantages (O) include low cost advantage, competitive
factors,monopolist advantages, privileges like access to scarce
natural resources, patent
rights, brand name and advantages from innovation activities
like technology,
knowledge broadly give to the international firm the choice to
compete abroad
profitably. For example Coca-Cola has significant organizational
advantage of
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Irfan Arshad 24
trademark that is well-known and enough to sell soft-drinks in
numerous countries
across the world.
Locational Advantages (L) include Economic advantages (factors
of production,transport and telecommunications costs, scope and
size of the market); Political
advantages (Specific government policies that influence FDI,
intra-firm trade
and international production); Social, cultural advantages
(psychic distance
between the home and host country, language and cultural
diversities, general
attitude towards foreigner ant the overall position towards free
enterprise) :
Natural resources in Greenland are becoming easier to
access.
Internalization Advantages believe that its ownership advantages
are bestexploited internally rather than sold directly through spot
markets or offered to
other firms through some contractual arrangement such as
licensing, the
establishment of a joint venture or management contracting.
There is no proper mechanism that can not directly affect
investment decisions of companies
but consideration of following points tend to face less
uncertainty and higher expected rates
of return.
1. MNCs try to achieve efficiency by minimizing their cost and
maximizing economies
of scale while reducing duplication.
2. They invest in different locations to get different
advantages from host countries in
order to operate better in their home base.
3. Multinational companies are looking for the perfect mix of
factors of production
including technology.
4. While labour costs and attributes of the workforce such as
skill and educational
levels are critical variables of investment decision.
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Irfan Arshad 25
5. The purchasing power of the market and proximity to other
markets are taken into
consideration in taking the investment decision.
6. The type of investment such as joint venture or wholly owned
subsidiaries highly
affects the investment decisions.
7. Market size and growth prospects of the host country, the
availability of
infrastructure, reasonable levels of taxation and the overall
stability of the tax regime,
stable political environment, as well as conditions that support
physical and personal
security, legal framework and the rule of law and corruption and
governance concerns
constitute the main concerns of MNCs in taking their decisions
in developing
countries.
8. The motivation of MNCs for investing in developed countries
differs from that for
investing in developed countries, since the return of investment
is higher with its
risk premium. As an example, even though there have been
improvements in the
situation, investors face problems with enforcing intellectual
property rights and those
selling branded products often have to deal with counterfeits in
China, which is the
main destination of MNCs investments.
9. Good governance, Political and commercial factors, the legal
framework and rule of
law concepts are of high importance.
How MNEs decide to invest abroad.
As opposed to the existence of uncertainty in different
investment environments, MNCs
expanded "and are still expanding "their operations in different
parts of the world taking
different advantages of different countries. Similarly
developing countries such as Asian
countries, Brazil, Indonesia, and Mexico have realized the
impact of FDI on the development
of the country and they have been able to maintain a significant
level of FDI inflows taking
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Irfan Arshad 26
advantage of their resource factors. In this "race to attract
more FDI", countries are trying
to set strategies to attract more FDI for example:
1. Liberalization of investment regimes.
2. Developing strategies in line with the consideration of
comparative advantageous areas
i.e Asian countries have relatively low wage rates, Eastern
European countries are
focused towards infrastructure enhancement.
3. Fiscal incentives constitute the other type of influential
tools to attract FDI. The
incentives such as tax breaks and tax holidays, favourable
utility usage fees, reduced
custom duties and foreign exchange restrictions, relaxed
ownership controls, and
streamlined administrative procedures aim to create the best
place in terms of FDI
attractiveness.
4. Additionally, there has been the development of enclave zones
under an overall
national strategy. These zones have been employed "to bring in
labour-intensive
manufacturing activities to absorb surplus labour, to experiment
with a policy
instrument that has not been used before, and to facilitate the
transition from a closed
economy to an open one".
Question No 3: What are the implications of Globalization for
Pakistans Trade,
Foreign Direct Investment, and Transfer of Technology.
The phenomenon of globalization is very much multidimentional
and it has its direct or
indirect impact in almost all aspects and phases of life which
majorly include Economics,
Cultural, and social factors. The source of globalization has
made the markets liberal and
has ultimately accelerated and increased the run and pace of
globalization in the last two
or three decades. Through the adoption of globalization there
are several neighboring
countries of Pakistan which have made them more developed, grown
and successful
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Irfan Arshad 27
nations amongst which China is on the top and including India
and Bangladesh as well.
Pakistan has also shown several positive intentions towards its
cause but up till now they
have not shown any drastic change and development. Poverty, in
Pakistan, is due to many
factors like literacy rate, infant mortality rate, population
growth rate, and access to water
are inextricably tied to the process of globalization, but not
in the way one might expect.Globalization has not slowed down
Pakistan; rather, it has increased the affluence of itsneighbours,
a task that leaves Pakistanclobbered down by protectionist
policiesout in thecold. For example, up until 1991, Pakistan was
growing at twice the rate of the Indianeconomy. However, that year,
India decided to do away with the majority of their remainingtrade
barriers, opening up their borders to competitive markets and
surpassing Pakistan interms of economic expansion. Pakistan has
also been working on this aspect seriously toremove poverty from
the country and for that purpose they are also opening their
borders forthe foreign trade so that through the positive use of
globalization Pakistan can reduce thepoverty which has such
negative impacts on the economy of the state. So from the
lastseveral years Pakistan is striving to enhance the global trade
and for that purpose they havealmost excluded all the non-tariff
barriers and the invasion and the arrival of the labor in tothe
markets of Pakistan which will ultimately boost up the production
and through this theemployment will be generated which will
eliminate the poverty from the country.So after such a long
isolation from the international and global market Pakistan is also
givingthe concessions and the opening of market to the global trade
which will enhance andincrease GDP of the country and will help and
play the Vital role in reducing and even
eliminating the curse of poverty from the country, so that the
economy of Pakistan can be
made stable and developed.
Market Extension: Globalization will lead to promote world trade
and extension of markets.
In case of restricted trade a country can sell his products
either in his own country or in some
related countries. As a result the, the market of a country
remains limited giving rise to low
industrial development, employment and income. Because of
globalization a country can sell
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Irfan Arshad 28
its surplus goods in many countries. Thus when market is
extended the internal and external
economies will be accrued by the firms.
International Economic scenario: The proponents of globalization
think that it will promote
mobility of trade, capital and technology. But the facts reveal
that technology transfer could
not take place to the desired extent as the multinational
companies were having monopoly
over superior technology. They transfer technology for the sake
of their interests. The poor
countries could not be provided with capital and financial
resources. Their debt burden went
on increasing. The financial and economic crises in ASEAN
countries during 1997-98 were
due to such so called globalization. The unemployment and
miseries increased. The
globalization created instability and non-competition. This is
well evident from the Protests
which were made at the time of international conferences and
meetings of world economic
forums.
Access of Technology and Other Information: The globalization
will lead to abolish
restrictions on the movement of goods and services. The poor
countries of the world are
backward because they lack modern technology, skilled labour
force and knowledge.
Therefore when globalization takes place their will be mobility
of modern technology, skill
and other information across the borders. The multinational
companies of developed
countries will make investment in poor countries. They will
bring new technologies. As a
result the process of development will set into motion.
Marshall Mcluham, Canadian theorist propagated the idea of
Global Village in 1960.To him
the world has shrunk to a village due to advancement in the
fields of science and technology.
Peoples of the world now live in close proximity. Marshall
Mcluham, aCanadian theorist
propagated the idea of Global Village in 1960.To him the world
has shrunk to a village due to
advancement in the fields of science and technology. Peoples of
the world now live in close
proximity.
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Irfan Arshad 29
Media revolution has converted the whole world into a global
village. Globalizing TV showsand films may influence people,
shaping the way they understand their social identities,
theircultural communities, and wider world in which they live.
Cable TV networks, Electroniccommunication and news.
Question No 4: Define FDI? Discuss with reference to Dunning
Theory that how it takes
place? Also discuss why Pakistan has failed to attract FDI in
spite of lucrative policies.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) refers to long term
participation by a country A into country
B (in this case Pakistan). It usually involves participation in
management, joint-venture,
transfer of technology and expertise. There are two types of
FDI: inward foreign direct
investment and outward foreign direct investment, resulting in a
net FDI inflow (positive or
negative).
Pakistan over the last few years has developed itself as a
potential market for foreign
investors with its liberal investment policy, cheap labour, tax
incentives and good return on
investments. Following table demonstrates the FDI in Pakistan
over the last decade.
Foreign direct investment (FDI): investment in manufacturing and
service facilities in
a foreign country.
In recent decades, companies from many countries have expanded
into new markets
around the world, thereby adding to the stock of foreign direct
investment.
The increase in foreign direct investment has also been promoted
by the efforts of
many national governments to woo multinationals.
Portfolio investment or indirect investment refers to
investments in foreign countries
that are withdrawable at short notice, such as foreign stocks
and bonds.
WHAT ARE THE FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT INCENTIVES IN
PAKISTAN?
The simple answer is that making a direct foreign investment
allows companies to
accomplish several tasks:
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Irfan Arshad 30
Avoiding foreign government pressure for local production.
Circumventing trade barriers, hidden and otherwise.
Making the move from domestic export sales to a locally-based
national sales
office.
Capability to increase total production capacity.
Opportunities for co-production, joint ventures with local
partners, joint marketing
arrangements, licensing, etc;
low corporate tax and income tax rates in Pakistan
tax concessions/exemptions to particular businesses
special economic zones developed by the government of
pakistan
cheap labour in Pakistan
JOB TRAINING & employment subsidies
Infrastructure subsidies
Research and Development support
Early Entry Advantage.
Pakistan has a very liberal policy on repatriation for foreign
direct investors, therefore,
investing in Pakistan may give a foreign direct investors the
following added advantages.
Remittance of royalty, technology and franchise fee is allowed
to projects in
social, service, infrastructure, agriculture and international
chains food franchise.
Minimum share of the local (Pakistani) partner in a joint
venture will be 60:40 for
the service sector. However, 100% foreign equity can be owned
for first 5 years.
The FBR (Federal Board of Revenue) will not question as to the
source of
investment; however, the FBR will only want to know whether the
investor has paid
requisite Income Tax on that specific investment. The FBR will
not inquire into the
source of the funds.
Irfan Arshad 30
Avoiding foreign government pressure for local production.
Circumventing trade barriers, hidden and otherwise.
Making the move from domestic export sales to a locally-based
national sales
office.
Capability to increase total production capacity.
Opportunities for co-production, joint ventures with local
partners, joint marketing
arrangements, licensing, etc;
low corporate tax and income tax rates in Pakistan
tax concessions/exemptions to particular businesses
special economic zones developed by the government of
pakistan
cheap labour in Pakistan
JOB TRAINING & employment subsidies
Infrastructure subsidies
Research and Development support
Early Entry Advantage.
Pakistan has a very liberal policy on repatriation for foreign
direct investors, therefore,
investing in Pakistan may give a foreign direct investors the
following added advantages.
Remittance of royalty, technology and franchise fee is allowed
to projects in
social, service, infrastructure, agriculture and international
chains food franchise.
Minimum share of the local (Pakistani) partner in a joint
venture will be 60:40 for
the service sector. However, 100% foreign equity can be owned
for first 5 years.
The FBR (Federal Board of Revenue) will not question as to the
source of
investment; however, the FBR will only want to know whether the
investor has paid
requisite Income Tax on that specific investment. The FBR will
not inquire into the
source of the funds.
Irfan Arshad 30
Avoiding foreign government pressure for local production.
Circumventing trade barriers, hidden and otherwise.
Making the move from domestic export sales to a locally-based
national sales
office.
Capability to increase total production capacity.
Opportunities for co-production, joint ventures with local
partners, joint marketing
arrangements, licensing, etc;
low corporate tax and income tax rates in Pakistan
tax concessions/exemptions to particular businesses
special economic zones developed by the government of
pakistan
cheap labour in Pakistan
JOB TRAINING & employment subsidies
Infrastructure subsidies
Research and Development support
Early Entry Advantage.
Pakistan has a very liberal policy on repatriation for foreign
direct investors, therefore,
investing in Pakistan may give a foreign direct investors the
following added advantages.
Remittance of royalty, technology and franchise fee is allowed
to projects in
social, service, infrastructure, agriculture and international
chains food franchise.
Minimum share of the local (Pakistani) partner in a joint
venture will be 60:40 for
the service sector. However, 100% foreign equity can be owned
for first 5 years.
The FBR (Federal Board of Revenue) will not question as to the
source of
investment; however, the FBR will only want to know whether the
investor has paid
requisite Income Tax on that specific investment. The FBR will
not inquire into the
source of the funds.
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Irfan Arshad 31
Foreign investors are allowed to invest in industrial project on
100% equity basis
without any permission from the government.
There is no requirement for a No Objection Certificate from the
Provincial
Government.
In addition to manufacturing sector foreign investment on a
repatriate-able basis is
allowed in services, infrastructure and social sectors.
Full repatriation of capital gains, dividends and profits.
The facility for contracting foreign private loans is available
to all those foreign
investors who make investment in the approved sectors.
Foreign controlled manufacturing concerns are allowed to borrow
on the domestic
market according to their requirements.
Foreign controlled semi-manufacturing and non-manufacturing
concerns can
access loans equal to @ 75% & 50%, respectively, of their
paid up capital including
reserves.
BOIs (Board of Investment) approval is not required for foreign
companies to
open a bank account.
INVESTMENT POLICY OF GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN
For the purposes of foreign investment in Pakistan, the
Investment Policy of Pakistan has
formed two broad groupings i.e. manufacturing and
non-manufacturing/ service sector.
Salient features of the Pakistan Investment Policy relating to
the manufacturing and services
sectors are as follows:
MANUFACTURING SECTOR
The entity must be a company incorporated under the Companies
Ordinance, 1984.
100% foreign equity is permissible on the basis of repatriation
of capital and
profits (dividend).
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Irfan Arshad 32
The amount of foreign equity investment must not be less than US
$ 0.3 million.
SERVICE SECTOR:
The entity must be a company incorporated under the Companies
Ordinance, 1984.
The amount of foreign equity investment must not be less than US
$ 0.15 million.
100% foreign equity is permissible on the basis of repatriation
of capital and
profits (dividend).
NO GO AREAS (PROHIBITED AREAS)
Government of Pakistan prohibit the following areas for
investment:
Arms and ammunition
High explosives
Radioactive substances
Security printing, currency and mint
Alcoholic beverages or liquor
CORPORATE STRUCTURES
Various Corporate structures are available for setting up a
place of business in Pakistan for
which Masood and Masood, Corporate and Legal Consultants can
give you the optimum
advice putting into prospective the current Pakistan Legislation
and the individual
person/companies position.
In terms of the Investment Policy of the Government of Pakistan,
there are three (03) ways,
whereby, a foreign company may have its presence in
Pakistan.
Liaison Office;
Branch Office; and
Locally incorporated subsidiary
HOW WILL MY FUNDS GET INTO PAKISTAN AND WHAT WILL BE THE
EXIT
STRATEGY.
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Irfan Arshad 33
State Bank of Pakistan (SBP) regulates remittances in and out of
Pakistan under legislature.
There is no restriction on inward remittances by State Bank of
Pakistan (SBP) but any
outward remittances whether be royalty, technical fee and
dividend have to have a prior
approval from SBP, which the authorising bank/agent would do on
the companys behalf.
Similarly any contract for any such remittance needs prior
approval of SBP. In case you
require any assistance with the approval from State Bank of
Pakistan do let Masood and
Masood know and we will happily complete all the legal paper
work and technical
formalities.
WILL A FOREIGN INVESTOR BE TREATED LESS FAVOURABLY ON
INVESTMENT IN PAKISTAN?
Foreign Private Investment (Promotion and Protection) Act, 1976
and the Furtherance and
Protection of Economic Reforms Act, 1992 provide legal cover for
protection of foreign
investors/investment in Pakistan.
Furthermore, since Pakistan has entered into Bilateral
Agreements on Promotion and
Protection of Investment with more than 46 countries. These
Agreements provide the
following:
The Contracting Parties shall encourage investments in their
respective territories
by investors of the other Contracting Parties
Non-discrimination between local investors and foreign
investors
Equal/non-discriminatory treatment in case of compensation for
losses owing to
war, other armed conflicts or a state of national emergency
Free transfer of investments, and income deriving therefrom
including profits,
dividends, interest income, proceeds of sales or liquidation,
repayments of loans,
salaries, wages and other compensation, etc.
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Irfan Arshad 34
A dispute settlement mechanism to settle any dispute between the
countries with
respect to the interpretation of the respective agreement and a
dispute settlement
procedure to settle any dispute between a host country and an
investor of the other
country
DOES MASOOD AND MASOOD HAVE EXPERIENCE IN HANDLING FOREIGN
CLIENTS?
Yes, we have successfully managed to assist many multinationals
and foreign individuals to
invest in Pakistan and form a place of business to that effect.
Masood and Masood is
currently dealing with various foreign direct investment
projects in Pakistan including, but
not limited to, the following:
Real estate projects
Power projects
Oil and gas related projects
Development projects
Construction projects
IT related projects
Various manufacturing projects
Service related projects
Non-manufacturing projects
Health related projects
Cosmetics & toiletries related projects
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Irfan Arshad 35
Question No 5: Differentiate between fixed and floating exchange
rates. Also discuss
their merits and demerits.