Intraoral pressure and sound pressure during woodwind .../67531/metadc849677/m2/1/high... · Bowling, Micah. Intraoral pressure and sound pressure during woodwind performance. Doctor

INTRAORALPRESSUREANDSOUNDPRESSUREDURINGWOODWINDPERFORMANCE

MicahBowling

DissertationfortheDegreeof

DOCTOROFMUSICALARTS

UNIVERSITYOFNORTHTEXAS

May 2016

APPROVED:

KathleenReynolds,MajorProfessorMaryKarenClardy,CommitteeMemberDarylCoad,CommitteeMemberJohnHolt,ChairoftheDivisionofInstrumental

StudiesfortheCollegeofMusicBenjaminBrand,DirectorofGraduateStudiesfor

theCollegeofMusicJamesScott,DeanoftheCollegeofMusicCostasTsatsoulis,DeanoftheToulouse

GraduateSchool

Bowling, Micah. Intraoral pressure and sound pressure during woodwind performance.

Doctor of Musical Arts (Performance), May 2016, 57 pp., 5 tables, 4 figures, references, 15

titles.

For woodwind and brass performers, intraoral pressure is the measure of force exerted

on the surface area of the oral cavity by the air transmitted from the lungs. This pressure is the

combined effect of the volume of air forced into the oral cavity by the breathing apparatus and

the resistance of the embouchure, reed opening, and instrument’s back pressure. Recent

research by Michael Adduci shows that intraoral pressures during oboe performance can

exceed capabilities for corresponding increases in sound output, suggesting a potentially

hazardous situation for the development of soft tissue disorders in the throat and

velopharyngeal insufficiencies. However, considering that oboe back pressure is perhaps the

highest among the woodwind instruments, this problem may or may not occur in other

woodwinds. There has been no research of this type for the other woodwind instruments.

My study was completed to expand the current research by comparing intraoral

pressure (IOP) and sound pressure when performing with a characteristic tone on oboe,

clarinet, flute, bassoon, and saxophone.

The expected results should show that, as sound pressure levels increase, intraoral

pressure will also increase. The subjects, undergraduate and graduate music majors at the

University of North Texas, performed a series of musical tasks on bassoon, clarinet, flute, oboe,

and alto saxophone. The musical tasks cover the standard ranges of each instrument,

differences between vibrato and straight-tone, and a variety of musical dynamics. The data was

collected and examined for trends. The specific aims of this study are to (1) determine whether

there is a correlation between IOP and sound pressure, (2) shed light on how well each

instrument responds to rapid fluctuation, and (3) determine which instruments are most

efficient when converting air pressure into sound output.

Results of this study raised concerns shared by previous studies – that woodwind

players are potentially causing harm to their oropharynx by inaccurately perceiving intraoral

pressure needed to achieve a characteristic sound. Evidence found by this study suggests that

while oboists generate high intraoral pressure for relatively little sound output (a fact

corroborated by past studies), the same cannot be said for all of the woodwind instruments,

particularly the flute.

ii

Copyright2016

By

MicahBowling

iii

TABLEOFCONTENTS

LISTOFTABLES..................................................................iv

LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS...........................................................v

FOREWORD.....................................................................vi

Chapters

1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................1

StatementofPurpose

2. BACKGROUNDANDFOUNDATIONALKNOWLEDGE............................7

3. EXPERIMENTALMETHOD.................................................13

DescriptionofMusicalTasksEquipmentandExperimentalSetupExperimentalProcedureProtocolforDataAnalysis

4. RESULTS...............................................................24

5. DISCUSSIONOFRESULTS.................................................42

6. CONCLUSIONS..........................................................51

7. APPENDIX............................................................54

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................57

iv

LISTOFTABLES

1. TABLE1DemographicInformation...............................................14

2. TABLE2NumericalDatafromSelectedGroupSamples..............................30

3. TABLE3NumericalDatafromSelectedIndividualSamples...........................32

3. TABLE4NumericalDatafromSelectedMultipleWoodwindPerformerSamples.........34

3. TABLE5VibratoAmplitudeData.................................................46

v

LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS

1. FIGURE1MusicalTask1........................................................18

2. FIGURE2MusicalTask2&3....................................................19

3. FIGURE3LinearRepresentationofData...........................................25

4. FIGURE4PearsonCorrelationGraphs.............................................39

vi

FOREWORD

Myinterestinintraoralpressurestemmedfrommyownpersonalexperienceswithnasalleaks

duringperformance.Asawoodwindperformancemajor,Isoughtoutinformationpertainingto

nasalleaksinsearchofasolutiontotheproblem.Thesesearchesledmetothetopicof

intraoralpressureanditseffectsonperformance.

1

CHAPTER1.INTRODUCTION

InrecentresearchbyMichaelAdduci,themodelforthisstudy,oboeperformancewas

studiedtoshowthetrendsintherelationshipbetweenintraoralpressureandsoundpressure

levels.Hisstudywasdesignedtocreateascientificbasisforpedagogicaltechniquesamong

oboeperformers.1

Formanyyears,thestudyofmusicalinstrumentshasbeenanoraltraditioninan

apprenticeship-likesetting.Often,theinstructorwilltrytobestdescribetheresultsdesired

fromtheirmusicstudents.Thiscommontraditionlacksamethodicalorscientificbasis.The

topicofrespirationisakeyexampleofthisdiscrepancy.Manyinstructorstelltheirstudentsto

exhaleusingthediaphragmmuscle,butananatomicalstudyofthebodyprovesthatthe

diaphragmonlyactsasanactivemuscleduringtheinspiratoryprocess.Duringforced

expiration,thebodyreliesontheuseofthemusclesoftheabdominalwall(rectusabdominus,

internalandexternalobliques,andtransversusabdominusmuscles)andtheinternalintercostal

muscles.Asthesemusclescontract,thereisanincreaseinabdominalpressureand

compensatorydecreaseinthoracicvolume,resultinginairbeingforcedoutofthelungs.

Contrarytowhatiscommonlytaught,duringthisentireprocessofexhalation,thediaphragm

servesonlyinapassivecapacity.2

Thisgeneralization(“supportfromthediaphragm”)byperformanceinstructorsisnot

meanttocauseconfusionforthestudentormisleadthemaboutthewaythebodyfunctions;

rather,thisimprecisedescriptionandgeneralizedinstructionisaresultofthebody’sinabilityto

1Adduci,M.D.(2011).DynamicMeasurementofIntraoralpressureandSoundPressureWithLaryngoscopicCharacterizationDuringOboePerformance.Denton,Texas.2Patton,K.,&Thibodeau,G.(2009).Anatomy&Physiology(7thEditioned.).Mosby.

2

physicallydistinguishthedelicateintricaciesoftherespirationprocess.Involuntaryrespiration

activatestheautonomicnervoussystem,thesystemthatcontrolsinvoluntaryactionsand

reflexesinthebody.Severalfactorsoutsideofthecontrolofconsciousnessregulatethe

differentvariablesofventilation,suchasthelevelofcarbondioxideintheblood(PaCO2),

oxygentension(PaO2),andpH.Respiratorycontrolisachievedthroughinvoluntaryactivation

ofneuralandchemicalreceptorslocatedthroughoutthebody.Thisactivationsignals

respiratorycentersinthebraintoalterbreathingpatternsaccordingly.Althoughitistruethat,

toanextent,somebreathcontrolisvoluntary,itcanneverbecompletelyregulatedbythe

conscious.Musiciansareperhapsmoreawareoftheirbodythanthegeneralpopulation,but

thisaccuracydiminishesgreatlyastheamountofrespiratorypressureincreases.

A.J.Paynedeterminedthathumansarecapableofdistinguishingexpirationpressures

withinthemagnituderequiredforspeaking.Astheexpirationpressureincreasespastthe

speakingmagnitude,however,theabilityofhumanstoaccuratelydistinguishthesepressures

diminishesasthepressuremagnitudetargetlevelincreased.3Thesefindingswerefurther

supportedinastudybyA.AnastasioandBussard,whichshowedthatduringoboe

performance,oboistswereonlycapableofproducing1PSI(poundspersquareinch),lower

thantheirmaximumpressureof2.5–3.5PSIandsubstantiallylowerthantheself-estimations

of20-90PSImadebytheoboistspriortoperformance.4Thisconceptsuggeststhatperformers’

perceptionsoftheirmaximalexpirationpressuresvarygreatlyfromthereality,servingasthe

3Payne,A.J.(1987).IntraoralAirPressureDiscriminationforanOpenVersusClosedTubePressureSystem.UniversityofFlorida.4Anastasio,A.a.(1971).MouthAirPressureandIntensityProfilesoftheOboe.JournalofResearchinMusicEducation,19,62-76.

3

impetusforAdduci’sstudyonintraoralpressureandsoundpressurelevelduringoboe

performance.

TheresearchconductedbyMichaelAdducidemonstratesthatintraoralpressureduring

oboeperformancecanexceedthecapabilitiesforcorrespondingincreasesinsoundoutput

levels(SPL).5Hefoundthat,priortoproducingasound,theoboistwouldtypicallybuildup

intraoralpressure(IOP)beforereleasingthetongueandallowingthereedtovibrate.Asimilar

anomalywasfoundfollowingtheendofeachnote,withtheoboistsustainingpressurepastthe

endofthecurrentsoundingnote.Additionally,Adducideterminedthatoboistsoftenincreased

theintraoralpressurebeyondtheamountneededtoincreasethedynamicofeachnote.He

foundthatperformersoftencreatedmoreintraoralpressurethantheirinstrumentandreed

couldhandle,leadingtotheinstrumentreachingitsmaximumvolumeoutputpotentialbefore

theperformerhadachievedhisorhermaximumpotentialforintraoralpressure.The

performersmaynotbeawareofthissituation,causingaconsistentexcessiveforcewhen

playingwoodwindinstruments,particularlyinlouddynamics,whichmayleadtoanextraneous

amountofstresswithintheoralcavity.

Thisexcessforcecancreateapotentiallyhazardoussituation.Theforcecanallowfor

thedevelopmentofsofttissuedisordersofthethroatandpotentialvelopharyngeal

insufficiencies.Velopharyngealinsufficiency,commonlyreferredtoasa“nasalleak”withinthe

woodwindcommunity,occurswhenairescapesoutofthenasalpassagesduringperformance,

whichmayaffecttheresultingsoundquality.Duetoexcessivestrain,theperformer’ssoft

palateisweakened,thusopeningthepathwayforairtoflowinvoluntarilyintothenasalcavity.

5Adduci,M.D.(2011).DynamicMeasurementofIntraoralpressureandSoundPressureWithLaryngoscopicCharacterizationDuringOboePerformance.Denton,Texas.

4

Velopharyngealinsufficiencyisfrequentlyseenintheclarinetcommunityandmanyhave

soughttofindremediesforthecondition.Dr.ChrisGibsonfoundinhisstudythatcommon

causesofvelopharyngealinsufficiencyinclude:

• Intensive, short-term performance experiences such as summer musiccamporanAll-Stategroup.

• Preparationforauditionsorimportantrecitals.• Changes in routine such as beginningwith a new instructor, or playing

againafteravacation.• Equipment changes, such as a different mouthpiece, harder reed

strength,orevenadifferentinstrument.6

Inadditiontotheclarinetcommunity,Gibsonalsostatedthatvelopharyngeal

insufficiencyisfrequentlyfoundamongoboeandbassoonplayers.Abriefmentionofintraoral

pressurewasgivenasapossiblereasonforthisfinding,butthereislittlescientificevidence

substantiatingtheseclaims.Anotherconditionthatcanarisesecondarytointraoralpressure

whenplayingawoodwindinstrumentisapharyngocele.Apharyngoceleistheherniation

(outpouching)ofpharyngealsofttissuecausedbyextraneousairforce.7Thiscausesthetissue

tobulgeoutoftheneckbilaterallywhileperforming.Thisconditionispredominantlyseen

amongtrumpetplayers(Gillespie’spouches),buthasalsobeenreportedinsomeoboe

performers.Oboebackpressureisknowntobethehighestamongthewoodwindinstruments,

whichiswhyitmightbeseenprimarilyinoboeperformerscomparedtoperformersonthe

otherwoodwindinstruments.Thelowerbackpressureobservedwhenplayingtheother

woodwindsmayormaynotaffectthedevelopmentofpharyngocelesinotherwoodwind

performers.6Gibson,C.(2007).CurrentTrendsinTreatingthePalateAirLeak(StressVelopharyngealInsufficiency).(ClarinetFest)RetrievedAugust13,2015,fromInternationClarinetAssociation:https://www.clarinet.org/clarinetFestArchive.asp?archive=307Bowdler,D.(1987).PharyngealPouches.InA.Kerr,&J.Groves,Laryngology(5thEditioned.,pp.264-282).London.

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Thereasonthattheoboeisknowntohavethehighestamountofbackpressureamong

thewoodwindinstrumentsisbecausethetipopeningofthereedisrelativelysmallwhen

comparedtotheapertureforairflowfoundinotherwoodwindinstruments.Sincetheother

woodwindshavelessbackpressureduetolessresistance,thistheoreticallymightleadtolower

intraoralpressure.Therationalebehindexpandingcurrentstudiesistoquantifyandclarifythe

differencesinintraoralpressurebetweeneachofthewoodwindinstruments.

STATEMENTOFPURPOSE

Thepurposeofthisstudyistoexaminethedataandtrendsintheamountofintraoral

pressureandthesoundpressurelevelsproducedwhenperformingeachofthewoodwind

instruments.Thisstudywasconductedinordertoexpandthecurrentresearchsuggestingthat

oboistsexhibitanexorbitantamountofintraoralpressurerelativetotheamountofsound

output.Thisstudywillexamineintraoralpressureasrelatedtosoundpressurelevelswiththe

otherwoodwindinstrumentstodetermineifthereisacorrespondingcorrelation.Specifically,

intraoralpressureandsoundpressurewillbemeasuredonflute,oboe,clarinet,saxophone,

andbassoonforpitchesperformed(1)undervariousdynamics,(2)withastraighttone,and(3)

withvibrato.Soundpressurelevelsmaybeagoodmeasureofthephysiologicalstrainplaced

ontheperformer.Anysustainedstrainontheperformercanleadtovariousperformance-

relatedinjuries,aspreviousresearchhasshown.Thegoalofthisstudyistoprovideadeeper

understandingoftheforcesinvolvedinplayingwoodwindinstrumentsinordertopreventsuch

injuries.Theseindicatorsmayreflectvarieddemandsacrossinstrumentgroups.Itismyhopeto

addressthescientificrelationshipbetweenintraoralpressureandsoundpressurelevelswhen

6

playingwoodwindinstrumentsandprovidepedagogicalsuggestionsforperformingwith

efficiency.

Thespecificaimsofthisstudyareto(1)determinewhetherthereisacorrelation

betweenintraoralpressureandsoundpressure,(2)shedlightonhowwelleachinstrument

respondstorapidfluctuation,and(3)determinewhichinstrumentismostefficientfor

convertingintraoralpressureintosoundpressure.

7

CHAPTER2.BACKGROUNDANDFOUNDATIONALKNOWLEDGE

Intraoralpressure(IOP)isaquantifiablemeasureofforceexertedonthesurfaceareaof

theoralcavity.Thistypeofpressureisincreasedbyasurgeinairvolumeorbyresistancetoair

flowescapingtheoralcavity.Woodwindperformersrarelydiscussintraoralpressurewhen

speakingcolloquiallybutcommonlyreferto“backpressure”whenattemptingtodescribethe

resistancetooralairflow.However,“backpressure”isbetterdefinedasthepressureopposing

thedirectionofdesiredairflow–apressurewhichiscausedbyboththeinstrument,thereed,

andtheembouchureoftheplayer.8Thischaracterizationoftheforcesbywoodwind

performersis,forallpracticalpurposes,agooddescriptionoftheperceivedresistancecreated

bytheirinstrument.However,intraoralpressurecanstillbefoundinperformersplayingthe

flutewherethereisnodirectobstructionopposingthedirectionofairflowtocreatea

measurablebackpressure.Additionally,backpressureitselfisimpossibletoeasilymeasure.

Thisleadstotheconclusionthatthedifferenceincalculationbetweenintraoralpressureand

backpressurealsocannotbespecificallymeasuredinanymeaningfulway.Inthisstudy,

intraoralpressurewasmeasuredacrossallwoodwindinstrumentstostudythephysicalforces

associatedwithcommonmedicalproblemsshowntobecausedbyhighintraoralpressure

levelsinwoodwindperformers.

Itisimportanttofundamentallyunderstandthedifferencesinthedefinitionsofforce,

pressure,andstress.Inphysics,aforceisanyinteractionthat,whenunopposed,willchange

themotionofanobject.Intuitively,forcecanalsobedescribedasa“push”ora“pull”onan

8Merriam-Webster.(n.d.).BackPressure.RetrievedJune20,2015,fromMerriam-Webster.com:http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/backpressure

8

object.Aforcehasbothmagnitudeanddirection,makingitavectorquantity.9Incontrast,

pressureistheperpendicularforceappliedtothesurfaceofanobjectperunitareaoverwhich

thatforceisdistributed.10Inotherwords,pressuredescribesthevolumeofairpressing

outwardonasurface,liketheoralcavity,similartothewayairinsideaballoonforcesthewalls

oftheballoontostretchoutward.

Inadditiontointraoralpressure,soundpressurelevelswerealsoexaminedinthisstudy

inordertodemonstratechangesinintraoralpressurebasedondynamics.Soundsareproduced

bypressurewavesinteractingwiththetympanicmembraneoftheear.Theamplitudeof

pressurevariationsmeasuredintheaircanbeusedtodeterminetherelativeloudnessofthe

perceivedsound.Soundpressureismeasuredindecibels(dB),whichreferstoalogarithmic

representationofpressurevariations.11Pressureisasimpletypeofstress,whichcauseseither

deformationofsolidmaterialsorachangeofflowinfluidssuchaswaterorair.12Intheoral

cavity,mechanicalstresscancausedeformationoftheshapeoftheoralcavity,leadingto

numerousmedicalconditions.

Aspreviouslymentioned,thisstudyspecificallyexaminesintraoralpressure(IOP)and

theconsequencestoincreasingthispressureinwoodwindperformers.Pressurerelatedtothe

respiratorytractinhumanscanbemeasuredinseveraldifferentregionsotherthantheoral

cavity.Measuringlungpressureorsubglotticpressureasopposedtointraoralpressure,

however,involvesinvasiveproceduresbeyondthescopeofthisstudy.Intraoralpressureisa

9Cutnell,J.,&Johnson,K.(2001).Physics(5thEditioned.).NewYork:JohnWileyandSonsInc.10Giancoli,D.G.(2004).Physics:principleswithapplications.UpperSaddieRiver,NewJersey:PearsonEducation.11SoundandNoise:CharacteristicsofSoundandtheDecibelScale.(n.d.).(EnvironmentalProtectionDepartment:TheGovernmentofHongKong)RetrievedAugust12,2015,fromEnvironmentalProtectionDepartment:http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/noise_education/web/ENG_EPD_HTML/m1/intro_5.html12Batchelor,G.(1967).AnIntroductiontoFluidDynamics.CambridgeUniversityPress.

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representationofthepressurecreatedontheinternalsurfaceareaoftheoralcavityand

extendingintothesuperiorportionofthetrachea(abovetheglottis).Itisalsotheresulting

pressurecausedbythecombinedforceoftheaircolumnbeginninginthelungsandextending

upthetracheaandoutoftheoralcavity,althoughtheseforcesarenotadditiveandintraoral

pressureisnotnecessarilythesumofalloftheseforces.Factorsthatcanaffectintraoral

pressureincludevolumeofair,strengthoftheperformer’sexhalation,dimensionsoftheoral

cavityandsuperiortrachea,andinterferenceintheapertureoftheinstrument(reedopening

dimensionsandcyclicvibratoryopeningandclosingofthereedagainstthemouthpiece).

Airflowintotheinstrumentthroughthebreathingapparatususedinthisstudyfollows

Bernoulli’sprinciple,characterizingfluidmechanicsinphysics.Bernoulli’sprinciple

encompassestheideathatthepressureofastreamoffluidisreducedasthespeedoftheflow

isincreased.13Withthisprincipleinmind,theconceptofintraoralpressurecanbedescribedas

aresultofthechangeincross-sectionalareaalongthepathwayofairflow.Thelargercross-

sectionalareafoundinthetracheaandoralcavitycreateshigherairpressureandslower

velocityofair.Thisisincontrasttothesmallercross-sectionalareafoundattheaperture,

whichleadstolowerairpressureandafastervelocityofaircreatingafunnelingeffect.This

funnelingeffectisoneoftheaspectsofthecreationofintraoralpressure-thecombinedeffect

ofthevolumeofairforcedintotheoralcavityandtheresistanceoftheaperture,reedopening,

orequipmentbackpressure.

Thefluteisthemostuniquewoodwindinstrumentinthatitdoesnotuseeitherasingle

ordoublereedunitthatcyclesopenandclosedtocreatesound.Thevibrationoftheheadjoint

13Mulley,R.(2004).FlowofIndustrialFluids:TheoryandEquations.CRCPress.

10

isoutsideoftheoralcavityandaperture,anditdoesnotinterferewiththeflowofthe

airstream.Thislackofinterferencecreatesanopensysteminwhichairfreelyflowsoutofthe

apertureintotheinstrument.Theonlyresistancepresentinthesystemiscreatedbythe

performer’scontrolofaperture,resultinginthefunneleffectpreviouslydescribed.Itispossible

foraflutisttocontroltheopeningofhisorherembouchure,directlyaffectingthisresistance

present.Smalleraperturecreatedbyamoreclosedembouchureprovidesmoreresistancedue

toasmallercross-sectionalareathatleadstolowerairpressure.Alargeraperturecreatedbya

moreopenembouchure,ontheotherhand,leadstoalargercross-sectionalareaandalossof

thefunnelingeffect,becauseoflowerairpressureandslowervelocity.

Theclarinetandsaxophonehavemorefeaturesthatinterferewithairflow.Insingle

reedinstruments,thereedvibratingagainstthemouthpieceproducesthesound.Thisvibratory

processhasmanyfactorsthatcanaffecttheresistance.Thevibrationsmaybealteredbythe

strength(orrelativehardness)ofthereed.Aharderreedismoreresistanttovibrating.Many

characteristicsaffectreedstrengthincludingdensityofthecane,flexibilityofthecane,and

thicknessofthereed.Anotherimportantfactoristherelativedistancethereedmusttravelto

vibrateagainstthemouthpiece.Thisdistanceiscommonlydescribedasthemouthpiecefacing,

inwhichmouthpiecescurveawayfromthereed.Mouthpiecefacingsvaryamongmouthpieces,

andthechoiceofmouthpiecefacingisapointofpersonalpreferenceamongsinglereed

performers.Mouthpieceswithmoreopenfacingscreatealargerdistanceforthereedtotravel,

thereforecreatingmoreresistanceinthevibratoryprocess.

Anotherelementseeninsinglereedinstrumentsisthatthemannerinwhichthereed

vibratescancreatemoreresistancetoairflowthanthatfoundinnon-reedinstruments,suchas

11

theflute.Thisresistanceistheresultofvibrationscausingthesystemtocyclebetweenopen

andclosed.Whenthereedisnotincompletecontactwiththemouthpiece,airfreelyflows

throughtheopeningbetweenthereedandmouthpiece.Thisisconsideredanopensystem;

however,whenthereedisincompletecontactwiththemouthpiece,theairisnotallowedto

exittheoralcavityandflowintotheinstrument,creatingaclosedsystem.Inthisclosedsystem,

pressureishigherbecausetheperformerisconsistentlypushingairtowardtheaperture.

Withoutaroutefortheairtoescape,however,thepressuresimplyincreasesuntilthereed

movesawayfromthemouthpiecereleasingtheair.InTheArtofSaxophonePlaying,LarryTeal

statesthatasthereedvibratesagainstthemouthpiece,itspendshalfofthetimeincomplete

contactwiththemouthpiece,onefourthofthetimetravelingawayfromthemouthpiece,and

onefourthofthetimetravelingtowardthemouthpiece.14Thisvibratoryprocessthatis

creatingresistancecanalsobeseenindoublereedinstruments,theoboeandbassoon.

Inmanyways,doublereedinstrumentsproducesoundinasimilarfashiontosinglereed

instruments,withsoundproducedbythevibrationofthereed;however,indoublereed

instrumentsthereisnomouthpiecetocreateastationarypointforthereedtovibrateagainst.

Rather,therearetwoseparatebladesofeachreed,andthebladesvibrateagainsteachother

tocreatesound.Inthissystem,thereismorevariabilityfoundintheamountofresistanceeach

reedcreates.Aspectsthatcreateresistanceincludethestrengthorrelativehardnessofthe

reedcane,thethicknessoftheblades,andthetipopening(distancebetweenthetwobladesof

thereed).

14Teal,L.(1963).TheArtofSaxophonePlaying.AlfredPublishingCo.Inc.

12

Additionally,intraoralpressuremaynotbetheonlypressurethatplaysarolein

exhalation.Airpressuresthroughouttheaircolumncanvarygreatly,andstudiesrelatedto

speechandsinginghavemeasuredsubglotticpressure,theairpressurepresentinthetrachea

belowtheglottis,insteadofintraoralpressure.Thesestudiesmeasuredsubglotticpressure

throughinvasiveprocesses.Onemethodrequiredthesubjecttoswallowapressuretransducer

toplaceitintheesophagusbelowthevocalfolds.Theairpressureinthetracheabelowthe

vocalfoldscantranslatetotheesophagusformeasurement.Asecondmethodinvolved

insertinganeedletransducerintothesubglottalregionofthetracheabypenetratingthrough

theexteriorsufaceoftheneck.15AnothermethodintroducedbyBouhuyscallsfor

anesthetizingtheglottisandinsertingacathetertubedownthetracheaformeasurement.16

Thoughanunderstandingofsubglotticpressuremightbebeneficialtoacompleteknowledge

oftheforcesinvolvedintherespiratoryprocess,duetotheinvasivemethodsrequiredto

measurethesubglotticpressure,intraoralpressurewasmeasuredinthisstudybecauseofthe

nonintrusivemethodsavailable.

15Draper,M.,Ladefoged,P.,&Whitteridge,D.(1959).RespiratoryMusclesinSpeech.JournalofSpeechandHearingResearch,2(1),16-27.16Bouhuys,A.,Proctor,D.,&Mead,J.(1966).KineticAspectsofSinging.JournalofAppliedPhysiology,21(2),483-96.

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CHAPTER3.EXPERIMENTALMETHODS

Sixteen(16)graduateandundergraduatelevelwoodwindperformersattheUniversity

ofNorthTexasparticipatedinthisstudy.Three(3)ofthesixteenperformersweremultiple

woodwindperformerswhospecializeinplayingthefivewoodwindinstrumentsforvarious

theatrepitorchestras,andtheseperformerswererecordedperformingoneachofthe

instrumentssuccessively.Therewereatotaloftwenty-eight(28)performancesrecorded,

thirteen(13)fromsingleinstrumentperformers,andfive(5)fromeachofthethree(3)multiple

woodwindperformersmakinguptheremainingfifteen(15)performances.Table1summarizes

therelevantdemographicdataofeachperformer.

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TABLE1DemographicInformationasreportedbytheperformers

SubjectID Gender(M/F) Age Degreesought MajorFlute1 F 29 DMA PerformanceFlute2 F 23 MM Performance

Flute3 F 31 DMA Performance

Oboe1 M 22 BM PerformanceOboe2 F 24 MM Performance

Clarinet1 M 23 MM Performance

Clarinet2 M 24 DMA PerformanceClarinet3 F 23 BM Performance/MusicEducation

Saxophone1 M 22 BM MusicEducation

Saxophone2 F 18 BM PerformanceBassoon1 M 24 MM Performance

Bassoon2 M 24 BM Education

Bassoon3 M 21 BM Performance

WW1Flute F 25 MM Performance

WW1Oboe F 25 MM PerformanceWW1Clarinet F 25 MM Performance

WW1Saxophone F 25 MM Performance

WW1Bassoon F 25 MM Performance

WW2Flute M 25 DMA Performance

WW2Oboe M 25 DMA PerformanceWW2Clarinet M 25 DMA Performance

WW2Saxophone M 25 DMA Performance

WW2Bassoon M 25 DMA Performance

WW3Flute M 56 DMA Performance

WW3Oboe M 56 DMA PerformanceWW3Clarinet M 56 DMA Performance

WW3Saxophone M 56 DMA Performance

WW3Bassoon M 56 DMA Performance

15

TABLE1Demographicinformationcontinued

SubjectID InstrumentModel MouthpieceorHeadjoint ReedFlute1 Miyazawa602 Miyazawa XXXFlute2 Nagahara Nagahara XXX

Flute3 MuramatsuDS Muramatsu XXX

Oboe1 BuffetGreenline Pisonibrassstaple HandmadeOboe2 LoreeRoyal Chudnowsilverstaple Handmade

Clarinet1 BuffetR13Festival VandorenM30 RicoReserveClassic4

Clarinet2 BuffetR13Vintage RicoReserveX0 VandorenRueLepic3.5+Clarinet3 BuffetR13 NathanBeaty-ZinnerBlank RicoGCSEvolution4

Saxophone1 Selmer/Ref.54Flamingo RousseauNC4 Vandoren3.5

Saxophone2 Yamaha875-Ex RousseauNC4 RicoReserve3Bassoon1 Fox601 HeckelBocal Handmade

Bassoon2 Fox201 HeckelBocal Handmade

Bassoon3 Heckel#9921 HeckelBocal Handmade

WW1Flute Yamaha481 Yamaha XXX

WW1Oboe Cabart ChudnowBrassStaple HandmadeWW1Clarinet BuffetR13Festival VandorenM13Lyre RicoReserveClassic3.5+

WW1Saxophone Yamaha23 SelmerCStar Vandoren3

WW1Bassoon Fox220 FoxBocal Handmade

WW2Flute Yamaha684 EC XXX

WW2Oboe LoreeAK Pisonisilverstaple HandmadeWW2Clarinet BuffetR13 BackunOt RicoGCS3.5

WW2Saxophone Yamaha875 RousseauR3 Eastman3

WW2Bassoon Puchner#5839 FoxBocal Handmade

WW3Flute Armstrong Armstrong XXX

WW3Oboe Signet Jones JonesmediumhardWW3Clarinet BuffetR13 Vandoren Vandoren4

WW3Saxophone SelmerMark6 Rousseau Vandoren3.5

WW3Bassoon Reynolds Reynolds Jonesmediumhard

16

Theperformerswereaskediftheysufferedfromcommonrespiratoryailments,

includingallergies,asthma,velopharyngealinsufficiency,orotherailments.Fourreported

havingallergiesbutonlyonesufferedsevereconstantallergieswiththeothersnotingonly

seasonalallergies.Threereportedhavingasthma.Nosubjectsreportedvelopharyngeal

insufficiencyorotherailments.

Priortoconductingthisexperiment,thestudywasapprovedbytheInstitutionalReview

Board(IRB)attheUniversityofNorthTexas.Theprojectdescriptionandinformedconsent

formapprovedbytheIRBandpresentedtoallsubjectsisincludedintheAppendix.The

informedconsentformwasreadaloudtoallofthesubjectsandsignedbeforecollectingany

demographicdataandbeginningtheexperiment.

17

DESCRIPTIONOFMUSICALTASKS

Eachofthesubjectsperformedseveralmusicalexercises.Ametronomewasusedto

standardizethelengthofeachsample,andtheclickofthemetronomewasrecordedalong

withtheintraoralpressureandsoundpressurevaluesforaccuratedatapointselection.The

taskswereperformedat88beatsperminute.Subjectsplayingflute,clarinet,oboe,and

saxophoneperformedthetasksatthewrittenpitchesD4,G4,C5,andA5.Octavemodifications

weremadeforthesubjectsplayingbassoon,withthetasksperformedonthewrittenpitches

D2,G2,C3,andA3.

MUSICALTASKSINCLUDED:

1)dynamicexercise(crescendo–diminuendo)onthewrittenpitchesD4,G4,C5,A5

2)straighttoneexerciseonthewrittenpitchesD4,G4,C5,A5

3)vibratoexerciseonthewrittenpitchesD4,G4,C5,A5

*Asmentionedpreviously,octavemodificationsweremadeforthebassoonandallexercises

wereperformedonthewrittenpitchesD2,G2,C3,A3.

18

Figures1and2showthemusicalexamplesusedforthisstudy.

FIGURE1MusicalTask1-Dynamics

Thesubjectswereinstructedtoplayintheextremesoftheirdynamicrange.Thesubjectseach

reachedadifferentmaximumandminimumsoundpressurelevel,butallsubjectssuccessfully

followedthedynamicmarkings.

19

FIGURE2MusicalTask2&3–StraightToneandVibrato

Inthistask,thesubjectswereinstructedtoplayeachpitchatacomfortabledynamicwhich

couldbemaintainedforthedurationofthenote.Theperformerswereinstructedtousefree

(unmeasured)vibratoforthatportionofthetask.Samplesofclarinetperformancedidnot

includethevibratotasksasisstandardinclarinetperformanceintheUnitedStates.

20

EQUIPMENTANDEXPERIMENTALSETUP

TheexperimentwasconductedintheTexasCenterforMusicandMedicineofficeatthe

UniversityofNorthTexasCollegeofMusicroom1007.Theroomisconstructedwithtilefloor,

cementwalls,andstandardcommerciallay-inceilingpanels.Thesubjectsperformedthetask

seatedwithamusicstandinfrontofthem.Thechair(WengerMusicianChair)wasplaced24

inchesawayfromthemusicstand.Thedosimeter17wassuspendedabovethesubjects6feet

and6inchesfromthegroundtoreducevariationbetweeninstrumentsandperformers.

Theexperimentutilizedthreechannelsofdataacquisition:measurementofintraoral

pressure(IOP),measurementofsoundpressurelevel(SPL),andmetronometiming.

Intraoralpressurewasmeasuredusingapressure-to-voltagetransducer.Thistransducerwas

fixedtoheadgearwithVelcro.Asmallcathetertubewasfittedtoeachsubject.Thecatheter

tubewasplacedinsidetheoralcavitythroughthecorneroftheembouchure.Eachperformer

wasgiventimetoexperimentwiththecathetertubeinplacepriortorecordingthe

performancestoallowforproperfittingandtominimizeobstructionoftheembouchure.While

subjectsplayedtheirinstruments,thecathetertubeconductedtheairpressureinsidethe

subject’soralcavitytothepressure-to-voltagetransducerformeasurement.Allsubjects

toleratedthissetupwithoutchallenge.Atthistime,thepressure-to-voltagetransducerwas

calibratedtoaccountfortheambientpressureoftheroomduringtheperformancesothatonly

theincreaseinintraoralpressureabovetheatmosphericpressurewouldberecorded.

Soundpressurelevelsweremeasuredusingaloggingdosimeter.Thedatawasrecorded

indecibels(dB).

17Anoisedosimeterisaspecializedsoundlevelmeterusedtomeasuresoundexposureovertime.

21

Eachofthethreechannelswasrecordedusingcontinuousrecordingsoftware.The

pressure-to-voltagetransducer,dosimeter,andstandardmetronomewereconnectedtoa

DATAQInstrumentsmodelDI-720dataacquisitionsystem.18TheDATAQsystemwasthen

connectedtoaDelldesktopcomputerrunningtheWinDaq/Litesoftwaresuitetocollectthe

intraoralpressureandsoundpressuredataalongwiththemetronomeforastandardized

accuratetimemeasurement.TheDATAQsystemandWinDaq/Litesoftwarepackagerecorded

240samplespersecondforintraoralpressure(measuredinvolts19)andsoundpressure

(measuredindB).Thereal-timemonitoringofeachnoteallowedfordetailedexaminationof

eachnote,includinginitiation,propagation,andtermination.Therawdatarecordedby

WinDaq/LitewasexportedtoMicrosoftExcel2010andIBMSPSSStatistics17.0foranalysis.

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE

Afterlisteningtotheexperimentalprotocolandprivacypolicyforthestudy,the

subjectssignedaninformedconsentformapprovedbytheIRB.Ashortdemographic

questionnairewascompleted.Thesubjectswerethenseatedandfittedwiththepressure-to-

voltagetransducercathetertube.Theentireexperimentalprocesstook5minutestocomplete

paperwork,10minutestosetup,and15minutesforeachiterationofthemusicalexercises.

PROTOCOLFORDATAANALYSIS

18DATAQInstrumentsmodelDI-720isadeviceusedtocollectandtranslatedatafromvariousinputchannels.Thisdevicecanutilizeuptosixteendifferentdatachannelssimultaneously.19Topresentthedatainameaningfulformat,thevoltagereadingsfromthepressuretransducerwereconvertedtommHg.Forthepressuretransducerusedinthisstudy,1voltisequalto101.4mmHg.Theformulausedforconversionwasp=(v-a)*101.4,wherevisavoltageeventrecordedbythepressuretransducer,aistheambientpressureinvoltsmeasuredduringthattask,andpistheresultantintraoralpressureforthatevent,convertedfromvoltstommHg.

22

Graphical,descriptive,andcorrelationaltechniqueswereemployedtoshowdifferences

acrosstasks,acrossinstruments,andregardingtherelationshipbetweensoundpressureand

intraoralpressures.TherawdatarecordedbyWinDaq/LitewasexportedtoMicrosoftExcel

2010andIBMSPSSStatistics23.0foranalysis.Duringthisstudy,Ihavedecidedtoonlyusedata

pointscollectedonemetronomeclickpriortotheinitiation,throughpropagationofthenote,

andconcludingonemetronomeclickfollowingtheterminationofthenote.Datapoints

betweenindividualnoteswereexcluded.Ineffortstoexcludeoutliers,anaveragewastakenof

eachdatapointbeforeprocessingthedata.Theseaverages,minimum,maximum,andstandard

deviationswerecalculatedusingdatafromallsamplesoflikeinstrumenttrials.Thesevalues

wereorganizedintoTable2.ThegraphsinFigure3areexamplesofindividualperformerdata

samplesofeachmusicaltask.Theindividualperformerspresentedinthegraphswerechosen

basedontheconsistencyofthereadingsforeachtrial.Theseperformersshowcasedrelatively

minimaloutlyingdatapoints.Thedatafromthisstudywasfoundtobestatisticallysignificantat

the0.01level,indicatingthatthereisstrongevidencesuggestingthattheserelationshipsare

statisticallysignificant.

Inordertoaddressthespecificaimsofthisstudy,theexperimentwasdesignedwith

particularexercisesinmind.Aftertheinstrumentalistsperformedthemusicaltasksoutlined

earlier,(1)IassessedPearsonCorrelationValues,whichcanrevealordisprovestrong

associationsbetweentwovariables,todeterminewhetherthereisasignificantcorrelation

betweenIntraoralpressureandsoundpressureoutput.PearsonCorrelationValuesandhow

theyrelatetothisstudyarepresentedthoroughlyintheDiscussionsection.(2)Ievaluatedthe

vibratomusicaltasksbycomparinghoweasilyeachinstrumentrespondstoitsinstrument-

23

specificvibrato.Thiswasassessedbyexaminingintraoralpressureversusthesoundpressure

levelwhiletheperformerisusingvibrato.(3)Ievaluatedtheoverallefficiencyofeach

instrument.Acomparisonofvibratoversusstraighttonewillhelpdeterminehowefficienteach

instrumentisinconvertingairpressureintosoundpressure.

24

CHAPTER4.RESULTS

Thisstudyproducedatotaloftwenty-eight(28)performancesofeachmusicaltaskwith

successfulquantitativedatacollectionineachofthesamples.Samplesofclarinetperformance

didnotincludethevibratotasksasisstandardinclarinetperformanceintheUnitedStates.

Table2wascreatedusingaveragesofcorrelatingsamplepointsintimeacrosslikeinstrument

performers.Eachmusicaltaskislabeledinthetablewiththepitchperformed(C).Thedynamic

exerciseisnotedatjust(C),thestraighttoneexerciseislabeledasCsandthevibratoexerciseis

labeledatCv.Table3isavisualrepresentationofdata(min,max,mean,stddev)from

individualinstrumentperformers(thoseonlyperformingononeinstrument,excludingmultiple

woodwindperformers).Table4representsdatafromthemultiplewoodwindperformertrials.

ThegraphsinFigure3areexamplesofindividualperformerdatasamplesofeachmusicaltask.

TheperformerspresentedinthegraphsinFigure3werechosenbecausetheyshowedthemost

consistentreadingsforeachtrial.Oneperformerperinstrumentispresentedinthegraphs.

Figure3showsthelinearrepresentationoftheintraoralpressure(IOP)andsound

pressurelevel(SPL)forthepitchC5.

• BluelinesrepresentthedynamicexerciseinMusicalTask1.

• RedlinesrepresentthestraighttoneexerciseinMusicalTask2.

• GreenlinesrepresentthevibratoexerciseinMusicalTask3.

25

FIGURE3LinearRepresentationofData

FluteIntraoralPressure(IOPinmmHg)

FluteSoundPressureLevel(SPLindB)

MusicalTask1------------MusicalTask2------------MusicalTask3------------

26

OboeIntraoralPressure(IOPinmmHg)

OboeSoundPressureLevel(SPLindB)

27

ClarinetIntraoralPressure(IOPinmmHg)

ClarinetSoundPressureLevel(SPLindB)

28

SaxophoneIntraoralPressure(IOPinmmHg)

SaxophoneSoundPressureLevel(SPLindB)

29

BassoonIntraoralPressure(IOPinmmHg)

BassoonSoundPressureLevel(SPLindB)

30

TABLE2representsthenumericaldataassociatedwithgroupdatafromeachinstrumenttrial.

Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Sound Level Flute C 5047 73.7000 104.0000 82.769802 6.2717121

Sound Level Flute Cs 4988 72.6000 94.1000 82.486087 4.7128215

Sound Level Flute Cv 5049 73.6000 97.5000 83.253337 5.3025673

Intraoral Pressure Flute C mmHg 5047 -22.8150 6.5910 1.101752 3.2303852

Intraoral Pressure Flute Cs mmHg 4988 -8.6190 5.5770 1.404719 3.1727566

Intraoral Pressure Flute Cv mmHg 5049 -11.6610 7.6050 1.919651 3.2835218

Valid N (listwise) 4988


Sound Level Oboe C 4447 74.6000 89.2000 80.148145 3.5920672

Sound Level Oboe Cs 4507 73.1000 91.4000 80.534968 3.4140089

Sound Level Oboe Cv 4386 73.2000 92.3000 80.890538 3.3493299

Intraoral Pressure Oboe C mmHg 4447 -5.5770 50.1930 24.532438 13.4985917

Intraoral Pressure Oboe Cs mmHg 4507 -35.9970 41.0670 21.830923 13.5412355

Intraoral Pressure Oboe Cv mmHg 4386 -39.0390 41.0670 21.908041 14.7010054


31


Sound Level Clarinet C 5407 75.3000 107.0000 86.260403 9.6589688

Sound Level Clarinet Cs 5154 71.8000 98.4000 86.301785 6.9712704

Intraoral Pressure Clarinet C mmHg 5407 -3.5490 43.0950 20.546768 10.8506990

Intraoral Pressure Clarinet Cs mmHg 5154 -3.5490 29.9130 20.616623 9.2936191



Sound Level Sax C 4148 74.6000 113.0000 88.846649 11.1296733

Sound Level Sax Cs 4326 72.5000 101.0000 86.111049 7.5105652

Sound Level Sax Cv 4326 72.4000 105.0000 87.643597 8.1812154

Intraoral Pressure Sax C mmHg 4148 -4.5630 30.9270 16.680153 8.5214015

Intraoral Pressure Sax Cs mmHg 4326 -6.5910 23.8290 15.546125 6.8548486

Intraoral Pressure Sax Cv mmHg 4326 -31.9410 24.8430 15.437599 9.9962420



Sound Level Bassoon C 5107 72.4000 98.7000 85.072273 6.4477431

Sound Level Bassoon Cs 5046 71.4000 103.0000 87.615834 6.3806603

Sound Level Bassoon Cv 4990 71.2000 102.0000 85.536493 5.6464958

Intraoral Pressure Bassoon C mmHg 5107 -7.6050 29.9130 13.890926 8.2424484

Intraoral Pressure Bassoon Cs mmHg 5046 -8.6190 25.8570 13.211540 7.7571158

Intraoral Pressure Bassoon Cv mmHg 4990 -32.9550 25.8570 12.957457 8.6831732


32

TABLE3representsthenumericaldataassociatedwithindividualsamplesoftheMusicalTask1


Sound Level Flute1 C 842 74.9200 98.2660 86.871844 6.9129585



Intraoral Pressure Flute1 C mmHg 842 -.0203 4.5529 2.755708 1.1750270

Intraoral Pressure Flute2 C mmHg 841 -.3346 3.3868 1.699288 .6356090

Intraoral Pressure Flute3 C mmHg 841 -.6185 3.7112 1.633963 .9170714



Sound Level Oboe1 C 902 75.7500 89.2390 80.458192 3.7736316

Sound Level Oboe2 C 961 75.7000 88.4000 79.679501 3.5318235

Intraoral Pressure Oboe1 C mmHg 902 .1420 48.9154 32.885122 14.8812924

Intraoral Pressure Oboe2 C mmHg 961 -.5070 42.0810 27.830132 12.5942645


33


Sound Level Clarinet1 C 901 75.4910 104.4400 88.277676 10.4589124



Intraoral Pressure Clarinet1 C mmHg 901 .2941 39.5359 25.411763 10.8900846

Intraoral Pressure Clarinet2 C mmHg 901 -2.5350 31.9410 21.069479 10.2415158

Intraoral Pressure Clarinet3 C mmHg 901 -1.5210 38.0250 23.857135 11.0398430



Sound Level Sax1 C 662 74.5570 101.5300 86.663008 9.5586404

Sound Level Sax2 C 842 75.7000 98.1000 85.266746 8.0180955

Intraoral Pressure Sax1 C mmHg 662 -.7909 27.4287 14.774960 8.7661703

Intraoral Pressure Sax2 C mmHg 842 .5070 26.8710 19.910287 6.0457559



Sound Level Bassoon1 C 841 73.6750 94.2190 86.117157 5.2369632



Intraoral Pressure Bassoon1 C mmHg 841 .1521 22.3080 16.271650 5.1502123

Intraoral Pressure Bassoon2 C mmHg 841 -3.5490 19.7730 12.772662 6.5615168

Intraoral Pressure Bassoon3 C mmHg 842 -7.6050 29.9130 16.262537 9.1758527


34

TABLE4representthenumericaldataassociatedwiththemultiplewoodwindperformers


Sound Level WW1 Flute C 841 73.7270 95.8280 83.633127 6.7331589

Sound Level WW1 Oboe C 901 75.7000 85.5000 78.393785 2.2448670

Sound Level WW1 Clarinet C 901 75.7000 96.4000 83.404107 6.7665217

Sound Level WW1 Sax C 841 75.4000 97.9000 84.526159 7.0484990

Sound Level WW1 Bassoon C 901 74.6000 86.1000 80.241287 3.0153614

Intraoral Pressure WW1 Flute C mmHg 841 .3245 2.3119 .757040 .1559994

Intraoral Pressure WW1 Oboe C mmHg 901 -2.5350 27.8850 19.009968 8.9762903

Intraoral Pressure WW1 Clarinet C mmHg 901 -2.5350 23.8290 16.494663 6.2743448

Intraoral Pressure WW1 Sax C mmHg 841 -4.5630 16.7310 12.226477 5.3682581

Intraoral Pressure WW1 Bassoon C mmHg 901 -2.5350 11.6610 6.058678 3.5460514


35


Sound Level WW2 Flute C 841 75.7500 88.3570 79.356171 3.6089000





Intraoral Pressure WW2 Flute C mmHg 841 -2.8899 5.4046 2.837271 1.4342676

Intraoral Pressure WW2 Oboe C mmHg 901 -5.5770 38.0250 27.022931 12.1902676



Intraoral Pressure WW2 Bassoon C mmHg 841 -4.5630 26.8710 17.023987 8.4276228


36


Sound Level WW3 Flute Cs 842 73.4670 86.3330 80.485452 2.2512520





Intraoral Pressure WW3 Flute C mmHg 841 -18.7083 1.4703 .185570 2.3399763

Intraoral Pressure WW3 Oboe C mmHg 782 -.5070 20.7870 12.750207 4.4633020



Intraoral Pressure WW3 Bassoon C mmHg 841 -.5070 26.8710 19.789880 7.3133776


37

DATAPRESENTATION

Thenumericaldatafromthemultiplewoodwindperformershasbeenreported

separatelytoallowforcross-examinationofintraoralpressureandsoundpressurelevels

createdbytheseperformers.Onebenefittoexaminingthedatafromthemultiplewoodwind

performersisthatwiththeseperformersplayingeachmusicaltaskonallfiveofthewoodwind

instruments,thedimensionsoftheoralcavityandlungcapacityhasbeenstandardized.Ifthis

standardizationweretobereplicatedinfuturestudies,itcouldleadtoagreaterunderstanding

oftheeffectsofperformercharacteristics,suchasbodysizeandshape,ontheintraoral

pressurecreatedwhenplayingeachinstrument.

Multiplewoodwindperformer1(WW1)producedintraoralpressuremeansbelowthe

groupmeansforeachoftheinstruments.Interestingly,therangeofintraoralpressuremeans

producedbyWW1ismorenarrowthantherangeofmeanscalculatedfromthegroupdata.

WW1producedameanintraoralpressureof0.757mmHgonthefluteandameanintraoral

pressureof19.010mmHgontheoboewitheachoftheotherinstrumentsfallingbetween

thesetwo.Whencomparedtothegroupmeansofintraoralpressureat1.102mmHgonthe

fluteand24.532mmHgontheoboe,itisimportanttonoteamorenarrowrangefoundwhen

examiningintraoralpressuredatafromWW1.Similarfindingswererecognizedinmultiple

woodwindperformer3(WW3).TheintraoralpressuremeansproducedbyWW3rangedfrom

0.186mmHgto19.790mmHg.

IncontrasttoWW1,multiplewoodwindperformer2(WW2)producedintraoral

pressuremeanswhichspannedabroaderrange.WW2producedanintraoralpressuremeanof

2.837mmHgonthefluteandanintraoralpressuremeanof27.023mmHgontheoboe.These

38

valueshaveaslightlylargerrangethanfoundinthemeansgroupdata,butWW2didnot

producethelowestintraoralpressureonfluteanddidnotproducethehighestintraoral

pressureonoboe.SinceWW2wasnotanoutlierineithersituation,itsuggeststhatthe

intraoralpressureproducedbyWW2iswithintheaveragerangeofintraoralpressureproduced

bythesingleinstrumentperformers.

39

Thefollowinggraphsweregeneratedtoshowtherelationshipbetweenintraoral

pressureandsoundpressurelevelsineachsubject.Thedatarepresentssingleinstrument

performertrialsfromoneperformeroneachinstrument.Datapointsonthegraphrepresent

recordedsamplesofintraoralpressureandsoundpressurelevelssampledatarateof240

samplespersecond.Thesegraphsalsocontainalineofbestfit(showninred).Theslopeofthe

linerepresentstherequiredchangeinintraoralpressureneededtoproduceandincreasein

soundpressurelevels.

FIGURE4PearsonCorrelationGraphs

40

41

42

CHAPTER5.DISCUSSIONOFRESULTS

Thesubjectsperformedaseriesofmusicaltasksonflute,oboe,clarinet,saxophone,and

bassoon.Musicaltaskscoveredthestandardrangesofeachinstrument,differencesbetween

vibratoandstraight-tone,andavarietyofmusicaldynamics.Thisdescriptivedatashowedthat

intraoralpressurevariesgreatlyacrosstheinstrumentsofthewoodwindfamily,withoboe

consistentlyproducingthehighestintraoralpressureandfluteproducingthelowest.

Throughoutthestudy,thefluteconsistentlyproducedtheleastamountofintraoral

pressureacrossalloftheinstruments,withameanintraoralpressureacrossaggregategroup

databetween1.10and1.92mmHg.Thesenumberstakeintoaccountdataacrosseachofthe

musicaltasks:dynamics,straighttone,andvibrato.Sincetheflutedoesnothaveanydirect

backpressure,theonlyresistanceavailabletocreateintraoralpressureistheembouchureof

theflutist.Theaperturecreatesthefunneleffect(describedintheBackgroundand

FoundationalKnowledgesection),causingtheairpressureintheoralcavitytorise.One

conclusionfromthiseffectisthatflutistsarelesslikelytosuffertheconsequencescommonly

seenwithperformerswhoplayinstrumentsthatcreatehigherintraoralpressure.

Theoboeconsistentlyproducedthehighestamountofintraoralpressure,withamean

intraoralpressurefromtheaggregategroupdatabetween21.83and24.53mmHg.These

numbersalsotakeintoaccountdataacrosseachofthemusicaltasks.Thehighvaluesof

intraoralpressurefoundinoboeperformancemaybecausedbytheverysmalltipopeningof

theoboereedandrelativeresistance.Theseconsistentlyhigherintraoralpressurelevelsleadto

agreaterprobabilitythatoboistswillsufferfromsofttissuedisordersorperformer-related

injuriesoveralifetimeofperforming.Consideringthehighvaluesofintraoralpressure,the

43

oboedidnotproducethehighestsoundpressurelevels.Thisrelationshipbetweenintraoral

pressureandsoundpressurelevelscanbecomparedtootherinstrumentsperformedinthis

study.

Withtheinstrumentsotherthanoboe,theintraoralpressureincreasedconsistentlyas

soundpressurelevelsincreasedduringperformance(withinanindividualsample)withPearson

CorrelationValues(r)reaching0.86.APearsonCorrelationValuedescribesthedegreeof

correlationbetweentwovariablesandrangesfrom-1to+1,withthesignindicationthe

directionoftheassociation.Thecloserto-1of+1thervalueis,thestrongertheassociationis

betweenthetwovariables.-1indicatesthatasonevariableincreasethesecondvariable

decreasesaccordinglywhereas+1indicatesthatbothvariablesareincreasinginapredictable

manner;however,arvalueof0indicatesnoassociationbetweenthemeasuredvariables.

TheoboehadthelowestPearsonCorrelationValueofalloftheinstruments(0.60).This

indicatesthatthereislessassociationbetweenintraoralpressureandsoundpressureinoboe

performance.ThehighPearsonCorrelationValuesseenwiththeotherinstrument

performancesinthisstudydemonstratesthatthereisacloserelationshipbetweenintraoral

pressureandsoundpressurelevelsproducedduringperformancewithmostofthewoodwind

instruments.Thistrendwasseentoadegreewithalloftheperformersinthestudy,although

thereweresomesmalldeviationsinthecorrelation.Theseresultsconfirmwhatwasseenin

previousstudies,inwhichvariabilitywasseeninboththelevelsandrelationshipsbetween

intraoralpressureandsoundpressureacrossinstrumentgroups.

Asexpected,astrongpositivecorrelationbetweendBandintraoralpressurewasseen

forallinstruments,butthelevelsandthestrengthofthisrelationshipvariedbyinstrument.The

44

pvaluespresentedinthisstudyrepresentthepercentagesofdatapointswhichfallonthebest

fitline.Thesepercentagesrangedfrom0.774to0.926andwerefoundtobestatistically

significantatthe0.01level.Thestatisticalsignificanceofthesevaluesisveryhighbecausethe

datapointsthatwerenotfounddirectlyonthebestfitlinewere(1)toofewinnumberand(2)

withinamarginoferrorrangearoundthebestfitline.Inotherwords,theoutliersofthedata

werenotprominentinnumberanddidnotreachtoofaroutsideoftherangeofthemajorityof

thedata,andthereforedidnotdecreasethesignificanceofthefindings.

Inadditiontothehighpvalues,thePearsonCorrelationvalues(r)showedrelatively

strongassociationsbetweenintraoralpressureandsoundpressure.Theinstrumentwiththe

highestPearsonCorrelationvalueisthefluteat0.86.Additionally,theslopeofthegraphfor

thefluteishigherthantheotherinstruments.Thishighsloperepresentsthattheflutemaybe

themostefficientinstrumentforconvertingrelativeairpressuretosoundpressureoutput.The

flutewillgreatlyincreaseitssoundpressureoutputwithonlyaverysmallincreaseinintraoral

pressure.IncontrasttheoboehadaPearsonCorrelationvalueof0.60,andtheoboehadthe

lowestslopeofanyoftheinstruments.Thisrelationshipshowsthattheoboeisperhapsthe

leastefficientinstrumentforconvertingrelativeairpressuretosoundpressureoutput.The

oboerequiresasignificantincreaseinintraoralpressurebeforeproducinganyincreasein

soundpressureoutput.ThisdirectlysupportsAdduci’spreviousresearchthatoboistsuse

extraneousamountsofintraoralpressurewhenplayingtheirinstrument.

Insomecases,particularlyamongthesingleanddoublereedinstruments,intraoral

pressureremainedhigherafterreachingthepeakdynamicandthroughthediminuendo,even

thoughthelowerdynamiclevelswereperformedearlierintheexercisewithlowerintraoral

45

pressure.Theseeventsmaybecausedbytheinabilityoftheperformertoaccuratelyperceive

thenecessarydecreaseinintraoralpressureneededtodiminishthesound.Itisalsoacommon

practiceamongmanywoodwindperformerstomaintainafasterairstreamwhenplayinga

diminuendoinordertoavoidunwantedinterruptionsinthesoundoradropinpitchattheend

ofalongdiminuendo.Performersarecommonlyinstructedtoengagethemusclesofthe

embouchuretodampenthevibrationsofthereedinordertodecreasethesoundpressure

output.Thesepracticescanresultinthesustainedhigherintraoralpressurethrough

diminuendos.Keepingtheintraoralpressurehigherthannecessarymaycauseunnecessary

strainorforceonthemusicianoverthecourseofalongrehearsalorperformance,and

consistentstrainoveryearscouldbehazardoustosofttissuesthatmakeuptheoralcavityand

upperrespiratorytract.Thisstudyraisesconcernssharedbypreviousstudies–thatwoodwind

playersarepotentiallycausingharmtotheiroropharynxbyinaccuratelyperceivingintraoral

pressureneededtoachievethedesiredsound.

Thevibratoexercisesshowedhowwelltheinstrumentreactstorapidfluctuationin

intraoralpressure.Performersontheflute,oboe,andbassoondescribedtheirvibratoas

diaphragmatic/abdominalvibratoproducedbypulsesintheairstream.Performersonthe

saxophonedescribedtheirvibratoasjawvibratoproducedbysmallvariationsinembouchure

pressureagainstthereed.Theinstrumentseachrespondeddifferentlytothesestylesofvibrato

production.Table3showsanaverageofaggregatedatarepresentingtheamplitudeofvibrato

soundpressureoutputandintraoralpressure.

46

TABLE5VibratoAmplitude

InstrumentAmplitudeofVibratoSoundPressureLevel(dB)

AmplitudeofVibratoIntraoralPressure(mmHg)

Flute 14.246663 5.685349Oboe 11.409462 19.158959Saxophone 17.356403 9.405401Bassoon 16.463507 12.899543

Throughexaminingthisdata,itiseasytoseethat,again,thefluterespondedthemost

efficientlytovibratopulsesintheairstream.Theflutehadthesmallestamplitudeofintraoral

pressurevariations.Theoboeagainprovedtobetheleastresponsivetochangesinair

pressure.Theoboerequiredthehighestvariationinintraoralpressuretoproducethesmallest

variationinsoundpressureoutput.Thisevidencesuggeststhat,whileoboistsgeneratehigh

intraoralpressureforrelativelylittlesoundoutput(afactcorroboratedbypaststudies),the

samecannotbesaidforallofthewoodwindinstruments,suchasflute.

Oneinterestingdiscoverythatwasfoundinthisstudyisthatthemeansfromthe

straighttoneexercisesandthemeansfromthevibratoexerciseswerevirtuallythesame,

showingalessthan0.5mmHgincreaseinthemean.Thedatacollectedinthevibratoexercises

showedslightlyincreasedintraoralpressurethanseeninthedatafromthestraighttone

exercises.Thoughthetwotechniques(straighttonevs.vibrato)areverydifferent,intermsof

intraoralpressuretheyshowbasicallythesameamountofstrainonthebody.Inthestraight

toneexercise,theperformer’sembouchure,tongueposition,andairpressureisconsistentand

stable.Whenusingvibratotechnique,however,theperformerhasvariablejawmovement,

embouchure,andairspeedorpressure.Itispossiblethattheintraoralpressuresremainsimilar

evenifthetechniquesarevastlydifferentbecausethesinusoidalmovementofintraoral

47

pressureinthevibratoexercisecloselyoscillatesaroundthestraightlineofintraoralpressure

createdbythestraighttoneexercise.Avisualrepresentationofthisconceptcanbeseenin

Figure3.Inseveralofthechartsdepictingintraoralpressure,thegreenlinevisualizingintraoral

pressureduringthevibratoexerciseisasinusoidalwavethatseemstocloselycorrespondto

thestraightredlineofintraoralpressurecreatedduringthestraighttoneexercise.Clear

examplesofthisareseeninthesaxophoneandbassoonintraoralpressure(IOP)chartswithin

thefigure.

Initially,Iconsideredanalyzingadditionaldatausingrhythmicpulsesofvibratofrom

eachperformer.Theserhythmicvibratopulsesproduceduncharacteristicspikesinintraoral

pressureandsoundpressurelevelsthatwerenotindicativeofthefreevibratodatacollected.

Thisledmetodoubtthepracticalityofincludingtheexercisesatthistime,giventhelimited

practicalityofsuchdata.Onemajorfactorwasthatthesoundsproducedbyaheavyand

rhythmicpulsearenotwhatwouldbeexpectedinacharacteristictoneinstandardpractice.

Theslowestrhythmicpulsesshowedthemostproblemswithclarityassomeoftheslowpulses

hadissueswithextremespikesinintraoralpressureandsoundpressurelevel.Sometimesthere

wasastopofsoundfromtheperformers(byaccident)andtheintraoralpressurereadings

showedgaps(maybeduetooverdramaticchangesintheoralcavityandairpulses).

Thefindingsamongthemultiplewoodwindperformersmaysuggesttwothings.

Narrowerrangeamongmultiplewoodwindperformersmightbeduetoperformerequipment

choice.Itisprobablethateachmultiplewoodwindperformerselectedequipment,including

mouthpiece,reed,bocal,orheadjoint,whichallowedhimorhertofeelmorecomfortable

whenswitchingquicklybetweeninstruments–anecessityformanymultiplewoodwind

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performers.Onepossiblewaytoachievethegreatestlevelofcomfortachievedbyeach

performeristhateachpieceofequipmentisabletominimizevariationsinresistanceorback

pressurebetweeninstruments.

Anotherpossibilityforthenarrowerrangeseeninmanyofthemultiplewoodwind

performerscouldbeduetotheprocessofinstrumentselectionbythesingleinstrument

performersandtheinabilityofmultiplewoodwindperformerstobeanatomicallywell-suitedto

eachinstrumentthattheyplay.Performerswhoplayonlyoneinstrumentmaygravitatetoward

aninstrumentwhichiswellsuitedtotheiranatomy;forexample,aperformerwhocancreate

andtolerateahighamountofintraoralpressuremightbemoregiftedattheoboe.This

specializationprocesscanbeattributedtothetraditionofinstrumentselectionatanearlyage,

inwhichmanyyoungmusiciansaretestedfortheirnaturalabilityoneachinstrumentbefore

beingguidedtotheinstrumentwhichbestsuitesthem.Incontrasttosingleinstrument

performers,thosewhoplaymultiplewoodwindscandevelopversatilitybutarerarelyequally

suitedforallfiveoftheinstruments.Therefore,itispossiblethatthenarrowrangeseenin

intraoralpressureamongmultiplewoodwindplayersisduetoanatomiclimitationsifeach

instrumentisbestsuitedforcertainphysicalcharacteristics,itisimprobablethatoneperson

couldshowasbroadofarangeoneachinstrumentasonewhospecificallychoseaninstrument

basedoneaseofperformance.Ananalogycanbemadebetweenperformingprofessionallyon

amusicalinstrumentandplayingprofessionalsports.Ifoneweretolookatprofessional

basketballplayersasanexample,youwillseethatalargemajorityofthebasketballplayersare

tall.Heightinbasketballisanimportantphysicalattributethathelpstheathletetosucceed.

Similarly,professionalmusiciansmaygravitatetowardinstrumentsforwhichtheyhavethe

49

physicalattributestohelpthemsucceed.Awindinstrumentperformer’ssuccessdependson

theshape,size,andcapacityoftheentirerespiratorytract.Thisisacontroversialtopicamong

musiceducators,andwithoutfurtherresearchandevidencetosuggestspecificsolutions,this

studymaysimplyinformtheinstructor’sthoughtprocesstowardotherfactorsthataccountfor

astudent’sperceivednaturalabilityorlackthereof.Thishypothesisrequiresfurtherresearch,

becauseinthisstudy,aperformer’sphysicalcharacteristicswerenotcollected.

Itistemptingtostatethatthemultiplewoodwindperformersparticipatinginthisstudy

couldbethoughtofasacontrolgroupgiventhestandardizationofthephysicalcharacteristics

oftheplayeracrosseachinstrument.Inaddition,multiplewoodwindperformancetrainingis

designedtocharacteristicsoundproductionforeachinstrument;however,thereare

limitationstothisproposal.Onelimitationisthattheyarenotasspecializedoneachspecific

instrument,possiblyskewingtheresultsofthisstudy.Also,aspreviouslystated,thereare

possibleanatomicallimitsthatmightcontributetothenarrowrangeofintraoralpressureseen

inmultiplewoodwindplayers.

Amongthemultiplewoodwindperformers,amorenarrowrangeofintraoralpressure

meanswasfoundacrossthedifferentinstrumentsintwoofthethreeperformers.Itshouldalso

benotedthattheseperformershadlowerintraoralpressurevaluesformostoftheinstruments

whencomparedtothesingleinstrumentperformers.Theseresultsmayleadtotheconclusion

thattherecouldbesignificantdifferencesinthewaymultiplewoodwindperformersplayeach

instrument,thetypeofequipmentselected,orphysicalanatomicalcharacteristicscreating

thesedifferences.Thesebroadconclusionsareonlypossibleoriginsforthesetrends,and

50

additionalstudiesexaminingmultiplewoodwindperformersandthevariablesinvolvedshould

beresearchedinordertodrawfurtherconclusions.

51

CHAPTER6.CONCLUSIONS

Therearevariouslimitingfactorstoconsiderwhendeterminingthevalidityofthis

study.Onesuchfactorissamplesize;only5-6performersparticipatedinthestudyforeach

instrument,arelativelysmallnumberofsubjectsfromwhichtodrawconclusions.Althoughthis

studywassignificantlylargerthanpreviousstudiesofthisnature,thescopemaynotbea

sizeableenoughquantitytodrawbroadconclusions.

Anotherlimitationofthisstudywaspitchlevel.ThestudyusedthewrittenpitchesD4,

G4,C5,A5,anddidnottakeintoconsiderationthetranspositionsnecessaryintheclarinetand

saxophone.Futurestudiesmightfocusonthesoundingpitchlevelratherthanthewrittenpitch

toeliminatethisdiscrepancybetweeninstruments.Also,thesewrittenpitchesdonothave

similarfingeringsacrossallofthewoodwindinstruments,andthevariationinlengthof

instrumentengagedbyfingeringsplusotheracousticalpropertiesmayaccountforsomeofthe

variabilitybetweeninstrumentsinthisstudy.Afingerednoterequiringmoretoneholestobe

closedcreatesmoreresistancefortheperformerwhencomparedtoonewithfewertoneholes

closed.Pedagogically,beginnermethodbooksforwoodwindstudentsoftenstarttheperformer

withanopenfingering,becauseopenfingeringsonaninstrumentallowthestudenttobecome

comfortablewiththebackpressureofthereedormouthpiece-reedcombinationwithout

additionalresistancefromthebodyoftheinstrument.

Anotherfactoroftenignoredinstudiesofthistypeisvariabilityinthesizeandshapeof

theperformers’oralcavitiesandupperrespiratorytracts.Sinceintraoralpressureistheforce

exertedontheinteriorsurfaceareaoftheoralcavity,surfaceareavariationsbetweeneach

subjectmayadditionallycontributetothevariabilitypresent.Itwouldbeinterestingto

52

measurethesurfaceareaoftheoralcavityandupperrespiratorytractanddetermineifthere

aretrendsacrossinstrumentgroups.Inthisstudy,Itriedtostandardizetheoralcavitysurface

areathroughtheuseofmultiplewoodwindperformers,however,thedataproducedwasnot

enoughtodrawclearconclusions.

Futureresearchexaminingintraoralpressureshouldalsoconsiderhowthe

measurementsofsoundpressurelevelinanensemblesettingmaybeusedasameasureof

strainplacedontheperformers.Itispossiblethatastudyofintraoralpressureamong

woodwindperformersinanensemblecouldleadtopedagogicalsuggestionsforconductors.

Finally,anyfuturestudiesofthisnatureshouldseektoimproveonthefoundationsofthis

studyandaddressthelimitationsdiscussedabove.

Theresultsofthisstudyhavepracticalapplicationsthatstrengthenourpedagogical

approachtoteachingwoodwindinstruments.Preventativemeasuresmaybeintroducedto

reducetheintraoralpressureinordertominimizetheriskofdevelopingsofttissueinjuries

whenplayingwoodwindinstruments.Inhisarticle,Gibsonmakessomenon-surgical

suggestionstohelpperformerswhosufferfromvelopharyngealinsufficienciesincluding:

• Posture: Re-evaluate from head to toe, standing and sitting. Becomeawareofyourhead,neck,spine,shoulders,armsandhands,allshouldbefreeofstress.

• Breathing and breath support: Throat free of tension, good inhalationwithrelaxedshouldersthusallowingforneededexpansionandconstantsupportduringexhalation.

• Embouchure: Examine the combination of instrument setup andembouchureformationandfunctionforanembouchurethatistootightcan indicateoverall tension,andcanalsocreateadditionalstressofthevelopharyngeal muscles. A too-resistant mouthpiece-reed combination

53

can contribute to the air leak, although if the embouchure is workingcorrectly,avarietyofreedstrengthsmaybetolerated.20

Pedagogically,Gibson’smostnotablesuggestionmaybetheinstrumentsetup.

Whenplayingonareedormouthpiece/reedcombinationthatcreatesexcessive

resistance,theperformerwillcreatemoreintraoralpressuretoproduceasound.Ifthe

performerishesitanttochangehisorherequipment,morefrequentbreakscanbea

solution,allowingthebodytorelaxandrecuperatewithoutthestraincreatedby

intraoralpressure.

Throughoutthescopeofthisstudy,Iaimedtoprovideascientificfoundationforthe

understandingofintraoralpressureanditsrelationshiptosoundpressureoutputwhen

performingonwoodwindinstruments.Bygainingaricherunderstandingofthesevariablesand

therelationtowoodwindperformance,Ibelievethisstudycanleadtopracticalchangesinthe

waywoodwindplayersbothperformandteach.Thisstudyprovidesafoundationforfuture

relatedfindings,andIhopethattheresultsofthisstudywillleadtofurtherexaminationofthe

effectsofrespiratorypressuresonwindplayers,leadingtogreaterpedagogicaltechniquesfor

thepreventionofperformancerelatedinjuries.

20Gibson,C.(2007).CurrentTrendsinTreatingthePalateAirLeak(StressVelopharyngealInsufficiency).(ClarinetFest)RetrievedAugust13,2015,fromInternationClarinetAssociation:https://www.clarinet.org/clarinetFestArchive.asp?archive=30

54

APPENDIX

RESEARCHCONSENTFORMWITHIRBAPPROVAL

55

University of North Texas Institutional Review Board

Informed Consent Form

Before agreeing to participate in this research study, it is important that you read and understand the following explanation of the purpose, benefits and risks of the study and how it will be conducted.

Title of Study: Intraoral pressure and Sound Pressure in Woodwind Performance

Student Investigator: Micah Bowling, University of North Texas (UNT) Department of Music. Supervising Investigator: Dr. Kris Chesky.

Purpose of the Study: You are being asked to participate in a research study, which involves characterizing intraoral pressure (back pressure) in relation to sound pressure (volume output) levels generated during performance on each of the woodwind instruments.

Study Procedures: You will be asked to play 2 short musical tasks on your instrument. A very small (2mm diameter) plastic tube will be inserted into the corner of your mouth to measure intraoral pressure. This will take about 30 minutes of your time.

ForeseeableRisks:Noforeseeablerisksareinvolvedinthisstudy.BenefitstotheSubjectsorOthers:Thisstudyisnotexpectedtobeofanydirectbenefittoyou,butwehopetolearnmoreabouttherelationshipbetweenintraoralpressureandsoundpressurelevelsinwoodwindperformance.Theresultsofthisstudymayleadothertostudyintraoralpressureasatriggerforsofttissuedisordersinvolvedwithwoodwindperformance.Youmaydiscoverthattheintraoralpressuremayexceedwellbeyondtheabilitytoincreasesoundoutput,whichcouldgiveyouforesightintoareastochangeorimprovedtheefficiencyofyourplaying.CompensationforParticipants:NoneProceduresforMaintainingConfidentialityofResearchRecords:Thesubjects’personallyidentifiableinformationwillnotbecollected.Thesubjectswillberepresentedasnumbersonanygraphs,charts,orvisualrepresentationofdata.Theconfidentialityofyourindividualinformationwillbemaintainedinanypublicationsorpresentationsregardingthisstudy.

Questions about the Study: If you have any questions about the study, you may contact Micah Bowling at [email protected] or Dr. Kris Chesky at [email protected]

Review for the Protection of Participants: This research study has been reviewed and approved by the UNT Institutional Review Board (IRB). The UNT

56

IRB can be contacted at (940) 565-3940 with any questions regarding the rights of research subjects.

Research Participants’ Rights:

Your signature below indicates that you have read or have had read to you all of the above and that you confirm all of the following:

• Micah Bowling has explained the study to you and answered all of your questions. You have been told the possible benefits and the potential risks and/or discomforts of the study.

• You understand that you do not have to take part in this study, and your refusal to participate or your decision to withdraw will involve no penalty or loss of rights or benefits. The study personnel may choose to stop your participation at any time.

• Your decision whether to participate or to withdraw from the study will have no effect on your grade or standing in any course.

• You understand why the study is being conducted and how it will be performed.

• You understand your rights as a research participant and you voluntarily consent to participate in this study.

• You have been told you will receive a copy of this form.

________________________________ Printed Name of Participant

________________________________ ____________ Signature of Participant Date

For the Student Investigator or Designee:

I certify that I have reviewed the contents of this form with the subject signing above. I have explained the possible benefits and the potential risks and/or discomforts of the study. It is my opinion that the participant understood the explanation.

______________________________________ ____________ Signature of Student Investigator Date

57

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SoundandNoise:CharacteristicsofSoundandtheDecibelScale.(n.d.).(EnvironmentalProtectionDepartment:TheGovernmentofHongKong)RetrievedAugust12,2015,fromEnvironmentalProtectionDepartment:http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/noise_education/web/ENG_EPD_HTML/m1/intro_5.html

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