Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 1 Introduction To Power Engineering Dr : Houssem Rafik El- Hana BOUCHEKARA 2010/2011 1431/1432 KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA Ministry Of High Education Umm Al-Qura University College of Engineering & Islamic Architecture Department Of Electrical Engineering
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Intorduction to Power Engineering - 7 Distribution
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Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 1
Introduction To Power Engineering
Dr : Houssem Rafik El- Hana
BOUCHEKARA 2010/2011 1431/1432
KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA Ministry Of High Education
Umm Al-Qura University College of Engineering & Islamic Architecture
Department Of Electrical Engineering
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 2
1 ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION ................................................................................... 3
1.2 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ...................................................................................... 5
1.3 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION ................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Radial Systems ....................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Loop or Ring Systems ............................................................................................. 8 1.3.2.1 Open Loop .................................................................................................................... 8 1.3.2.2 Closed Loop .................................................................................................................. 9
1.3.3 Primary Network Systems ..................................................................................... 9
1.3.4 Secondary Distribution ........................................................................................ 11 1.3.4.1 Individual Transformer—Single Service ..................................................................... 11 1.3.4.2 Common Secondary Main .......................................................................................... 12 1.3.4.3 Banked Secondaries ................................................................................................... 12 1.3.4.4 Secondary Networks .................................................................................................. 13
2.3.1 Load Allocation .................................................................................................... 28 2.3.1.1 Application of Diversity Factors ................................................................................. 28 2.3.1.2 Load Survey ................................................................................................................ 29 2.3.1.3 Transformer Load Management ................................................................................ 32 2.3.1.4 Metered Feeder Maximum Demand ......................................................................... 33 2.3.1.5 What Method to Use? ................................................................................................ 34
2.3.2 Voltage-Drop Calculations Using Allocated Loads .............................................. 34 2.3.2.1 Application of Diversity Factors ................................................................................. 34 2.3.2.2 Load Allocation Based upon Transformer Ratings ..................................................... 38
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 3
1 ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Once electrical power has been produced, it must be distributed to the location
where it is used. This chapter deals with electrical power distribution systems. This chapter
provides an overview of distribution systems. Figure 1 shows the electrical power systems
schematic sketch and the major topics of this chapter, Electrical Power Distribution.
Figure 1: The “vertical power system.” Power is produced at a few large generators (only one is shown) and moved over a transmission system consisting of dozens, even hundreds of regional power lines (only one path is shown). Once brought to the local community, it is reduced in voltage and shipped to neighborhoods, and to the individual consumer, on a distribution system (only one of thousands of lines and customers is shown). Some utilities perform all the functions shown, others only a portion.
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 4
An electric distribution system, or distribution plant as it is sometimes called, is all of
that part of an electric power system between the bulk power source or sources and the
consumers’ service switches. The bulk power sources are located in or near the load area to
be served by the distribution system and may be either generating stations or power
substations supplied over transmission lines. Distribution systems can, in general, be divided
into six parts, namely, subtransmission circuits, distribution substations, distribution or
primary feeders, distribution transformers, secondary circuits or secondaries, and
consumers’ service connections and meters or consumers’ services. Figure 2 is a schematic
diagram of a typical distribution system showing these parts.
Figure 2: Typical distribution system showing component parts.
The subtransmission circuits extend from the bulk power source or sources to the
various distribution substations located in the load area. They may be radial circuits
connected to a bulk power source at only one end or loop and ring circuits connected to one
or more bulk power sources at both ends. The subtransmission circuits consist of
underground cable, aerial cable, or overhead open-wire conductors carried on poles, or
some combination of them.
Each distribution substation normally serves its own load area, which is a subdivision
of the area served by the distribution system. At the distribution substation the
subtransmission voltage is reduced for general distribution throughout the area. The
substation consists of one or more power-transformer banks together with the necessary
voltage regulating equipment, buses, and switchgear.
The area served by the distribution substation is also subdivided and each
subdivision is supplied by a distribution or primary feeder. The three-phase primary feeder
is usually run out from the low voltage bus of the substation to its load center where
it branches into threephase subfeeders and single-phase laterals. The primary feeders and
laterals may be either cable or openwire circuits, operated in most cases at 2400 or 4160
volts.
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Distribution transformers are ordinarily connected to each primary feeder and its
subfeeders and laterals. These transformers serve to step down from the distribution
voltage to the utilization voltage. Each transformer or bank of transformers supplies a
consumer or group of consumers over its secondary circuit. Each consumer is connected to
the secondary circuit through his service leads and meter. The secondaries and service
connections may be either cable or open-wire circuits.
Briefly, the problem of distribution is to design, construct, operate, and maintain a
distribution system that will supply agequate electric service to the load area under
consideration, both now and in the future, at the lowest possible cost. Unfortunately, no
one type of distribution system can be applied economically in all load areas, because of
differences in load densities, existing distribution plant, topography, and other local
conditions.
In studying any load area, the entire distribution or delivery system from the bulk
power source-which may be one or more generating stations or power substations, to the
consumers should be considered as a unit. This includes subtransmission-distribution
substations, Primary feeders, distribution transformers, secondaries, and services. All of
these parts are interrelated and should be considered as a whole so that money saved in
one part of the distribution system will not be more’ than offset by a resulting increase
elsewhere in the system.
For different load areas, or even different parts of the same load area, the most
effective distribution system will often take different forms. Certain principles and features,
however, are common to almost all of these systems. The distribution system should
provide service with a minimum voltage variation and a minimum of interruption. Service
interruptions should be of short duration and affect a small number of consumers. The
overall system cost-including construction, operation, and maintenance of the system-
should be as low as possible consistent with the quality of service required in the load area.
The system should be flexible, to allow its being expanded in small increments, so as to meet
changing load conditions with a minimum amount of modification and expense. This
flexibility permits keeping the system capacity close to actual load requirements and thus
permits the most effective use of system investment. It also largely eliminates the need for
predicting the location and magnitudes of future loads. Therefore, long-range distribution
planning, which is at best based on scientific guesses, can be greatly reduced.
1.2 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Electric power distribution is the portion of the power delivery infrastructure that
takes the electricity from the highly meshed, high-voltage transmission circuits and delivers
it to customers. It can be divided into two subdivisions:
1. Primary distribution, which carries the load at higher than utilization voltages
from the substation (or other source) to the point where the voltage is
stepped down to the value at which the energy is utilized by the consumer.
Primary distribution lines are “medium-voltage” circuits.
2. Secondary distribution, which includes that part of the system operating at
utilization voltages, up to the meter at the consumer’s premises.
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1.3 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION
Primary distribution systems include three basic types:
1. Radial systems, including duplicate and throwover systems
2. Loop systems, including both open and closed loops
3. Primary network systems
1.3.1 RADIAL SYSTEMS
The radial-type system is the simplest and the one most commonly used. It
comprises separate feeders or circuits “radiating” out of the substation or source, each
feeder usually serving a given area. The feeder may be considered as consisting of a main or
trunk portion from which there radiate spurs or laterals to which distribution transformers
are connected, as illustrated in Figure 3.
The spurs or laterals are usually connected to the primary main through fuses, so
that a fault on the lateral will not cause an interruption to the entire feeder. Should the fuse
fail to clear the line, or should a fault develop on the feeder main, the circuit breaker back at
the substation or source will open and the entire feeder will be de-energized.
To hold down the extent and duration of interruptions, provisions are made to
sectionalize the feeder so that unfaulted portions may be reenergized as quickly as practical.
To maximize such re-energization, emergency ties to adjacent feeders are incorporated in
the design and construction; thus each part of a feeder not in trouble can be tied to an
adjacent feeder. Often spare capacity is provided for in the feeders to prevent overload
when parts of an adjacent feeder in trouble are connected to them. In many cases, there
may be enough diversity between loads on adjacent feeders to require no extra capacity to
be installed for these emergencies.
Supply to hospitals, military establishments, and other sensitive consumers may not
be capable of tolerating any long interruption. In such cases, a second feeder (or additional
feeders) may be provided, sometimes located along a separate route, to provide another,
separate alternative source of supply. Switching from the normal to the alternative feeder
may be accomplished by a throwover switching arrangement (which may be a circuit
breaker) that may be operated manually or automatically. In many cases, two separate
circuit breakers, one on each feeder, with electrical interlocks (to prevent connecting a good
feeder to the one in trouble), are employed with automatic throwover control by relays. See
Figure 4.
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 7
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3: Primary feeder schematic diagram showing trunk or main feeds and laterals or spurs.
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 8
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of alternate feed-throwover arrangement for critical consumers.
1.3.2 LOOP OR RING SYSTEMS
Another means of restricting the duration of interruption employs feeders designed
as loops, which essentially provide a two-way primary feed for critical consumers. Here,
should the supply from one direction fail, the entire load of the feeder may be carried from
the other end, but sufficient spare capacity must be provided in the feeder. This type of
system may be operated with the loop normally open or with the loop normally closed.
Figure 5: A ring power distribution system.
1.3.2.1 Open Loop
In the open-loop system, the several sections of the feeder are connected together
through disconnecting devices, with the loads connected to the several sections, and both
ends of the feeder connected to the supply. At a predetermined point in the feeder, the
disconnecting device is intentionally left open. Essentially, this constitutes two feeders
whose ends are separated by a disconnecting device, which may be a fuse, switch, or circuit
breaker. See Figure 6.
In the event of a fault, the section of the primary on which the fault occurs can be
disconnected at both its ends and service reestablished to the unfaulted portions by closing
the loop at the point where it is normally left open, and reclosing the breaker at the
substation (or supply source) on the other, unfaulted portion of the feeder.
Such loops are not normally closed, since a fault would cause the breakers (or fuses)
at both ends to open, leaving the entire feeder de-energized and no knowledge of where the
fault has occurred. The disconnecting devices between sections are manually operated and
may be relatively inexpensive fuses, cutouts, or switches.
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Figure 6: Open-loop circuit schematic diagram.
1.3.2.2 Closed Loop
Where a greater degree of reliability is desired, the feeder may be operated as a
closed loop. Here, the disconnecting devices are usually the more expensive circuit breakers.
The breakers are actuated by relays, which operate to open only the circuit breakers on each
end of the faulted section, leaving the remaining portion of the entire feeder energized.
In many instances, proper relay operation can only be achieved by means of pilot
wires which run from circuit breaker to circuit breaker and are costly to install and maintain;
in some instances these pilot wires may be rented telephone circuits. See Figure 7.
To hold down costs, circuit breakers may be installed only between certain sections
of the feeder loop, and ordinary, less expensive disconnecting devices installed between the
intermediate sections. A fault will then de-energize several sections of the loop; when the
fault is located, the disconnecting devices on both ends of the faulted section may be
opened and the unfaulted sections reenergized by closing the proper circuit breakers.
Figure 7: Closed-loop circuit.
1.3.3 PRIMARY NETWORK SYSTEMS
Although economic studies indicated that under some conditions the primary
network may be less expensive and more reliable than some variations of the radial system,
relatively few primary network systems have been put into actual operation and only a few
still remain in service.
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(b) Network distribution systems. Sectionalizing devices on feeders not shown.
(b) Network distribution systems .
Figure 8: Primary network.
This system is formed by tying together primary mains ordinarily found in radial
systems to form a mesh or grid. The grid is supplied by a number of power transformers
supplied in turn from subtransmission and transmission lines at higher voltages. A circuit
breaker between the transformer and grid, controlled by reverse-current and automatic
reclosing relays, protects the primary network from feeding fault current through the
transformer when faults occur on the supply subtransmission or transmission lines. Faults on
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 11
sections of the primaries constituting the grid are isolated by circuit breakers and fuses. See
Figure 8.
This type of system eliminates the conventional substation and long primary trunk
feeders, replacing them with a greater number of “unit” substations strategically placed
throughout the network. The additional sites necessary are often difficult to obtain.
Moreover, difficulty is experienced in maintaining proper operation of the voltage regulators
(where they exist) on the primary feeders when interconnected.
1.3.4 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION
Secondary distribution systems operate at relatively low utilization voltages and, like
primary systems, involve considerations of service reliability and voltage regulation. The
secondary system may be of four general types:
1. An individual transformer for each consumer; i.e., a single service from each
transformer.
2. A common secondary main associated with one transformer from which a group
of consumers is supplied.
3. A continuous secondary main associated with two or more transformers,
connected to the same primary feeder, from which a group of consumers is supplied. This is
sometimes known as banking of transformer secondaries.
4. A continuous secondary main or grid fed by a number of transformers, connected
to two or more primary feeders, from which a large group of consumers is supplied. This is
known as a low-voltage or secondary network.
Each of these types has its application to which it is particularly suited.
1.3.4.1 Individual Transformer—Single Service
Individual-transformer service is applicable to certain loads that are more or less
isolated, such as in rural areas where consumers are far apart and long secondary mains are
impractical, or where a particular consumer has an extraordinarily large or unusual load
even though situated among a number of ordinary consumers.
In this type of system, the cost of the several transformers and the sum of power
losses in the units may be greater (for comparative purposes) than those for one
transformer supplying a group of consumers from its associated secondary main. The
diversity among consumers’ loads and demands permits a transformer of smaller capacity
than the capacity of the sum of the individual transformers to be installed. On the other
hand, the cost and losses in the secondary main are obviated, as is also the voltage drop in
the main. Where low voltage may be undesirable for a particular consumer, it may be well to
apply this type of service to the one consumer. Refer to Figure 9.
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Figure 9: Single-service secondary supply.
1.3.4.2 Common Secondary Main
Perhaps the most common type of secondary system in use employs a common
secondary main. It takes advantage of diversity between consumers’ loads and demands, as
indicated above. Moreover, the larger transformer can accommodate starting currents of
motors with less resulting voltage dip than would be the case with small individual
transformers. See Figure 10.
In many instances, the secondary mains installed are more or less continuous, but
cut into sections insulated from each other as conditions require. As loads change or
increase, the position of these division points may be readily changed, sometimes holding
off the need to install additional transformer capacity. Also, additional separate sections can
be created and a new transformer installed to serve as load or voltage conditions require.
Figure 10: Common-secondary-main supply.
1.3.4.3 Banked Secondaries
The secondary system employing banked secondaries is not very commonly used,
although such installations exist and are usually limited to overhead systems.
This type of system may be viewed as a single-feeder low-voltage network, and the
secondary may be a long section or grid to which the transformers are connected. Fuses or
automatic circuit breakers located between the transformer and secondary main serve to
clear the transformer from the bank in case of failure of the transformer. Fuses may also be
placed in the secondary main between transformer banks. See Figure 11.
Some advantages claimed for this type of system include uninterrupted service,
though perhaps with a reduction in voltage, should a transformer fail; better distribution of
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 13
load among transformers; better normal voltage conditions resulting from such load
distribution; an ability to accommodate load increases by changing only one or some of the
transformers, or by installing a new transformer at some intermediate location without
disturbing the existing arrangement; the possibility that diversity between demands on
adjacent transformers will reduce the total transformer load; more capacity available for
inrush currents that may cause flicker; and more capacity as well to burn secondary faults
clear.
Figure 11: Banked secondary supply.
Some disadvantages associated with this type of system are as follows: should one
transformer fail, the additional loads imposed on adjacent units may cause them to fail, and
in turn their loads would cause still other transformers to fail (this is known as cascading);
the transformers banked must have very nearly the same impedance and other
characteristics, or the loads will not be distributed equitably among them; and sufficient
reserve capacity must be provided to carry emergency loads safely, obviating the savings
possible from the diversity of the demands on the several transformers.
Banked secondaries, while providing for failure of transformers, do not provide
against faults on the primary main or feeder. Further, a hazard on any transformer
disconnected for any reason may result from a back feed if the secondary energizes the
primary (which may have been considered safe).
1.3.4.4 Secondary Networks
Secondary networks at present provide the highest degree of service reliability and
serve areas of high load density, where revenues justify their cost and where this kind of
reliability is imperative. In some instances, a single consumer may be supplied from this type
of system by what are known as spot networks.
In general, the secondary network is created by connecting together the secondary
mains fed from transformers supplied by two or more primary feeders. Automatically
operated circuit breakers in the secondary connection between the transformer and the
secondary mains, known as network protectors, serve to disconnect the transformer from
the network when its primary feeder is de-energized; this prevents a back feed from the
secondary into the primary feeder. This is especially important for safety when the primary
feeder is de-energized from fault or other cause. The circuit breaker or protector is backed
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 14
up by a fuse so that, should the protector fail to operate, the fuse will blow and disconnect
the transformer from the secondary mains. See Figure 12.
Figure 12: Low-voltage secondary network.
The number of primary feeders supplying a network is very important. With only two
feeders, only one feeder may be out of service at a time, and there must be sufficient spare
transformer capacity available so as not to overload the units remaining in service; therefore
this type of network is sometimes referred to as a single-contingency network.
Most networks are supplied from three or more primary feeders, where the network
can operate with the loss of two feeders and the spare transformer capacity can be
proportionately less. These are referred to as second-contingency networks.
Secondary mains not only should be so designed that they provide for an equitable
division of load between transformers and for good voltage regulation with all transformers
in service, but they also must do so when some of the transformers are no longer in service
when their primary feeders are de-energized. They must also be able to divide fault current
properly among the transformers, and must provide for burning faults clear at any point
while interrupting service to a minimum number of consumers; this often limits the size of
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 15
secondary mains, usually to less than 500 cmil × 103, so that when additional secondary
main capacity is required, two or more smaller size conductors have to be paralleled. In
some networks, where insufficient fault current might cause long sections of secondary
mains to be destroyed before the fault is burned clear, sections of secondary mains are
fused at each end.
Because these networks may represent very large loads, their size and capacity may
have to be limited to such values as can be successfully handled by the generating or other
power sources should they become entirely de-energized for any reason. When they are de-
energized for any length of time, the inrush currents are very large, as diversity among
consumers may be lost, and this may be the limiting factor in restricting the size and
capacity of such networks.
1.3.5 VOLTAGES
For all types of service, primary voltages are becoming higher. Original feeder
primary voltages of about 1000 V have climbed to nominal 2400, 4160, 7620, 13,800,
23,000, and 46,000 V. Moreover, primary feeders that originally operated as single-phase
and two-phase circuits are all now essentially three-phase circuits; even those originally
operated as delta ungrounded circuits are now converted to wye systems, with their neutral
common to the secondary neutral conductor and grounded.
Secondary voltages have changed from nominal 110/220 V singlephase values to
those now operating at 120/240 V single-phase and 120/208 or 120/240 V for three-phase
circuits, the 120-V utilization being applied to lighting and small-motor loads while the 208-
and 240-V three-phase values are applied to larger-motor loads. More recently, secondary
systems have employed utilization voltage values of 277 and 480 V, with fluorescent lighting
operating single-phase at 277 V and larger motors operating at a three-phase 480 V. To
supply some lighting and small motors single-phase at 120 V, autotransformers of small
capacity are employed to step down the 277 V to 120 V.
Secondary voltages and connections will be explored further in discussing
transformers and transformer connections.
Note: Voltage levels are defined internationally, as follows:
Low voltage: up to 1000 V
Medium voltage: above 1000 V up to 36 kV
High voltage: above 36 kV
Supply standards variation between continents by two general standards have
emerged as the dominant ones:
In Europe
IEC governs supply standards
The frequency is 50 Hz and LV voltage is 230/400 V
In North America
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 16
IEEE/ANSI governs supply standards
The frequency is 60 Hz and the LV voltage is 110/190 V.
1.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EUROPEAN AND NORTH AMERICAN
SYSTEMS
Distribution systems around the world have evolved into different forms. The two
main designs are North American and European. This book deals mainly with North
American distribution practices; for more information on European systems. For both forms,
hardware is much the same: conductors, cables, insulators, arresters, regulators, and
transformers are very similar. Both systems are radial, and voltages and power carrying
capabilities are similar. The main differences are in layouts, configurations, and applications.
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 17
Figure 13: North American versus European distribution layouts.
Figure 13 compares the two systems. Relative to North American designs, European
systems have larger transformers and more customers per transformer. Most European
transformers are three-phase and on the order of 300 to 1000 kVA, much larger than typical
North American 25- or 50-kVA single-phase units.
Secondary voltages have motivated many of the differences in distribution systems.
North America has standardized on a 120/240-V secondary system; on these, voltage drop
constrains how far utilities can run secondaries, typically no more than 250 ft. In European
designs, higher secondary voltages allow secondaries to stretch to almost 1 mi. European
secondaries are largely three-phase and most European countries have a standard
secondary voltage of 220, 230, or 240 V, twice the North American standard. With twice the
voltage, a circuit feeding the same load can reach four times the distance. And because
three-phase secondaries can reach over twice the length of a single-phase secondary,
overall, a European secondary can reach eight times the length of an American secondary
for a given load and voltage drop. Although it is rare, some European utilities supply rural
areas with single-phase taps made of two phases with single-phase transformers connected
phase to phase.
In the European design, secondaries are used much like primary laterals in the North
American design. In European designs, the primary is not tapped frequently, and primary-
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 18
level fuses are not used as much. European utilities also do not use reclosing as religiously as
North American utilities.
Some of the differences in designs center around the differences in loads and
infrastructure. In Europe, the roads and buildings were already in place when the electrical
system was developed, so the design had to “fit in.” Secondary is often attached to
buildings. In North America, many of the roads and electrical circuits were developed at the
same time. Also, in Europe houses are packed together more and are smaller than houses in
America.
Each type of system has its advantages. Some of the major difference between
systems are the following:
Cost — The European system is generally more expensive than the North
American system, but there are so many variables that it is hard to compare
them on a one-to-one basis. For the types of loads and layouts in Europe,
the European system fits quite well. European primary equipment is
generally more expensive, especially for areas that can be served by single-
phase circuits.
Flexibility — The North American system has a more flexible primary design,
and the European system has a more flexible secondary design. For urban
systems, the European system can take advantage of the flexible secondary;
for example, transformers can be sited more conveniently. For rural systems
and areas where load is spread out, the North American primary system is
more flexible. The North American primary is slightly better suited for
picking up new load and for circuit upgrades and extensions.
Safety — The multigrounded neutral of the North American primary system
provides many safety benefits; protection can more reliably clear faults, and
the neutral acts as a physical barrier, as well as helping to prevent dangerous
touch voltages during faults. The European system has the advantage that
high-impedance faults are easier to detect.
Reliability — Generally, North American designs result in fewer customer
interruptions. Some researchers simulated the performance of the two
designs for a hypothetical area and found that the average frequency of
interruptions was over 35% higher on the European system. Although
European systems have less primary, almost all of it is on the main feeder
backbone; loss of the main feeder results in an interruption for all customers
on the circuit. European systems need more switches and other gear to
maintain the same level of reliability.
Power quality — Generally, European systems have fewer voltage sags and
momentary interruptions. On a European system, less primary exposure
should translate into fewer momentary interruptions compared to a North
American system that uses fuse saving. The three-wire European system
helps protect against sags from line-to-ground faults. A squirrel across a
bushing (from line to ground) causes a relatively high impedance fault path
that does not sag the voltage much compared to a bolted fault on a well-
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 19
grounded system. Even if a phase conductor faults to a low-impedance
return path (such as a well-grounded secondary neutral), the delta – wye
customer transformers provide better immunity to voltage sags, especially if
the substation transformer is grounded through a resistor or reactor.
Aesthetics — Having less primary, the European system has an aesthetic
advantage: the secondary is easier to underground or to blend in. For
underground systems, fewer transformer locations and longer secondary
reach make siting easier.
Theft — The flexibility of the European secondary system makes power
much easier to steal. Developing countries especially have this problem.
Secondaries are often strung along or on top of buildings; this easy access
does not require great skill to attach into.
Outside of Europe and North America, both systems are used, and usage typically
follows colonial patterns with European practices being more widely used. Some regions of
the world have mixed distribution systems, using bits of North American and bits of
European practices. The worst mixture is 120-V secondaries with European-style primaries;
the low-voltage secondary has limited reach along with the more expensive European
primary arrangement.
Higher secondary voltages have been explored (but not implemented) for North
American systems to gain flexibility. Higher secondary voltages allow extensive use of
secondary, which makes undergrounding easier and reduces costs. Westinghouse engineers
contended that both 240/480-V three-wire single-phase and 265/460-V four-wire
threephase secondaries provide cost advantages over a similar 120/240-V threewire
secondary (Lawrence and Griscom, 1956; Lokay and Zimmerman, 1956). Higher secondary
voltages do not force higher utilization voltages; a small transformer at each house converts
240 or 265 V to 120 V for lighting and standard outlet use (air conditioners and major
appliances can be served directly without the extra transformation). More recently,
Bergeron et al. (2000) outline a vision of a distribution system where primary-level
distribution voltage is stepped down to an extensive 600-V, three-phase secondary system.
At each house, an electronic transformer converts 600 V to 120/240 V.
2 LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
In the planning of an electrical distribution system, as in any other enterprise, it is
necessary to know three basic things:
1. The quantity of the product or service desired (per unit of time)
2. The quality of the product or service desired
3. The location of the market and the individual consumers
Logically, then, it would be well to begin with the basic building blocks, the individual
consumers, and then determine efficient means of supplying their wants, individually and
collectively.
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 20
2.1 DEFINITIONS
The load that an individual customer or a group of customers presents to the
distribution system is constantly changing. Every time a light bulb or an electrical appliance
is switched on or off, the load seen by the distribution feeder changes. In order to describe
the changing load, the following terms are defined:
1. Demand
• Load averaged over a specific period of time.
• Load can be kW, kvar, kVA, or A.
• Must include the time interval.
• Example: the 15-minute kW demand is 100 kW.
2. Maximum Demand
• Greatest of all demands that occur during a specific time
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the 15-minute maximum kW demand for the week was 150 kW
3. Average Demand
• The average of the demands over a specified period (day, week, month, etc.)
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the 15-minute average kW demand for the month was
350 kW
4. Diversified Demand
• Sum of demands imposed by a group of loads over a particular period
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the 15-minute diversified kW demand in the period ending at 9:30
was 200 kW
5. Maximum Diversified Demand
• Maximum of the sum of the demands imposed by a group of loads over a
particular period
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the 15-minute maximum diversified kW demand for the week was
500 kW
6. Maximum Noncoincident Demand
• For a group of loads, the sum of the individual maximum demands without
any restriction that they occur at the same time
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 21
• Example: the maximum noncoincident 15-minute kW demand for the week
was 700 kW
7. Demand Factor
• Ratio of maximum demand to connected load
8. Utilization Factor
• Ratio of the maximum demand to rated capacity
9. Load Factor
• Ratio of the average demand of any individual customer or group of
customers over a period to the maximum demand over the same period
10. Diversity Factor
• Ratio of the maximum noncoincident demand to the maximum diversified
demand
11. Load Diversity
• Difference between maximum noncoincident demand and the maximum
diversified demand
2.2 INDIVIDUAL CUSTOMER LOAD
Figure 14 illustrates how the instantaneous kW load of a customer changes during
two 15-minute intervals.
2.2.1 DEMAND
In order to define the load, the demand curve is broken into equal time intervals. In
Figure 14 the selected time interval is 15 minutes. In each interval the average value of the
demand is determined. In Figure 14 the straight lines represent the average load in a time
interval. The shorter the time interval, the more accurate will be the value of the load. This
process is very similar to numerical integration. The average value of the load in an interval
is defined as the 15-minute kW demand.
The 24-hour 15-minute kW demand curve for a customer is shown in Figure 15. This
curve is developed from a spreadsheet that gives the 15-minute kW demand for a period of
24 hours.
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 22
Figure 14: Customer demand curve.
Figure 15: 24-hour demand curve for Customer #1.
2.2.2 MAXIMUM DEMAND
The demand curve shown in Figure 15 represents a typical residential customer.
Each bar depicts the 15-minute kW demand. Note that during the 24-hour period there is a
great variation in the demand. This particular customer has three periods in which the kW
demand exceeds 6.0 kW. The greatest of these is the 15-minute maximum kW demand.
For this customer the 15-minute maximum kW demand occurs at 13:15 and has a
value of 6.18 kW.
2.2.3 AVERAGE DEMAND
During the 24-hour period, energy (kWh) will be consumed. The energy in kWh used
during each 15-minute time interval is computed by:
( 1)
The total energy consumed during the day is the summation of all of the 15-minute
interval consumptions. From the spreadsheet, the total energy consumed during the period
by Customer #1 is 58.96 kWh. The 15-minute average kW demand is computed by:
Dr Houssem Rafik El Hana Bouchekara 23
( 2)
2.2.4 LOAD FACTOR
“Load factor” is a term that is often used when describing a load. It is defined as the
ratio of the average demand to the maximum demand. In many ways load factor gives an
indication of how well the utility’s facilities are being utilized. From the utility’s standpoint,
the optimal load factor would be 1.00 since the system has to be designed to handle the
maximum demand. Sometimes utility companies will encourage industrial customers to
improve their load factors. One method of encouragement is to penalize the customer on
the electric bill for having a low load factor.
For Customer #1 in Figure 15 the load factor is computed to be
( 3)
2.2.5 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LOADING
A distribution transformer will provide service to one or more customers. Each
customer will have a demand curve similar to that in Figure 15. However, the peaks and
valleys and maximum demands will be different for each customer. Figure 16,Figure 17and
Figure 18give the demand curves for the three additional customers connected to the same
distribution transformer. The load curves for the four customers show that each customer
has his unique loading characteristic. The customers’ individual maximum kW demand
occurs at different times of the day. Customer #3 is the only one who will have a high load
factor. A summary of individual loads is given in Table 1. These four customers demonstrate