INTL 204. Introduction to Comparative Politics

INTL 204. Introduction to Comparative Politics

Assoc. Prof. Murat Somer, CASE 153 E-mail: [email protected]

Fall 2012 Office Hours: Tuesdays, 2:00-4:00pm

Learning ObjectivesDefine key concepts such as political

institution, democracy, authoritarianism, totalitarianism, and federal versus unitary systems.

Explain the role of a constitution, and understand the concept of constitutionalism.

Discuss the general type of political system and important constitutional issues in the TIC cases.

Categorize each TIC case as having either a unitary or a federal system.

What are Institutions?Liberal Conceptions

Formal Definition:

Institutions are the rules of the game in a society or, more formally, humanly devised constraints that shape [regulate] human interaction. (Douglas North)

How are Organizations Different from Institutions?

Organizations are the players Institutions are the rules of the

game

GS, BJK, UEFA and MHK are organizationsRules of the game are institutions

Municipalities and contractors are organizationsRules that determine their relationship are institutions

Political parties are players (organizations)Electoral rules are institutions

Courts are organizationsThe laws they apply, the rules that determine their salaries, promotion, accountability, and powers are institutions

What Do Institutions Do?

1. Determine who are the winners and who are the losers2. Define boundaries such as property rights3. Determine standards4. Provide incentives and disincentives5. Enforce contracts6. Monitor behavior7. Punish violatiors and reward cooperators8. Provide information9. Reduce uncertainty10. Produce trust and facilitate human cooperation11. Prevent free riders

Institutions can be:

formal (constitution)

informal (tradition) social

(customs) political economic

The Constitution: A Regime’s Rules for Making Rules

• The constitution defines a country’s regime

• Regime: the nature of the way a society governs itself

• The nature of the relationship between the rulers and the ruled

• Functional and territorial distribution of power

• Rule of Law: A constitution adds legitimacy to a system

• Constitutionalism □ A central concept in the U.S. and other

democracies• Constitutions are designed to limit

the power of government• Government officials must follow the

laws of the land • Upholding these limitations and

following these laws is a key source of legitimacy

Levels of GovernmentFunctional separation of power

ExecutiveLegislatureJudiciary

Elected officialsAppointed officials (bureaucracy)

• Territorial distribution of power

• Unitary versus Federal Arrangements□ Unitary: Regional governments have no

powers reserved to them.□ Federal: Regional governments have

constitutional status and autonomy, share powers with the central government, have certain reserved powers of their own and are represented in the federal (central) government.

Levels of Government

• Local Government□ Exists in federal and unitary systems□ Oversees “day-to-day” municipal

governing

• Devolution transfers Powers from Central Governments to Lower Levels

Political InstitutionsRegime (Political System) Types

TotalitarianismSeeks the atomization of society (Arendt)Emphasizes mass mobilizationOfficial ideologySingle political partyReliance on terror to maintain orderControl of communicationsControl over the means of force in societyCommand economyNorth Korea, Nazi Germany

Political InstitutionsRegime (Political System) Types

AuthoritarianismPresence of a dominant leader or small

group of leadersLimited political participationDegree of autonomy of society from state

controlLack of ideologyLimited control over the economyVariants of authoritarianism

Military, party, bureaucraticSyria, Egypt under Mubarak

Political InstitutionsRegime (Political System) Types

Semiauthoritarianism/SemidemocracyDemocracy is incorporated into an

otherwise authoritarian system

Political InstitutionsRegime (Political System) Types

DemocracySelection of government officials through

free and fair electionsThe balance of majority rule and minority

protectionLimitations on government actionVariants of democracy

Majoritarian, consensusEuropean, Westminster, American and Latin American models

Free & Fair Elections

Free Elections:Individuals have the ability to vote,Their votes are made in secret,Candidates have the ability to run

for office,Candidates have the ability to

campaign for office by providing information to voters.

Free & Fair ElectionsFair Elections:Voters to have access to impartial coverage of the campaign in the media,

Voters to have reasonable access to polling places,

The vote of each eligible voter -and only of eligible voters- to be counted,

Free & Fair ElectionsFair Elections (Cont’d):The vote of each eligible voter to be counted equally,

The losing candidate to acknowledge and accept the results,

The electoral process to be administered and monitored by an impartial body of electoral specialists.

Think and DiscussLook at the list of criteria associated with free and fair elections. How do Turkish elections measure up based on these criteria?

Consensus democracy: A democratic system that unites proportional representation elections, a multiparty system, and diffusion of power across branches and levels of government.

Majoritarian democracy: A democratic system combining strong executives, few checks on the power of the majority to pass laws and amend the constitution, and conflictual politics between two major political parties.

Table 5-1 p132

Topic in CountriesThe United Kingdom

“Westminster democracy,” highly majoritarian

Constitution is not in a single written document; a collection of acts, legal opinions, and customs

Despite significant devolution of powers to regions, remains a unitary state

In Theory and Practice Veto Points in the United Kingdom

■ Veto Points□ Individuals or collective political bodies

whose failure to accept a policy change results in the rejection of the proposed change

□ Parliamentary systems generally have fewer veto points than do presidential systems (see Chapter 6), and unicameral (single-chamber) legislatures have fewer veto points than bicameral ones

□ Thatcher took advantage by making significant social welfare policy changes

Topic in CountriesGermany

Consensus democracy; combination of coalition governments, federalism, and corporatism

The constitution (Basic Law) lays out both social welfare protections and limits on government

“Cooperative federalism” with significant powers for the Länder

Topic in CountriesIndia

Parliamentary democracy; system has evolved from one-party dominant to multiparty

Constitution is long, detailed, and heavily amended; federal system with strong central government

Federal system (28 federal units), but the central government has strong powers; three levels of government

Topic in CountriesMexico

Party-authoritarian system until recently; today an unconsolidated democracy

Constitution originally written in 1917; prohibits the president and legislators from running for reelection; provides for checks and balances that became important when PRI lost its dominance

Federal system with 31 federal units (estados) and one federal district; estados dependent on central government for revenue

In Theory and Practice Political Change in Mexico and Easton’s Systems Theory

• “Old Institutionalism” in political science had focused on describing institutions

• The behavioralism movement that began in the 1950s focused on explaining political outcomes□ David Easton proposed that all political

systems translate inputs (demands and supports) into outputs (policy)

□ The system responds to changes in supports and demands

□ Easton’s model pays little attention to the design of the institutions themselves

• Mexico and Easton’s Approach□ In the latter part of the twentieth century,

changes in demands and supports put pressure on the government of Mexico

□ Resulted in policy changes, including the political liberalization of the 1970s-1990s

□ Even without looking “inside” the Mexican system, Easton’s framework helps explain the changes that led to the PRI losing its dominance over Mexican politics

IN THEORY AND PRACTICE POLITICAL CHANGE IN MEXICO AND EASTON’S SYSTEMS THEORY

Figure 5-1 p145

Topic in CountriesBrazil

Has alternated between democracy and military authoritarianism; remains an unconsolidated democracy with traditional elites maintaining significant power

Current constitution written in 1988; enshrined privileges for the outgoing military government

Federal system with 26 federal units (estados); more power for lower levels than in Mexico; preserves power of local elites

Topic in CountriesNigeria

Combination of majoritarian and consensus democracy; has alternated between democracy and military authoritarianism; democratic status is increasingly unclear

Most recent constitution written in 1999; emphasis on the need for unity in a country with prevalent identity and political divisions since independence

Formerly an ethno-federal system; now more of an American-style federal system; provides a certain degree of cross-cutting identities among the otherwise complementary identity divisions

Topic in CountriesRussia

Democratic following collapse of USSR; creeping authoritarianism; semiauthoritarian system today

New constitution since December 1993; Putin not seeking third term gave some legitimacy to the constitution in an otherwise increasingly authoritarian system

Federal system; since Putin came to power, central government has increased its power versus the regions (which now number 83)

Topic in CountriesChina

Under Mao Zedong, often considered a totalitarian system; since Deng Xiaoping, more like a party-authoritarian system

Evidence that a constitution, even one that is somewhat followed, does not equal democracy

Unitary state with 31 regions; some devolution, but still not a federal system

In Theory and Practice China and Skocpol’s States and Social Revolutions

• Theda Skocpol’s 1979 book set the stage for a new focus on political institutions□ Skocpol saw state institutions as an

important independent variable, not a “black box” like in Easton’s approach

□ Led to calls to “bring the state back in”

• China is a Main Case in Skocpol’s Book□ Collapse of Imperial System due to the state

relying on local leaders for military support□ Her argument has relevance today, as China

relies more and more on regional and local officials

Topic in CountriesIran

Theocracy; under former President Khatami, attempts at reform; under President Ahmadinejad, a return to hardline policies

Constitution after the Revolution implemented a theocracy, including the position of Supreme Leader; overhauled in 1989 (abolished prime min.)

Unitary state with 30 regions; powerful provincial leaders; central government has overseen “controlled decentralization”

In Theory and Practice Iran and Rational Choice New Institutionalism

• New Institutionalism□ Focuses on theories that use political institutions to

explain political outcomes□ Three main variants:

• Sociological N.I.• Historical N.I.• Rational Choice N.I.

• Rational Choice New Institutionalism□ Sees political institutions as the product of rational

choices by political actors□ Existing rules constrain decision makers, but they

may also try to change these arrangements

• Rational Choice N.I. and Iran□ Many in the West portray Iranian leaders as

irrational fanatics□ But, Rational Choice N.I. would see them as much

more rational, designing the rules of their theocracy to maximize the goals of maintaining power and controlling society

• Reformers versus Hardliners□ Rational Choice N.I. explains how reformers wanting

to change existing rules are constrained□ It also explains the hardliners’ use of the existing

rules to block pro-reform candidates

IN THEORY AND PRACTICE IRAN AND RATIONAL CHOICE NEW INSTITUTIONALISM

Country Summary 5-1a p155

Country Summary 5-1b p156

Country Summary 5-1c p156