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Definition of Marketing
the process of planning and executing
the conception, pricing, promotion, and
distribution of ideas, goods, and servicesto create exchanges that satisfy
individual and organizational objectives. Proses perencanaan dan melaksanakan bayangan pengertian, Menetapkan harga,
Promosi, Dan distribusi ide, Barang, Dan pelayanan-pelayanan membuat
penukaran yang memuaskan sendiri dan sasaran hasil organisatoris.
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E.g. Vitasoy
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Exchange
a process by which two or more persons
give and receive something of value. Perubahan
Proses dengan dua atau lebih orang memberi dan menerima sesuatu berharga.
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The Marketing Concept -
Focus on the Customer
Market focus
Customer orientation
Co-ordinated marketing
Profit seeking
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Drawbacks of Marketing
Concept
ignores public
influences values &
ideas
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Recent Development-- Societal Marketing Concept
Concerns public welfare
and social responsibility
e.g. CLP
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The role of Marketing
Marketing Analysis
Marketing Planning
Marketing Implementation
Marketing Control
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Marketing Research
Gathering, recording
and analysis of data
to solve a specific
problem that is too
important to be answered by guessing
an informational input to decisions
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What M.R. can tell ?
How satisfied the consumers are
How products are perceived Evaluate the sales potential
Determine the effectiveness of ad
Predict the impact of price changes
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Defining the Problem & Research Objectives
Developing the Research Plan
Implementing the Research Plan
Interpreting and Reporting the Findings
The Marketing Research Process
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1. Defining the problem and
research objectives
to find out the real problem but not the
symptom
set the research objectives
research approaches:
exploratory descriptive
causal
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Examples
ExploratoryResearch
Descriptive Research Causal Research
Our sales aredeclining and we
dont know why.
What kind of peopleare buying our
products?
Will buyers purchasemore of our product
in a new package
Would people beinterested in ournew-product idea?
What features dobuyers prefer in ourproduct?
Which of the twoadvertisingcampaigns is more
effective?
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2. Developing research plan
Determine specific information needs
Source of information secondarydata
Internal
External
primarydata
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Benefits and Limitations of Secondary
Data
Benefits
Low cost
Less effort Less time
Sometimes more
accurate
Some information onlyfrom secondary sources
Limitations
Collected for other purpose
No control over data collection
Potential accuracy problem
May not be reported in requiredform
May be outdated
May not meet requirements
A number of assumptions made
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Planning primary data collection
research approach
contact methods
sampling plan
research instruments
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Research approach
Observational research
survey research
focus group
experimental research
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Contact methods
Telephone survey
mail questionnaires
personal interviews
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Sampling plan
sampling unit
sampling size
sampling procedure
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Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling
All population members have a knownprobability of being in the sample
Simple Random Sampling Each population member, and each possible
sample, has equal probability of beingselected
Stratified Sampling
The chosen sample is forced to contain unitsfrom each of the segments or strata of the
population
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Sampling Techniques (Contd.)
Cluster Sampling
Involves dividing population into subgroups
Random sample of subgroups/clusters is
selected and all members of subgroups are
interviewed
Very cost effective
Useful when subgroups can be identified that
are representative of entire population
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Research instrument
The most common instrument is questionnaire
what questions to ask
question structure
wording of question
order of question
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Implementing the research
plan
collecting and
analyzing data
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Interpreting and reporting the
finding Interpret the findings, draw conclusions andreport to management
the manager willutilize these findings
to make decisions
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Consumer behaviour
refers to the buying
behaviour of final
consumers
it includes the analysis
of factors that
influences purchasedecisions and product
use
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Definition
Consumer behaviour studies how
individuals, groups,and organizations
select, buy, use, and dispose of goods,services, ideas,or experiences to satisfy
their needs and desires.
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Buyers
black box
Buyers
response
Marketing
and otherstimuli
Consumer Behaviour
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External factors
1. Culture
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2. Social factor
- reference
groups
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3. Family
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4. Salesperson
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5. Advertising
e.g. Fancl
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6. Situation
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Internal factors
1. Perception
the process by which we select organize and
interpret these stimuli into a meaningful and
consistent picture
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Esteem Needs
2. Motivation
to fulfill some kind of need
Self-actualization Needs
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Security Needs
Physiological Needs
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3. Learning
creates changes in
behaviour through
experience and
practice
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4. Attitude
Consistently favourable or unfavourable
evaluation, feelings and tendencies toward an
idea.
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5. Personality
refers to the unique
psychological characteristics
that lead to relatively consistentand lasting responses
E.g. Vita Distilled Water
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6. Demographic factors
such as age, sex, income,
education, occupation,.
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Industrial Buying behaviour
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Industrial market
Consists of all the individuals and
organizations acquiring goods and services
that enter into the production of other
products and services that are sold, rented,
or supplied to others
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Types of buying situations
Straight rebuy
modified rebuy
new task buying
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Industrial buying process
Recognise the problem
determine product needs and describe
product specifications
search for suppliers
assess and select suppliers evaluate overall performance
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Participants in the industrial
buying process
Users
influencers
buyers
deciders
gatekeepers
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Factors affecting industrial buying
behaviour: External factors
Level of demand
economic outlook
budget constraints supply conditions
political/legal and competitive environmental
changes
rate of technological change
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: internal factors
Organizational influences
interpersonal influences
Diff b t
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Industrial market
Businesses do not buy
products for finalconsumption. Instead,
they make purchases to
be used directly or
indirectly in meeting theneeds of final
consumers.
Consumer market
For direct consumption
Buying motive:
Differences between consumer
market and industrial market
Diff b t
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Industrial market
Tend to be larger
Consumer market
Tend to be smaller
Size of purchase:
Differences between consumer
market and industrial market
Diff b t
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Industrial market
Less frequent
Consumer market
More frequent
Differences between consumer
market and industrial market
Frequency of purchase:
Diff b t
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Industrial market
Stable and long term
relationship with seller
Consumer market
Businesses that
produce products for
sale to final consumers
often have little contactwith customers
Buyer-seller relationship:
Differences between consumer
market and industrial market
Diff b t
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Industrial market
More complex,
customized; product
support is critical.
Consumer market
Less complex,
standardized; product
support is important
Product:
Differences between consumer
market and industrial market
Diff b t
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Industrial market
Competitive bidding
and negotiation; list
prices on standard
products
Consumer market
List prices
Differences between consumer
market and industrial market
Price:
Diff b t
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Industrial market
More direct (shorter)
Consumer market
Less direct (longer)
Differences between consumer
market and industrial market
Distribution:
Diff b t
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Industrial market
Emphasis on
personal selling
Consumer market
Emphasis on
advertising
Differences between consumer
market and industrial market
Promotion:
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Marketing strategy
the plan of action for accomplishing the
marketing objectives
consists of
specific strategies for target market
marketing mix
marketing expenditure level
A l d l t t t
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Analyze and select target
market
Market
the set of all actual and potential buyers of
a product
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steps of selecting target market
market segmentationmarket targeting
market positioning
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Step 1
Marketing
Segmentation
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Market segmentation
the act of dividing large, heterogeneous
(dissimilar) markets into smaller,
homogeneous (similar) submarkets.
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Advantages of segmentation
Precise market definition
better analysis of competition
rapid response to changing market needs
effective resources allocation
effective strategic planning
Dimensions for segmenting
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Dimensions for segmenting
consumer markets
Geographic segmentation
dividing the market into different geographical
units.
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Demographic segmentation
dividing the market into groups based on
variables like age, sex, family size, family
life cycle, income, occupation, education,
religion, race, nationality,
popular because of
consumer needs vary closely with demographicvariables
easier to measure
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Psychographic segmentation
based on social class, lifestyle, or
personality characteristics
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Segmentation by benefits
base on what a product will
do rather than consumer
characteristics
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Criteria for effective
segmentation Substantial enough to serve
Accessible by marketing means
Differentiable:
conceptually distinguishable and responding
differently
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Actionable:
effective programs can be designed for
attracting target customers
Measurable:
size of market segment, purchasing
power and profile of target customers
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Step 2
Market Targeting
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to reveal the firm market-segment
opportunities
to evaluate the various segments
segment size and growth segment structural attractiveness
company objectives and resources
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Undifferentiated marketing
A firm decides to ignore market segment
differences and go after the whole market
with one offer. E.g. McDonald
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Differentiated marketing
A firm decides to target several market
segments and design separate offers for
each
E.g. Giordano: men, ladies
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Concentrated marketing
A firm goes after a large share of one or a few
sub-markets.
Selected segments
Specific products
Specific markets
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Step 3
Market
Positioning
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Market positioning
to arrange for a product to occupy a clear,
distinctive and desirable image relative to
competing products in the minds of targetconsumers.
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Purpose:
to reinforce or develop an image concerns
a product in customer mind
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Ways of positioning
Product features
product benefits
associating the product with a use or
application
user category
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St f iti i
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Steps of positioning
1. Identifying a set of possible competitive
advantages
2. Selecting the right competitive
advantages
3. Communicating and delivering the
chosen position to the market
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M k ti Mi
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Marketing Mix
the set of controllable marketing variables
that the firm blends to produce the response
it wants in the target market
4 Ps
product
price
place
promotion
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A product is anything that can be
offered to a market for attention,
acquisition, use, or consumption and
that might satisfy a want or need
3 levels of product
core product actual product
augmented product
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P d t Cl ifi ti
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Product Classification
Convenience goods
Shopping goods
Specialty goods
Unsought goods
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Classification of consumer goods
I di id l d t d i i
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Individual product decisions
Product attribute decisions
Brand decisions
Packaging decisions
Product-Support decisions
P d t Li D i i
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Product Line Decisions
A product line is a group of products that
are related in function, customer-purchase
needs, or distribution channels.
Prod ct mi decisions
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Product mix decisions
the set of all product lines and items that a
particular seller offers for sale
4 dimensions
width
length
depth
consistency
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H i ?
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How new is new?
New to the world
New to the firm
Product line extensions
Product improvement
Product modification
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Why does a company need new products?
Obtain greater profits/ROI
Capture larger market share
Meet customers changing needs &tastes
Shorterproduct life cycle
Build competitive advantages Planned obsolescence
New product development
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New product development
Steps:
Product idea generation
Product idea screening and product
concept development
Business analysis
Product testing
Market testing
Commercialization
Product life cycle (PLC)
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Product life cycle (PLC)
the course of a products sales and profit
over its lifetime
4 stages:
introduction
growth
maturity decline
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Introduction Growth Maturity Decline
Sales
Profit
Time
Salesandp
rofit
Introduction Stage
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Introduction Stage
slow sales growth
profit are nonexistent
high promotion spending
a few competitors
usually focus on high-income groups
Growth Stage
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Growth Stage
rapid market acceptance
new competitors will enter
introduce new product features
market will expand
profit increases
Maturity Stage
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Maturity Stage
slowdown in sales
competitors begin marking down prices,.to find better versions of the product
drop in profit
only well-established competitors
Decline Stage
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Decline Stage
sales fall off and profits
drop
some firms withdraw from
the market
Summary of Product Life-Cycle Characteristics, Objectives, and
Strategies
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INTRODUCTION GROWTH MATURITY DECLINE
Characteristics
Sales Low sales Rapidly rising sales Peak sales Declining sales
Costs High cost per
customer
Average cost per
customer
Low cost per
customer
Low cost per
customer
Profits Negative Rising profits High profits Declining profits
Competitors Few Growing number Stable number,
beginning to decline
Declining number
Marketing
Objectives
Create product
awareness and trial
Maximize market
share
Maximize profit while
defending market
share
Reduce expenditure
and milk the brand
Strategies
Product Strategy Offer a basic product Offer product
extensions, service,
warranty
Diversify brand and
models
Phase out weak
items
Pricing Strategy High price, unique
product/ cover
introduction costs
Lower price with
passage of time
Price at or below
competitors
Set price to stay
profitable or
decrease to liquidate
Promotion Strategy Mount sales
promotion for product
awareness
Appeal to mass
market; emphasize
features, brand
Emphasize brand
differences, benefits,
loyalty
Reinforce loyal
customers; reduce
promotion
expenditures
Place Strategy Distribute through
selective outlets
Build intensive
network of outlets
Enlarge distribution
network
Be selective in
distribution; trim
away unprofitable
outlets
Ways to extend PLC
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Ways to extend PLC
To increase the frequency of use
to add new user
to find new uses
to change package size, label,
or product quality
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Factors influencing pricing
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decisions ---- Internal Factors
1. Business and marketing objectives
pricing objectives derive directly from
company objectives
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2. Marketing mix strategy
must coordinate with product, design,distribution and promotion decisions
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3. Costs
set the floor for the price
External factors
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External factors
1. The market and demand
Pricing in different types of market
consumer perception of
price and value
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2. Competitors prices and offers
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3. Other external factors
economic conditions
reseller conditions
Government
Pricing Objectives
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Pricing Objectives
Profit maximizing objective
Market share objective
Competition objective
Social objective
Image objective
General Pricing Approaches
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General Pricing Approaches
Cost-based approach
Buyer-based approach
Competition-based approach
Pricing Strategies for New
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g g
Products
Market-skimming pricing
Penetration pricing
Price-adjustment strategies
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Price adjustment strategies
Discount pricing and allowances
cash discounts
quantity discounts
functional discounts
seasonal discounts
trade-in allowances promotional allowances
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Discriminatory pricing
customer-segment pricing
product-form pricing
location pricing
time pricing
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Psychological pricing
Promotional pricing
loss leaders
special event pricing
cash rebates
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Promotion tools
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Promotion tools
advertising
sales promotion
public relations
personal selling
Setting the promotion budget
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Setting the promotion budget
Affordable method
ignores the effect of
promotion on sales
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Percentage-of-sales method
wrongly view sales as thecause of promotion rather
than as the result
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Competitive-Parity
method
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Objective-and-task method
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Five important decisions
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Five important decisions
1. Setting objectives
to inform,
persuade, or
remind
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2. Setting the advertising budget
stage in the PLC
market share
competition
advertising frequency
product differentiation
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3. Creating the advertising message
message generation
message evaluation
message execution
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4. Selecting advertising media
reach, frequency, impact
media types
media vehicles
media timing
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5. Advertising evaluation
communication effects
sales effects
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Sales promotion
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p
A wide variety of short-term incentive tools
coupons
premiums
contests
buying allowances
to stimulate consumers, the trade partners,and the companys own salesforce
Purposes of sales promotion
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p p
to stimulate consumer trials, to reward loyal
customers, to increase repurchase rate, to
cement long-term relationship with
retailers,
used together with advertising or personal
selling
Steps of sales promotion
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p p
Setting sales-promotion objectives
selecting sales-promotion tools
pretesting and implementing
evaluating
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Public relations
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Building good relations with the companys
various publics obtaining favorable publicity
building up good corporate image
handling or heading off unfavourable rumors,
stories and events
Public relations tools
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Create news
speeches
special events
written materials
audiovisual materials
corporate identity materials
contributing money and time to public-
service activities
Major public relations
d i i
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decisions
Setting public relations objectives
choosing public relations messages and
vehicles
implementing the public relations plan
evaluating public relations results
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Steps of sales management
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g
Setting salesforce objectives
designing salesforce strategy
structure, size and compensation recruiting and selecting
training
supervising
evaluating
Personal Selling Process
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g
Prospecting
Preapproach
Approaching the prospect Making the presentation
Handling Objections
Close the sale
Follow up
Factors affecting the
promotion mix
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promotion mix
Type of product/market
push vs. pull strategy
buyer readiness state
PLC stage
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The role of distribution is getting a product
to its target market.
Channels of distribution: the routesfollowed by products as they change
ownership in the movement from production
to consumption
Distribution channel functions
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Information
promotion
contact
matching
Negotiation
physical distribution
financing
risk taking
Designing distribution channel
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Selecting the proper type of distribution
channel
selecting the types of middlemen
determining the intensity of distribution
Meaning of logistics
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the movement of all
materials :
raw materials : from
the sources to theprocessing point
finished goods :
from the plant toultimate customers
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concerns with the management of physical
flow
Major logistics activities
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Transportation
inventory maintenance
order processing
warehousing
materials handling
Protective packaging
acquisition
product scheduling
information
maintenance
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Definition
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Service is an activity or benefit that one party can
offer to another that is essentially intangible and
does not result in the ownership of anything.
Its production may or may not be tied to aphysical product
Diamond medical diagnosis
The Servuction system
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5 elements influence the service:
Organization and system (invisible)
Environment (visible)
Contact personnel / service provider
Customer A
Customer B
The
Servuction System
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Servuction System
Characteristics of service
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Intangibility
inseparability
heterogeneity
perishability
fluctuating demand
Characteristics of Services
differing from Goods
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differing from Goods
Goods Services Resulting Implications MarketingStrategies
tangible intangible Services cannot be
inventoried, patented,
readily displayed/communicated
Tangibilize
the
intangible
The
Peninsula
Characteristics of Services
differing from Goods
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differing from Goods
Goods Services Resulting Implications MktStrategies
standardized heterogeneous Service delivery &
customer satisfactiondepend on employee
actions
Service quality depends
on many uncontrollable
factors
No sure knowledge that
service delivered matches
what was planned &
promoted
HRM mgt
recruitTrain
Process
standardization
empowerment
Servicerecovery
Characteristics of Services
differing from Goods
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differing from Goods
Goods Services Resulting Implications MktStrategies
Production
separate
fromconsumption
Inseparability
of production
&consumption
(interaction)
Customers participate in & affect
the transaction
Customers affect each otherEmployees affect the service
outcome
Decentralize may be essential
Mass production is difficult
isolate
technical
coredecrease
contact level
Increase
customer
participation
Characteristics of Services
differing from Goods
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differing from Goods
Goods Services Resulting Implications Mkt
Strategies
Non-
perishable
Perishable
-fluctuate
demand
Difficult to synchronize supply &
demand with service
Services cannot be returned /
resold
Services cannot be inventoried
Capacity
mgt
Queuing
mgt
Marketing Mix for Services
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Product
Price
Promotion
Place
+
People
Process
Physical evidence Singapore air
Product
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Product
Tangiblize the intangible
core and supplementary services
customization vs. standardization
the service mix
Price
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Customer being inseparable in the process,
outlay by customers include:
Time
Physical effort
Psychological burdens (mental effort, negative
feelings)
Negative sensory burdens (unpleasant
sensations affecting any of the 5 senses)
Price
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Good understanding of the costs is needed
as decrease of above burdens justify higher
pricing
Difficult to define a unit of service, considering:
Visible vs. invisible
Difference in speed
Direct contact vs. impersonal channel
Promotion
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Different from advertising for goods
Intangible nature vivid information that produce a clear impression on the
senses, e.g. symbols
Services are harder for customer to evaluate
Use tangible cues, e.g. high calibre personnel (DHL)
Strong organizational image
Use personal information source, e.g.celebrity endorsements
Engaging in post-purchase communication
Place
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Identify core services
Reduce contact of low contact element e.g.download application forms
Use of technology to create new channels: e.g. Octopus for ticketing, online shopping
Convenience
Number of outlets
Location
scheduling
Fluctuating Demand
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Supply side
Cross training
Use part time staff
Rent or share facilities &
equipment
Schedule down time during
period of low capacity (take
vacation)
Extra service hours
Use technology
Use price
Demand side
Price discrimination
Reservation
Overbook
Queuing (make the waiting
more tolerable)
Shift demand
Change the salespersons
assignment
Create promotional events
People
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Importance of customer contact personnel
Internal marketing (customer focus philosophy,
bonus, awards, recognition as incentive)
Ritzcarlton
Internal Marketing
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Process
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Customer involvement in production
Educate customers in using technology or self-
service
Develop service oriented internal process Logistic support
Empowerment of staff for service recovery
Physical Evidence
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Intangible nature makes service difficult to
evaluate
Communicate through corporate image, word
of mouth, pricing physical evidence, warranty,awards
ritzcarlton
Judge by process, post-purchase information
search needs re-assurance
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Meaning of CRM
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the process of creating,
maintaining, and
enhancing strong, value-laden relationships with
customers and other
stakeholders.
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Rationale behind CRM
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to retain current customers vs. to attract new
customers
new Marketing view: the science and art of
finding, retaining and growing profitable
customers
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challenges
changing demographics
more sophisticated competitors
overcapacity
customer lifetime value
Key concepts in relationshipbuilding
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Customer satisfaction perceived performance > expectations
Customer loyalty and retention create emotional affinity, not just rational
preference
share of customer
cross-selling
Tools to build lasting
customers
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customers
Frequency marketing programs
affinity program
co-marketing and co-branding
customisation and prompt response
create long term contract
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Frequency marketing programs
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affinity program
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co-marketing
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Co-marketing
http://www4.mercedes-benz.com/amgiwc/index.html?loc=en
Co-branding
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g
Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications wasestablished in 2001 by telecommunications
leader Ericsson and consumer electronics
powerhouse Sony Corporation. The company is
owned e uall b Ericsson and Son
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Meaning of consumerism
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a movement that put pressure on businesse
to consider consumer needs and interests
consumer rights
right to be informed
right to be heard
right to safety right to choose
Why consumers need
protection?
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p
Manufacturer may be unfair to consumers
consumers may be unable to judge the
quality
insufficient information to evaluate service
advertisements are exaggerating concern about health
Consumer protection in HongKong
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Legislation
Consumer Council
Responses of businesses toconsumerism
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Provide more and better information
improve product safety
quicker response to consumer complaints
provide customers with a wide range of
products and services
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International marketing
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The process of
focusing the
resources and
objectives on globalmarket opportunities
Environmental forces in
International Markets
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Cultural environment
economic environment
political and legal environment
Standardization vs.
adaptation
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Arguments for standardization
reduce costs
moving to a world living style
international brand
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Arguments for adaptation
most exported goods needed adaptation
take care of environmental differences
max. sales and profits through customization
favours local management inputs
Methods of entering overseas
market
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Exporting
contract manufacturing
licensing
franchising
joint venture
strategic alliance
direct investment
countertrade
Factors affecting the choice of
entry strategy
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desired speed
firm expertise
costs
flexibility
resources profit objectives
Marketing in the case of
economic downturn
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moving down-market
lowering price
promoting image of good
quality and durable
find new markets
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This production is sponsored by the
Contents of a Marketing Plan
Sit ti l l i
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Situational analysis
Marketing Objectives
Selecting the Target
Market
Developing marketing
mix
Budget
Controls
Product attribute decisions
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Product quality
Product features
Product design
Brand decisions
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To brand or not to brand
Brand sponsor
manufacturers brand
private brand
Licensed brands
Co-brands
Brand equity
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Brand equity
High level of consumer awareness, loyalty
Lower marketing costs
Consumer expect stores to carry the brand
The company has more bargaining powerin channeling
High credibility
Easily launch brand extensions Powerful brand
Defense against fierce price competition
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Brand Strategy / Brand Development
line extensions
brand extensions
Multi-brands
new brands
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Product
Existing New
Brand Existing Line
Extension
Brand
Extension
New Multi-
Brands
New
Brands
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Brand PositioningAttributes
Benefits
Beliefs /values
Create surprise, passion excitement
Brand Re-positioning Competitors close positioning cutting market
share
Customers wants may shift Technology www.euyansang.com
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Brand Name selection
Suggest benefits and qualities
Easy to pronounce, recognize
Distinctive, extendable
Capable of registration and legal protection
Packaging decisions
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to create benefits: protection, economy,
convenience and promotion
Major decisions: the main functions
specific elements of package
selecting the package design
Product-Support ServicesDecisions
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deciding which product-support services
to offer
how to deliver the services to customers
Cost-based approach
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Cost-plus Pricing
to add a standard mark-up to the cost
Breakeven analysis and Target Profit Pricing
Buyer-based Pricing
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base on the products
perceived value
Competition-based pricing
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Going rate pricing
base on competitors price
Market-skimming pricing
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Set an initial high price
after initial sales slow
down, it lowers the
price to draw in the
next price-sensitivelayer of customers and
so on
Penetration pricing
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set an initial low price
seek to generate
consumer interest and
stimulate trial purchase
Types of distribution channel
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1.
producer
customer
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2. manufacturer
retailer
consumer
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3. manufacturer
wholesaler
retailer
consumer
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4. manufacturer
wholesaler
retailer
consumer
agent
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5. manufacturer
agent
retailer
consumer
Factors affecting choice ofdistribution channel
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Industrial goods vs. consumer goods
no. of customers
importance of control
characteristics of products
services
Determining the types of
middlemen
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Wholesalers
full-service merchant wholesalers
limited service merchant wholesalers
manufacturer-owned wholesaler
agent
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Retailers
store retailing
nonstore retailing
Factors affecting the choice of
middlemen
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Manufacturer requirement
costs
Determining the intensity of
distribution
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Intensive distribution
exclusive distribution
selective distribution
Observational Research
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Observing relevant people, actions and
situations
unwilling or unable to provide
limitations:
feelings, attitudes and motives, or personal
behaviour
long-run or infrequent behaviour
Survey
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Find out people knowledge, attitude,
preference, or buying behaviour
gather descriptive information
structure or unstructured
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Flexibility
however:
cannot remember
privacy
time pressure
appear to be smart
pleasing answer
Focus Groups
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Small group of people, led by a moderator
opened discussion of a product/service or
buyer behaviour
focus on specific problems or market
opportunities
Experimental Research
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Explain cause-and-effect relationships
between experimental (independent)
variables and dependent variables
Legislation - Ordinances
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Weights & Measure
Sale of Goods
Trade Descriptions
Control of Exemption Clauses