Interlinking Energy Access, Consumption and Energy Carriers

Ashish Mohan, NTNU UEP

Interlinking Energy Access, Consumption and Energy Carriers

- Case Study of Formal and Informal settlements, Darbhanga, India

Master´s Thesis in Urban and Ecological Planning

Trondheim, May 2015

Main Supervisor: Associate Professor Rolee Aranya

Norwegian University of Science and Technology

Faculty of Architecture and Fine Arts

Department of Urban Design and Planning

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Abstract

Energy is crucial for socio-economic development. The presence of energy services is a critical

point in tackling development challenges. But there are many barriers which prevent the availability

of energy services to people living in informal settlement of urban area. The research focuses on

these barriers. This research makes a comparative study between the households of formal and

informal settlement and tries to assess how energy consumption differs in various type of settlement

and what are factors which act as a barrier to energy access.

This thesis first examines the various forms of energy sources which are available to the households

(in both formal and informal settlements) and their type of access ( through formal supply chain or

illegal access to the service). In second stage of research, consumption pattern of energy fuels have

been studied and a regressive analysis is done to find out various household and non households

factors (like income, land tenure status, governance) which shape the energy consumption

behaviour. In the end a comparative assessment of energy consumption and its implications have

been done between formal and informal settlement.

The findings of the research shows that characteristics of the settlement plays an important part in

profiling the energy. For example people living in squatter or informal settlements consume less

fuel compared to those living in formal settings. Also people living in informal settlement are often

deprived of direct access to electricity and LPGs gases so they have to be dependent on other fuel

sources which have a lot of negative impacts on emission. As a result, the emission factor as per

fuel wise is much higher for informal settlement but in aggregate, emission from formal settlement

is greater. This is mainly because people in formal settlement use multiple fuels at the same time.

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Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Norwegian University of Science and Technology

for giving me the opportunity of being a student here. I would like to thank Department of Urban

Design and Planning for giving me the opportunity to write my master´s thesis. This research would

not have been possible without the dedicated efforts of my supervisor Rolee. I am extremely

grateful to my supervisor for her assistance and suggestions throughout my research. I would like to

thank Prof. Hans Skote for his guidance. I would also like to express my gratitude to Rohit Jigyasu

for his detailed feedback and help in developing this research proposal. I would like to thank Vilde

Ulset for helping me out for methods and initial fieldwork analysis. I would also like to thank all the

teachers who have guided me throughout my masters in various other courses.

There are number of people I would like to thank for helping me during the fieldwork. I would like

to thank Manoj Pandey Darbhanga City Manager and staffs of Kanchan Sewa Sansthan who helped

me during my field surveys. To all the people who took their time off in order to be part of my

interview and give answers to survey.

To all my friends and family for helping me survive all the stress from this year and not letting me

give up. Last but not the least to all my batch-mates in UEP for patience, support, enthusiasm and

encouragement and for pushing me farther than I thought I could go.

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Table of Contents Abstract iii

Acknowledgement iv

Table of Content v-vii

List of Acronyms viii

List of Figures

List of Tables

Appendix

1. Introduction

1.1 Issue of Access 1-2 1.2 Energy Access: The concept and Definition 2 1.3 Research Motivation 3 1.4 Research Significance: Why It is Important 3 1.5 Research Objective 4 1.6 Research Questions 4 1.7 Research Scope 4 1.8 Structure of the Research 5

2. Context

2.1 India Country Background 6 2.1.1 Economic Context 6 2.1.2 Social Context 7 2.1.3 Urban Poverty in India 7 2.2 Energy Sector Overview 7-10 2.2.1 Energy Access 10

3. Study Area-Darbhanga City 3.1 Location and Generic Profile 11 3.1.1 Demographic Profile 12 3.2. Economic Profile 14 3.2.1 Work Force Participation Ratio 14 3.2.2 Industrial Profile 14 3.2.3 Trade and Commerce 14 3.3 Energy Access 15 3.4 Urban Poor and Informal Settlement 16

4. Theory and Theoretical Framework

4.1 Energy and Poverty 17-19 4.1.1 Residential Energy Profiling 19 4.1.2 Energy Access 20 4.1.3 Issue of Access (Why it is Used for Study) 20 4. 2 Slums in Megacities and Small Towns 21 4.2.1 Why it is Important to Study Issue of Access in Small Towns 21

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4.3 Understanding Energy Behaviour-Existing Literature in Field 21-22 4.3.1 Household Energy Profile 22-23 4.3.2 Energy Transition 23-26 4.4 Factors affecting Households Energy Choice or Access to Energy Source 26 4.4.1 Household´s Characteristics 26-28 4.4.2 External Factors 28-29 4.5 Critique of Existing Literature 29 4.5.1 Framework Issues 29-30 4.5.2 Wrong Interpretation of Drivers of Energy Use and Transition 30-31 4.6 A New Approach to Household Energy Analysis 31-32 4.6.1 Explaining Energy Behaviour in a Three Dimensional Energy Profile 33-34

5. Methodology

5.1 Research Strategy 35 5.1.1 Research Strategy as Interpretivism and Positivism Paradigm 35 5.1.2 Qualitative vs Quantitative Research 36 5.2 Research Strategy for the Study 5.2.1 Justification for Methods Used 36-37 5.2.2 Selection of Case Study Area 37-38 5.2.3 Time Line 38 5.2.4 Role of Researcher 38 5.3 Methods for Data Collection 5.3.1 Planned vs Actual 38-40 5.3.2 Entry Point in Field & Identification of Nodal Agencies 40 5.3.3 Type of Data Collected 40 5.3.4 Methods for Collecting Primary Data 40-41 5.3.5 Methods for Collecting Secondary Data 42 5.4 Data Reliability 42 5.5 Methods for Data Analysis 5.5.1 Analysis of Interviews 43 5.5.2 Analysis of Quantitative Data 43 5.5.3 Use of Analytical Framework 43-44 5.6 Limitation 44 5.7 Ethical Issue 44-45

6. Case Presentation

6.1 Location and Generic Profile 46-49 6.2 Socio Economic Profile 50 6.3 Energy Carriers: The Supply Network 6.3.1 Formal Energy Carriers 51-52 6.3.2 Parallel System of Supply - The Informal Supply 52 6.3.3 Energy Supply Process 53 6.3.4 Role of Various Stakeholders in Energy Consumption and Process 54-55 6.4 Existing Conditions of Access to Fuel Source 55 6.4.1 Electricity 55-56 6.4.2 Energy for Cooking 57-58 6.4.3 Substituted Source 58

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7. Case Analysis

7.1 Access, Consumption and Interlinking Factors 59 7.1.1 Energy Consumption and Equivalence 60-61 7.1.2 Consumption and Interlinking Factors 61-64 7.1.3 Energy Consumption and Income 64-66 7.2 Access and Availability of Energy Sources 7.2.1 Electricity 67-69 7.2.2 LPG 69 7.3 Access and Fuel Choice 69-73 7.4 Factors Affecting Consumption and Access 73-75

8. Findings and Implications

8.1 Barriers to Energy Access 76 8.1.1 Financial Barrier 76-77 8.1.2 Informal Settlement 77-78 8.1.3 Ubiquitous Role of External Agents/ Alternate Supply Mechanism 78 8.1.4 Institutional Barrier 79 8.1.5 Awareness Barrier 79-80 8.2 Type of Settlement, Consumption and Income 80 8.3 Energy Profile 80-82 8.4 Conclusion of Findings 82 8.5 Implications 82 8.5.1 Implications for Theory 82-84 8.6 Implication for Practice 84-85 8.6.1 Short Term Implications 85-87 8.6.2 Long Term Implications 87-89 8.7 Proposal for further Study 89

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List of Acronyms BIDA Bihar Industrial Development Authority BPL Below Poverty Line BSPHCL Bihar State Power Holding Corporation Limited CBD Commercial Business District CDP City Development Plan CHOICES Community and household options in choosing energy services DElIVER Decentralised Energy for Livelihoods, Environment and Resilience DFID Department for International Development UK DMC Darbhanga Municipal Corporation ESMAP Energy Sector Assessment Program GDP Gross Domestic Product GOI Government of India IEA International Energy Agency INR Indian Rupee KSS Kanchan Sewa Sansthan LPG Liquified Petroleum Gas MDG Millennium Development Goals NBSPHCL North Bihar State Power Holding Coporation Limited NGO Non Governmental Organisation NSS National Sample Survey OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PPHA Persons per Hectare PPP Purchasing Power Parity SPSS Software Package for Statistical Analysis TOE Tones of Energy USD Unites States Dollar UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Plan WDI World Development Indicator WEO World Energy Outlook

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List of Figures 2.1 % Rural and urban households access to lighting sources 9 2.2 % Rural and urban households access to modern cooking fuel 9 3.1 Location of Darbhanga City along with its ward boundaries 11 3.2 Population of Darbhanga City over the years 12 3.3 Ward Wise Population Density of the City 13 3.4 Darbhanga City`s Work Force Distribution 14 3.5 Major Commercial and Industrial location in City 15 4.1 Linkage between Poverty and Energy 18 4.2 Energy and Interrelated Factors 18 4.3 Energy Ladder 23 4.4 Energy Stacking Model 25 4.6 Factors Affecting Household´s Energy Profile 31 4.7 Proposed Framework for Study 32 4.8 Energy Profile of a Household 33 5.1 Time of Fieldwork 38 5.2 A Modular Representation of How Research Shaped over the Time of Fieldwork 39 6.1 Location of Study Area in City 47 6.2 Study Area in Rehman Nagar 48 6.3 Study Area in Ram Nagar 48 6.4 A part of Rehman Nagar and Mahesh Patti 49 6.5 A part of Ram Nagar 49 6.6 Electricity Supply Network 53 6.7 % of Households Having Access to Electricity 56 6.8 Electricity Distribution over Access 56 6.9 % of Household having Access to Cooking Sources LPG & Kerosene 57 6.10 Access to LPG 57 6.11 Access to Kerosene 57 7.1 Average Energy Equivalence per Household 60 7.2 Average Energy Equivalence per Household per Source Consumed 60 7.3 Energy Consumption vs. Household Income 64 7.4 Energy Consumption vs. Household Income - Ramesh Nagar 65 7.5 Energy Consumption vs. Household Income - Ram Nagar 65 7.6 Energy Consumption vs. Household Income- Mahesh Patti 66 7.7 Transmission of Electricity through Various Levels 67 7.8 Raghu with His Family in His House 70 7.9 Houses in Mahesh Patti 71 7.10 House of Mukesh with his Kiosk 72 8.1 Comparative Energy Profile 81 8.2 Energy Profile of the Household 84 8.3 Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy 88

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List of Tables

4.1 Factors Affecting Energy Choice and Access 26 5.1 Number of Surveys in Case Areas 40 5.2 Details of Key Informant Interviews 41 5.3 Details of Secondary Data obtained 42 6.1 Characteristics of Study Area 46 6.2 Population Distribution in Case Area 50 6.3 Income Distribution of Case Area 50 7.1 Nature of Correlation for Energy Sources-Rehman Nagar 62 7.2 Nature of Correlation for Energy Sources-Ram Nagar 62 7.3 Nature of Correlation for Energy Source-Mahesh Nagar 63

List of Appendix

Appendix 1 Questionnaire Survey 94-95 Appendix 2 List of Respondents 96-98 Appendix 3 Correlation Analysis 99-100

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1. Introduction

“Without access to modern energy services, it will not be possible to fully achieve the Millennium Development Goals. The availability of adequate, affordable and reliable energy services is essential for alleviating poverty, improving human welfare, raising living standards and ultimately achieving sustainable development” : Mr. Wu Hongbo

Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs: UN

After many years of research on energy poverty and access and its impact on development, the

issues of access is gaining attention globally through UN Secretary General`s initiative on

Sustainable Energy for All. But still the issue lies in what constitutes energy access and how level of

access varies from formal to informal settlement. In what aspects the various levels of access affect

the energy consumption. This research makes an attempt in highlighting complexities of the issue

related with energy access in context of urban area.

1.1 Issue of Access

Presence of infrastructure services such as electricity, water-sanitations and transport have a major

impact on living standards and economic growth. It is estimated that two billions of the world´s

poor lack access to adequate sanitation, two billion lack access to electricity, one billion lack access

to clean water and more than half of the world`s population have never used telephone (Brook and

Smith 2001). In many cases this lack of access is due to absence of these services in the region or

in the neighbourhood. In some case these services may be present but some households can never

afford it or they do not have the access to the services. An understanding of why the poor lack such

access is therefore essential. Rather than understanding the phenomena of issue in access, many

studies have focussed on current consumption of infrastructure services by poor or the service

option available to them or their demand for improved services. Most of the studies have neglected

to understand the root cause of access. This is evident from the ways these studies have been done.

The commonly used statistics on global issue of access to infrastructure services by poor are: per

capita consumption of electricity, the percentage of the population with access to telephone

network, or the percentage with access to water and sanitation of a minimum quality (Brook and

Smith 2001). No doubt these statistics provide a crude view of access to infrastructure by the poor,

but they fail to present the understanding of the issue of access as faced by a poor household. These

data fail to differentiate between the issue of lack of access and affordability. They provide very

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little insight on the various energy sources consumed by the households and reason behind the

households choice of using those energy sources.

This is where this study comes in. Rather than focussing on consumption per capita or on all above

mentioned indicators this study tries to understand the phenomena which lies behind the

consumption of energy sources. It focusses more on the issue of access and various factors

associated with it.

1.2 Energy Access: The Concept and Definition

Energy access is used to describe energy use pattern of poor people (Kanagwa and Nakata 2008). It

basically means the extent of access people have to the end user services delivered by the modern

energy carriers like electricity, petroleum products and modern bio energy ( Balachnadra 2010). It

also includes the extent of reliance of poor people on traditional solid fuels like firewood, crop

waste, cattle dung for meeting their cooking/heating needs and kerosene vegetable oils and candles

for lighting. In general the energy end uses considered for determining energy access levels are

household cooking and lighting, which are the basic energy needs. In some of the cases energy end

use also contributes to the productive livelihood opportunities which include mechanical power.

Conceptually energy access means that modern energy services should be physically accessible and

available to people and should be of acceptable quality, reliable and preferred. Further it should be

affordable in terms of low capital and operating cost in the context of income ( Balachnadra 2010).

So lack of energy access in the context of study can be of any of the following reason:

a) Lack of physical access: Lack of physical access could be the absence of service in the area i.e

absence of electricity grid network in the neighbourhood and absence of LPG (Liquified

petroleum gas) distribution system . It could also mean that these energy carriers don`t have

physical access to the neighbourhood i.e absence of motorised roads for transporting cooking

fuels.

b) Lack of physical availability: This is because of the lack of non availability of local energy

resources, for example lack of adequate generation capacity of electricity resulting in power

black outs, power cuts and load shedding.

c) Lack of affordability: This is because of the high initial cost of connectivity and income

poverty resulting in inability to pay for the energy carriers and to pay for the connectivity.

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1.3 Research Motivation

Energy is crucial for socio-economic development of any country. Energy is required for all almost

all economic activities, wether it is advance producer based economy or agrarian economy. It has an

important role in eradicating global poverty. It is always regarded as a central requirement to

achieve the Millennium development goals (MDG). Lack of access to energy sources has a

significant impact on economic development, small scale enterprise, educational opportunities and

gender equality. As stated before around 2 billion people do not have access to electricity services.

This has a huge impact as it leads to limited lighting in evening and leads to poor access to

communications, inadequate education and not enough power for work and livelihood. Apart from

electricity over more than three billion people depend on traditional solid fuels such as wood and

charcoal to meet their basic cooking requirements on daily basis.

The presence of appropriate energy services is a critical point in tackling development challenges as

mentioned above. But there are many barriers for increasing energy access to poor, which includes

inadequate policies or service delivery mechanism. In order to have an understanding of these

barriers this research has been carried forward.

1.4 Research Significance: Why It is Important?

As described above that access to various forms of energy by the people help in reducing poverty

and improving their life quality. Access to modern energy services like lighting, cooking, heating,

cooling and communications have an important role in achieving million development goals and its

plays a facilitative role for other development goals as well (Rockstrom, Axbergy et al. 2005). An

effective energy service is prerequisite for economic and social development as well as for

sustainable poverty reduction. Access to modern energy and or to available cleaner energy can be

said as one of the most basic requirement for developments. Even in small urban centres or smaller

towns, there is a large number of people who do not have access to LPG and they depend on

traditional biomass fuels such as wood, crop or dung or dependent on kerosene stoves for cooking.

In some of the households in these towns, people still use kerosene lamps rather than electric bulbs

in absence of bulb. In addition energy has numerous and complex links with poverty reduction.

Therefore it becomes really important to focus on issue of access of energy sources and to study

factors influencing these access or implications of access on consumption.

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1.5 Research Objective

The objectivity of this research focusses on urban settlement of India located in eastern side of the

country. The research primarily tries to assess the current levels of access to modern forms of

energy and the energy consumption patterns. The second objective of the study is to assess how

these levels of access differs from a planned neighbourhood to unplanned neighbourhood. i.e how

level of access varies from an informal settlement to a formal settlement. The third objective of the

study is to find implications of levels of access on consumption and selection of energy forms.

1.6 Research Questions

“How various levels of access determine the energy consumption behaviour in formal and

informal neighbourhoods of urban areas?”

Research Sub Questions:

1) What are the various levels of access to energy resources?

2) How do these levels of access vary with income ? Does increase in income lead to energy

carrier shift i.e shifting to modern fuels?

3) How does the consumption of residential energy varies between informal and formal

settlement?

4) What are the potential barriers which prevent households living in informal settlement in

getting access to local available cleaner energy source?

1.7 Research Scope

In present context of study only three end uses of energy are used for assessing the energy access

levels in formal and informal settlements. The three end uses included in the study are: 1)

households lighting and cooling 2) household cooking 3) mechanical power in context of

livelihood. The modern energy carriers considered a) for cooking: LPG cylinders, kerosene and

electricity b) for lighting and cooling: electricity c) for livelihood opportunity: electricity.

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1.8 Structure of the Research

The research has been written into seven different chapter. Each preceding chapter forms the base

for forthcoming chapter.

Chapter 1 Introduction: The existing chapter introduces the research theme and its significance,

objectivity and scope.

Chapter 2 Context: This chapter highlights the energy situation in India and issues associated with

energy access in India.

Chapter 3 Study Area-Darbhanga City: This chapter gives the overview of the study area.

Chapter 4 Theory and Theoretical framework: This chapter reviews the literature of energy access.

Further it also showcases the various links between energy and poverty, energy and income. And in

the end it concludes with the theoretical framework which is used for the existing research.

Chapter 5 Methods: This chapter explains the methods used for both fieldwork and analysis .

Chapter 6 Case presentation: This chapter introduces the three different case areas and explains the

end user supply distribution process of various energy carriers.

Chapter 7 Analysis: Based on the theoretical framework and dominant theories as explained in

chapter 3, this chapter analyses all the three case areas.

Chapter 8 Findings and Implications: This chapter highlights the findings based on the analysis and

answers the research question. Based on the findings, in the end, this chapter elaborates on its

implication on theory and then implications on practice.

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2. Context Among the world`s energy poor nearly 95% of these people are either in sub-Saharan African or

developing Asia and 84% of these live in rural areas (IEA 2015). In Asia alone there are more than

657 million people without access to electricity and more than 1.9 billion people are dependent on

inefficient burning of biomass for meeting their cooking energy needs. In Asia five countries

Bangladesh, India, China, Indonesia and Pakistan constitute nearly 80% and 86% of the population

lack electricity access and modern cooking energy access (IEA 2015).

2.1 India - Country Background

India has the world`s largest population of 1.28 billion as of now (WDI 2015) and the seventh

largest land mass (IEA 2011). The Indian sub continent is located in Southern Asia, bordering the

Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. It is an ethnically and religiously diverse country with more

than 23 official languages with English as subsidiary official language (IEA 2007). India has

achieved rapid economic development in recent years and became the world`s ninth largest

economy in 2014. With it`s relatively young population with median age of 26.2 years, India will

surpass china and expected to become world`s largest population in the world by 2025. The 1

country is emerging out to be one of the most dynamic economic powers in the world but there

exists various complexities and challenges when it comes to human development indicators. This

section presents a brief glimpses of India`s socio-economic scenario which aims to provide insights

into India`s energy sector and the context of its energy issues.

2.1.1 Economic Context

With nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of USD 20149 billion, India was 9th largest economy

in the world in year 2014. In terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), with constant 2011 USD 3976

billion, India is ranked third after the United States and China. But India`s nominal per capita

income of USD 1489 is lower than other large countries like China where it is USD 5430 (Indicator

2012).

India`s economy has increased at an average rate of approximately 7% since 2000. Even during the

global economic recession in 2008, the Indian economy grew over 9% till 2010. Currently

economic growth rate is around 6.5%.

Based on International Energy Agency population growth projections in WEO 20111

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2.1.2 Social Context

With the recent economic growth the absolute number of people living in poverty did reduce, but

country´s growth failed to achieve a balance between the growth of rural and urban areas. For

example 37.2% of national population and 42% of rural population live below poverty line of USD

1.25 PPP, whereas 26% of the urban population is considered BPL (UNDP 2011). Within all the

region i.e within its all states, considerable socio economic imbalances exits. For example state per

capita income ranges from the richest Goa`s INR (Indian rupees) 132719 (= USD 3030), the richest

largest state Haryana`s INR 78 781(= USD 1670) to Bihar where the research is done is INR 16119

(=USD 340) (PIB 2014).

2.1.3 Urban Poverty in India

At the time when India`s economy is becoming larger and country is becoming increasingly

urbanised, it is witnessing a corresponding increase in the concentration of poor people in the urban

areas. As per latest survey report by the National Statistical Survey Organisation (NSSO, 2014)

there are over 80 million poor people living in the urban India. In some of the larger states of India,

the ratio of urban poverty is higher than the rural poverty. This poses a problem of housing,

infrastructure services, education, social security and livelihood. In many smaller cities with an

underdeveloped commercial and industrial sector, many of these urban people are involved in

informal activities where almost every one has non existent social-security cover. With growing

poverty in cities, people living in urban areas face similar problems of access to energy services as

faced by the people in rural areas.

2.2 Energy Sector overview

In 2009, India had the third largest energy demand in the world after China and the United States

and just ahead of Russia. As World Energy Outlook (WEO) 2011 shows, India’s energy demand

more than doubled from 319 million tones of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 1990 to 669 Mtoe in 2009.

But India’s per-capita energy consumption is still at a much lower level than that of developed

countries and even lower than some of the developing countries. Its per-capita energy consumption

is 0.58 (toe/capita), compared to the world average of 1.8, OECD of 4.28, China of 1.7 and Africa

of 0.67 in 2009 (IEA 2011). The low per-capita energy consumption level indicates that India’s

energy demand still has a long way to reach saturation. With a growing economy and growing

population, India’s energy demand growth is inevitable. The question is at what scale and speed

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India’s energy demand will expand and which fuels and technologies it will use. This is the key for

understanding the future landscape of India’s and eventually the world energy market. In this aspect

it becomes important to study the existing various levels of access to energy carriers.

2.2.1 Energy Access

India has 75 million households without access to electricity with per capita consumption in rural

household 8 units per month as compared to 24 units in urban households (Energy 2014). As per

census 2011 primary sources for lighting is electricity with overall household access as 55.3 percent

rural, 92.7 percent urban and 67.2 percent overall. As per the same data source only 28.5% of

household use LPG as their sources of cooking. In rural areas more than 90% of households use

biomass fuels like wood/cow dung for cooking, whereas use of LPG and kerosene as primary fuel is

limited to 10% of the household. In urban areas only one-fifth of households use biomass fuel and

rests are dependent on kerosene and LPG.

Trends in access to energy sources for lighting

As per a study done by Balanchadra (2011) urban household electrification level was relatively high

at 64% in 1984, compared to just 16% for rural households. This was the reason for low annual

electrification rate of 2.4% observed for urban households during the pre-1991 period whereas this

was a high 9.7% for the rural households. The household electrification rates for urban households

were 1.5% during 1991-2001 and just 1.0% during post-2001 period. Even with these low

electrification rates, the urban household access levels reached 93% by 2007. On the other hand,

rural household electrification which began with a high annual growth rate of 9.7% during 1984-91

enabling access levels to nearly double in seven years, could not keep up this pace. The annual

household electrification rate fell sharply to 3.6% during 1991-2001 resulting in just a 43% jump in

access levels in 10 years (Balanchandra 2011).The historical trends show that the gap between

levels of urban and rural household access to electricity for lighting is declining but at a slow rate.

The difference in access levels between urban and rural was 48% in 1984 and then gradually

declined to nearly 37% in 2006.

However household connection is not equal to household access. Grid connection to household

doesn't always ensure access to electricity. As when access is concerned there should be continuous

supply of electricity to the household. But in most of the part of the country electricity supply is

always discontinuous and it varies from 6 hours to 16 hours in a day (Soultions 2012).

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Fig 2.1: % Rural and urban households access to lighting sources Source: P. Balachandra, 2011

Fig 2.2: % Rural and urban households access to modern cooking fuel Source: P. Balachandra, 2011

Trends in Energy Access to modern cooking fuels

Based on study done by (Balanchandra 2011) only 61% of household in urban areas have access to

modern cooking fuel and rural area it is around just 10%. From the same study figure 2.1 historical 2

trend for household`s access to modern cooking fuel is shown. The trend shows that post 2001

growth trends are flat or show a slight declining trend indicating negligible expansion in household

access to modern fuel. In urban regions the average rate of expansion in access was 8.7% during pre

1991 period, 2.7% during 1991-2001 and -0-2% during the post 2001 period. The negative annual

growth rate in urban area is a serious issue. As per NSS, the major reason for this higher rate of

decline in use of kerosene as primary cooking fuel without any corresponding shift to other fuels

like LPG and electricity. The trend is same for the rural areas. In urban areas in recent years

practically there in no major shift from conventional fuel to modern cooking fuel. The share of LPG

is growing but it is mostly due to a shift from kerosene to LPG as a primary cooking fuel. In the

case of rural region, the share of households using modern fuels is rising but at a declining annual

rate. The house-holds using kerosene, biogas, and electricity are shifting to LPG as a primary fuel.

There is some shift to LPG occurring even from biomass using households may be because of better

accessibility.

modern cooking fuel as defined earlier consist of LPG and kerosene2

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3. Study Area- Darbhanga City

The study was done in formal and informal settlements of Darbhanga City, Bihar India. This

chapter introduces the city in terms of its location, socio-economic profile and demographic Profile.

3.1 Location and Generic Profile

Geographically Darbhanga City is located in north of Bihar, one of the eastern states in India.

Darbhanga city is the administrative head quarter and only urban centre in the region and sole

planning agency responsible for development is Darbhanga municipal corporation (DMC). DMC is

spread over 19 sq. km with 48 city wards. The city can be latitudinally divided into two parts one

which has been continuously developed by various kings of Darbhanga with palaces, temples, lakes

and monuments and other part Laheriasarai which has been developed as the commercial centre of

the city (see fig.3.5 for division).

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Fig 3.1: Location of Darbhanga City along with its ward boundaries Source: City Development Plan 2020

3.1.1 Demographic Profile

As per census 2011 population of Darbhanga Municipal Corporation was 267,348. The population

of city increased from 132,059 in 1971 to 294,116 in 2011. As per estimation done by City`s

statistical department population is expected to rise to 331,318 and 370,225 by 2020 and 2030.

Decadal Growth

Literacy rate As per census 2011 Darbhanga City has literacy rate of 64% which is higher than the national

average of 59.9% with male literacy rate is 72% and female is 56%.

Sex ratio The average sex ratio of Darbhanga is lowest as compared to National level. The sex ratio of the

city stands at 878 when compared with national average of 940.

Density Pattern As per census 2011 overall density of the city is 153 persons per hectare (ppha). The ward wise

density shows ward no. 40 with highest density (565 ppha) followed by ward 39 (358 ppha) and

ward no. 21 (353 ppha). Ward no. 12 has the lowest density. Out of 48 wards there are around 30

wards with population density more than 150 ppha which indicates that they are highly dense.

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0

100000

200000

300000

400000

1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021* 2031*

370 225

331 318

294 116267 348

218 391

176 301

132 059

Fig 3.2: Population of Darbhanga City over the years Source: City Development Plan 2020 * Projected population

Spatial Population Distribution

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Fig 3.3: Ward-Wise Population Density of the City Source: City Development Plan 2020

3.2 Economic Profile

3.2.1 Work Force Participation Ratio

Darbhanga has Work Force Participation

Ratio (WFPR) of 23% which is minimal as

compared to national average of 32%.

Majority of the workers are engaged in

tertiary activities such as trade commerce

and employment with private sector. As per

CDP (2020), there are 62307 workers in

the city and 93% of them are engaged in

other sectors while 7% of them are

engaged in primary and secondary

occupation.

3.2.2 Industrial Profile

The Darbhanga City has many small and medium scale industries which are assisted by Bihar

Industrial Development Authority (BIDA). There are three major industrial areas managed by BIDA

two industrial areas within the DMC boundary i.e New Industrial Estate at Bela and Old Industrial

estate Dharampur ( See figure 3.5 for the location ).

The city has a huge number small scale industries which are artisan based. In total city has 181

artisan based industries, most of which are run by the households living in residential areas.

3.2.3 Trade and Commerce

Darbhanga City is essentially a twin city with one part called Darbhanga and other Laheriasarai.

Laheriasari has been named after famous lahriwalas whose traditional occupation was to weave

textiles and make bangles especially of Lah. In some of the settlement people still continue this

traditional occupation. The commercial activities of the town can be broadly divided into retail and

wholesale market. Most of the retail shopping activities are concentrated on the central region of the

city and in Laheriasarai.

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93%

5%1%

1%

Cultivators Agriculture/labor HH IndustriesOthers

Fig 3.4: Darbhanga City`s Work Force Distribution Source: City Development Plan 2020

Figure 3.5 shows the spatial distribution

of all the commercial and industrial areas.

It can be seen that Northern part of city

has both the industrial centre with a major

commercial business district, while the

southern part of the city Lahersarai which

has most of the artisan based household

industries has a CBD and commercial

activities are spread all across the major

road.

3.3 Energy Access

Access to lighting sources

Electricity is the main energy source for lighting and space cooling in the city. As per census of

India 2011 58% of the households have electricity connection. In the records of Bihar Sate

electricity Board in Darbhanga 35707 metered connection and in laheriasari 27743 meters

connections were found. Because of the unavailability of electricity for 24 hours , most of the 3

households use invertor or generators or kerosene as source of lighting during power cut hours. 4

Access to cooking fuel

LPG is used as the main cooking fuel source. On the basis of the data obtained from LPG

distribution agencies 63% of the households have the access to LPG cylinders. In absence of LPG

cylinders many households use either kerosene stoves or biomass fuel for cooking. 5

Electricity supply from the grid varies from 8 hours to 15 hours in day with average load shedding of 2 3

hours per ward.

City level data for the use of these sources were not available. 4

City level data on % households dependent on biomass fuel or kerosene for cooking were not available. 5

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Fig 3.5: Major Commercial and Industrial location in City

3.4 Urban Poor and Informal Settlement

The urban poor in city are mainly the migrants from surrounding rural areas. As per DMC 37.7% of

population live in informal settlement and 19 out of 47 wards have dominant presence of informal

settlement. One of the ward i.e. ward 8 entirely consist of informal settlement.

Caste based location

As per CPD (2020) most of the informal settlements or mohallas have people predominantly from

one caste and all of them have the same place of origin. But in some of the settlements, original

settlement hosted a single caste or social group but later other people from other social group or

caste started moving in.

Livelihood

Majority of the population living in informal settlement are engaged in factories or they work as

construction labours or daily wagers. In some of the settlement households have their own small

scale household based artisan industry like making bangles.

Average Income

As per CDP (2020) on an average households in informal have monthly income of INR 1500 per

month with range being INR 600 to INR 5000 per month.

Access to Energy sources

Based on the observation which researcher had in informal settlements, most of the households do 6

not have access to electricity, as during the site visits in evening and night it was observed that

kerosene lamps were the main source of lighting. For cooking sources majority of households in

these settlement use biomass fuel, wood, wood charcoal or kerosene stoves.

Data on energy services in informal settlement is not available. 6

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4. Theory & Theoretical framework

This chapter is an attempt towards summarising the existing literature relevant to the context of

study. The chapter has been divided into six different sections. Section 1 highlights the link between

energy and poverty, it explains the key concepts like energy profiling and energy access & why it

is important to study the aspect of energy access. Section 2 explains the difference between the

informal settlements in mega cities & small towns, explains why it is important to study informal

settlement in small towns. Section 3 highlights the various theoretical approaches towards

residential energy behaviour. Based on the theories, section 4 summarises the various factors which

in general affect the energy consumption at a household level. Section 5 Highlights the critique and

shortcomings of the literature in this field. Section 6 introduces the model for the analysis of

existing case study.

4.1 Energy and Poverty

Energy is often considered as a basic human need. But its adequate provision is always a pre-

requisite for meeting the human needs. Energy has a great potential to influence the most

fundamental components of development. It is highly associated with the socio economic aspects of

development like income, education, health and gender (Kanagwa and Nakata 2008). In figure 4.1

we can see how energy influences each of the development factors. For example two foremost

component for the household energy i.e. electrification and availability of cooking influences

education and health. With the availability of electricity people can no longer depend on natural

light for reading, in fact it prolongs the study hours, further availability of clean cooking fuel like

Liquified petroleum gas cylinders (LPG) reduces the health impacts of traditional fuel like, charcoal

and wood.

There are complex and various ways which link energy with poverty. The world bank group`s

energy and mining sector board highlights the links through social and economic development such

as productivity, income growth, health, education, human development and through macro economy

and governance( Energy and Mining Sector Board, 2001).

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Energy

Health

Using modern energy reduces exposure to hazardous pollutants

Avoiding drudgery such as collecting fuelwood improves health conditions of women and children

Education

Lighting appliances enables to study at night

Utilisation modern energy results in freeing up from drudgery and creating time for study

Electricity helps narrow the digital divide through information and communication technologies

Income

Enterprise development through electrification creates job.

small scale energy system generates local industry

Environment

Reduction in use of fuelwood prevents deforestation

Use of efficient electric appliances saves energy consumption

Application of renewable energy promotes climate protection

Fig 4.2: Energy and Interrelated factors Source: Nakata et all, 2007 page 321

Fig 4.1: Linkage Between Poverty and Energy Source: adapted from Poverty and Energy Nakata et all, 2007 page

Department for International Development (DFID) of the United Kingdom mentions links energy to

the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), classifying into direct and indirect contributions

(DFID, 2002). For one of the MDGs, gender equality and women's empowerment, energy access

improvement directly contributes to freeing up women and girls from gathering fuelwood, fetching

water, and cooking with an inefficient stove. In addition, it has indirect contributions for women's

enterprises through utilisation of energy services. Figure 4.2 illustrates the links between energy and

other components with the influence of energy on the others. The energy access improvement in

areas of developing countries strongly contributes to the alleviation of time consuming labor

mentioned above and adverse impacts on health. In addition, because mostly women attain those

benefits, the improvement of energy access is favourable from the viewpoints of gender issues.

Moreover, it creates time and opportunity for women to engage in income generating activities, and,

consequently, increased income, which results in higher opportunity cost for struggle, creates

further demand for the modern energy (Agrawal 1986, Bruce, Nigel et al. 2000, Barnes, F et al.

2005).

4.1.1 Residential Energy Profiling

Residential energy or household energy always gives the wrong notion of what it means. It can refer

to electricity consumption or cooking fuel or built mass energy release or combination of all. But

profiling of residential energy involves quantification of total energy consumed during specific

period of time for general household needs like lighting, cooling, space heating, other appliance use

and for cooking. It also involves describing the features of households such as energy consumption

per household size, income and settlement location. There are various ways of quantifying it.

Traditionally as described by Swan and Ugursal (2009), energy consumption usually adopt “top

down” and bottom-up approaches. As per macro economic theories, top down approach uses

aggregated economic data such as empirically observed trends to predict future changes in energy

consumption and CO2 emissions. Top-down methods usually use econometrics and multiple linear

regression models to explain the variance between dependent and independent variables (Swan and

Ugursal 2009, Kelly 2011). Further bottom-up method estimate energy and emissions by using

high resolution data combining factors such as physical, social, behavioural and demographic

properties for a household, i.e. they see individual households as the basic units of domestic energy

consumers and try to understand the patterns of energy consumption at that level. So for this

research bottoms up approach for energy profiling has been used as it uncovers the interactions

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between various social, economic, physical and demographic behaviour which affects the energy

use at household level.

4.1.2 Energy Access

There are various elements on which the definitions of energy access is based. The World Energy

Outlook focuses on two elements of energy access: a household having access to electricity and to a

relatively clean and safe means of cooking. Access to energy is not just about supply to household.

It also involves consumption of a specified minimum level of electricity and amount varies from

rural household to urban household. The international energy agency has the initial threshold level

of 250 kilowatt-hours (kwh) per year for electricity consumption in rural areas and for urban areas

its 500 kwh per year. The definition also includes the provision of cooking facilities which can be

used without harm to the health of those in the household and which are more environmentally

sustainable and energy efficient than the average biomass cookstove currently used in developing

countries. This refers primarily to the biogas system, LPG (liquified petroleum gas ) stoves and

improved cookstoves.

4.1.3 Issue of Access (Why it is Used for Study)

Energy access is only one dimension of human development. Human development in general has

many issues ranging from including provision of clean water, communications, housing and other

infrastructure services. So the question comes why study of energy access should be prioritised ?

Addressing issue of access comprehensively will initiate various benefit for planning, regulatory,

governance and financial systems for development issues . Energy is required for lots of other

services such as water pumping, medical refrigeration, food preparation and communication towers.

The problems of energy access is widely know that´s why in developed countries energy delivery is

an ongoing and well established process in developed countries (Bazilian, Sagar et al. 2010).

Therefor study of energy is essential and it must be aligned with the growth of sustainable demand

for those services. Providing energy services is not simply about supplying electricity for lighting or

for cooling or improved cooking rules for the urban poor. These energy services need to be put

together to other productive uses in order to support income generation and to help local

entrepreneurs (Brew and A 2009). This will help a lot of micro level small enterprises or industries

which operate from houses in many informal settlements.

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4.2 Slums in Megacities and Small Towns

The existence of slum varies across the cities all over the developing world. In many neighbourhood

slums are no longer just marginalised neighbourhood housing. This phenomena is widely observed 7

in many mega cities whereas in small and medium towns the traditional definition of slums still

holds true (Knowles 2014). In slums of mega cities people do have access to basic services of

energy and water supply either formally or informally but slum in small and medium towns still

lack provision of these basic service.

4.2.1 Why it is Important to Study Issue of Access in Small Towns

In general slums are viewed as a result of migration from rural/hinterland to urban area and problem

escalates because of poor population management on part of many cities. But cities of all sizes

struggle with the inability to provide adequate affordable housing, access to infrastructure service

like water and electricity. Slums in smaller towns are easier to improve than in large cities, as small

cities often present fewer social, cultural and economic barriers to urban development (Habitat

2010). In small cities engaging in urban planning process with participation of families and

communities is often easier and straightforward than in large cities. Institutions in small cities can

be easily coordinated to carry out the service implementation.

4.3 Understanding Energy Behaviour - Existing literature in field

This section summaries the various literatures and studies which have been done in the field of

household energy. It focuses on the approach through which household energy use pattern has been

seen analysed so far. Households energy use behaviour can be explained in two steps. Step 1 which

focuses on the questions like what fuel or energy carrier they use? Their quantity and the reason

behind the choice of specific fuel. These set of questions can be clubbed under the name of energy

profiling. Second step for understanding the behaviour is how and when particular household shifts

to another fuel source? And what happens when they shift to new fuel choice, do they keep on using

the old fuel or do they use both or they use only new fuel. These set of questions points towards

energy shifts. So for the shake of simplicity, the literature on these topics have been divided into

two sections 1) Household energy profiling 2) Energy Transition. Household energy profiling

UN-HABITAT defines slum areas as any specific place, wether a whole city or a neighbourhood, as a slum 7

if half or more of all households lack improved water, improved sanitation, sufficient living area, durable housing, secure tenure or combination of any above.

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summarises the various approaches of explaining questions of step 1 while, section on energy

transition summarises the theories which explain the behaviour through fuel shift.

4.3.1 Household Energy Profiling

Numerous attempts have been made in order to profile energy consumption pattern or energy

behaviour of household. In developing world, research is generally conducted with a view to

understand the impacts of energy use on environment, human welfare and security of supply of fuel

(ESMAP 2003). Economist, engineers, sociologists and anthropologists have been the main

contributors to the field of household energy use and each approach has its own biases and

techniques (Keirstead 2006). But three approaches that are really dominant in study of household

energy consumption are;1) Physical-Technical-Ecnomic models 2) Psychological based approaches

3) Sociological and Anthropological based approaches.

Physical-Technical-Economic models are based on the changes in consumer demand and energy use

patterns, which are determined by changes in technologies. This technological change is dependent

on cost of energy relative to consumers income (Luzenhiser 1993). The main drawback for this

model is that their estimate don't match with real world consumption of energy as they fail to

recognise the humans as active energy users who manipulate energy devices and interact with

energy flows at all the stages of energy systems (Wilhite 2001). These models try to understand

household`s energy use behaviour on the basis of price, taxes, income and expenditure of the

households (Helbert and rasmus 2005, Guntimeda, Haripriya et al. 2006, Farsi, Mehdi et al. 2007).

After these economic models there have been numerous attempts of understanding energy use

behaviour through social characteristics of the human being. These theories assume a linear

progression of knowledge, awareness, intensions and behaviour that results in the adoption of new

form energy and technology associated with it (Cherfas and Jeremy 1991). These models try to

understand how knowledge will result in action. These models try to explain the humans choice of

energy at the household level. But this has limited applicability in understanding the over all energy

system at household level.

Another dominant approach for household energy system has been the sociological approach. In

this approach it is believed that human behaviour is collective and social, and these energy models

intend to include behavioural dimensions, and they consider the social context of the individual

behaviour. Further this approach focuses on the fact that individual decisions are determined by

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social and technical systems and any transformation in energy use is caused by the broader social

transformation. In here household energy demand is not the product of social demand but rather the

individuals behaviour, which is only a predictor for energy use.

Till date very few studies have been done which focus on economic, physical, technical and social

aspects of energy use at household level. Most of the literatures lags the combination of all four

aspects which is essential for understanding the energy behaviour at the household level. So this

study is an attempt towards profiling household energy on the basis of technical, social, economic

and physical conditions.

4.3.2 Energy Transition

In order to analyse household energy consumption it is important to address the nature of transition

which household makes from one set of energy carrier to another. Many attempts have been made

to answer questions like what makes people to use a particular source of energy, what are the

various factors which forces a household to use a particular energy source. This section will

introduce all the literatures associated in analysing this behaviour of people.

Energy ladder

This hypothesis was one of the first model of explaining household energy choice in developing

countries (Hosier, H et al. 1987, Leach 1992). It describes a pattern of fuel substitution as a result of

change in economic status of household (Hosier, H et al. 1987). The model was developed on the

basis of correlation between electricity use and income. The energy preference ladder ranks fuels

such as electricity and LPG as superior fuel due to their high efficiency cleanliness and convenience

of storage, usage, and are located up in the ladder than the traditional fuels like wood, charcoal,

kerosene or inferior fuels (Leach 1992)( see fig. 4.3)

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Fig 4.3: Energy Ladder Source: Leach, 1992

As per energy ladder hypothesis household switch from traditional energy system to modern energy

system i.e they move up at the ladder at speed and extent because of factors like increase in income,

fuel, equipment costs, availability and accessibility of fuels, reliability of model fuel distribution or

relative fuel prices (Masera, Omar et al. 2000).

This concept is based on macro economic theory of rational choice with following assumptions:

1) all forms of fuel (both traditional and modern) are available, there is universal set of fuel

preferences, and that the household will choose to move up the ladder as soon as they afford to do

so. This model captures the income dependency of energy choice in households, particularly in

urban areas. But the biggest failure of this model is that it assumes the linear dependency i.e as per

this concept when household moves up the ladder there is a corresponding abandonment of the

lower level fuels. So this concept can only provide a limited view of reality.

Energy Stacking

A number of studies have shown that fuel transition for households are not unidirectional and there

is a high chance that households may switch back to traditional fuels as modern fuels are imperfect

substitutes and often specific fuels are preferred for specific tasks; rather than switching between

the fuels, households use combination of fuels depending on budget, preferences, and needs (Davis

and Mark 1998, Masera, Omar et al. 2000, ESMAP 2003, Leiwen, O`Neill et al. 2003, Helbert and

rasmus 2004). Based on this concept, once a modern fuel is adopted, traditional fuels and devices

are normally kept (e.g. charcoal stove) and households only partially switch (see Fig. 4.4). The

study done by Leiwen in rural China (Leiwen, O`Neill et al. 2003) indicate that some forms of

traditional energy are still used by the wealthiest households. Based on this Barnes proposed a

‘‘Rural Energy ladder’’ that illustrates the steps through which rural households generally move

from traditional biofuels and human and animal power to a mix of traditional and modern fuels

(Barnes, F et al. 1996). Studies have demonstrated that despite the common perceptions, LPG is not

a perfect substitute for traditional biofuels and there are clear fuel preferences based on cooking

practices (Masera, Omar et al. 2000). Even in places such as Brazil where the share of traditional

biofuel in overall energy consumption has dropped as income has risen, the complete switch to

modern fuels (LPG and electricity) has occurred only at the highest income level (ESMAP 2003).

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A study of Mexican households by Mesera et al (2000) confirms this model by showing that, as

households get wealthier, the change in energy use can be characterised as an ‘‘accumulation of

energy options’’ rather than as a linear switching between fuels. This process is termed ‘‘Fuel

Stacking’’ (Masera, Omar et al. 2000).

Mostly the cause of fuel stacking include keeping traditional energy systems as an insurance against

modern energy supplier failure (ESMAP 1999), to deal with problems of modern energy price

fluctuations by diversifying energy use (i.e use of electricity for lighting and fuelwood for cooking)

(Leach 1992, Thom 2000); inapplicability of alternative energy systems to cooking methods and

preferences (Masera, Omar et al. 2000, ESMAP 2003); high costs associated with using modern

energy sources (e.g. electrical wiring and LPG containers) preventing people from fully adopting

such energy systems (Davis and Mark 1998); not having capital available to purchase modern

energy conversion technologies (Elias, J et al. 2005)

Both energy ladder and energy stacking assume the hierarchies in household energy services but

they differentiate on how and when energy sources are being used (IEA 2007). As per their

hierarchy cooking and heating/cooling are first services to be met, followed by lighting and

entertainment. Further using electricity for services other than lighting only happens after core

demands are met. But as per studies household energy transition is not a linear progress, they often �25

Fig 4.4: Energy Stacking model Source: Leach, 1992

use higher ranked energy carriers (electricity) even in small quantity while satisfying their bulk of

demand by lower ranked fuels (Victor and David 2002) . The Energy stacking model suggests

households adopt a portfolio of energy systems and consider a range of factors affecting the

household’s energy portfolio; yet it considers income as the major determinant of fuel choice, and

also relies heavily on a universal hierarchy of fuels and energy services (Koswari and Zerriffi 2011).

4.4 Factors affecting Household´s Energy Choice or Access

Selection of particular energy choice depends on various complex interactions between economic

factors ( e.g. fuel price ), social factors (gender equality), cultural factors ( e.g cooking practices)

and environmental factors like access to natural resources. The existing literatures show numerous

factors that affect the household energy choices which is summarised in table below.

4.4.1 Household´s Characteristics

Three different household characteristics; economic, non economic and behavioural and cultural

that reflects the attitudes, preferences and access to particular energy choice.

Household Economic Characteristics Many literature point to the fact that there is strong link between choice of fuel and increase in

income (Wuyuan, Zerriffi et al. 2008). Studies also show that there is a strong positive correlation

between income and amount of final energy consumed (ESMAP 2003). But the energy consumption �26

Table 4.1: Factors Affecting Energy Choice and Access

for basic services such as cooking and lighting normally remains unchanged. A study in Vietnam

shows that although wealthier households use almost 10 times more electricity than poor

households, they continue to use approximately the same amount of energy for cooking (Tuan,

Nguyen et al. 1996). When people have access to all basic energy functions, some part of the

additional income goes towards switching to more efficient and cleaner energy systems as well as

other services such as entertainment, refrigeration, and so on (Tiwari 200, Dube and Ikhupuleng

2003). Primary energy use is expected to decrease as households shift to more efficient fuel/device

combinations (Leach 1992, fonter, vivein et al. 2000, Elias, J et al. 2005). But some literature

shows that when people start using more efficient energy systems as their income rises, both their

primary and useful energy consumption increases as well (Masera, Omar et al. 2000, Roy 2000).

For example in Brazil, energy consumption decreases in middle-income households, then increases

again in higher-income households (WEC 2004) . In India, a study on the effect of increasing

lighting appliance efficiency showed an increase in overall energy consumption . This ‘‘rebound

effect’’ is mainly due to having access to new energy services at the same time as a high level of

unmet demand in households and the relaxation of household budgetary constraints since more

energy can be used without additional cost (Roy 2000).

Non Economic Characteristics Household characteristics like size, age, and composition of households influence the energy use.

Household size directly affects the energy consumption by influencing the total energy consumed

(Farsi, Mehdi et al. 2007). It can also influence energy use by changing income and resource

availability, it initiates the fuel stacking rather than fuel transition as larger the size of household

more likely that they will use multiple fuels (Barnes, F et al. 2005). Non economic factor like

gender is also a determining factor in household fuel choice and consumption (Pachuria 2007). It

plays a significant role in conservation in rural areas but the effect of gender on energy consumption

in urban setting is hardly seen. Other factors like education and social learning affects the energy

transition. Lack of knowledge about alternate energy system (improved cooking fuel, LPG) always

forces the household to use the traditional fuel and it becomes barrier in using alternate systems

(Whitfield 2006).

Cultural Characteristics Life style and cultural practices strongly influence fuel choice (Gupta, Gautam et al. 2006). Their

preference and habits like food taste and cooking practices influence the choice of energy system.

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For example Indian households prefer to use wood stoves for baking traditional bread (IEA 2007).

As per a study conducted by Masera in rural Mexico, people continue to use traditional biofuels

even when they can afford to use modern fuels because tortillas are hard to cook using LPG and

need to be cooked directly over flames (Masera, Omar et al. 2000).

4.4.2 External Factors

Exogenous factors influence household decision about the choice of energy system to be used and

amount to be used. For example geographic factors like climate affects the energy consumption.

Poor people living in colder climate use more energy than people living in warmer climate (Elias, J

et al. 2005). In a study conducted by Bhatt in mountain villages in India confirmed that seasonal

variation and altitude variation affects the traditional use of biofuel consumption (Bhatt and Sachan

2004).

Government Policies Another external factor like government policies affect the household energy choice (Barnes, F et

al. 2005). The cost of modern fuel is often too high for poorest household to afford. Some times it is

subsidised by government so that people can afford. Various pricing policies such as lifeline rates,

cross subsidies, and blanket subsidies have been implemented in order to make it affordable. But

researchers have shown that subsidies often don't target the poor population and end up benefiting

the middle income and even wealthy households (ESMAP 2003). Apart from the subsidy other form

of mechanisms like regulating production and distribution of energy carriers and energy appliances

affect the household energy choice. For example in Hyderabad in India , rationing energy carriers

discouraged people from choosing kerosene as their main energy carrier because ration was not

sufficient, distribution was not reliable and ration cards have not reached to all members of the

society. But at the same time there was great effort by the government for increasing access to LPG

through both public and private distribution channels, which caused a significant transition from

tradition wood fuel to LPG (Barnes and F. 1988).

Energy Access Factors These are the factors which determine households access and choice to a particular energy source.

These include the factors like affordability, availability, accessibility and reliability of energy

supplies.

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Fuel price determines its affordability, which is an important factor in household energy use, in

terms of both fuel choice and quantity consumed (Barnes, F et al. 2005). The fuel price also affects

the shift between fuels in households using multiple fuels (Fitzgerald, Barnes et al. 1990). As per

Leach price of modern fuel has a stronger impact on backward substitution rather than upward

substitutions (Leach, 1992). This means that households continue using traditional fuels like wood

and charcoal whenever there is an increase in modern fuel price and they continue using it until the

cost of using such fuel exceeds using other alternatives.

The availability and accessibility of energy supplies are the majors factors for a household to

determine fuel choice. For example use of traditional bio-fuels in rural areas is prevalent because

they are available locally. Whenever there is shortage of these fuels, households deal with the

problem by spending more time in collecting, purchasing more of their supply.

Access to modern fuel is also recognised as a major factor affecting the fuel choice (Barnes et al.

2005). It can be easily seen on the household energy use based on settlement size and its distance

from energy supplier. But this problem is mostly seen in rural areas or small towns, mainly in

remote and low density areas where the distribution of modern fuels is either insufficient or

unreliable.

4. 5 Critique of Existing literature

No doubt there is no dearth of literature on household energy choice and most of them are on rural

households. But all of these literature use macro economic theories or income distribution in

explaining a particular behaviour of households for energy choice. The main problem with all of

these literatures are in there methodological approaches and incomplete estimation for drivers of

energy use and energy transitions (Koswari and Zerriffi 2011).

4.5.1Framework Issues

The methodological approach of the existing literature is one of the major problem with most of the

studies. They focus too much on macro analysis in order to understand households energy choice

behaviour and consumption pattern. A large number of these studies focus on correlation between

energy use and number of factors like population growth, urbanisation and economic growth

(Ghosh and sajal 2002). Although these macro factors can influence the energy behaviour ( energy

use pattern ) but these cannot be extrapolated for micro level analysis, particularly in case of poor

households. The actual determining factor for the consumption and energy choice can only be found

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at household level where the total energy demand is made up of daily decisions which in turn

affected by range of other socioeconomic factors.

Another problem with these frameworks are they focus too much on statistical analysis like

correlations and econometric analysis that analyse relations between various variables. More over

most of the literature omit variables and inter relationships between variables. This limits the

usefulness of these studies (Koswari and Zerriffi 2011). Sometimes this may result in

overestimation of the impacts of some variables; for example if the actual labour hour in terms of

cost of traditional biofuels is correlated with income but omitted from analysis, then income

coefficient might have the downward bias. The impact of variable like electrification might

attributed to some other household factors that are related with factor of labor hour. Another

example can be income and access to fuel may be the function of both infrastructure quality and

proximity of energy supplier.

4.5.2 Wrong interpretation of Drivers of Energy use and Transition

There are many shortcomings because of over emphasis or underestimating the factors for

households decisions on energy use as well as energy transition. Many researchers have considered

income as the main determining factor for energy consumption and choice. As per Whitfield, three

decades research into determinants of fuel choice has failed to advance our understanding beyond

higher income and cleaner fuel (Whitfield 2006). With the dominant role of traditional biofuels and

lack of access to modern fuel, in many regions of the world income have a limited impact on energy

choice. A study in India on the impact of income on commercial and non commercial fuel

consumption say that there is little evidence of correlation between non-commercial energy use and

income (Pachuria 2004) .

The key factors for determining energy choice and consumption are internal to the households.

Households decision of amount consumed and choice of fuel is a complex process which goes

beyond the statistical correlations. It is dependent on inter relations between economic, technical,

social and cultural issues as well as the physical environment (Mesra, Navia et al. 1997). Most of

the research ignores one or more than one factors which gives just the limited aspect of the reality.

Even in developed countries the aspect of culture and behaviour is very little understood. So in

order to analyses the behaviour of household for energy choice and consumption one needs to

combine all the economic, social, cultural and technical factors together.

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4.6 A New Approach to Household Energy Analysis

Koswari and Zerriffi proposed a three dimensional energy profile as a new framework for a more

realistic view of household energy use (Koswari and Zerriffi 2011). This framework was developed

to explain theoretical and empirical models of rural household energy use. But same can be used for

urban households with a slight modification. In the model proposed by them, in the centre is the

relationship between energy services, devices and carriers. Around that there are various factors

influencing energy profiling of the households. This framework provides a casual relationship

between different aspects of households energy use and choice.

The actual model developed by Kowari and Zerriffi depends on three main factors; type of energy

carriers and energy conversion technologies i,e devices used and energy service requirements,

which together they considered as household energy system. But in context to India where this

study is based because of limited energy carriers and limited availability of technologies it is in-

appropriate to use energy devices as core of the framework. But the other two main factors energy

services and energy carriers when clubbed together, in context of undergoing study in order to make

household energy system, energy access forms the third pillar of the model. As access to a particular �31

Fig 4.5 Factors affecting Household´s Energy Profile Source: Koswari, Zerriffi ., 2011 page 7514

energy fuel decides the amount of use and the behaviour of household for particular energy choice.

In the existing model the dimension of access is the part of shared external conditions, but in the

proposed model its becomes a part of the three dimensional energy profile as its shades more light

on human side of energy use and explains the more realistic behaviour household energy system.

In the above model personal capabilities include socio economic status, technical skills and

resources required for an action. Demographic factors like gender, age, ethnicity, education and

income are considered as personal capabilities. External conditions include market factors like

price, availability of energy fuel & supply, regulations, formal and informal institutions.

Based on energy behaviour model proposed by Koswari (2011) the proposed model for the study

consist of three main central theme 1) context 2) capability 3) outcomes. Context explains the

social, economic condition of the cases and institutional arrangement of the energy carriers. It

assess the access and consumption factors. Capability explains the availability of energy by energy

carriers like hours of supply of electricity to the neighbourhood. Issues and Impacts measures the

impacts of lack of access. These three factors all in together explains the household`s energy profile

with multiple factors. As it was explained earlier that household energy use can be affected by a

range of drivers. For example meeting the households cooking requirement depends on the

availability and affordability of cooking fuel, household characteristics (income, household size),

cooking habits. So this framework takes the account of all the factors while assessing the household

energy system.

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Social Economic Institutional

Technical Generation

Connectivity Adequacy

Context

Capability

Issues and Impacts

Target Access

Output Availability Consumption

Outcomes Impact of Energy Access

Energy Profile

Fig 4.6 Proposed Framework for Study Source: self

Further this model also takes the account of attitudinal factors which try to explain the beliefs and

values and personal norms. These factors become important in explaining the habits and culture of

energy use as these are the key determinants of in human behaviour.

4.6.1 Explaining Energy Behaviour in a Three Dimensional Energy Profile

Energy use behaviour for a household can be explained graphically based on the above proposed

model. Energy behaviour or energy profiling in this is not just limited to switching between fuels,

staking multiple fuels or adopting improved cook stoves. But rather it includes all the three

dimensions of energy use. The three dimensional graph below shows the holistic view of household

energy system characteristics and shift in this can occur because of the change in any of the three

dimensions of household energy system (i.e energy consumption, energy carrier and energy service

access). A change in the path of the energy profile can be seen as an improvement of overall energy

use. And a numerous interpretation can be made on this basis. For example switching to higher

quality fuel ( from wood/charcoal to LPG) can point to improved access to modern fuel or increase

in any of the socio-economic factor or both.

In figure 4.7 energy access axis measures the type of level of access from null access at origin to

informal access and formal access. Axis of energy carrier measures the quality of fuel available

where high quality fuel mean the modern fuel and low quality refers to conventional fuel and axis

of energy consumption measure the average consumption by households in neighbourhood. So

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Fig 4.7 Energy Profile of a Household Source: self

these three axis when combined describes the energy behaviour of neighbourhood explaining the

amount consumed, type of energy carrier used and type of access available.

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5. Methodology

5.1 Research Strategy

Research strategy is a way to systematically solve the research problem. According to Clifford

Woody, research strategy comprises of defining, redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or

suggested solutions (Kothari 1997). In the encyclopaedia of social sciences, D. Slesinger and M

Stephenson (1930) defined it as the manipulation of things, concept of symbols for the purpose of

generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of

theory or in practice of art.

5.1.1 Research Strategy as Interpretivism and Positivism Paradigm

There has been various philosophical assumption and paradigm which have dominated the

academic research. Two of the paradigms which still dominate the research world are Interpretivism

and Positivism. Positivist ways of research assumes an objective world where facts are conceived

in terms of specified correlation and association among variables. It searches for contextual and

organisational variables that cause organisational actions. It tries to uncover truths and facts through

quantitative approach by specifying relations among various variables. Based on the co-relation

between variables this approach tries to verify hypotheses. The common ways of doing this research

is by questionnaires, secondary data analysis, scaling and structural analysis (Gephart 1999).

Interpretivist way of research seeks to understand social members definition of situation (Schwandt

1979). In this type of research it is assumed that knowledge and meanings are the act of

interpretation hence there is no objective knowledge which is independent of thinking, reasoning by

the humans. It describes the meanings and understands the member`s definition of situations and it

examines how the objective realities are produced (Willis, 2007). It’s an abstract description of

meanings and members, which is defined by the situations produced in natural contexts. It often

addresses essential features of shared meaning and understanding whereas constructivism extends

this concern with knowledge as produced and interpreted. Constructionists argue that knowledge

and truth are the result of perspective, so all truths are relative to some meaning of context or

perspective (Schwandt 1979, Blaikie 2007). The best way to conduct this research is through

participant observation, interviews, case studies, conversational and textual analysis.

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5.1.2 Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research allows researcher to explore individuals or organisations (considered as cases)

through simple /complex interventions, relationships, communities or programs (Yin 2014). It is an

approach that facilitates explorations of phenomena within its context using various data resources

(Baxter and Jack 2008). This insures that a phenomenon is looked through multi facet lens in order

to reveal and understand it completely. In qualitative case study methods there are two key

approaches 1) one proposed by Robert Stake and other by Robert Yin.

Both Stake and Yin had their approaches based on constructivist paradigm (Stake 1995, Yin 2014).

Constructivist approach calls truth as relative which is dependent on individual`s perspective. This

paradigm recognises the importance of the subjective human creation but doesn't reject outright

notion of objectivity (Baxter and Jack 2008). Constructivism is built on social construct of reality.

The advantage of this approach is the close collaboration between the researcher and the

participants, while enabling participants to tell their stories. These stories as told by participants

enables the researcher to better understand the participants actions (Lather 1992). The constructive

approach of qualitative research allows the researcher to narrate the story of those being studied.

As seen above qualitative research is often characterised by its aims, which is quite often about the

understanding of some aspect of social life or phenomena. In general it tells a story or explains a

phenomena rather than just stating numbers or data for analysis. In quantitative research methods,

the aim is always to measure something in terms of numbers or percentages. So from this

perspective, aims and methods of qualitative research is always seems to be imprecise.

5.2 Research Strategy for the study

5.2.1 Justification for Method used

According to Yin (2003) a case study design should be considered when: a) the focus of the study is

to answer how and why questions, b) behaviour of those involved in the study cannot be

manipulated by the researcher, c) researcher wants to uncover the contextual conditions because

researcher believe that they are relevant to the phenomenon and context. Current research seeks to

find the answer to the question “How various levels of access determines the energy

consumption behaviour of residential neighbourhood ?” Answering this research question

required the study of energy use by households in residential neighbourhood and factors that affect

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energy consumption of the households. So for the study case study method was used as the

behaviour of energy consumption is dependent on the case i.e household´s decision for using a fuel.

Study of household cannot be considered without the context of settlement, mostly socio-

economical and physical settings of the settlement. As it is these settings that household´s decision

for using energy choice is developed. It would have been impossible for researcher to have the

picture of households decision making without considering the context which shapes their decision.

Research is based on interpretivist approach. As described earlier interpretivist approach is an

abstract description of meanings and members that are defined by the situations in their natural

context and it describes members definition of situations and explains how realities are produced. In

this case, study requires the study of households decision of fuel choice and what shapes those

decisions. Energy consumption is dependent on the access which household has to energy sources

and as seen in theories that access to energy sources is dependent on various interlinking factors. So

for the study it was important to use interpretivist approach as it gives enough freedom to the

researcher to observe the member i.e household in its natural social, economical and natural

context.

5.2.2 Selection of Case Study Area

As seen in the theoretical framework energy profiling or energy consumption behaviour has three

different axis i.e axis to energy sources, available energy carriers and energy demand. It would have

been injustice to research if study would have been done in just one settlement, as all the three axis

mentioned above have different impacts when it comes to type of settlements. The availability of

energy carriers and its access differs from settlement to settlement. For example electricity

connection to a household depends a lot on the land tenure-ship or house ownership status. People

living in informal settlement might have an easy access to the available energy services where same

cannot be said for people living in informal settlement. Also in theories as seen in chapter 4 that

socio economic parameters play a huge role in having access to energy services and its over-all

consumption. So based on all these factors researcher first decided to do the research in one formal

and informal settlement. Now question came which formal and informal settlement? This decision

was taken in collaboration with Local NGO KSS which helped researcher for conducting his

fieldwork. KSS provided researcher a list of informal settlements in the city and based on the

interactions with City Manager and KSS field workers researcher selected two of the informal

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settlements Ram-Nagar and Mahesh-Patti . The informal settlement of Mahesh Patti is a part of 8

larger formal residential neighbourhood Ramesh Nagar. So both the settlement Ramesh-Nagar and

Mahesh-Patti were studied together in order to see wether difference exits within the same

neighbourhood. Therefore two informal settlement and one formal settlement were studied for the

research.

5.2.3 Time line

Entire fieldwork was done within six weeks from week 26 to week 30 of the year 2014.

5.2.4 Role of Researcher

Since study followed an interpretivist approach, so it was important for the researcher to act as an

outsider. As study involved presenting cases within their context so it was important for the research

to avoid any biases. Since the researcher is from the same city, so his prior knowledge of the

background could have acted as a bias for some of the information and also the data was collected

in collaboration with the staffs of local NGO, so it was important for the researcher to avoid biases

and to maintain his neutral position in the research and let the case describe themselves.

5.3 Methods of Data Collection 5.3.1 Planned vs Actual

The entire time spent on fieldwork was a reflexive process. The methods were never rigid as

questions for survey kept on changing (based on the responses). For example before going to the

field study was supposed to focus on energy consumption and to find the potential of developing off

Details of the case areas are discussed in next chapter. 8

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Week 27Week 26 Week 28 Week 29 Week 30 Week 31

Establishing links with NGO and municipality

Selection of case areas

Testing of preliminary

Formation of survey Team

Request for secondary data letter

Initial surveys with members

Household Surveys

Secondary data collection

Household Surveys

Secondary data collection

Initial Analysis

Community interaction

Interviews

Interviews

Winding up

Fig 5.1 Time line of Fieldwork. Source: self

grid energy system. But after starting the fieldwork researcher realised that there are various

external factors that influence the consumption. And access to a particular energy fuel and role of

various institutions both in formal setting and informal setting plays an important role in it. The

income and peoples ability to pay for energy services was not only criteria affecting access and

consumption. The existence of parallel system of distribution affected the consumption as well. So

for the overall energy profiling, it was necessary to include all these factors, which were missing

from the research before.

Before starting of field work as per various theories access to energy considered only as either

availability of energy carriers or non availability of it, which corresponds to access or no access.

But after initial field work it was observed by the researcher that access has two different forms one

formal access to energy carriers where households gets connection to energy carriers through formal

procedures and there is another informal access where household get connected to the energy

carriers informally. This redefined the research parameters and led to inclusion of process of supply

mechanism of energy carriers which was missing from the research proposal in first phase.

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Fig 5.2 A Modular representation of how research shaped over the time of fieldwork Source: self

5.3.2 Entry point in field & Identification of Nodal Agencies

Entry to field becomes really important for the start of fieldwork. For the research it was really

crucial to gain the trust of people under study in order to get reliable data. So researcher first

contacted the City Manager of Darbhanga, through him he got in touch with local NGO Kanchan

Sewa Sansthan (KSS). KSS is actively engaged in community development in informal settlements.

By volunteering with them, field workers of KSS agreed to help researcher in conducting fieldwork.

This gave researcher an easy access to community.

5.3.3 Type of Data Collected

Research required study at two different level. First determining the various level of access to

energy carriers in all the settlement and second energy consumption details. So type of data required

was the combination both qualitative and quantitative data. Quantitative data was required for

determining the amount of energy consumed, where qualitative information were needed for

assessing the level of access and procedure for getting formal and informal access to energy

carriers.

5.3.4 Methods for Collecting Primary Data

Questionnaire Survey

In order to find out energy consumption a detailed questionnaire was developed with focus on

domestic use of electric appliances (duration of use), sources of energy use, cooking source details

(type, hours of use, expanse), and socio economic data. After five test surveys in the field,

questionnaire was readjusted as per problem faced. Then a limited household survey was done in all

the three neighbourhood in order to capture energy consumption details of households. Detailed

questionnaire is given in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2 contains names of the households

interviewed.

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Table 5.1 Number Surveys in Case area Source: self

Key Informant Interviews

Questionnaire survey was intended to give the energy consumption details i.e. amount of energy

consumed and energy sources used. But in order to understand the process and ways of distribution

and how people get access to energy sources, researcher did a series of semi-structured interview

with the key personals from Institutions involved in energy service distribution.

*details are explained in case presentation chapter

Focus Group Discussion and Interview with Households

Data obtained from Questionnaire survey was intended to give only energy consumption details and

information obtained from key informants gave only supply side distribution mechanism of energy

sources. None of the data from above gave an insight into details of consumption side story of

resident i.e how residents decide what fuel source to use, how they cope up with situation when

formal access to energy sources is not available . So in order to answer these questions researcher

had a focus group discussion with the residents living in both informal settlements and semi

structured interviews with six households , three in each informal settlement.

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Table 5.2 Details of Key informant Interviews Source: self * Details in Chapter 6

5.3.5 Methods for collecting Secondary data

Along with the questionnaire survey it was important to collect valid secondary data from the

institutions involved in supply side of the entire process. The main data was electricity supply

distribution details grid wise from local grid stations, consumer details like electricity bills, gas

bills, and their connection details etc. Because of the sensitivity of data researcher had to get a

written permission from the regional administrative authority, and then data was collected from

following

5.4 Data Reliability

Two principles of data generation were significant to construct reliability and validity of the data.

a) Multiple source of information: This was used to construct validity of the case study by using

multiple source of information. This was done by data triangulation by using multiple sources

of evidence for the same fact. For example more than one person was interviewed regarding the

same fact, which constructed the validity of data.

b) Case Study database: A case study database increases the reliability of case study (Yin 2003).

For the research detailed database was created. The database included: documents, notes and

questionnaire survey sheets. Data generated in the field were in form of caste study notes,

questionnaire survey sheets and all survey datas were transcribed in word files. Along with that

a chain of evidence was kept in the form of dates of each interviews and surveys conducted.

�42

Table 5.3 Details of Secondary Data obtained

5.5 Methods of Data analysis

Data was analysed on the basis of various theoretical framework discussed in chapter 4. First the

data was analysed on the basis of Energy Stacking Theory to see the relation between energy

consumption behaviour and income of households. Then Interpretations from the key informant

interviews were made to detail out the supply side delivery mechanism of energy sources . In the

end analysis was done on the basis of theoretical framework of Energy Profiling as discussed in

previous chapter.

5.5.1 Analysis of interviews

Interviews were conducted at two levels: 1) from the supply side mechanism i.e with the persons or

institutions involved in supply of energy sources and 2) from consumer side i.e with households

who use various energy sources for their household use. In order to analyse these interviews

categorisation of interviews was done under different heading as per purpose of research questions

and then narratives of interviews in the form of story was used to tell a specific story.

5.5.2 Analysis of quantitative Data

Household level quantitative data was generated by the researcher from the household surveys and a

data base was created in a statistical software package SPSS. And based on requirement of research

question, further statistical analysis was done.

5.5.3 Use of Analytical Framework

Two analytical frameworks were used for the analysis 1) Energy Stacking Model 2) Energy Profile

for residential areas.

Energy Stacking Model

This model was developed by Leach (1992). This model relates to income and source of energy

used for specific purpose. On the basis of this model a statistical analysis was done with amount of

energy consumed by the household and household´s monthly income.

Energy Profile for residential neighbourhood

Based on the various theories this framework was developed by the researcher. Analysis based on

this framework involved interlinking energy consumption, type of energy sources used and level of

�43

access households have to these sources. This analysis was done for each of the three settlement in

order to have comparative assessment between formal and informal neighbourhood.

5.6 limitations

The main limitation to the research was the entry point to the field. The research collaborated with

local NGO KSS for conducting field surveys, this might have created some biases in section of case

area. Although researcher tried his best to remain unbiased towards the selection of case area by

selecting the neighbourhoods based on income of households, type and density of the area.

Another issue in terms of the research was the issue of limited time for the fieldwork. The major

part of the research deals with the perception of different agencies and persons involved in supply

mechanism of energy carriers and understanding each stakeholder took a lot time. Some of the key

informant had to be visited couple of times in order to understand entire supply mechanism.

Another limitation was getting information about informal supply mechanism. Informal supply

mechanism is one of the level for providing energy access to informal settlement. So research

required to dig deep about the process but because of the sensitivity of the issue, researcher had to

refrain himself only till interviewing the households and few informal agents, who might have

hidden some information about informal supply mechanism.

5.7 Ethical Issues

As a researcher, the responsibility is not just to research participants, but also to people to whom the

findings will be presented or to the people who will be reading later on. During the research two

key ethical issues were considered i.e consent and confidentiality.

1) Consent: A verbal consent was taken from everyone who participated in the study. All the

participants were informed before the study about the details of type of answers researcher was

looking for and they were reassured that study was just a part of academic exercise and no

outcome was promised to the participants in the study.

2) Confidentiality: It is not possible to measure the dangers of a certain scenario to a given

individual or population. It is therefore essential to protect the identity of the person from whom

�44

data was gathered. As these persons were not the part of the formal electrification system. So

their identity through out the research is protected.

As per a research there are four principles which are always considered as the ethical concerns; 1)

Autonomy i.e respecting the rights of the individual 2) Beneficence i.e doing good 3) Non

maleficence i.e not doing any harm and 4) Justice i.e particularly equity (Beauchamp and Childress

1983). The research analysis is written aby considering all of these four principles, showing non

biases to any case or the context. The research analysis’ is just an explanation of the facts rather

than stating the facts.

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6. Case Presentation

Study has been done in three different settlements located in two neighbourhoods of Darbhanga

City. Out of three settlement two are informal settlements (Ram-Nagar and Mahesh Patti) which are

listed under slum list developed by the Darbhanga municipal corporation. This chapter first 9

introduces all the case areas and describes their socio economic and energy access profile. And

thereafter it explains the role of all energy carriers involved in supply of energy sources to the

residential neighbourhood.

6.1 Location and Generic Profile

Three settlement which were studied are 1) formal settlement of Rehman Nagar 2) Informal

settlement of Mahesh Patti (a part of Rehman Nagar) 3) Informal settlement of Ram Nagar. Rehman

Nagar has a mix of both formal and informal settlement. So both the settlements were studied in

order to see wether the differences exist within the same neighbourhood in terms of energy

behaviour. Rehman Nagar is located in one of the densely populated area of the city and it is

adjacent to central business district of the city. It is one of the oldest residential settlement of the

city. The area has unique mix of both old and new houses. Mahesh Patti an informal settlement

located in part of Ramesh Nagar. Ram Nagar is an informal settlement located in southern part of

city. Both Mahesh Patti and Ram Nagar are listed

under slum list developed by city´s municipal

corporation. The establishment of informal settlement

of Mahesh Patti took place sometime in mid 1960s

when some of the families from neighbourhood

villages settled on the land owned by a local Rehman

Khan . Whereas Ram Nagar is one of the newest 10

settlement of the city which is mostly inhabited by

the artisans. The area has unique built design in the

form of compartmental housing where these artisans

have their work space in front of the house and living

space in the back of the house.

Slums list as per guidelines under Bihar State Housing Policy 9

Exact History Could not be Traced 10

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Source: Based on Information from key informants in study area

Table 6.1: Characteristics of Study Area

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Industrial Area

Business District Industrial Area

Study Area: Rehman Nagar

Study Area: Ram Nagar

Commercial Area

Industrial Area

Fig 6.1: Location of Study Area in City Source: Master Plan, Darbhanga, 2027

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Fig 6.2: Study area in Rehman Nagar Source: Darbhanga Municipal Corporation

Formal Settlement of Rehman Nagar

Informal Settlement of Mahesh Patti

Fig 6.3: Study area in Ram Nagar Source: Darbhanga Municipal Corporation

Ram Nagar

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Fig 6.4: A part of Rehman Nagar and Mahesh Patti Source: Researcher

Fig 6.5: A part of Ram Nagar Source: Researcher

6.2 Socio Economic Profile Demographic Data

As per data obtained from local NGO KSS total population of Rehman Nagar as of year 2014 was 11

519, Mahesh Patti 99 and Ram Nagar 293 with following population distribution : 12

As per religion wise majority of population living in Rehman Nagar and Mahesh Patti are 13

muslims and whereas in Ram Nagar majority of population are Hindus.

Occupation and Income

In Rehman-Nagar most of the households have their own business or they work in government

institutions or private institutions. In Mahesh Patti majority of households are dependent on daily

wages and do jobs as domestic helper, cycle rickshaw drivers or various other unskilled labor

oriented jobs. Whereas in Ram Nagar most of the households are traditional bangle or bead makers

and they are known as ´Lah karigar´ locally. As per field survey done by the researcher average

income in the neighbourhood vary a lot in all the three settlements.

Enumeration was done by the local NGO in the month of January 2014.11

Population in India is divided into four different categories depending on the caste system. These are 12

General, Other Backward caste (OBC), Schedule caste and Schedule Tribe.

Exact figures were not available 13

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Table 6.2 Population Distribution

Table 6.3 Monthly Household Income Distribution

6.3 Energy Carriers: The Supply Network

For research as it was explained in theoretical framework chapter that two mains aspects of energy

profile have been looked into 1) energy consumption for general use i.e lighting, space conditioning

and general purpose 2) energy used for household cooking. So available fuel sources to meet

energy demand is seen in terms of its access and consumption. i.e for general purpose use,

consumption of electricity supply and for cooking various: energy sources like liquified petroleum

gas (LPG), kerosenes & substituted sources like wood, charcoal, kerosene were taken into

consideration.

6.3.1 Formal Energy carriers

Electricity

The main agency responsible for distribution of electricity is Bihar State Power Holding Company

Ltd (BSPHCL). Decision of giving electricity supply or connection to particular household is

decided by the local divisional office of BSPHCL. They have basic criteria for giving a household

connection on basis of land ownership tittle or residential proof and electricity load required.

Depending on the availability of documents, a resident gets a formal electricity supply from grid at

a nominal fee.

BSPHCL has three different provisions for domestic electricity connection: 1) Kutir Jyoti Yojana 14

where urban households gets a connection for up to 35 units per month a fixed cost of INR 35 per

connection per month 2) Unmetered fixed charge connections where a household has to pay fix

charge of INR 90 or INR 135 depending on the load of connection 3) Metered connection INR 1.5

per unit with a minimum monthly charge of INR 35 per month.

Energy source used for cooking

In study area two main cooking fuels i.e LPG and kerosene are used by households . LPGs are

supplied by gas agencies like Indane and Bahrat Gas whereas kerosene is supplied through public

distribution channel and private vendors. Bharat Gas/ Indane Gas Agencies are the major LPGs

cylinder suppliers of the region. Considering the fact that LPGs is the main source of cooking fuel

these agencies play a major role in residential energy characterisation. Since supply of LPG is

Kutir Yojana is the flagship program by Ministry of Power GOI to boost electrification to households 14

living below poverty i.e with annual income less than INR 11000. Under this scheme applicant gets a connection for free of cost.

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limited and further the number of cylinders at subsidised price is also limited to 12 cylinders 15

annually, this forces some of the families in area to use alternate traditional mode of cooking like

wood, charcoal or kerosene.

Public Distributors of Kerosene

Depending on household income, kerosene is distributed by state owned public distribution channel

where a family gets kerosene in amount of one litre per head/member at INR 2 under government

scheme of Antyodya Anna Yojana (AAY) . Antyodya Anna Yojana is public distribution scheme 16

launched by central government of India in year 2000 where households living below poverty line

i.e (household with monthly income less INR 558 per head) are given limited quantity of rice,

sugar and kerosene at a subsidised rate.

Substituted Source

When households do not have access to two formal sources i.e electricity and LPGs. They use wood

charcoal and kerosene for cooking and kerosene for lighting. They rely heavily on local suppliers in

the market from where they purchase wood/kerosene as per their need.

6.3.2 Parallel System of Supply - The Informal Supply

Use of substituted source depends heavily on households access to formal supply channel. If

household have access to energy sources through formal means then they rely on electricity and

LPG for their energy needs. In case of absence of formal means, some of the households get

connection from electricity grid informally or LPG through refilled small cylinders. This supply

system is embedded in formal supply system, where an individual gets access to electricity from

main power sub stations through electricity agents in neighbourhood and LPG through local shops.

These connections are informal in nature and are illegal as energy carriers have no record of these

connections and household don't have to pay for the connections to concerned authority like

BSPHCL for electricity and gas distribution agencies for LPGs.

Under direct cash benefit scheme , central government subsidies up to 12 LPG cylinders per household 15

connection in a year at INR.432-540 and beyond six cylinders Households have to buy at regular market price which varies from INR.900-1200 per cylinder.

Under Antyodya Anna Yojana recently government is planning to stop distribution of kerosene under its 16

initiative of kerosene free city, in state of Delhi this has already been implemented and soon it will be implemented in other states . Before AAY kerosene was distributed through general means of public distribution system.

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6.3.3 Energy Supply Process

Electricity

For getting electricity connection household has to submit an application form along with their asset

declaration form to local divisional office of BSPHCL. After thorough inspection of documents and

assets officials from BSPHCL takes decision for the connection. If they decide to give connection

then within 14 days of date of decision house is connected to the local electricity grid. If the

application if denied then household either use substituted source like kerosene lamps for lighting or

they take help from local electricity agents in order to get electricity connection. Electricity agents

are ones who provide illegal connection of electricity to households. When these agents are

approached by the households, they charge around INR 2000 for one connection and an illegal

supply line from the nearest electricity pole is given to households.

LPG

Like electricity connection process is same for LPG where a household has to submit an application

along with a valid residential proof and a fee of INR 1400 to INR 2000 to local Gas distribution

agencies and LPG is connection is given. If a household doesn't get gas connection they use either

wood charcoal for cooking or they try to get connection illegally. Illegal supply of LPG cylinders is

done though refilling of small cylinders at the local shops where small gas cylinders of 2 Ltrs or 5

Ltrs is refilled by using gas cylinders which are normally meant for supply to domestic connections

and legally these cylinders are not allowed to resale in this manner.

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Informal Connection

BSPHCL House/ Asset

Supply Decision Formal Connection

Household

Substituted Source Electricity Agents Electricity from nearest Pole

Application Inspection

Yes

No

Or

Fig 6.6 Electricity Supply Network

6.3.4 Role of various Stakeholders in Energy Consumption and Access.

There are various institutions and individuals which affect the households access to energy sources

and their over all consumption. Their role becomes crucial in the entire process of energy supply

and consumption. Starting from the residents/households to energy carrier institution all affect

consumption.

a) Residents: Amount of consumption depends on who is using it. User profile specially socio

economic conditions like income of the household and household size play a key role in

determining the net energy consumption. Also choice of selecting a particular source for a

specific domestic use depends on the user`s social economic conditions which raises the

questions of affordability and access to the energy sources.

b) Officials of Bihar State Power Holding Company Ltd: The decision of giving electricity supply

or connection to particular household is decided by BSPHCL. They have the basic criteria for

giving a household connection like land ownership tittle or person should have stayed on the

same piece of land for more than 10 years.

c) Power supply grid officials: Electricity supply is always less than demand. With average

required residential load of 45 Megawatt, the main power grid gets an average of 30 Megawatt

supply at times even dropping to 11 megawatt. Most of the times it is really difficult to have 24

hours of electricity supply for residential neighbourhood. So the role of power station for the

supply is really important as the duration of electricity supply is determined by them. With

average of 12 hours of electricity supply, people are forced to use alternative modes for lighting

or cooling.

d) Bharat Gas/ Indane Gas Agencies: These two are the major LPGs cylinder suppliers of the

region. Considering the fact that LPGs is the main source of cooking fuel these agencies play a

major role in residential energy characterisation. Since the supply of LPG is limited and further

the number of cylinders at subsidised price is also limited to 12 annually, this forces some of the

families in area to go towards alternate traditional mode of cooking like wood, charcoal or

kerosene. And the use of these sources contribute a lot in overall energy consumption.

�54

e) Local Distributors of coal and kerosene: They might not have direct impact on energy

characterisation but their controlled price wise distribution of kerosene and coal has a huge

impact on the consumption behaviour.

f) Darbhanga Municipal Corporation: They don't have any direct impact on energy consumption

but the provision of basic services is taken care by them. As supply to a particular area depends

a lot on the available infrastructure services like road conditions. In absence of access to some

areas, energy carriers refuge to deliver the service as result residents have to use alternative or

they have to go to their offices for getting the supply of energy source like LPG. So in away

DMC affects the access to these sources as well.

6.4 Existing conditions of Access to Fuel Source

Type of access varies from household to household in all the three settlements. Based on how these

households get connection to these energy sources, access have been divided into three different

types: a) formal access, b) informal access c) no access.

a) Formal access: where household have connectivity to the source formally through energy

carrier , for example in case of electricity it is metered or direct connection from BSPHCL.

b) Informal access: where households have informal access to energy sources. For example

households having connectivity to local electric grid but city electricity board has no record of

connections in their registers. These are the connections which are unaccounted for its use.

They are provided by electricity agents

c) No access: where households have no access to the specific source of energy. For example these

households are not connected to electricity grid either formally or informally. Households with

no access go for source substitution where they use alternate energy sources for their need for

example use of kerosene lamps for lighting.

Based on these access definition cases were analysed for electricity use, cooking source use and

various other materials/sources used for substitution in order to meet daily energy needs.

6.4.1 Electricity:

Electrification in municipal area of Darbhanga City is 73% as per records of local electricity office

which is also seen in the case of study areas. In beginning of fieldwork when researcher interacted

with City Manager Manoj Pandey, he told that all the houses even in informal settlement have an �55

access to the electricity, as nowadays everyone having a residential certificate gets a connection

from city electricity board. When a limited sample survey was conducted in three different

settlement, findings were in line of what city manager was saying. Out of 69 households surveyed

59 households had access to the electricity. The survey showed that 100% of households in formal

settlement Rehman Nagar & informal settlement Ram Nagar have access to electricity. The only

exception was case of Mahesh Patti, where 10 households out of 28 didn’t have access to the

electricity.

Above figure shows that most of the houses (90%) have access to electricity from grid. When data

was analysed further on the basis of type access each household had, it was found that not all

household have formal access to power supply from grid.

In case of Rehman Nagar, all households have formal connectivity to electricity grid, whereas in

other two settlement Ram nagar and Mahesh Patti not every one has formal connectivity to the

supply from electricity grid. A detailed analysis on why residents either have informal access or

formal access has been done in next chapter.

�56

Ram Nagar

Rehman Nagar

Mahesh Patti35

0

0

76

100

100Acess No Acess

Location No. of HH surveyed Ram Nagar 20 Rehman Nagar 21Mahesh Patti 28

Fig 6.7: % of Households Having Access to Electricity. Source: Field Survey, June 2014

Ram Nagar Rehman Nagar Mahesh Patti

10

86

10

2114

Formal Access Informal Access No AccessLocation No. of HH surveyed Ram Nagar 20 Rehman Nagar 21Mahesh Patti 28

Fig 6.8: Electricity Distribution over Access Source: Field Survey, June 2014

6.4.2 Energy for Cooking

In Darbhanga City several types of fuels have been used for cooking in household sectors. LPG

cylinders (compressed liquified petroleum gas-propane) is mainly used for cooking and in case

households don't have access to LPG cylinders they either use kerosene stoves or wood or charcoal

stoves for cooking. The use of kerosene for cooking also depends on state owned public distribution

system where depending on household income and household size a limited amount of kerosene is

given to a family. So in some cases of poor households it has been seen that household use both

LPG and Kerosene or Kerosene and wood charcoal for cooking.

In formal settlement Rehman Nagar every household has access to LPG cylinder but because of

their high income level they are not eligible for the public distribution system of kerosene where

family gets a monthly quota of 1litre per month per household.

�57

Ram Nagar

Rehman Nagar

Mahesh Patti 80

90

42

100

80

LPG Kerosene Location No. of HH surveyed Ram Nagar 20 Rehman Nagar 21Mahesh Patti 28

Fig 6.9: % of Households having Access to Cooking Sources LPG & Kerosene. Source: Field Survey, June 2014

Ram Nagar Rehman Nagar Mahesh Patti

164

34

9

2112

Formal Access Informal Access No Access Location No. of HH surveyed Ram Nagar 20 Rehman Nagar 21Mahesh Patti 28

Fig 6.10: Access to LPG Source: Field Survey, June 2014

Ram Nagar Rehman Nagar Mahesh Patti

62 831415

Formal Access Informal Access No Access

Fig 6.11: Access to Kerosene Source: Field Survey, June 2014

Above tables shows a pattern that settlement type affects the source of fuel used for cooking. For

example in Ram nagar most of the people have formal access to LPG cylinders and kerosene, very

few households don't have access to these formally whereas in Mahesh Patti very few people have

access to LPG cylinders, and most of them are heavily dependent on kerosene as fuel for cooking.

Main reason behind this two dissimilar situations can be the fact that even though most of the

households in Ram Naagar (which is considered as informal settlement) have connectivity to these

formal sources because most of the residents in the area have been living there for more than 10

years which enables them to apply for the formal connections to electricity & LPGs. Whereas in

case of Mahesh Patti people even lack basic structure for living, they don't have any documentation

one the basis of which they can get a formal supply.

6.5.3 Substituted Source:

Households who don't have any access to formal sources electricity, LPG, kerosene often tend to

use locally available alternatives. In case of Mahesh Patti households who didn't have any access to

above sources have very different way of living, they had to rely heavily on woods charcoal and

kerosene available in private market. For cooking either they use wood charcoal or kerosene and for

lighting purpose they use kerosene lamps. In case of Ram nagar its sort of mixed substitution. Since

most of the habitants here have small household industry of bracelets. So sometimes they use same

source wood charcoal for cooking as well. This was seen mostly in households with a household

size of more than 6 persons when they ran out of supplied LPG cylinder in a month they use

charcoal for cooking.

So the substituted sources are mainly wood, charcoal and kerosene. Their use is heavily dependent

on settlement type (weather the settlement is formal or informal), household income and access to

the formal sources of electricity, LPG and Kerosene.

�58

7. Case Analysis

Framework for study has three interrelated segments i.e 1) Context 2) Capability 3) Issues and

impacts for explaining the energy profile of residential neighbourhoods (see fig.4.7 for details).

Previous chapter i.e chapter 5 Case Presentation gave the description about socio-economic profile

of case areas, conditions of access to various energy carriers and institutional arrangement and

process for providing services by the available energy carriers. Based on the study framework this

chapter has been divided into three main sections. Section 1-Access, consumption and interlinking

factors; it explains the question of how income and socio-economic of households size, income,

type of settlement and level of access determines the energy consumption. Section-2 Availability

and alternate carriers; analyses the technical factors ( like supply from grid to house) which affects

availability of energy source in the case areas. It analyses the availability of continuous supply of

energy sources by the energy carriers. Section 3 Household Consumption and fuel choice; analyses

the various factors which influences the households consumption behaviour i.e amount of fuel

consumed and factors affecting the choice of energy carrier used.

7.1 Access, Consumption and Interlinking Factors

Household`s level of access to energy source, its affordability and household size are considered to

be one of the dominant factors in determining the energy behaviour . In many empirical studies 17

done before it was seen that with increase in income household use multiple energy sources rather

than switching to a better fuel i.e for example for cooking households with higher income will tend

to use multiple sources, electric stoves to coal/wood charcoal (Leach 1992). But is this the case for

the existing study area? Does increase in households income lead to energy stacking i.e use of

multiple fuel or does it lead to shift to modern fuel sources? How income & household size affects

the energy consumption ? Does with the increase in income, household ends up in consuming more

fuel source or it leads to use of multiple fuel source? How the various levels of access affect the fuel

choice and fuel consumption? This section tries to give answers to these questions.

Energy behaviour = Fuel choice + Amount of fuel consumed 17

�59

7.1.1 Energy Consumption and Equivalence

The main energy sources used were electricity, LPG, kerosene, coal & wood charcoal. So in order

to have a comparison between overall energy consumed per settlement it was essential to convert

the amount of fuel consumed into a singular unit of mega joules i.e energy consumed per unit of

source.

Conversion factor

( as per Department of Energy, United States)

Kerosene: 46 MJ/KG

Propane(LPG): 46 MJ/KG

Coal: 24KJ/KH

Wood Charcoal: 16MJ/KG

1 Unit of electricity: 3.6 MJ

Energy Equivalence= Electricity + LPG +

Kerosene + Wood Charcoal + Coal

Figure 7.1 Gives the comparison

between energy equivalence

consumed per household in all the

three settlement

Figure 7.2 Gives the comparison

between various sources

Total energy consumed in formal settlement of Rehman Nagar is comparatively higher than the

energy consumed in other two settlements. But the difference between Rehman Nagar and Ram

�60

Fig 7.1: Average Energy Equivalence per Household Source: Field Survey, June 2014

Fig 7.2: Average Energy Equivalence per Household per Source Consumed Source: Field Survey, June 2014

Nagar is not that much i.e 399 MJ/HH to 282 MJ/HH. This marginal difference exists because

people who live in Ram Nagar-use charcoal extensively for their livelihood purpose. As a result

they have high total energy equivalence. Further total low per capita consumption in Mahesh Patti is

evident from the fact that most of the household in the area don't have formal /informal access to

two main sources of domestic energy i.e electricity and LPGs. If energy equivalence per sources are

compared than again electricity consumption in Ram Nagar and Mahesh Patti is way too less than

Rehman Nagar and trend is same for LPGs as well. Because most of residents in both areas don't

have formal access to these two sources they depend heavily on either informal means of getting

these two or on substituted sources like kerosene, wood and charcoal.

These trends highlight the fact that people in informal settlement depend a lot on substituted source

although in above case just basic consumption has been analysed and its hard to say how income

and various other factors affect the energy consumption.

7.1.2 Consumption and Interlinking Factors

Total energy consumption per month per energy source for each of three case area is analysed with

respect to household size and household income and level of access. In order to do that each of the

energy source is used in their actual measurement units (UNITS KWH for electricity, number of 18

cylinders used per month for LPG and for kerosene amount in litres per month) and a two tailed

correlation analysis was done (see appendix 3 for details). Correlation i.e nature of relationship

between Units of energy source consumed and Household size & Household income is explained

through Degree of correlation and Correlation type.

Degree of Correlation explains how increase or decrease in one factor affects the behaviour of other

and Correlation type explains the direction of change wether the relation is linear and proportional

or liner and inversely proportional. For example if the correlation between household size and

amount of fuel consumption is positive and linear with high degree of correlation then it means that

with increase in household size there will be increase in amount of fuel consumed and if correlation

is negative and linear then it means the with the increase in households size, amount of energy

consumed will decrease.

Only electricity, LPG and kerosene was used for the correlation. Wood-charcoal & Diesel was not used 18

predominantly in all the three areas �61

Formal settlement: Rehman-Nagar

In formal settlement of Rehman-Nagar the relationship between household-size and electricity is

non significant i.e with increase in household size electricity consumption remains almost constant

in neighbourhood but with increase in income people do end up in using more amount of electricity.

This may be because of extensive use of Air-conditioners (AC) for space cooling in neighbourhood.

Household Size doesn't have much effect over electricity consumption because the basic

requirement of electricity is for cooling and lighting purpose which stays the same in

neighbourhood as it has similar built form. LPG consumption in the neighbourhood is highly

affected by household size as with more number of households, more cooking time is required

which results higher consumption of LPG. Although household`s income level doesn't affect the

LPG consumption, as basic requirement for cooking stays the same in neighbourhood irrespective

of level of income.

Informal Settlement: Ram Nagar

�62

Table 7.1 Nature of Correlation for Energy Sources- Rehman Nagar Source: based on correlation analysis (see appendix 3 for details)

Table 7.2 Nature of Correlation for Energy Sources- Ram Nagar Source: based on correlation analysis (see appendix 3 for details)

Inversely proportional

In Ram-Nagar with increase in household size there is moderate increase in amount of electricity

consumed and high increase in LPG consumed but with kerosene correlation is non significant. As

it was shown in case presentation chapter that majority of households in settlement have access to

electricity and LPG with varying level of access. So for cooking or for lighting dependency of

household on kerosene is almost negligible. And the households who do not have access to LPG use

wood-charcoal as energy source for cooking. As a result the dependency on kerosene for lighting

and cooking purpose is much less as compared to other informal settlement of Mahesh Patti.

Informal settlement 2: Mahesh-patti

With Increase in household size there is moderate decrease in electricity consumption. This is

because of the fact that amount of electricity consumed almost remains the same with increase in

household size. As neighbourhood has similar housing condition like most of the houses have either

one or two rooms the need for electricity for lighting and cooling stays the same. For LPG there is

very weak correlation with household size. This is because of the fact more than half of the

household in neighbourhood don't have access to LPG and they depend heavily on kerosene and

wood-charcoal as an energy source for cooking.

Impact of level of access

Access do affect the relationship between household size, income and amount of fuel consumed. In

case of Rehman-Nagar where entire settlement has formal access to the fuel sources, the correlation

was high between all the three factors. In case of Ram Nagar the degree of correlation varies from

non significant to high because of the fact that level of access vary for each of the energy source.

For example in case of electricity all the households have the connection either formally or

informally, so for lighting and space cooling they depend on electricity as main source. �63

Table 7.3 Nature of Correlation for Energy Sources- Mahesh Patti Source: based on correlation analysis (see appendix 3 for details)

Inversely proportional

Whereas in case of LPG almost half of the households have formal access to it, still around one-

fourth of neighbourhood don't have access to LPG as a cooking source. So they end up in using

available alternate source kerosene or wood charcoal as cooking fuel.

In case of Mahesh-Patti half of the households do not have access to the formal supply of energy

sources. This is reflected in the energy consumption of sources vs Household size relations where

either its moderate or low or non-significance. But for the households who have access to these

sources through formal or informal means income plays a big role in consumption which is

reflected in the correlation table above.

7.1.3 Energy consumption and income

In last section it was seen that consumption of fuels increases with increase in income but it was

not clear wether with the increase in income do people use multiple energy sources or do they shift

to modern energy sources. Therefore in order to answer that question energy consumption per

month was plotted against the income. First the trend was observed for the all three settlement

together and then each settlement was individually analysed.

Overall income and consumption

pattern

From the trend in graph it is obvious

that people with higher income do use

the modern energy sources i .e

electricity, LPG for daily consumption

whereas people with lower income still

use traditional fuels like wood charcoal.

Since the supply of electricity is not

continuous in the city, so for the general

use during night time households with

higher income use diesel for electric

generators while low income do use

kerosene lamps.

�64

Fig 7.3 Energy Consumption vs. Household Income Source: Based on data obtained from survey by researcher

For a particular income range there is a sharp increase in the use of coal and electricity. The reason

behind this sudden steep increase is explained at the settlement level.

Formal Settlement- Rehman Nagar

Rehman Nagar is one of the formal

settlement with average household income

of around Rs.30000 per month. And it has

the highest average income per household

comparing to other two areas under study.

With high level of income people in the

area do use the modern energy sources and

consumption increases with the increase in

income. It is also seen that people with

income more than 30000 INR also use

alternate source for lighting and cooling i.e

electric generators which use diesel as fuel.

Informal Settlement-Ram-Nagar

Ram- Nagar as it was described earlier in

case presentation chapter that it is a

neighbourhood where most of the residents

are artisans and they use coal for making

bangle related work. So that`s why there is

sharp increase in the use of coal in

particular income segment. Use of

electricity is almost constant as they use it

for just lighting and space cooling. For

cooking they do use LPG but sometimes

they also use wood charcoal. Since they

cannot afford the electric generators, most

of the house holds use kerosene lamps

during night in advent of power cut.

�65

Fig 7.4 Energy Consumption vs. Household Income-Ramesh Nagar Source: Based on data obtained from survey by researcher

Fig7.5 Energy Consumption vs. Household Income-Ram Nagar Source: Based on data obtained from survey by researcher

Informal Settlement 2- Mahesh Patti

Does increase in household`s income really lead to stacking of energy sources ?

Based on the observations above increase in income does lead to energy stacking but not in the way

as expected. As in the earlier studies and various other literature reviews, it was seen that with

increase in income household do use all available sources of energy for daily use(Leach 1992). But

this is not the case for the areas under study. Irrespective of income people do use multiple energy

sources but only those which they have access to and which are affordable to them. For example in

Mahesh Patti area with lowest income per household, people use all the available energy sources

for cooking and lighting, for cooking they use LPG, wood-charcoal and for lighting they use

electricity and kerosene lamps. But the amount of use is limited. Further it is true that people do

switch to more efficient source of energy with increase in income and also amount of use of these

energy sources increases with income like in the case of Ramesh-Nagar where use of electricity is

much more than Mahesh Patti and they also use electric stoves and other electrical appliances for

cooking and for lighting and space cooling they do use other available source i.e diesel for electric

generators.

�66

The settlement with one of the

lowest income per household,

uses mostly the traditional

sources of energy. The use of

energy sources are much less

when compared to other two

settlements. People with income

less than 2500 INR use wood

charcoal as cooking fuel, people

with slight higher income do use

LPG but in a limited amount. As

they prefer coal rather LPG as its

cheaper for them to use. Fig 7.6 Energy Consumption vs. Household Income-Mahesh-Patti Source: Based on data obtained from survey by researcher

7.2 Access and Availability of Energy Sources

Continuous supply of energy source is one of the main factor for assessing the level of access to

energy sources. Each energy source has its own predominant use in the case area. For example

electricity is used for lighting and cooling, LPG is used for cooking and in case of non availability

of these sources people look for alternate sources like generators/inverters, kerosene lamps for

lighting, wood-charcoal or kerosene as an alternate for cooking fuel. This section explains the

technicality which obstruct the continuous supply of modern energy sources in the study area.

7.2.1 Electricity

Electricity supply to a household reaches through five different levels. First the power plant

station transmits a fixed amount of load to a regional transmission grid. From electricity grid 19

depending on the demand , electricity grid transmits the available load to power sub stations. Each

power substation has its fixed area for supply through its neighbourhood feeder. From

Neighbourhood feeder the electricity is supplied to a house.

So the continuous availability of the electricity is dependent on load transmission by the power

plant to electricity grid and grid´s decision for distribution to power sub stations.

Power plant station is the place of generation of electricity, it can be either thermal power plant or hydro 19

power plant or nuclear power plant. Darbhanga region gets its supply from Kanti Thermal Plant which is located 60 km south of city.

�67

Electricity Grid PSS

Neighbourhood FeederHousehold

Power plant

Fig 7.7 Transmission of Electricity through Various Levels. Source: Based on researchers understanding of load distribution from interview with electricity grid`s assistant engineer.

Electricity supply is never continuous in the region. Because of the shortage of supply there is

always frequent load shedding of minimum two hours interval. As requirement of electricity for

City is 48 MW and supply is always in between 22 MW to 35 MW. So each power sub stations has

its own timings for load shedding which is decided by electricity grid`s assistant engineer.

�68

“Darbhanga region gets its electricity from Kanti Thermal plant. From

here we distribute the load to each power sub-stations. And depending on

the available transmissive load we distribute it to all the power subs

stations. Darbhanga city has 6 power stations and demand varies from

season to season. It is highest during the summer season i.e in months of

June and July and maximum load is also observed during the months of

october and november because of the various festivals.

During the peek load the city needs a supply of 48 MW and in general it

requires 35 MW for the continuous supply of electricity. But the

transmissive load we get is never fixed, its always short of what we

require, in general we get the supply varying from 22 MW to 35 MW.

Depending on the available supply we instruct the power sub stations for

load shedding in the neighbourhoods.”

Tareeq Mohmd: Assistant Engineer

Electricity grid office Darbhanga

As per ground staff Santosh working in Power sub station-

“if the supply is in between 28-35 MW then during the day time they have almost

continuous supply with occasional one hour of load shedding, but after 6 :00 PM due

to increase in load in emergency areas like hospitals, we have to shift to load shedding

of two hours interval till 6:00 A:M in morning. But when supply from grid falls below

28 MW then except emergency areas there is frequent load shedding of two hours

during the day and from evening load shedding interval increases to 3 hours.”

The areas of Rehman Nagar and Mahesh Patti falls under one power sub station i.e PSS urban. 20

PSS urban covers the CBD of the town and institutional areas, so supply is almost continuous

during the day time. So both the areas of Ramesh Nagar and Mahesh Patti do not have electricity

after 6 in evening. The other case area Ram Nagar is covered by PSS Ram-Nagar and supply hours

are same as of PSS urban as both sub stations get same amount of supply for same intervals. As

electricity is the main source for lighting, after six when it starts getting dark in absence of

electricity residents in these neighbourhood use next available resource i.e kerosene lamps, inverters

or generators.

7.2.2 LPG

Availability of LPG was not a problem in case areas, in Rehman Nagar this truly holds true. But

there are some parts of Ram Nagar and Mahesh-Patti where delivery on door step was not available

and when enquired about this issue, the researcher was told by gas agency distributor that roads are

too narrow for the delivery, so the residents have to come to the distribution centre for getting a

LPG cylinder. In those parts of neighbourhood space between the houses is so narrow and its only

possible to walk. So in case of Ram Nagar distribution centre is very far. Some of the households in

the neighbourhood get LPG through alternate means of supply. Residents who don´t have access to

LPG sources they use kerosene and wood-charcoal.

7.3 Access and Fuel Choice

Amount of energy consumed is affected a lot by the households decision to use a particular energy

source. As it was observed that people use multiple energy sources for a particular need. For

example for cooking people either use LPG or kerosene or coal depending on their access to the

fuel. But what forces people to use a specific fuel source, does fuel affordability plays an important

deciding factor , what are the other factors which influences the households decisions to use a

PSS: Power Sub Station 20

�69

“Distribution of LPG is simple process, those who have the formal connection have Gas

card and all they need to do is call on the given number and book their cylinder and

within 14 days we will deliver the LPG cylinder at their door steps”

Vimal Jha- Distributor Nanak Gas Agency,

particular energy source. This section tries to answer these questions. The researcher`s interpretation

is based on the interactions which researcher had with the people living in community.

Case of Raghu

Raghu is an artisan who lives in Ram Nagar with his wife and two children in Ram Nagar. Like

other people living in the neighbourhood his livelihood is dependent on the art of bangle making.

He lives in a house where front portion of the house is his working space and in the back he has one

room with kitchen. His house is connected to electricity and doesn't have LPG connection so wood

charcoal is used as a cooking fuel in his house. On an average he uses 5-6 kgs of wood charcoal in

a week.He further describes that he is more comfortable in doing bangle work on wood charcoal

even tough he knows its not healthy as he knows only how to do it on charcoal flame. He further

says that he could have used LPG flames for it but he earns only 6000 INR in a month and he cant

afford to have LPG as for charcoal he only pays like 100 INR per week whereas if LPG would

have been used then he would end up in paying more than 400 INR per week. With the electricity

connection he was furious on the fact he had to pay 500 INR for two month when he just used it for

a fan and a light bulb.

�70

In picture it can be easily seen his working space and in the back his wife can be seen using wood charcoal as fuel source for cooking

Fig 7.8 Raghu with His Family in His House Source: Researcher

“Electricity is so costly we can not afford to make bangles from electrical equipments

and also there is irregularity in the bills we get, normally we just use a bulb and fan but

still we have to pay more than 500 INR every two months as an electricity bill”

Case of Bimla

Just adjacent to Raghu, Bimla lives with her husband in similar house design as Raghu. She and her

husband both are involved in their livelihood of bangle making. Her son works in a factory in

Bengal . Her house has formal connection to electricity and LPG, which she is very proud of as 21

most of the households in the neighbourhood do-not have formal connection to both of these fuel

sources. But she says that she is very careful in using both of them, she only uses electricity when it

is necessary for lighting or for cooling purposes. For cooking she uses both LPG and wood charcoal

as she says that for some of the food it is easier to use charcoal and also they are already using

charcoal for making bangle and using charcoal simultaneously with LPG reduces the consumption

of LPG cylinder as a result she just refills it only once in every two months.

Case of Ashraf

Ashraf lives in Mahesh-Patti with his wife. He works on a daily wage and does odd jobs. He hardly

manages to earn around 700 INR per month. His house is made out of thatched plastic roof and side

wall with bamboo, mud and plastic sheet. His house does not have an electricity connection or

neither he uses LPG as a fuel for cooking source. He has to buy kerosene form the local market at

12 INR per litre and in month for cooking and lighting he needs minimum 6 litres of kerosene.He

doesn't have a ration card , since he doesn’t have a housing proof, he can't get any formal 22

connections of electricity and LPG.

Bengal is neighbourhood state of Bihar, where migrant workers from states go to work there as a labour in 21

a factory.

Ration card is given to people on basis of their income level. Distribution of kerosene, rice and sugar is 22

done on the basis of type of ration card which a person has. �71

In picture the house of Ashraf is shown. Majority of the P e o p l e l i v i n g i n t h i s neighbourhood lack formal connec t iv i ty to energy services

Fig 7.9 Houses in Mahesh Patti Source: Researcher

Case of Mukesh

Like Ashraf, Mukesh also lives in Mahesh Patti and owns a small kiosk just outside his house, like

Ashraf his living conditions and use of fuel is same except for the fact that he has access to

electricity which he uses for lighting and other purposes. But this was not the case when he moved

in this neighbourhood about a year ago. As he described his case, he had to struggle a lot, first he

had to find an empty place to put up his house, luckily he got it next to the road which helped him

in setting up a small kiosk just along side the road. This helped him earning more money than

others who used to live near him. As the shop is next to road, he earns around 2000 INR per month

by selling tobacco products and `pan` (betel leaves). When he moved into the neighbourhood he

used to extensively dependent on kerosene lamps and kerosene stoves for lighting and cooking

purposes. But around two months back he saw his neighbour Pawan getting electricity line from 23

electricity pole. He inquired about it and he got to know that there are few people whom they call it

`Bijli wala` (the electricity agents) gives connection to houses.

Mukesh contacted the same agents, paid them 1000 INR and he got an electricity line coming to his

house which he uses for lighting and cooling and watching television which he bought recently. He

knows the fact that connection is illegal as he doesn't have no to pay any electricity bill and there is

high chance he might get caught someday by the officials from electricity office and have to pay

fine. But he is least bothered about it. As he says:-

“ woh sab kuch kar dete hain hume darne ki zaoorat nahi hai”

(they do all the things, we do-not have fear about any thing)

From the date of interview i.e 10 July 2014. 23

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In picture the house of Mukesh is shown. A bamboo standing upright with electric wire running to his house can be seen.

Fig 7.10 House of Mukesh with his Kiosk Source: Researcher

What he meant to say that these electricity agents visit neighbourhood a day before when officials

come for inspection. They know exactly when official from electricity board will come for the

inspection. So these electricity agents come to the neighbourhood a day before and take off the

connection from houses and day after the inspection they get the connection again.

Case of Shiyali

Shiyali lives in Ram Nagar with her family. She and her husband like others in the neighbourhood

do the work of making bangle and beads. Like others in neighbourhood she also uses wood-

charcoal for bangle. But unlike the case of Raghu and Bimla, she never uses charcoal for cooking

purposes. She has a small 5 litre cylinder which she refills it at a local shop in locality. As she

described that shopkeeper uses the big LPG cylinders to refill and she has to pay 70 INR for every

litre of LPG.

7.4 Factors Affecting Consumption and Access

Amount of energy consumed is affected a lot by the household´s decision to use a particular energy

source. As it was observed above people use multiple energy sources for a particular need. For

example, for cooking people either use LPG or kerosene or coal depending on their access to fuel.

But what forces people to use a specific fuel source, does fuel affordability plays an important

deciding factor, what are the other factors which influences the households decisions to use a

particular energy source. This section tries to answer these questions. The researcher`s interpretation

is based on the interactions which researcher had with the people living in community.

a) Affordability:

The most significant barrier to the formal connections of electricity was the high recurring cost i.e

electricity bills. The story like Raghu was observed with most of the people researcher interacted

in that settlement. As per existing billing system for the new connections a household has to pay

almost 1000 INR which is one half of the monthly income earned by households in Mahesh Patti. In

addition to that all houses with metered connections have to pay a fixed amount of 400 INR

bimonthly. This is quite a lot for family living in these areas. Similar situation is seen for LPG

connections, for a new connection one has to pay 1450 INR and annually a household can get

only twelve subsidised cylinders at the rate of 412.5 INR and thereafter 967 INR each cylinder they

use. Since average income for Ramesh Nagar is more than 20000 INR per month per household,

people living in these area can easily afford to use the LPG cylinder but people living in Mahesh �73

Patti where average household income in less than 2500 INR where people can barely afford to take

care of basic household expanses. They find coal and kerosene much cheaper. As a result people

living in this settlement end up in using charcoal and kerosene rather than LPG for cooking

purposes. So Income do play the crucial role in deciding the fuel type.

b) Legal Tenure:

For getting a formal connection through electricity grid and for a new LPG gas cylinder, a person

needs to have a list of documents like Passport, driving license, Ration card etc. In order to have all

of these documents one needs to have either land tenure papers or lease or rent agreement papers.

Most of the persons having informal connection or no connection lacked these papers. Legal

recognition of the settlement or the house becomes prerequisite for the new connection. There is

large number of people squatting on the private land in case of Mahesh Patti and a high degree of

informality was found in Ram Nagar where residents despite having concrete built houses lacked

the papers. When enquired about the legal status of these settlements City Manager Manoj Pandey

said:-

As per the statement municipality accepts the informality but they are not taking any steps to

legalise the settlement. And because of the absence of legal holding papers people living in these

neighbourhoods could not use these energy sources formally.

C) Easy available option: the informal access

As seen in the cases that some of the households living in Ram-Nagar and Mahesh Patti have

informal access to both electricity and LPG. But the informal delivery mechanism is different for

both the sources. In case of electricity where houses get electricity connection from the electricity

pole, while in case of LPG people get a refilled cylinders through the local shop.

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“ these settlements are under slum list which have been as per the guidelines of Bihar

State Housing Policy which states that any settlement lacking any of these clean

drinking water, sanitation, land tenure status is considered as slum. In these two

settlements most of the people dont have the proper papers, they are squatting on

municipal land in Ram Nagar and private land of Mosque in Mahesh Patti. We cannot

evict them from the places, as it might lead to the riots. We are completely helpless in

this”.

Informal Electricity Access

Families who can afford to approach a third person who act as an electricity agent and tries to give

connections from grid to the households. “Someone”as mentioned by the resident Mukesh in

Mahesh Patti are the electrical agents who help a household in getting an informal access to

electricity. This creates an entirely new distribution system where households get connection from

the formal supply chain but they don't have to pay like normal connection fees. All they have to do

is to approach these agents and give them a one time fee which varies from 2000 INR to 3500 INR

and they manage to get a connection from the nearest electricity pole. But for the people who

cannot afford the fee of these agents, like the case of Ashraf they have to go for the source

substitution in the form of either charcoal or kerosene which they get easily through public

distribution supplier or in local market.

Informal Access to LPG

As seen in the case of Shiyali, households get access to LPG through local shops. These local shop

don't sell LPG cylinders directly. They use the cylinders to refill small LPG cylinders which they

sell it to the people. Cylinders which is used for the refilling is not meant for the commercial use or

public selling. As per Vimal Jha distributor of Nanak Enterprises LPG cylinders of 14.1 KG can be

only used for domestic purpose. But it was seen that shop keepers use 14.1 KG cylinder for

refilling. After a brief interaction with shopkeeper Mustak in Ram-Nagar, he explained the entire

process how it works. He has six gas cards on different names of his family members and he uses

them every month for getting 6 cylinders. He further says:

“ People from the neighbourhood generally come with a two litre cylinder, so from a single gas

cylinder I refill 7 of those. And it´s a good money”.

So the cylinder which is meant for domestic use is being redistributed in a market through a

different system which is legally not allowed but it gives an alternate option to those who couldn't

get a gas connection.

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8. Findings & Implications The research question “How various levels of access determine the energy consumption

behaviour in formal and informal neighbourhoods of urban areas?” cannot be answered in a

simple way. As research focusses on two main aspects i.e 1) level of access to energy carriers and 2)

energy consumption by the households. So Answering this research question involves uncovering

the various complex interlinkages which exists between type of access a household has to a

particular energy carrier and amount of energy consumed.

Therefore answer to research question has to be given by explaining various factors which affect

access to energy sources and role of informality in supply mechanism and thereafter explaining

overall impact of these factors on energy consumption.

8.1 Barriers to Energy Access

Access to specific fuel play a crucial part in households decision of using specific fuel. As it was

seen that residents of Mahesh Patti had no means of having a formal access to electricity and so

they had to use other alternate sources like kerosene lamp for lighting or using electricity through

informal means. For the use of LPG despite the availability of Direct cash benefit transfer in the

form of subsidised LPG cylinders, residents of the same neighbourhood have no means of access to

it, as result they end up in using coals or wood charcoal as cooking fuel. Based on analysis this

section highlights the factors which act as barrier to energy access.

8.1.1 Financial Barrier - Affordability

Electricity

• High upfront cost: The most significant barrier to electricity connection among the people living

in informal settlement is the connection fee. Currently the electricity connection fee is around

1000 INR which covers only meter, installation cost and security deposit. It doesn't include the

cost of the electricity wire which is required from the electricity pole to house. This cost has to

be covered by the household additionally. So in total a household has to pay around 2000 INR for

a new electricity connection. This amount is more than average household income for the people

living in informal settlement of Mahesh Patti. For some of the families it is almost equivalent to

four months of monthly income.

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• High Electricity Bill: Some of the slum dwellers end up in paying high electricity bill. 24

Household of informal settlement never pay bill as per the units consumed, as some times they

have to pay higher electricity bill which is around 400 INR when they use just one bulb for

lighting and a ceiling fan for cooling. This irregularity in the bill always discourages people to

use electricity extensively. Therefore due to limited and irregular income urban poor are unable

to afford either the required upfront cost for legal access or pay the bills in continuous or

consistent manner.

LPG

• High up front cost: Like electricity for LPG a household has to pay around 1500 INR for a

single cylinder connection, even tough it is less than average income of people living in informal

settlements but still there are many households in settlement of Mahesh-Patti whose monthly

income is less than 1000 INR per month and they cannot afford to pay such a huge upfront fee

for a connection. This is because most of the residents in Mahesh Patii earn on a daily basis and

its really difficult for them to have enough savings for paying upfront connection fee.

• High re-occurring cost: It was seen that number of subsidised cylinder is limited to just 12

cylinders per year. These subsidised cylinders can be bought by household at a price of 425 INR

per cylinder but when 12 cylinder quota is over, household have to pay the market price which is

around 950 INR per cylinder. Because of this high price, households are careful while using

LPG and most of them prefer to use kerosene or wood charcoal for cooking purpose. As 25

parallel use of kerosene stoves or wood charcoal reduces the consumption of LPG cylinders as a

result households do not have to refill cylinders every month. The cost of combined use of all

the sources is lower than monthly amount of expenditure on LPG.

8.1.2 Informal SettlementLegal recognition of the settlement is the pre-requisite for a household to get a formal access to

energy carriers like electricity and LPG. The key informant reported that due to informal nature, 26

urban poor are excluded from the formal delivery mechanism as they do not have the proof of valid

residence address and other required document. In case of Mahesh Patti, many residents migrated

from neighbouring rural areas and they settled on a private barren land. Since most of them have

Interview by researcher with Raghu, resident Ram Nagar 24

As seen in the case of Bimla, resident of Ram Nagar 25

Interview by researcher with Ashraf and Mukesh in Mahesh Patti26

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little or no asset, they can not help themselves to afford a legal tenure-ship. Many of them do not

have a residential proof which can be used getting a formal connection.

8.1.3 Ubiquitous Role of External Agents/ Alternate Supply Mechanism

The existence of alternate supply mechanism (informal access) enables the households who couldn't

get a formal access, to use available modern energy sources of electricity and LPG. This kind of

supply mechanism is informal but it gives access to modern energy fuel. The process varies for

electricity and LPG.

Electricity

People get informal access to electricity through the electricity agents. These agents connect a

house to electricity through the nearest electricity pole by taking a one time fee of 2000 INR. This

front cost is same what a household pays for getting a new electricity connection but one benefit

which households see is that they do not have to pay re-occurring electricity bill. As a result they

prefer taking the help of these electricity agents in getting informal electricity supply.

LPG

The process of getting a formal LPG connection is same as that of electricity in terms of

documentation and fee required. As a result some of households who do not have formal access to

LPG prefer getting it from local shop keepers through the refilling procedure.

In both the processes households end up in paying more than usual cost and still they have

uncertainty over the access. Since the connection is informal they always face the danger of legal

actions if they get caught by the concerned authorities. Whereas these agents who provide access to

these services because of the sheer monopoly in absence of any other provisions by energy carriers

they end up in exploiting poor households who use their services. Like in case of LPG the normal

cost of cylinder is INR 425 for 14.1 litres but through informal supply households have to pay

around INR 70-90 PER litre, which is way more than actual market price.

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8.1.4 Institutional Barrier

The Process

The rigid requirement of documentation for getting a new electricity or a new LPG connection

makes it impossible for people living in informal settlement to get a formal access to these energy

carriers. Most of these people came from the neighbouring area and settled on the private land. In

absence of legal documentation of their houses it becomes impossible for them to apply for formal

connection.

Implementation of Government Schemes

Kutir Jyoti Yojana is an electrification scheme launched by Ministry of Power GOI. Under this

scheme a household living below poverty line gets an electricity supply of 35 watt per month at a

fixed monthly tariff of INR 35. It was observed that in both informal settlements none of the

households were benefited by the scheme. From the survey it was found out that residents were not

aware of this scheme. As per Chief Engineer Sunil Jha NBSPHCL Darbhanga division, till date the

power holding organisation has organised two electrification campaign where 317 poor 27

households were given connection under this scheme. But it was found out that none of them were

from case areas studied. Rate of implementation of these schemes are slow and more of these

campaigns are needed to promote electrification process.

Absence of Centralised Institution

It was observed that there is no centralised institution which can take care of energy services in the

informal settlement. Apart from Municipal corporation and local NGOs which aim to improve

physical infrastructure in these settlement, there is no other institution which work for improving

the living conditions in these neighbourhood.

8.1.5 Awareness Barrier

Using wood-charcoal for cooking food is a traditional practice and most of the residents in informal

settlement are more comfortable to continue with the customs they have been following for many

years. It was observed during the survey that even tough some of the residents have LPG they prefer

to use charcoal along side with LPG for cooking. LPG can also be used for making bangle or bead

but as seen in case area of Ram Nagar even people are aware of the process of using LPG for this

Electrification Campaign is an one day special camp where all queries and complaints regarding 27

electrification process is solved. Campaign is also used for submitting applications for getting new electricity connection.

�79

process but they prefer to use charcoal as they are more accustomed to use it. They are more

concentrated on economic benefits rather than heath benefits. Further with their low level of

education and limited awareness of health and financial benefits of using modern fuel, slum

dwellers resist to switch from charcoal consumption to cleaner and less fuel source.

8.2 Type of Settlement, Consumption and Income

Income does lead to energy stacking but with a difference

With the increase in income household tend to use multiple source of energy for a specific task. But

not in the way as excepted. As it is seen in various studies done before that with increase in income

( Leach 1992, Masera, Omar et al. 2000), household use all the available fuels from traditional to

modern fuel, people with higher income don`t switch to modern fuel but in-fact they keep on using

traditional fuel sources along with the modern fuels. But in context of this research this phenomena

was not observed. As people with higher income do switch to modern energy and they prefer not to

use traditional fuel source. Here energy stacking becomes evident from the fact that people with

higher income do use multiple energy sources but they use modern energy source rather than using

traditional or conventional sources for example for lighting people prefer to electricity supply from

the grid or electricity supply from generators pumped by diesel oil. Phenomena of energy stacking

is also seen in the case of households with low income but they end up in using more conventional

or traditional form of energy rather than the modern energy sources.

8.3 Energy Profile

As discussed in the theoretical framework chapter that energy profile of a neighbourhood can be

described on a three dimensional graph with its axis as energy consumption, energy carrier and

energy access. Based on consumption behaviour, level of access to fuels and type of fuel used

energy profile for the three neighbourhood can be plotted as shown below.

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In above graph all three residential neighbourhood follow a different path. In Mahesh-Patti

(informal settlement 2) as it was seen that overall energy consumption was much less than Ram-

Nagar and Rehman Nagar and majority of the households are dependent on conventional fuel

sources like wood-charcoal and kerosene. So the energy path for Mahesh-Patti has much lower

slope representing its low consumption, higher use of conventional fuel source and with either

informal or no access to the modern energy carriers of electricity and LPG.

In case of Ram-Nagar households do use all types of available energy fuel with some of them

having informal access to modern energy sources. As a result it has a slope higher than energy path

of Mahesh Patti & Rehman Nagar. This represents that their overall energy consumption is higher

than Maheh Patti and they use a combination of fuels ranging from modern energy sources to

conventional energy sources. As a result there is not much difference between Ram.Nagar and

Rehman-Nagar.

In Rehman- Nagar ( formal settlement), all the households were found to have a formal connection

to modern energy carriers of electricity and LPG . So their energy path has higher slope and higher

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Fig 8.1 Comparative Energy Profile Source: self

Rehman Nagar

Ram Nagar

Mahesh Patti

consumption end. This represents higher use of modern energy carriers and high level of formal

access to these carriers.

Any change in the energy path i.e line of energy profile will call for a change in all the three axis.

For example in Mahesh-Patti switching to higher fuel i.e predominant use of LPG for cooking will

call for improved level of access to the LPG career and increase in the socio-economic factors like

income which will enable them to afford these energy carriers.

8.4 Conclusion of Findings

Amount of energy consumption and type of fuel consumed is affected by the level of access. Area

with higher level of formalisation i.e with high level of formal access have higher energy

consumption and high consumption of better fuel/modern fuels. But areas with no access and

informal access have less energy consumption and high consumption of traditional or conventional

energy sources. But scenario leads to developmental paradox where both of the cases have negative

impacts either on environment and health. This raises the question that which is worth to promote in

present context. Which one of the both supply mechanism has least negative impact or is there any

other alternate option?

Promoting formalisation leads to higher consumption of modern fuel. In context of study it means

higher consumption of electricity & in study area where electricity supply comes from coal based

thermal power plants this leads to increased share in air pollution. Whereas Informal supply system

fills the gap which is generated by egress of the energy carriers. But informal system provides the

access to same modern energy fuels as a result it leads to environmental pollution as well. Extent of

pollution is less than the case of egress i.e lack of access as in that case people use traditional fuel

which has more adverse effect on environmental and human´s physical health. So Both of the

process should be discouraged and gradual shift towards green energy is needed.

8.5 Implications

Energy consumption behaviour (i.e type of fuel and amount consumed) as seen in the cases is

affected by a series of interlinking factors which affect the households decision to use a specific

energy carrier. Type of settlement, households income, type of access to energy carrier all in

together affect the choice of fuel being used by household either for lighting purpose or for cooking.

Based on this findings, implication section of this chapter first comments on how the existing study �82

deviates from theoretical framework and then it gives the recommendation which can be helpful in

removing barriers to energy access.

8.5.1 Implications for Theory

Energy Stack Model

Energy Stack Model as proposed by Leach (1992) and Mesera et al. (2000) says that households 28

go for accumulation of energy options rather than switching between the fuels with the increase in

income. This is called as energy stacking. This theory suggests that households with low income use

traditional and conventional fuel source for cooking, space cooling/heating and for lighting,

whereas households with higher sources along with traditional fuel sources use modern fuels like

electricity and LPG for similar use. As per this theory people with low income do not use any of the

modern energy sources while people with high income use both traditional and modern energy

sources.

But in existing study this doesn't hold true. Energy stacking was seen but in reverse to income level.

People with low income happen to use all available energy sources if they have access to it. For

example in two of the informal settlement where average household income is way less than formal

settlement, households use all the available sources if they have access to it, i.e for cooking they use

wood-charcoal or kerosene stoves or LPG. Whereas people with high income use only modern

energy sources, they don´t go for energy stacking as suggested by Leach (1992). In case of formal

residential area all the households were observed to use modern energy sources. None of them were

seen to use traditional or conventional fuels like wood charcoal or kerosene.

So theory of energy stacking cannot be used for the case area. It´s true that household go for energy

stacking but that cannot be decided by the income factor as it is more governed by the level of

access household has to fuel sources. As even with low income households use modern energy

sources if they have access to it.

Proposed Study framework

As seen in theoretical chapter, proposed study framework for Energy Profile of residential

neighbourhood takes the account of three main factor: energy access, energy carrier and energy

See chapter 4 for details 28

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consumption. These three axis of framework explains the energy consumption behaviour of

households in both formal and informal settlement. In the present study it perfectly captured the

interlinking parameters which are required to explain the energy profile of the neighbourhood.

Existing Study confirms the applicability of this framework in explaining the link between energy

consumption, level of access and energy carriers.

The Energy Path in the framework shows the energy behaviour of the household. The line of path

interlinks energy carrier and energy access and energy consumption. Energy carrier explains the

type of fuel used, energy access measures the level of access and consumption axis gives amount of

energy consumed. Overall the line explains the energy behaviour. The framework can be used for

the researchers comparing energy profile for both at household level or at settlement level. At

household level the framework can be used by using different energy sources and at settlement level

framework can be used by aggregating energy consumption by all sources.

8.6 Implications for Practice

People living in informal settlement face problems of access to energy sources because of land

tenure, high cost of new connection and high running cost, rigid process for getting new

connections. These barriers should be properly addressed so that people living in informal �84

Fig 8.2 Energy Profile of the Household Source: self

Energy Path

settlement do not depend on traditional fuels for their daily energy needs. Implications should be

directed in a feasible way for getting accessibility of energy in informal settlements. Therefore two

different sets of proposals are explained in this section. One of which is more short term proposals

which is based on existing conditions and barriers which affect access to available resources in the

study area and second which is long which explains the path towards which energy development

should proceed.

8.6.1 Short Term Implications

Electricity Upfront cost reduction

High upfront cost is one of the main barriers for electricity access in informal settlement. So it is

recommended to reduce the initial connection cost by providing alternate modes of payment like

payment in the form of easy monthly instalments. This will make it easier for households living in

informal settlement to pay the upfront cost and get electricity connection. Similar kind of

suggestion was implemented in Dhaka, Bangladesh where issues were almost same and within a

year of implementation of this program a large number of increase in electricity connection was

seen (Jamal, Hussain et al. 2013). The same can be applied in the case areas as well as this paying

less upfront fee will make electricity much affordable and accessible to households living in

informal settlements.

Charge by consumption Basis

Households in informal settlement pay higher than units consumed as electricity bill is not based on

number of units consumed. So it is recommended that households should be charged as per the unit

consumed, not by a fixed monthly bill. This will encourage households to go for electricity

connection as they will only pay for what they consume. And this will help removing the fear of

paying extra money on nub of wrong electricity bills

LPG

Cost reduction

High upfront cost and high refilling cost are the major barriers in accessing LPG. It can be dealt by

introducing monthly instalment payment. As with monthly instalment, the cost will be spread over

some months and households will not have to pay all the upfront cost in one single payment.

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Promotion of small cylinders

Currently cylinders supplied in the market are of 14.1 kg , this leads to higher cost of a cylinder. But

if government could consider a LPG cylinder of 2 kg or 5 kg, it will reduce the high upfront cost

and refilling cost. As a result this will help people with low income in accessing LPG at a reduced

upfront cost and reduced refilling cost. This will also help people in keeping two cylinders, in case

if they run of one cylinder.

Wood-Charcoal

Because of the cultural practise people living in informal settlement still use wood charcoal as a

main fuel source for cooking. So it is recommended to promote the use of improved cooking stove

and make them available at an affordable price. As it is difficult to change the cultural habits, so

provision of improved cooking stoves will reduce indoor pollution caused by using wood charcoal

as a cooking fuel. But promoting the use of improved cooking stoves will require the need to raise

the awareness about health issues of using traditional cook stove. It will also require the

government as well as NGO to work in local community to promote the economic, health and

environmental benefits of using improved cook stoves.

Regulation of Land Tenure

The informal status of informal settlement and lack of residential address was found to be one of the

major barriers for access to modern energy sources. As formal access to modern energy sources is

linked with valid residential address. So it is recommended that the local development authority i.e

Darbhanga Municipal Corporation give emphasis on this issue. To address this issue, the authority

will require to recognise these informal settlement and give a temporary residential certificate

which can act a proof of residence for getting a formal connection.

Need for Better Coordination between Institutions

Darbhanga Municipal Corporation is the only institution which focuses on the improvement on the

physical infrastructure. It is recommended that DMC should focus on providing modern energy

services to the people living in informal settlement by coordinating with various energy carrier

agencies like Nanak gas agency or BSPHCL in planning and dealing effectively by solving the

problem of residential address issue.

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Need for Proper Market Control and Supply Distribution Mechanism

As it was explained in previous chapters that people living in informal settlement depend a lot on

alternate supply system where they get electricity connection from the electricity agents and they

get LPG though local shopkeepers. Households who are dependent on local shopkeepers never get

benefited from the subsidy scheme from government. It is recommended that government or

private institution should directly involve in the distribution system through a formal system based

on the recommendations above. As government or private energy carrier start supplying small LPG

cylinders, people will no longer have to buy LPG from local shopkeepers at much higher price.

Need for Having Proper Data Base System

In order to identify households who are deprived of access or informal access to energy carriers, it

is important to have a strong database. The only agency who has data base for informal settlements

is the local NGO Kanchan Sewa Sasthan and their data base only includes demographic and

physical infrastructure details. In order to improve energy access it is recommended that

development authority should develop a database based on the energy access profile, as it will help

in targeting households who are deprived of having formal access to energy carriers and it will help

the concerned authority to make a plan based on it.

8.6.2 Long Term Implications

Short term implications for practice focuses on improvement of existing supply mechanism. Those

set of suggestions may help in transition from use of traditional fuel to more cleaner locally

available energy carriers. But the main issue with this is that it increases the dependency on coal

based thermal power plants and more extensive use of electricity and LPGs. This may have adverse

affect on the natural environment and on human health. Therefore a long term strategy is needed

which helps in transition to more cleaner energy options like renewable energy and biomass energy.

Till recently with renewable energy like solar energy and wind energy in terms of public access the

problems comes in the form of availability of technology and affordability. But affordability and

availability is not a problem any more. Problems in access comes in form of acceptance. As

Successful implementation of these projects require the acceptance of three main factors 1) Socio-

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political acceptance 2) Market acceptance 3) Community acceptance (Wustenhagen, Wolsnik et al.

2007). Socio-political acceptance is the social acceptance of the new technologies by society.

Market acceptance refers to the process of market adoption of technology and policies and

community acceptance refers to specific acceptance of decisions regarding renewable energy by the

local stake holders, specially local residents who uses these services (Wustenhagen, Wolsnik et al.

2007).

These factors can be seen in all successful projects which has been in implemented across Asian and

African countries for improving the energy access.

1) DEliver ( Decentralised Energy for Livelihoods, Environment and Resilience) It is a group of UK based organisations like Ashden, Christain Aid, GVEP international, IDS,

Oxfam. The organisation has focus on delivery models for overcoming the barriers to cleaner,

affordable, and more convenient energy access in developing countries. The action of this

organisation has had led to dramatic increase in level of impact and reach of decentralised energy in

creating access ((Hedon 2012).

2) Access to Energy in South Africa: In South Africa there are various community participation

models have been implemented in delivering renewable energy options under the scheme of

Community and household options in choosing energy services ( CHOICES-SA). Greater access to

on grid and off grid electrification has been implemented in South Africa since 1980s to elevate

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Socio-political acceptance

Market acceptance Community acceptance

Fig 8.3 Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy Innovation Source: (Wustenhagen, Wolsnik et al. 2007)

socio economic development and poverty reduction. But these programs faced a set back because of

the unreliability and low capacity of off grid energy systems and lack of effective payment systems

for poor users. Through CHOICE SA program local and international institutions and government

are planning to build community´s knowledge and capacity by developing community business

skills, use existing local alternative energy resources. The program has been quite successful since

its initiation for electrification process (IIED 2012).

Some similar delivery mechanism is needed for existing study area to develop a supply mechanism

for the provision of renewable energy. But along with focus of supply of solar and wind energy

there is also a need to use the existing local resources which can be cultivated. For example use of

biofuels through investments in agricultural.

8.7 Proposal for Further Study This research gives an insight into existing scenario of energy access and consumption. It never

touches the feasibility of using alternate greener energy options available in market like solar

energy and wind energy at neighbourhood scale. A future study is needed to explore the options as

mentioned in previous section to detail out the provisions of alternate greener energy sources along

with supply and delivery mechanism which can assure access and can tackle all the barriers which

were found to act as a barrier to access.

�89

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Appendix 1

Questionnaire Survey

Date:

Location: Survey No.

Name of respondent: Location no. on Map:

A) Demographic Details:

B) Electricity

1. Connection to Electricity: 1) Yes 2) No

2. If yes then type of connection 1) DS1 2) DS 2 3) Kutir Jyoti Joyana 4) Others

2. If yes then Monthly electricity bill paid in rupees: unit consumed :

(check the last electricity bill if possible)

3. Details of electrical equipment:

Bulbs: Fan: Tv : Refrigerator: Air coolers : others:

4. If no, then fuel used for lighting: Kerosene/ diesel/ others ..specify

Monthly Amount consumed:

Name Relation to Respondent Age Income

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Available from ( source from where they buy):1) private market 2) public Distributor

if public distributor than monthly allowance in litres:

C) Energy for cooking

1. Connection to log cylinders: 1) Yes 2) No

2. If yes then no. of cylinders used monthly:

(check the gas passbook if possible)

3. if no then fuel used for cooking: 1) wood 2) charcoal 3) kerosene 4) others

Amount consumed per month:

Available from:

D) Fuel Used for other purpose: Amount Consumed:

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Appendix 2 List of Respondents

In order to keep anonymity only first names of those who were surveyed is given below:Name Location Date of Survey

Subel Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Moti Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Ram Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Faiyaz Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Rampd Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Jobair Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Aslam Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Noor Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Shamim Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Sahdev Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Majhhar Ram Nagar 20/6/14

Satya Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Manjoor Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Jiayaur Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Shivali Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Mustak Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Sultan Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Umar Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Rameshwa Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Kaji Ram Nagar 21/6/14

Nand Rehman Nagar 22/6/14

Vishwana Rehman Nagar 22/6/14

Banarsi Rehman Nagar 22/6/14

RAJ Rehman Nagar 22/6/14

KAML Rehman Nagar 22/6/14

VIKAS Rehman Nagar 22/6/14

JIWA Rehman Nagar 22/6/14

BISO Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

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Sudama Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Ramesh Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Sunodh Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Mathura Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Biso Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Sitaram Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Atmaram Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Tukkaram Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Kdear Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Shailend Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Trubuvan Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Tshrafi Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Sukhdev Rehman Nagar 23/6/14

Mahavir Mahesh Patti 24/6/14

Satrujan Mahesh Patti 24/6/14

Hari Mahesh Patti 24/6/14

Rajendra Mahesh Patti 24/6/14

Raghunat Mahesh Patti 24/6/14

Vishwana Mahesh Patti 24/6/14

Uday Mahesh Patti 24/6/14

Pawan Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Jagdish Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Kashi Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Anil Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Mahesh Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Ganesh Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Ram Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Pramod Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Kishor Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Shivjee Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Sanjay Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Balram Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Javed Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

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Ajay Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Aaheshwa Mahesh Patti 25/6/14

Aaman Mahesh Patti 26/6/14

Madhvi Mahesh Patti 26/6/14

Akhilesh Mahesh Patti 26/6/14

Kewal Mahesh Patti 26/6/14

Ranjeet Mahesh Patti 26/6/14

Risham Mahesh Patti 26/6/14

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Appendix 3 Correlation Analysis

Correlation analysis measures the relationship between two items: dependent and independent

variable. The goal is to see if a change in the independent variable will result in a change in the

dependent variable . This dependency is measured by correlation coefficient. The correlation

coefficient can range between ±1.0. A coefficient of +1.0 indicates a "perfect positive correlation,"

means that changes in the independent item will result in an identical change in the dependent item.

A coefficient of -1.0 indicates a "perfect negative correlation," means that changes in the

independent item will result in an identical change in the dependent item, but the change will be in

the opposite direction. A coefficient of zero means there is no relationship between the two items

and that a change in the independent item will have no effect on the dependent item.

A low correlation coefficient (e.g., less than ±0.10) suggests that the relationship between two items

is weak or non-existent. A high correlation coefficient (i.e., closer to plus or minus one) indicates

that the dependent variable (e.g., the security's price) will usually change when the independent

variable (e.g., an indicator) changes. The direction of the dependent variable's change depends on

the sign of the coefficient. If the coefficient is a positive number, then the dependent variable will

move in the same direction as the independent variable; if the coefficient is negative, then the

dependent variable will move in the opposite direction of the independent variable (http://

www.metastock.com/customer/resources/taaz/?c=3&p=44 , 2014)

For the research a correlation analysis was done between the dependent variable consumption

amount and independent variables:income, household size, type of settlement, access type in order

to see the dependency of consumption on above mentioned independent variables.

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Correlation Table

1) For Rehman Nagar

2) For Mahesh Patti

3) For Ram Nagar

Parameters Electricity Consumption

LPG Consumption Kerosene Consumption

Household Size

Pearson Correlation —.051 ..0529 -

Sig. (2 tailed) ..828 ..014 -

N 21 21 21

Household Income

Pearson Correlation ..885 —.114 -

Sig. (2 tailed) 0 ..623 -

N 21 21 21

Parameters Electricity Consumption

LPG Consumption Kerosene Consumption

Household Size

Pearson Correlation —.158 ..196 —.028

Sig. (2 tailed) ..414 ..307 ..887

N 29 29 29

Household Income

Pearson Correlation ..795 ..694 ..123

Sig. (2 tailed) 0 0 ..526

N 29 29 29

Parameters Electricity Consumption

LPG Consumption Kerosene Consumption

Household Size

Pearson Correlation ..499 ..711 —.097

Sig. (2 tailed) ..025 0 ..685

N 20 20 20

Household Income

Pearson Correlation ..821 ..635 —.331

Sig. (2 tailed) 0 ..003 ..154

N 20 20 20

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