INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION OF PARENTING AND ADOLESCENT PROBLEM BEHAVIORS Janna Lynn Herman Redmond, Washington B.S. Cornell University, 1985 M.A. University of Virginia, 1990 A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Psychology University of Virginia January, 1995
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INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION OF PARENTING AND ADOLESCENT PROBLEM BEHAVIORS Janna Lynn Herman Redmond, Washington B.S. Cornell University, 1985 M.A. University of Virginia, 1990 A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Psychology University of Virginia January, 1995
Intergenerational Transmission i
Abstract
This investigation provided insight into the role of parent-adolescent relationships
in the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. Representations of parenting
were examined as a potential mechanism by which problem behaviors are transmitted
intergenerationally from mothers to their adolescents. Paternal, gender and family
composition influences on the intergenerational progression were also explored. One
hundred thirty-five adolescents, aged 14 to 18 years, and their mothers (and fathers
when available) completed Epstein's (1983) Mother-Father-Peer Scale, Armsden and
Greenberg's (1987) Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, and questionnaires about
smoking, alcohol and drug use. Indications of an intergenerational transmission of
smoking, drinking and drug use from mothers to adolescents were found. Evidence of
intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting which corresponds to those
described by attachment theory was also uncovered. For both mother and adolescent
generations, representations of parenting received were significantly related to problems
with alcohol and drug use, but not with quantity of drug use. Limited effects were
found for fathers, adolescent gender and family composition. Evidence implying that
representations of parenting may play a partial mediating role was found. Although,
when representations were examined as completely mediating the intergenerational
transmission of problem behaviors, substantial unmediated effects remained. Findings
suggest the importance of continuing integrated research to determine how and why
representations of parenting influence the intergenerational transmission of substance
use. Information gleaned from such research will assist in the development of
prevention and intervention efforts.
Intergenerational Transmission ii
Table of Contents Abstract..................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .................................................................................... iv Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 Methods................................................................................................... 21 Results .................................................................................................... 27 Discussion................................................................................................ 91 References ............................................................................................. 116 Appendix A: Epstein's Mother-Father-Peer Scale........................................... 128 Appendix B: Armsden & Greenberg's Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment... 131 Appendix C: CAGE Interview.................................................................... 135 Appendix D: Adolescent Drug Use Questionnaire.......................................... 137
Intergenerational Transmission iii
Acknowledgements
There are many people I wish to thank for contributing their time and effort to
this project. First, I would like to thank all the families who participated in the Virginia
Study of Teens and Families for opening their lives to this research. Without their
contribution this project would never have been possible. I would also like to thank the
project coordinator, Kathleen Boykin, the research assistants, and my fellow graduate
students (particularly Gabe Kuperminc and Cindy Moore) for their support and humor
during the preliminary phase of this project.
I am especially indebted to the members of my committee. I would like to thank
Steve Nock, for his sociological perspective on the findings of this study, making the
variance explained seem so much more significant. I would like to thank Dick Bell, for
providing an understanding that can only come from years of experience and his ability
to see things from a unique viewpoint. Dick Reppucci, I acknowledge for his support
and friendship throughout my graduate career, and for making this dissertation possible
by teaching me to write. I especially recognize Joe Allen, as an excellent academic role
model with a broad base of theoretical and statistical knowledge, and more importantly,
as a wonderful example of how to have a happy family life and a successful career. His
advice will always be valued. I cannot imagine how anyone else could have provided
so much support over such a long distance!
I would like to thank my fellow graduate students for helping me to maintain a
sense of sanity during the trials and tribulations of my graduate career. Particularly, I
would like to thank Gail Clavet, for her loyal friendship; she provided a dependable,
rational force, when the rest of the world seemed to be going crazy. I would also like
to thank Anne Ricciuti, for an adult attachment has lasted over thousands of miles.
Without Gail and Anne, I might have moved into the "ivory tower" and forgotten the
Intergenerational Transmission iv
world where we three had such good times!
Finally, I would like to thank my family. I would especially like to thank my
mother and father, their desire to say "my daughter the doctor", helped motivate me to
continue my education. I would like to thank my daughter, Michelle, for her patience
while "mommy was working very hard" and for reminding me of what is truly
important in my life. Most importantly, I must thank my husband, Joe, for his
confidence in my ability to achieve this goal, for his support to make it real, and for his
love that "will never die".
Intergenerational Transmission 1
Introduction
There are approximately 35 million people living in the United States between
the ages of 10 and 19 years (Department of Commerce, 1992), and many of these
adolescents are engaging in behaviors that threaten their health, their welfare and their
lives. During 1991, more than 40% of youths used alcohol, more than 37% smoked
cigarettes, and approximately 20% used some form of illicit drug (National Institute on
Drug Abuse, 1991). These harmful behaviors not only endanger the well-being of our
society's youth, but they also cost the nation billions of dollars.
Every year the United States spends more money trying to repair the damage
done by adolescent problem behavior. Federal expenditures for drug abuse programs
have increased nearly 400 percent over the last decade, from $1.1 billion in 1981 to
$5.5 billion in 1989 (Select Committee, 1990). Notably, these figures do not even
account for indirect costs to the country, such as those from lost human resources and
productivity. The total estimated cost of drug abuse to the United States for 1988 was
$58.3 billion, of which about 75% ($32.5 billion) was spent on police protection, private
Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984). Adolescent respondents to the ADUQ answered questions
regarding frequency and quantity of alcohol and drug use, as well as alcohol and drug
dependence (See Appendix D). Several variables summarizing adolescent substance use
were examined. The variables examined include: whether or not a teen has ever
smoked cigarettes, or has ever used alcohol or marijuana; the number of occasions a
teen has used alcohol or marijuana during the past year; the total number of different
types of problems associated with alcohol or drug use; and the school grade during
which a teen first got drunk.
Procedure
Letters were sent home to adolescents and their families, by the school districts,
describing the study as being concerned with teenagers' development. The families
were asked to return a postcard, supplying their names, addresses and phone numbers,
if they were interested in participating in the study. Upon receipt of the postcards, the
family would be called and invited to come to the laboratory for their first of two three-
hour visits. Each family was paid $45 for their first visit ($30 in a check to the parents,
and $15 in a check to the teenager). Interviews were conducted at the University of
Virginia, in private rooms, by interviewers who were receiving graduate training in
psychology. At the start of the visit, the family sat together in one room where the
Intergenerational Transmission 23
procedures of the study were explained. The interviewers assured the family of the
confidentiality of the information they were supplying, noting that parents would not
even be permitted access to any of their teenagers' information and visa versa. Parents'
and adolescents' informed consent was obtained, then interviewers took each member of
the family to a separate room. In their own private rooms, participants completed a
series of questionnaires, including the Mother-Father-Peer Scales. Interviewers offered
to read questionnaires to all participants so that literacy would not preclude participation
or comfort for some participants. Adolescents completed the Inventory of Parent and
Peer Attachment and the Adolescent Drug Use Questionnaire. Parents were
administered the CAGE. Participants were frequently reminded that they could refuse
to answer any question that made them feel uncomfortable.
Results
The general progression for the data analyses begins with an initial evaluation of
the psychometric characteristics of variables, followed by an examination of the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. Representations of parenting were
then considered as a mechanism by which problem behaviors are transmitted across
generations by: a) examining the potential intergenerational transmission of
representations of parenting; and b) evaluating the correspondence of representations of
parenting with problem behaviors. Finally, specific representations of parenting were
investigated as possible moderators or mediators to the intergenerational transmission of
problem behaviors.
The analysis of each hypothesis begins with descriptive correlational analyses of
parents' and adolescents' reports, and is followed by regression analyses to evaluate
intergenerational relationships. Since only sixty percent of the mothers in this sample
were married at the time of their interview (thus restricting sample size for analyses with
Intergenerational Transmission
24
fathers), mothers' influences on their adolescents were investigated primarily. However,
parallel exploratory analyses, regarding fathers' influences, were also conducted.
Exploratory analyses evaluating gender effects (i.e., the differential relationships
between the mother-daughter, mother-son, father-daughter, and father-son dyads as
described in the fifth hypothesis) and family composition influences were also performed
throughout the analyses.
Data Transformations
Independent and dependent variables were checked for normality and outliers.
Transformations were made on variables that were not dichotomous, had non-normal
distributions, and for which the scale metric was not intrinsically meaningful, in an
attempt to achieve greater normality (i.e., skewness and kurtosis below one). The
specific transformations used were selected to maximize the normality of the resulting
variable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989). Both teens' and mothers' frequency of cigarette
smoking during past month were log transformed. Fathers' frequency of smoking
during the past month was transformed by computing the inverse of its log. The
number of occasions teens used alcohol or marijuana during the past year was
transformed with the square root function. Fathers' reports of their mothers as
accepting versus rejecting was transformed by taking the log of the reflect.
Data Reduction
There were strong, significant interrelationships between mothers' drinking and
drug use behaviors; mothers' affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking
correlated with those regarding drug use r=.54, p<.001. Therefore, the two items
were added together to construct a sum variable representing the total number of
affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use.
There were parallel, significant interrelationships between fathers' drinking and
Intergenerational Transmission
25
drug use behaviors as there were with mothers' behaviors. Fathers' affirmative
responses to the CAGE regarding drinking correlated with those regarding drug use
r=.33, p<.01. Correspondingly, the two items were added together to construct the
same sum variable representing the total number of affirmative responses to CAGE
questions about drinking and drug use.
Adolescent problem behaviors were also strongly interrelated, with significant
correlations ranging from r=.35 to .70, p<.001. A sum variable representing whether
teens have ever tried alcohol or marijuana was constructed to afford data reduction
(these two variables correlate r=.35, p<.001).
To provide background regarding gender differences, a comparison of the
means, standard deviations, minima and maxima for male versus female teens' smoking,
drinking and drug use are shown in Table 1. T tests revealed that female teens reported
significantly more problems associated with drug and alcohol use than male teens did.
No significant differences were found between male and female teens' reports of
parenting received on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale or on the Inventory of Parent and
Peer Attachment (see Table 2).
Intergenerational Transmission
26
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Male and Female Teens' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Teens' Reported Behaviors Mean (SD) for Males Mean (SD) for Females Minimum-Maximum for Males Minimum-Maximum for Females Ever smoked cigarettes* 63.08% 69.49% Summary variable: ever used alcohol or marijuana* 72.22% 76.19% Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems** 1.31 (1.87) 2.16 (3.02) 0 - 6 0 - 11 Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year 1.32 (1.03) 1.19 (0.99) 0 - 3.16 0 - 3.46 Frequency of cigarette smoking during past month 0.47 (0.63) 0.38 (0.55) 0 - 1.61 0 - 1.61 Grade during which first got drunk 2.48 (2.35) 2.62 (2.16) 0 - 6 0 - 6 *Percentages of participants engaging in problem behaviors, not means, are presented.
Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Male and Female Teens' Representations of Parenting Received on the MFP and the IPPA Mother-Father-Peer Subscales Mean (SD) for Males Mean (SD) for Females Minimum-Maximum for Males Minimum-Maximum for FemalesTeen report of mother: as independence-encouraging 45.11 (7.27) 44.81 (7.39) 29 - 61 31 - 62 as accepting vs. rejecting 41.10 (7.35) 40.27 (8.50) 25 - 50 16 - 50 is idealizing in nature 21.51 (5.33) 20.38 (5.54) 9 - 30 7 - 34 Teen report of father: as independence-encouraging 49.00 (8.36) 43.88 (7.25) 26 - 62 27 - 64 as accepting vs. rejecting 39.31 (7.65) 36.71 (10.03) 25 - 50 12 - 50 is idealizing in nature 20.82 (5.96) 18.08 (7.31) 9 - 32 7 - 34 IPPA Subscales Teen report of mothers: degree of mutual trust 38.18 (9.13) 37.51 (8.59) 18 - 50 15 - 50
Intergenerational Transmission
27
Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behavior
Mothers' Effects
First, the existence of a relationship between the self-reported problem behaviors
of mothers and their adolescents was investigated. Descriptive statistics for mothers'
self-reported problem behaviors and teens' self-reported problem behaviors are shown in
Table 3.
Intergenerational Transmission
28
Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for Mothers' and Teens' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Mothers' Reported Behaviors Mean (SD) Minimum-Maximum Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days** 2.15 (1.80) 1.02 (0.49) 1 - 7 0.69 - 2.08 Ever used alcohol* 86.2% Ever used drugs* 43.9% Number of "yes" responses to CAGE questions re: alcohol 0.66 (0.93) 0 - 4 Number of "yes" responses to CAGE questions about drugs 0.28 (0.78) 0 - 4 Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use 0.93 (1.53) 0 - 8 Teens' Reported Behaviors Ever smoked cigarettes* 66.1% Ever used alcohol* 76.9% Ever used marijuana* 25.8% Summary variable: ever used alcohol or marijuana* 73.9% Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems 1.73 (2.50) 0 - 11 Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana, past year* 2.52 (2.95) 1.26 (1.01) 0 - 12 0 - 3.46 Frequency of cigarette smoking in past month** 0.84 (1.29) 0.43 (0.59) 0 - 4 0 - 1.61 School grade during which first got drunk 2.54 (2.25) 0 - 6 *Percentages of participants engaging in problem behaviors, not means, are presented. **Variable was not normally distributed, and thus was transformed before use in further analyses. Original means, standard deviations, minima and maxima are reported above with transformed versions below.
Intergenerational Transmission
29
To investigate the existence of an intergenerational relationship for problem
behaviors between parents and their adolescents, correlations were examined between
mothers' and adolescents' problem behaviors. A matrix is presented in Table 4. The
only adolescent problem behavior significantly related to mothers' cigarette smoking for
the past month was adolescents' cigarette smoking for the past month, while several teen
behaviors were significantly related to mothers' reports of drinking and drug use.
Intergenerational Transmission
30
Table 4 Intercorrelations of Mothers' and Teens' Substance Use --------------------------------------------------------- Mom cigarette Mom CAGE Teen ever Teen ever Teen drug- Teen alcohol Teen cigarette School grade smoking drinking & smoked a tried alcohol influenced or marijuana smoking when teen past month drug use cigarette or pot beh. problemsuse, past year past month first drunk --------------------------------------------------------- Mothers' Substance Use 1) Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days -.- .14 .11 .10 .05 -.00 .21* .09 2) Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use -.- .11 .12 .30** .27** .18* .28** Teen's Substance Use 3) Ever smoked a cigarette -.- .52*** .40*** .44*** .52*** .35*** 4) Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or pot -.- .54*** .70*** .49*** .61*** 5) Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems -.- .59*** .45*** .50*** 6) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.- 7) Frequency of cigarette smoking during past month 8) School grade during which first got drunk Note: *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
31
Regression analyses were used to examine the association of mothers' smoking,
drinking and drug use with several adolescent problem behaviors. Results are presented
in Table 5. The regression equations simultaneously admitted two independent
variables: mothers' smoking during the past month and mothers' number of affirmative
responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use. The only significant effect of
mothers' smoking was seen in the equation for adolescent smoking (ß=.19, p<.05).
Mothers' number of affirmative responses regarding drinking and drug use was the
significant factor in models for all other teen drug use, save cigarette smoking. The
combined influence of mothers' smoking, drinking and drug use accounted for
approximately 7 percent of the variance in teens' smoking, frequency of alcohol and
marijuana use, drug-influenced behavioral problems, and the school grade during which
teens first got drunk. Thus, it seems that mothers' reports of smoking, drinking and
drug use behaviors are associated with adolescents' reports of smoking, drinking and
drug use behaviors.
Intergenerational Transmission
32
Next, the impact of adolescents' gender on the association of mothers' and
Substance Abuse from their Mothers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Mothers' smoking Total Number of Mothers' R2 (df) during the past affirmative answers to CAGE month questions regarding alcohol ß and drugs ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .09 .08 .02 (2,87) Ever smoked a cigarette .11 .08 .02 (2,113) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .02 .24** .06* (2,101) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.02 .26** .06* (2,109) Frequency of smoking during past month .19* .17 .07* (2,111) School grade during which first got drunk .06 .27** .08** (2,115) Note: Each row represents results from a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
33
adolescents' problem behaviors was examined. Mothers' smoking, drinking and drug
use were simultaneously entered into a regression equation with adolescents' gender,
and interactions of mothers' smoking by teens' gender and mothers' drinking and drug
use by teens' gender (see Table 6). As suggested by the T tests in Table 1 where
adolescent females reported more drug-influenced behavioral problems than did males, a
direct effect of gender was found for the equation examining the number of drug-
influenced behavioral problems (ß=.26, p<.01). The only significant interactions of
mothers' problem behaviors by teens' gender were for a model regarding adolescents'
use of alcohol or marijuana during the past year. For this equation, the interaction of
mothers' smoking during the past month with teens' gender was significant (ß=-.19,
p<.05) and accounted for 4% more variance than did the equation before the
interaction terms were added (R squared=.10, p<.05). Analyzing models separately
for girls and boys shows that mothers' smoking is inversely related to girls', but directly
related to boys', alcohol and drug use during the past year. However, as shown in
Table 7, neither effect of mothers' smoking during the past month significantly explained
boys' or girls' drug use, rendering this interaction difficult to interpret.
Intergenerational Transmission
34
Table 6 Simultaneous Regression Models Predicting Teens' Substance Abuse from their Mothers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use with Interactions by Teen Gender Mothers' smoking Total Number of Mothers' Teen Mothers' smoking during the past affirmative answers to CAGE Gender during the past month questions regarding alcohol ß month by teen ß and drugs gender ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .08 .08 .06 -.06 Ever smoked a cigarette .10 .08 .13 -.04 Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems -.00 .26** .26** -.12 Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .01 .24** .01 -.19* Frequency of smoking during past month .19* .17 -.02 .01 School grade during which first got drunk .05 .27** .09 -.04 Note: Each row presents results from a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Substance Abuse from their Mothers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use by Teens' Gender Mothers' smoking Total Number of Mothers' R2 (df) during the past affirmative answers to CAGE month questions regarding alcohol ß and drugs ß Teen Reports of: Boys: Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .17 .16 .07 (2,57) Girls: Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.21 .33* .15* (2,51) Note: Each row presents results from a single regression equation. *p<.05.
Intergenerational Transmission
35
Fathers' Effects
Although only 40% of our teen participants had participating fathers, the
influence of paternal problem behaviors on adolescents' problem behaviors was also
explored. Descriptive statistics for fathers' self-reported problem behaviors are shown
in Table 8.
Intergenerational Transmission
36
Table 8 Descriptive Statistics for Fathers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Fathers' Reported Behaviors Mean (SD) Minimum-Maximum Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days** 2.16 (1.96) -0.52 (0.11) 1 - 7 -0.59 - -0.32 Ever used alcohol* 96.4% Ever used drugs* 45.3% Number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about alcohol use 1.55 (1.44) 0 - 4 Number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drug use 0.43 (0.95) 0 - 4 Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use 2.00 (1.98) 0 - 8 *Percentages of participants engaging in problem behaviors, not means, are presented. **Variable was not normally distributed, and thus was transformed before use in further analyses. Original means, standard deviations, minima and maxima are reported above with transformed versions below. Note: N ranges from 53 to 55.
Table 9 Intercorrelations of Fathers' and Teens' Substance Use Frequency of Fathers' Total number of affirmative cigarette smoking responses to CAGE questions during past month about drinking and drug use r r Fathers' Substance Use 1) Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days -.- .26 2) Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use -.- Teen's Substance Use 3) Ever smoked a cigarette .26 -.10 4) Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or pot .05 -.01 5) Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems -.04 .03 6) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.12 -.15 7) Frequency of cigarette smoking during past month .12 .00 8) School grade during which first got drunk .08 .02
Intergenerational Transmission
37
The existence of intergenerational influences on problem behaviors were further
investigated by examining fathers' and adolescents' problem behaviors, using simple
correlation and multiple regression analyses. Intercorrelations among fathers' and
adolescents' problem behaviors are presented in Table 9. The matrix shows a lack of
correspondence of fathers' reported behaviors to teens' reported problem behaviors for
our small group of 55 fathers.
Intergenerational Transmission
38
Regression analyses also did not show significant paternal effects, as shown in
Table 10 Simultaneous Regression Models Predicting Teens' Substance Abuse from their Fathers' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use Fathers' smoking Total Number of Fathers' R2 (df) during the past affirmative answers to CAGE month questions regarding alcohol ß and drugs ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana -.05 .04 .00 (2,22) Ever smoked a cigarette .25 -.15 .06 (2,37) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems -.11 .07 .01 (2,30) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.09 -.11 .03 (2,34) Frequency of smoking during past month .08 .05 .01 (2,36) School grade during which first got drunk .07 -.06 .01 (2,37) Note: Each row presents results from a single regression equation.
Intergenerational Transmission
39
Table 10. Since 20% of the participating males in father roles were neither biological
parents, nor adoptive parents of the adolescent participants, equivalent regression
analyses were run excluding these 11 fathers. Results correspondingly showed that the
biological and adoptive fathers' problem behaviors still had no relation to adolescents'
problem behaviors. Following the same pattern of analyses used for mothers and teens,
regression equations including interaction effects of gender were run in exploratory
fashion. No significant interaction effects were found, nor any direct effects of gender.
Repeated measures analyses also suggest the lack of influence of fathers'
problem behaviors on adolescents' problem behaviors. Equations which associated each
parents' problem behaviors with adolescents' problem behaviors indicated a significant
parent effect for parents' reported drinking and drug use problems, as shown in Table
11. This analysis confirms that maternal behaviors were significantly better predictors
of adolescent problem behaviors than were paternal behaviors.
Intergenerational Transmission
40
Family Composition Effects
Next, family composition was considered as a potential influence in the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors from parents to adolescents.
Analyses were run comparing the two largest groups: single-parent families (biological
Table 11 Repeated Measures Analyses Predicting Parents' Drinking and Drug Use from Teens' Substance Abuse Wilks' Lambda Statistic F Statistic p (df) for Parent Effect of Total Number of affirmative answers to CAGE questions regarding alcohol and drugs Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .93 2.40 .131 (1,30) Ever smoked a cigarette .88 6.05 .018 (1,43) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .82 8.52 .006 (1,38) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .83 8.29 .006 (1,41) Frequency of smoking during past month .87 6.36 .016 (1,42) School grade during which first got drunk .78 12.22 .001 (1,44)
Intergenerational Transmission
41
mothers living with their adolescents, N=70) and families in which biological mothers
and fathers live together with their adolescents (N=34). The former group will be
referred to as "mother-headed" families, and the latter group as "dual-parent" families.
Descriptive statistics for mothers' and adolescents' self-reported problem
behaviors are shown in Table 12 for both types of families. T-tests comparing means
show no significant differences between the two groups on any adolescent variables.
However, mothers who run their families alone reported significantly more problems
with alcohol and drugs than mothers who live with their adolescents' fathers.
Intergenerational Transmission
42
Table 12 Descriptive Statistics for Mothers' and Teens' Reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use for Dual-parent and Mother-headed Families Mothers' Reported Behaviors Mean (SD) for Dual-parent Families Mean (SD) for Mother-headed Families Minimum-Maximum for Dual-parent Families Minimum-Maximum for Mother-headed Families Frequency of cigarette smoking in past 30 days 0.92 (0.43) 1.02 (0.49) 0.69 - 1.79 0.69-2.08 Total number of affirmative responses to CAGE questions about drinking and drug use** 0.79 (1.19) 0.94 (1.72) 0 - 6 0 - 8 Teens' Reported Behaviors Ever smoked cigarettes* 71.87% 56.72% Summary variable: ever used alcohol or marijuana** 79.17% 69.09% Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems 1.66 (2.55) 1.63 (2.50) 0 - 11 0 - 9 Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year
Intergenerational Transmission
43
To further analyze whether or not family type affects the process whereby
mothers' problem behaviors influence those of their teenagers, regression equations
were constructed separately across family type as for those with gender above.
Mothers' smoking, mothers' total problem behaviors, family composition and
interactions of family composition with mothers' smoking and problem behaviors were
entered as independent variables with each of the adolescent problem behaviors as
dependent variables. None of the interactions with family composition were significant.
Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting Representations
Next, the potential for a cross-generationally consistent relationship between the
representations (i.e., reported experiences) of parenting received by parents and those of
their adolescents was investigated.
Descriptive statistics for parent and adolescent reports on the Mother-Father-Peer
Scale (MFP) and the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) are shown in
Table 13 and Table 14, respectively.
Intergenerational Transmission
44
Descriptive Statistics for Parents' and Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale Mother-Father-Peer Subscale N Mean (SD) Minimum-Maximum Teen report of mother: as independence-encouraging 121 45.19 (7.15) 29 - 62 as accepting vs. rejecting 122 40.71 (7.86) 16 - 50 is idealizing in nature 122 20.69 (5.73) 7 - 34 Teen report of father: as independence-encouraging 101 46.40 (8.22) 26 - 64 as accepting vs. rejecting 101 37.29 (9.44) 12 - 50 is idealizing in nature 101 19.30 (6.90) 7 - 34 Mother report of grandmother: as independence-encouraging 114 41.22 (9.83) 13 - 61 as accepting vs. rejecting 113 35.68 (10.87) 10 - 50 is idealizing in nature 113 16.30 (6.62) 7 - 33 Mother report of grandfather: as independence-encouraging
Table 14 Descriptive Statistics for Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) IPPA Subscale Mean (SD) Minimum- Maximum Teen report of mother: degree of mutual trust 38.20 (8.56) 15 - 50 quality of communication 33.95 (8.55) 14 - 50 extent of anger and alienation 18.60 (6.42) 8 - 37 overall attachment 90.77 (19.23) 36 - 125 Teen report of father: degree of mutual trust 37.02 (9.84) 10 - 50 quality of communication 30.84 (10.62) 10 - 50 extent of anger and alienation 18.68 (7.24) 8 - 36 overall attachment 86.50 (23.06) 30.21 - 125
Intergenerational Transmission
45
Mothers' Effects
Correlational analyses. There was inter-individual consistency in teens' and
mothers' reports across measures as shown in the correlation matrix in Table 15. Teens
who demonstrated an idealizing quality in responses about their mothers, had mothers
who were idealizing in their reports of parenting received from grandmothers and
grandfathers. Mothers' idealizing reports about grandmothers were also inversely
related to adolescent characterizations of angry and alienating relationships with their
mothers. Other inverse relationships between mothers' and teens' reports of parenting
received were revealed as well. Mothers' reports of independence-encouraging
grandfathers were inversely related to teens' mutual trust with mothers and with their
overall attachment to mothers. Thus, mothers who perceived grandfathers as having
promoted their independence, had teenagers who perceived their mothers less positively.
Intergenerational Transmission
46
Table 15 Intercorrelations of Mothers' and Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received ------------------------------------------------------------- Subscale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ------------------------------------------------------------- Inventory of Parent & Peer Attachment Teen report of mother: 1. degree of mutual trust -.- .82*** -.66*** .94*** .40*** .66*** .60*** -.14 .10 .15 -.20* -.02 .05 2. quality of communication -.- -.70*** .93*** .27** .60*** .49*** -.19 .08 .11 -.16 -.01 -.01 3. extent of anger and alienation -.- -.81*** -.33*** -.49*** -.42*** .01 -.14 -.26** .17 -.09 .02 4. overall attachment -.- .37*** .64*** .57*** -.15 .10 .18 -.20* .01 .01 Mother-Father-Peer Scale Teen report of mother: 5. as independence-encouraging -.- .38*** .20* -.11 -.13 -.13 -.15 -.07 -.07 6. as accepting vs. rejecting -.- .62*** -.10 .06 .05 -.08 -.02 .01 7. as idealizing in nature -.- .01 .18 .23** .13 .17 .28** Mother report of grandmother: 8. as independence-encouraging -.- .36*** .31*** .47*** .28** .16 9. as accepting vs. rejecting -.- 10. as idealizing in nature Mother report of grandfather: 11. as independence-encouraging 12. as accepting vs. rejecting 13. as idealizing in nature Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
47
Regression analyses. Next, the association of adolescents' representations of
parenting received with that of their mothers' was examined. First models which
considered a "global" representation of parenting were constructed. The "global"
grouping of variables suggests that representations of parenting are an aggregate of
thoughts and feelings. Thus, mothers' reports of parenting received from grandmothers
in each of the domains measured on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale (MFP:
independence-encouraging, accepting versus rejecting and idealizing) were
simultaneously entered as independent variables with adolescent reports of parenting
received from mothers as dependent variables. Results are shown in Table 16. Nearly
ten percent of the variance in adolescents' reports of alienation from mothers and overall
attachment to mothers is accounted for by the global model. Similarly, as seen in Table
17, mothers' global views of parenting received from grandfathers accounted for
approximately ten percent of the variance in adolescents' reports of alienation from
mothers and adolescents' idealizing reports of mothers. However, these two tables also
show that in more than half of the regression equations examined, mothers'
representations of parenting were not associated with their adolescents' representations
of parenting.
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48
Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from that of Their Mothers Acceptance Independence-encouraged Idealization from Grandmother by Grandmother of Grandmother ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother .08 -.14 Independence encouraged by Mother -.06 -.07 Idealization of Mother .06 -.07 Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .06 -.22* Alienation from Mother .04 .12 Communication with Mother .10 -.26** Overall Attachment to Mother .05 -.23* Note: Each row presents results from a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. Table 17 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from that of Their Mothers Acceptance Independence-Encouraged Idealization of from Grandfather by Grandfather of Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother -.01 -.09 .06 .01 (3,100) Independence encouraged by Mother .05 -.16 -.04 .02 (3,99) Idealization of Mother -.12 .06 .35* .09* (3,100) Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .05 -.28* .14 .06 (3,102) Alienation from Mother -.43** .33** .20 .10* (3,101)
Table 18 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from that of Their Mothers Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother .09 -.03 .01 (2,98) Independence encouraged by Mother -.08 -.03 .01 (2,97) Idealization of Mother .15 .22* .10** (2,98) Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .18 -.04 .03 (2,100) Alienation from Mother -.35** .16 .09** (2,99) Communication with Mother .13 -.07 .01 (2,100) Overall Attachment to Mother .21 -.08 .04 (2,100) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
49
Next, a different grouping of representations of parenting was explored to
determine whether it better explained intergenerational associations of parenting
perceptions. Models were constructed which accounted for both grandmothers' and
grandfathers' influences within the same domain. The domain specific grouping of
variables would show whether mothers' reports of parenting received from
grandmothers and grandfathers on each of the subscales of the Mother-Father-Peer Scale
was more closely associated with adolescents' reports about mothers on that same
subscale. Such domain specific models were constructed and tested.
A strong relationship was shown between mothers' idealizing reports of
parenting received from grandmothers and grandfathers, and adolescents' idealization in
their reports of parenting received from their mothers (see Table 18). However, these
independent variables also accounted for nine percent of the variance in adolescents'
reports of alienation from mothers, a finding which does not support a domain
specificity postulate. Neither the domain specific model regarding mothers' reports of
acceptance from grandmothers and grandfathers, nor the domain specific model
regarding mothers' reports of independence-encouraged by grandmothers and
grandfathers accounted for a significant amount of variance in adolescents' reports of
parenting received from their mothers in any domain.
Nevertheless, associations were found between mothers' reports of parenting
received from grandparents and three of seven adolescent reports of parenting received
from mothers. Thus, the results of these analyses do indicate the existence of
intergenerational transmission for some representations of parenting.
Gender effects with respect to mothers. Next the influence of adolescents'
gender on the association of mothers' and teens' representations of parenting was
examined. First the global model of parenting received by mothers from grandmothers
Intergenerational Transmission
50
was examined: mothers' reports of acceptance from grandmother, independence-
encouraged by grandmother and idealization of grandmother were simultaneously
entered into a regression equation with adolescents' gender, and interactions of mothers'
reports of parenting received from grandmother by teens' gender. None of the
interaction terms significantly contributed to models which explain a significant amount
of variance in teens' reports of parenting received. Secondly, a global model of
parenting received from grandfathers was examined which included teens' gender as an
independent variable, as well as interactions of mothers' reports of parenting received
from grandfathers by teens' gender (see Table 19). A significant interaction term
(mothers' idealization of grandfathers by teens' gender) contributed toward explaining a
substantial amount of variance in teens' reports of mutual trust with mothers and teens'
overall attachment to mothers. Examination of separate regression equations by gender
(see Table 20), revealed that only boys' reports of trust with mothers was significantly
influenced by their mothers' idealization of grandfathers. Mothers' acceptance from
grandfathers demonstrated a trend toward significant association with girls', but not
boys', overall attachment to mothers.
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51
Table 19 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers' Global View of Parenting Received from Grandfathers with Interactions by Teen Gender Acceptance Independence- Idealization of Teen Acceptance Independence- Idealization of R2 (df) from Encouraged by Grandfather Gender from Encouraged by Grandfather Grandfather Grandfather ß ß Grandfather Grandfather with Teen ß ß with Teen with Teen Gender Gender Gender ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother -.04 -.10 .05 -.13 .17 -.12 -.15 .04 (7,100) Independence encouraged by Mother .08 -.17 -.06 -.02 .01 -.13 -.04 .04 (7,99) Idealization of Mother -.14 .06 .33* -.13 .07 .10 -.14 .11 (7,100) Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .03 -.27* .08 -.11 .29 -.03 -.38** .14* (7,102) Alienation from Mother -.43** .34** .24 .19* -.12 .02 .23 .16* (7,101) Communication with Mother .13 -.22 -.06 -.05 .22 -.02 -.34* .09 (7,102) Overall Attachment to Mother .16 -.30** -.03 -.12 .26 -.04 -.36* .13* (7,102) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 20 Simultaneous Regression Models Predicting Teens' Representations of Parenting Received from their Mothers' Global View of Parenting Received from Grandfathers by Teens' Gender Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Grandfather Encouraged of Grandfather ß by Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Boys' Mutual Trust with Mother -.20 -.24 .44** .14** (3,52) Girls' Mutual Trust with Mother .40 -.31 -.32 .11 (3,49) Boys' Overall Attachment to Mother -.07 -.27 .33 .11 (3,52) Girls' Overall Attachment to Mother .49** -.32 -.40 .14* (3,49) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.08. **p<.05.
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52
Finally, the influence of teens' gender on the domain-specific model for
idealization, which demonstrated significance above, was examined. The model was
modified by adding adolescents' gender and interactions of adolescents' gender by
mothers' idealizing reports of parenting received from grandmothers and grandfathers.
Although the equation examining teens' idealizing reports of mothers remained
significant, neither of the interaction terms was significant, nor was the direct effect of
gender. However, mothers' idealization of grandmother by teen gender significantly
explained a substantial amount of variance in the models regarding teens' mutual trust
with mothers and teens' overall attachment to mothers. This interaction contributed an
additional 10 percent of explained variance to the model examining adolescents' overall
attachment to mothers, and an additional 12 percent of explained variance to the model
examining adolescents' mutual trust with mothers (see Table 21).
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53
As shown in Table 22, separate analysis of models for girls and boys showed
Table 21 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Domain-Specific View of Idealizing Parenting Received by their Mothers with Interactions by Teen Gender Idealization Idealization Teens' Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of of Gender of of Grandmother Grandfather ß Grandmother Grandfather ß ß with Teen with Teen Gender Gender ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Mother .10 -.07 -.11 -.22 .02 .06 (5,98) Independence encouraged by Mother -.09 -.03 -.01 -.08 -.07 .02 (5,97) Idealization of Mother .15 .19 -.11 -.16 .02 .13* (5,98) Degree of Mutual Trust with Mother .19 -.08 -.09 -.33** -.03 .15** (5,100) Alienation from Mother -.35** .19 .20* .16 .02 .16** (5,99) Communication with Mother .14 -.10 -.03 -.27* -.04 .09 (5,100) Overall Attachment to Mother .22* -.12 -.09 -.29** -.03 .14** (5,100) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
54
that mutual trust with mothers and overall attachment to mothers are significantly
associated with mothers' idealization of grandmothers for boys, but not for girls.
Fathers' Effects
Correlation analyses. To further explore the intergenerational transmission of
representations of parenting, the influence of fathers' representations of parenting
received on adolescents' representations was also examined. Intercorrelations of teens'
and fathers' reports of parenting received are presented in Table 23. Notably, teens'
reports of parenting received on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA)
Table 22 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Domain-Specific Model of Parenting Received by Their Mothers by Teen Gender Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Boys' Mutual Trust with Mothers .50** -.06 .22** (2,50) Girls' Mutual Trust with Mothers -.16 -.11 .05 (2,49) Boys' Overall Attachment to Mothers .53*** -.10 .23** (2,50) Girls' Overall Attachment to Mothers -.09 -.15 .04 (2,49) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
55
did not significantly correlate to any of their fathers' reports on the Mother-Father-Peer
Scale (MFP). However, teenagers' reports of independence-encouraged by fathers, did
significantly inversely relate with fathers' idealizing reports of parenting received from
grandmothers. Thus, the only notable correspondence of fathers' and teens'
representations of parenting was one which is consistent with associations between
mothers' and teens' representations of parenting; fathers who idealized in their reports
on their parents (i.e., the grandparents) had adolescents who perceived the fathers more
positively.
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56
Table 23 Intercorrelations of Fathers' and Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received ------------------------------------------------------------ Subscale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ------------------------------------------------------------ Inventory of Parent & Peer Attachment Teen report of father: 1. degree of mutual trust -.- .86*** -.64*** .95*** .59*** .55*** .46*** .12 .13 -.02 .04 2. quality of communication -.- -.65*** .95*** .44*** .59*** .48*** -.03 .02 -.03 -.17 3. extent of anger and alienation -.- -.78*** -.43*** -.59*** -.55*** .12 .04 .05 .16 4. overall attachment -.- .54*** .61*** .53*** .01 .05 -.04 -.10 Mother-Father-Peer Scale Teen report of father: 5. as independence-encouraging -.- .40*** .27** .06 .00 -.40** .18 6. as accepting vs. rejecting -.- .71*** -.07 -.18 -.13 -.21 7. as idealizing in nature -.- -.18 -.13 -.01 -.26 Father report of grandmother: 8. as independence-encouraging -.- .58*** .29 .53*** 9. as accepting vs. rejecting -.- .41** .41** 10. as idealizing in nature -.- .36* Father report of grandfather: 11. as independence-encouraging -.- 12. as accepting vs. rejecting 13. as idealizing in nature Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Intergenerational Transmission
57
Regression analyses. The association of adolescents' representations of
parenting received with that of their fathers' was evaluated. First models which
examined a global representation of parenting were constructed. The global grouping of
representations of parenting examines the impact of perceptions of parenting as an
aggregate. Fathers' reports of parenting received from grandmothers on each of the
MFP subscales (independence-encouraging, accepting versus rejecting and idealizing)
were simultaneously entered as independent variables with adolescent reports of
parenting received from fathers as dependent variables. Consistent with correlational
data in Table 23, the only global model which was significantly associated with
adolescents' reports of parenting received was that regarding independence-encouraged
by fathers (see Table 24). Twenty percent of the variance in adolescents' reports of
independence-encouraging fathers was explained primarily by fathers' idealization of
grandmothers (ß=-.48, p<.01). Models depicting fathers' global views of parenting
received from grandfathers were not significantly associated with any adolescent reports
of parenting received from fathers.
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58
Next, paralleling the statistical analysis for mothers, models were constructed
which accounted for both grandmothers' and grandfathers' influences within the same
domain of the Mother-Father-Peer Scale. There was no support found for the domain
specificity postulate for the reports of fathers and their adolescents; none of the domain-
specific models was significantly associated with teenagers' reports of parenting received
Table 24 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Global View of Parenting Received by their Fathers from Grandmothers Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Encouraged by of Grandmother Grandmother Grandmother ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Father -.17 .03 -.07 .04 (3,40) Independence encouraged by Father .13 .11 -.48** .20* (3,40) Idealization of Father -.06 -.16 .06 .04 (3,40) Degree of Mutual Trust with Father .12 .08 -.09 .03 (3,42) Alienation from Father -.06 .15 .03 .02 (3,42) Communication with Father .07 -.06 -.04 .00 (3,42) Overall Attachment to Father .09 -.03 -.07 .01 (3,42) Note: Each row represents a separate regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
59
from fathers.
The single strong relationship of fathers' idealizing reports of grandmothers and
teens' reports of independence-encouraging fathers further supports the existence of
intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting. However, six of the
seven adolescent representations of parenting received were not associated with fathers'
representations of parenting. Therefore, although there was indication of the
transmission of representations of parenting, there was also indication that
intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting is not absolute, as most
adolescent reports of parenting received were unrelated to those of their fathers.
Gender effects with regard to fathers. As with the analyses for mothers, the
influence of adolescents' gender on the intergenerational transmission of representations
of parenting was examined. Neither main effects for gender, nor interaction effects by
gender were found when adolescents' gender was added to the global models of reports
of parenting received from grandmothers. Likewise, for analogous global models of
reports of parenting received from grandfathers, no direct effects or interaction effects
by teens' gender significantly influenced adolescent reports of parenting received from
fathers.
Although there were no significant main effects for the domain-specific models
with the sample of fathers, analyses analogous to those conducted with the sample of
mothers were performed. The interaction of fathers' idealization of grandmothers by
teens' gender significantly contributed to a model examining teens' reports of
independence-encouraged by fathers (ß=-.48, p<.01) (see Table 25). Analyzing
models separately for boys and girls revealed that the significant association of
independence-encouraged by fathers was found only for girls (see Table 26). There
were no other domain-specific models where interactions by adolescents' gender
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60
substantially explained variance in teen reports of parenting received.
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61
Table 25 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Domain-Specific View of Idealizing Parenting Received by their Fathers with Interactions by Teen Gender Idealization Idealization Teens' Idealization of Grandmother of Grandfather Gender of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß ß with Teen Gender ß Teen Reports of: Acceptance from Father -.43* .29 .18 -.53** Independence encouraged by Father -.37 .37* -.17 -.48** Idealization of Father -.09 -.08 .08 -.14 Degree of Mutual Trust with Father -.14 .26 .01 -.54** Alienation from Father .22 -.29 .14 .53** Communication with Father -.18 .29 -.05 -.51** Overall Attachment to Father -.20 .30 -.05 -.55** Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 26 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from a Domain-Specific Model of Parenting Received by Their Fathers by Teen Gender Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß Teen Reports of: Boys' Independence Encouraged by Fathers .10 .35 .14 (2,19) Girls' Independence Encouraged by Fathers -.87** .39 .43* (2,15) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
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62
Family Composition Effects
The influence of family composition on the intergenerational transmission of
representations of parenting was examined. Again, analyses were run on the two
largest groups: "mother-headed" and "dual-parent" families.
Descriptive statistics for mothers' and adolescents' reports of parenting received
on the Mother-Father-Peer (MFP) Scale and the Inventory of Parent and Peer
Attachment (IPPA) are shown in Tables 27 and 28 for both types of families. T-tests
comparing the means show dual-parent families' teens idealized more in their reports on
their fathers. However, mothers from dual-parent families tended to idealize less in their
reports on grandfathers than did those from mother-headed families. There were no
significant differences between the two groups on any of the adolescent reports on the
IPPA.
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63
Table 27 Descriptive Statistics for Parents' and Teens' Reports of Parenting Received on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale for Dual-parent and Mother-headed Families Mean (SD) for Dual-parent Families Mean (SD) for Mother-headed Families Minimum-Maximum for Dual-parent Families Minimum-Maximum for Mother-headed Families Teen report of mother: as independence-encouraging 44.91 (8.53) 44.99 (6.65) 31.42 - 62 29 - 58 as accepting vs. rejecting 39.91 (8.11) 41.08 (7.84) 25 - 50 16 - 50 is idealizing in nature 20.83 (5.33) 21.01 (5.28) 9 - 30 7 - 34 Teen report of father: as independence-encouraging 46.33 (8.65) 46.46 (7.96) 27 - 64 26 - 62 as accepting vs. rejecting 39.31 (7.80) 37.14 (9.64) 21 - 50 12 - 50 is idealizing in nature* 20.23 (5.28) 18.92 (7.59) 9 - 32 7 - 34 Mother report of grandmother: as independence-encouraging 42.18 (10.86) 40.93 (9.82) 13 - 61 20 - 59 as accepting vs. rejecting 36.31 (11.33) 36.43 (10.51) 14 - 50 10 - 50 is idealizing in nature
Table 28 Descriptive Statistics for Parents' and Teens' Reports of Parenting Received on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment for Dual-parent and Mother-headed Families Mean (SD) for Dual-parent Families Mean (SD) for Mother-headed Families Minimum-Maximum for Dual-parent Families Minimum-Maximum for Mother-headed Families Teen report of mother: degree of mutual trust 36.37 (9.02) 38.58 (8.70) 21 - 50 15 - 50 quality of communication 31.79 (8.65) 34.88 (8.44) 19 - 49 14 - 50 anger and alienation 18.71 (6.08) 18.37 (6.79) 9 - 37 8 - 36 overall attachment 87.05 (19.42) 92.00 (19.53) 47 -120 36 - 125 Teen report of father: degree of mutual trust 35.97 (10.98) 39.49 (8.34) 10 - 50 19 - 50 quality of communication 28.52 (10.48) 34.39 (9.22) 10 - 47 10 - 50 anger and alienation 19.76 (7.06) 15.98 (6.47) 9 - 33 8 - 33 overall attachment
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64
Regression analyses. Next, regression analyses were conducted to further
examine the influence of family composition on the association between mothers' and
teens' representations of parenting. There were no significant main effects of family
type, nor interactions of mothers' reports of parenting received by family type, for the
global model of parenting received by mothers from grandmothers and for the global
model of parenting received from grandfathers.
Associating Problem Behaviors with Parenting Representations
The hypothesis that there are representations of parenting behavior received
which influence individuals' levels of engagement in problem behaviors was examined.
First the problem behaviors of parents and adolescents were correlated with their own
reports of parenting received. Correlation matrices for adolescents, mothers and fathers
are shown in Tables 29, 30 and 31, respectively.
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65
Correlational Analyses
As seen in Table 29, for adolescents' reports on the Inventory of Parent and
Table 29 Intercorrelations of Teens' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received with their Self-reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use ------------------------------------ Teen Problem Behavior Ever tried Ever Drug- Alcohol Cigarette School Alcohol or Smoked influenced and Smoking Grade Marijuana a Behavioral Marijuana During Past First Cigarette Problems Use Past Year Month Drunk ------------------------------------ Inventory of Parent & Peer Attachment Teen report of mother: degree of mutual trust -.16 -.18* .04 -.13 -.11 .01 quality of communication -.09 -.10 .01 -.07 -.08 -.03 anger and alienation .21* .16 .25** .21* .15 .13 overall attachment -.15 -.16 -.07 -.13 -.12 -.03 Teen report of father: degree of mutual trust -.09 -.20* -.02 -.03 -.20 -.09 quality of communication .05 -.14 .11 .07 -.06 .01 anger and alienation .05 .08 .14 .05 .15 .09 overall attachment .01 -.17 .02 .03 -.14 -.05 Mother-Father-Peer Scale Teen report of mother as: independence-encouraging .01 -.17 .00 .07 -.08 .17 accepting vs. rejecting -.05 -.12 .07 .02 -.09 -.01 idealizing in nature -.15 -.14 -.18 -.12 -.14 -.08 Teen report of father as: independence-encouraging .11 -.13 .02 .09 -.11 .09 accepting vs. rejecting -.10 .05 .10 .01 .08 -.03 idealizing in nature -.09 -.03 -.07 -.06 .04 -.17 Note. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 30 Intercorrelations of Mothers' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received with their Self-reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use ------------------------------------ Problem Behavior Mothers' Cigarette Total Number of Mothers' Smoking affirmative answers to During Past CAGE questions regarding Month alcohol and drugs ------------------------------------ Mother-Father-Peer Scale Mother report of grandmother: as independence-encouraging .04 -.18* as accepting vs. rejecting .00 -.23* is idealizing in nature -.00 -.29** Mother report of grandfather: as independence-encouraging .04 -.28** as accepting vs. rejecting .04 -.28** is idealizing in nature .15 -.19* Note. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 31 Intercorrelations of Fathers' Reported Experiences of Parenting Received with their Self-reported Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use ------------------------------------ Problem Behavior Fathers' Cigarette Total Number of Fathers' Smoking affirmative answers to During Past CAGE questions regarding Month alcohol and drugs ------------------------------------ Mother-Father-Peer Scale Father report of grandmother: as independence-encouraging -.06 .08 as accepting vs. rejecting .13 .09 is idealizing in nature -.00 .12 Father report of grandfather: as independence-encouraging -.33 -.10 as accepting vs. rejecting -.20 -.17 is idealizing in nature -.08 .06 Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
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66
Peer Attachment (IPPA), extent of anger and alienation toward mothers was related to
alcohol and marijuana use, as well as the number of self-reported drug-influenced
behavioral problems. Having ever tried a cigarette was negatively related to mutual
trust with mothers and mutual trust with fathers. No significant relationships were found
between the subscales of the Mother-Father-Peer Scale (MFP) and adolescent problem
behaviors.
As shown in Table 30, all of the MFP subscales regarding mothers' reports of
parenting received from grandmothers and grandfathers were significantly related to
mothers' reports of drinking and drug use on the CAGE, but were unrelated to their
reports of cigarette smoking. Alternatively, fathers' reports of smoking, drinking and
drug use were unrelated to any of the subscales of the MFP for grandmothers or
grandfathers, as shown in Table 31.
Adolescent Problem Behaviors
Global regression models. Next, regression equations were constructed to
determine the relationship between representations of parenting received and various
problem behaviors for teens. The representations of parenting received from mothers
on each of the MFP subscales was incorporated into a global model of parenting. The
number of drug-influenced behavioral problems reported by teens was significantly
explained by this global model (see Table 32 for details). Adolescents who idealized
more in their reports of parenting received from their mothers were likely to report less
drug-influenced behavioral problems, whereas teens who reported feeling more
acceptance than rejection from their mothers were likely to report more drug problems.
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67
The analogous global equation for parenting received from fathers was
constructed and tested. Reports of parenting received from fathers were not associated
with any teen problem behaviors.
Table 32 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Global View of Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Mother Encouraged of Mother ß by Mother ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .07 .03 -.20 .03 (3,92) Ever smoked a cigarette -.01 -.15 -.10 .04 (3,116) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .28* -.03 -.34** .08* (3,104) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .09 .07 -.18 .03 (3,114) Frequency of smoking during past month .01 -.06 -.13 .02 (3,114) School grade during which first got drunk .01 .19 -.13 .04 (3,119) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
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68
In a similar manner, each of the subscales from the IPPA regarding mothers was
entered as an independent variable to make another version of the global model. Again,
only the number of drug-influenced behavioral problems reported by teens was
significantly explained. Table 33 shows that teens who reported more anger and
alienation toward mothers and better quality of communication with mothers reported
higher numbers of drug-influenced behavioral problems. This global model explained
almost twice as much variance as did the model which utilized the MFP subscales.
Intergenerational Transmission
69
The analogous global equation for IPPA reports of parenting received from
fathers was examined. As shown in Table 34, approximately ten percent of the
variance in adolescents' reported number of drug-influenced behavioral problems and
Table 33 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Global View of Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers Degree of Extent of Anger Quality of R2 (df) Mutual Trust and Alienation Communication with Mother toward Mother with Mother ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana -.20 .27 .27 .06 (3,96) Ever smoked a cigarette -.29 .12 .22 .05 (3,120) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .03 .52*** .35* .14** (3,107) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.12 .28* .22 .06 (3,118) Frequency of smoking during past month -.11 .15 .12 .03 (3,118) School grade during which first got drunk .16 .24 .01 .03 (3,123) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
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their frequency of smoking during the past month was explained by this equation. As
with mothers, alienation from fathers was directly related to adolescents' reports of
drug-influenced behavioral problems. Quality of communication with fathers was
directly related to teen reported smoking and drug problems, whereas degree of mutual
trust with fathers was inversely related to frequency of cigarette smoking.
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71
Domain-specific models. Domain-specific models were examined as well. Each
of the subscales of the MFP for mothers and for fathers was entered as an independent
variable into an equation (e.g., teens' reports of acceptance from mothers and from
fathers). None of these domain-specific models was significantly associated with teen
Table 34 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Global View of Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Fathers Degree of Extent of Anger Quality of R2 (df) Mutual Trust and Alienation Communication with Father toward Father with Father ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana -.31 .11 .39 .04 (3,72) Ever smoked a cigarette -.31 -.06 .09 .05 (3,92) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems -.30 .29* .55** .11* (3,82) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.33 .11 .43* .05 (3,90) Frequency of smoking during past month -.48* .12 .42* .09* (3,90) School grade during which first got drunk -.33 .11 .36 .04 (3,94) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Intergenerational Transmission
72
problem behaviors. Then each of the subscales from the IPPA for mothers and for
fathers were similarly entered into domain-specific equations; they also were not
associated with adolescent smoking, drinking or drug use. Thus, the domain-specific
grouping of representations of parenting failed to improve upon the explanations of teen
problem behaviors provided by global models.
The above analyses seem to show that there are some representations of
parenting received which are associated with adolescent problem behaviors. However,
the majority of the models tested were only significantly associated with adolescents'
reports of drug-influenced behavioral problems, with virtually no models explaining
frequency of drug use, or timing of drug use. Thus, while there is some indication of a
relationship between representations of parenting and adolescent problem behaviors, it is
noticeably limited.
Gender effects on adolescent problem behaviors. Next, we examined the
influence of adolescent gender on the association between representations of parenting
received and problem behaviors. First teen gender and interactions of each subscale of
the MFP Scale for mothers by gender were entered into the global model. Neither main
effects for gender, nor significant interaction effects were found. Similarly, no gender
effects, nor interaction effects were found in global models for subscales of the MFP for
fathers. Global models constructed from the subscales of the IPPA for mothers, and
global models comprised of the IPPA subscales regarding fathers, also showed no
significant influence of interactions and direct effects of teen gender on adolescent
problem behaviors.
Although the domain-specific models did not show a significant relationship
between adolescents' representations of parenting received and their problem behaviors,
models were constructed which examined the influence of adolescent gender on this
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73
potential relationship. Reports about mothers and fathers on the same subscales of the
MFP were entered into equations with teen gender and interactions of the subscales by
teen gender. None of these models presented a significant main effect, nor any
interaction effects, for gender. In the same way, subscales of the IPPA regarding
mothers and fathers were entered as independent variables along with adolescent gender
and interactions of the subscales with gender. The amount of alcohol and marijuana
teens used during the past year was negatively related to an interaction of alienation
towards mothers and teen gender (see Table 35). As seen in Table 36, separate
regression analyses by teen gender shows that boys', but not girls' alcohol and
marijuana use during the past year is directly related to anger and alienation toward
mothers. Thus, there was very limited influence of teen gender on the relationship
between representations of parenting received and problem behaviors.
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74
Mothers' Problem Behaviors
Global models. Regression equations were constructed to determine the
association between representations of parenting received and various problem behaviors
Table 35 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Domain-Specific View of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received on the Alienation Subscale of the IPPA Anger Anger Teen Anger Anger R2 (df) toward toward Gender toward toward Mother Father ß Mother Father ß ß by Teen by Teen Gender Gender ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .25 -.08 -.05 -.10 -.03 .06 (5,72) Ever smoked a cigarette .08 .02 .16 -.13 .02 .05 (5,91) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .21 .03 .10 -.19 .04 .10 (5,81) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year .25* -.03 -.06 -.25* -.03 .13* (5,89) Frequency of smoking during past month .07 .13 -.09 -.20 -.05 .09 (5,89) School grade during which first got drunk -.01 .11 .03 -.27** -.00 .08 (5,93) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 36 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received in a Domain-Specific Model of Alienation by Teen Gender Alienation Alienation R2 (df) toward Mother toward Father ß ß Teen Reports of: Boys' number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during the past year .47*** .00 .22** (2,50) Girls' number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during the past year -.02 -.07 .01 (2,38) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
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75
for mothers. The representations of parenting received from grandmothers on each of
the MFP subscales was entered to create the first global model of parenting. Like
adolescents, mothers' number of affirmative responses about drinking and drug-
influenced problems on the CAGE was significantly explained by this global model.
However, this global equation did not explain mothers' smoking during the past month.
The analogous global equation for parenting received from grandfathers was also
significantly associated with mothers' number of affirmative responses to the CAGE, but
did not account for smoking during the past month (see Table 37).
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Table 37 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Mothers' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from a Global View of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from Grandmothers Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Encouraged by of Grandmother Grandmother Grandmother ß ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month -.00 .04 -.01 .00 (3,105) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.04 -.10 -.23 .10** (3,109) Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Encouraged by of Grandfather Grandfather Grandfather ß ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month -.17 .00 .28 .03 (3,98) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.22 -.17 .04 .10* (3,101) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
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Domain-specific models. Next, domain-specific models where mothers' reports
on each of the subscales of the MFP for grandmothers and for grandfathers was entered
as an independent variable into an equation were examined. As shown in Table 38,
each of these domain-specific models was significantly associated with mothers' number
of affirmative responses to the CAGE, yet again, none were associated with amount of
smoking during the past month.
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Table 38 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Mothers' Self-reported Problem Behaviors from Domain-Specific Models of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from Grandmothers and Grandfathers Independence- Independence- R2 (df) Encouraged Encouraged by Grandmother by Grandfather ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month .11 -.01 .01 (2,97) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.11 -.23* .09** (2,100) Acceptance Acceptance R2 (df) from from Grandmother Grandfather ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month -.02 .04 .00 (2,96) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.16 -.24* .11** (2,99) Idealization Idealization R2 (df) of Grandmother of Grandfather ß ß Mothers' Reports of: Smoking during the past month -.09 .19 .03 (2,96) Total number of affirmative responses to the CAGE regarding drinking and drug use -.24* -.09 .08* (2,99) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
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79
Fathers' Problem Behaviors
Global models. In parallel fashion, regression analyses were conducted to
determine the relationship between representations of parenting received from
grandmothers and grandfathers and various problem behaviors for fathers. A global
model was created using the representations of parenting received from grandmothers on
each of the MFP subscales as an independent variable. Unlike mothers and teens,
neither fathers' smoking during the past month, nor their number of affirmative
responses about drinking and drug-influenced problems on the CAGE was significantly
explained by this global model. The analogous global equation for parenting received
from grandfathers also did not significantly explain fathers' number of affirmative
responses to the CAGE, nor smoking during the past month.
Domain-specific models. Domain-specific models, where fathers' reports on
each of the subscales of the MFP for grandmothers and for grandfathers were entered as
independent variables, were examined. Again, none of the domain-specific models
significantly explained fathers' number of affirmative responses to the CAGE, nor
amount of smoking during the past month.
Family Composition Influences
Regression analyses were conducted to examine the influence of family
composition on the association of adolescents' representations of parenting received to
their problem behaviors. Again, analyses were run on the two largest groups: "mother-
headed" and "dual-parent" families.
The global model of parenting comprised of teen reports about mothers on each
of the subscales of the MFP was revised to include family composition as an independent
variable, along with the interactions of family composition and each of the subscales of
the MFP about mothers. An interaction effect of family composition and teens'
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idealizing reports about mothers was directly related to the frequency of adolescent
cigarette smoking during the past month (see Table 39). Analyzing equations separately
by family composition showed that adolescents' cigarette smoking during the past month
was explained by this global model for teens from dual-parent households, but not for
teens from mother-headed households (see Table 40).
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81
Interactions and direct effects of family composition were added to the global
model of parenting received from mothers on of the IPPA subscales. Again, the
Table 39 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from a Global View of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from Mothers with Interactions by Family Composition Accept Indep- Ideal Family Accept Indep- Ideal R2 (df) from Enc by of Type from Enc by of Mother Mother Mother ß Mother Mother Mother ß ß ß with with with Family Family Family Type Type Type ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana .06 .01 -.23 -.13 .15 -.30 .28 .10 (7,74) Ever smoked .01 -.14 -.11 -.12 .06 -.08 .23 .10 (7,93) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .24 -.07 -.32* -.00 .13 -.30* .04 .13 (7,85) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during the past year .07 .06 -.19 -.12 .09 -.25 .15 .07 (7,93) Frequency of smoking during past month .01 -.05 -.20 -.19 .19 -.23 .32* .17* (7,91) School grade during which first got drunk .08 .12 -.20 -.02 -.12 -.08 .29* .10 (7,96) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05.
Table 40 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from a Global Model of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers by Family Composition Acceptance Independence- Idealization R2 (df) from Mother Encouraged of Mother ß by Mother ß ß Teen Reports of: Frequency of smoking during past month for teens in dual-parent families .31 -.30 -.59* .27* (3,29) Frequency of smoking during past month for teens in mother-headed families -.16 .08 .03 .02 (3,61) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05.
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frequency of adolescents' cigarette smoking during the past month was related to an
interaction of family composition; this time family type interacted with adolescents'
mutual trust with mothers (see Table 41). Separate regression analysis by family type
showed, once again, that frequency of adolescent cigarette smoking was only
significantly explained by the IPPA global model for teens from dual-parent families (see
Table 42).
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83
Table 41 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from a Global View of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from Mothers with Interactions by Family Composition Mutual Anger Comm Family Mutual Anger Comm R2 (df) Trust toward with Type Trust toward with with Mother Mother ß with Mother Mother ß ß ß Mother Mother with with with Family Family Family Type Type Type ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Summary variable: teen has ever tried alcohol or marijuana -.35 .13 .28 -.14 .22 .09 -.16 .09 (7,78) Ever smoked cigarettes -.28 .03 .14 -.13 .11 .32* .21 .13 (7,97) Total number of drug- influenced behavioral problems .17 .50** .13 -.00 .14 -.06 -.17 .13 (7,88) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana during past year -.12 .34* .27 -.13 -.07 .01 .21 .11 (7,97) Frequency of smoking during past month -.02 .17 -.03 -.17 .53** .13 -.22 .19** (7,95) School grade during which first got drunk .14 .27 .05 -.03 .22 .06 -.03 .06 (7,100) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 42 Simultaneous Regression Analyses Predicting Teens' Problem Behaviors from a Global Model of their Reported Experiences of Parenting Received from their Mothers by Family Composition Trust Anger Communication R2 (df) with toward with Mother Mother Mother ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Frequency of smoking during past month for teens in dual-parent families -.71* -.02 .26 .25* (3,30) Frequency of smoking during past month for teens in mother-headed families .38 .30 -.20 .08 (3,64) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05.
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Although the analyses for our small sample of fathers did not show the same, the
analyses for adolescents and mothers did show that there were some representations of
parenting received which were associated with problem behaviors. However, only
reports of problems associated with alcohol and drug use tended to be associated with
representations of parenting for mothers and for adolescents. Amount of cigarette
smoking, alcohol consumption, soft drug use, as well as initiation behaviors were not
generally related to perceptions of parenting received. Thus, although representations of
parenting demonstrated some relation to problem behaviors, this relationship was quite
limited.
Parenting Preventing Problem Behaviors
Finally, the hypothesis that there are specific representations of parenting
received which influence the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors from
one generation to the next was investigated. Since father's problem behaviors
demonstrated no association with adolescents' problem behaviors, only the
intergenerational influence of mothers' problem behaviors was tested with the effects of
parenting behaviors on teens' problem behaviors.
Moderator Effects
Fathers' parenting as a buffer. First, the ability of fathers' parenting behaviors
to inhibit the influence of mothers' problem behaviors on teens' behaviors was
examined. Interaction effects where teens' representations of parenting received from
fathers influenced the transmission of mothers' problem behaviors to adolescents were
examined. Regression equations were developed such that the global model of
parenting received from fathers on the Mother-Father-Peer Scale along with mothers'
self-reported problem behaviors and interactions of mothers' problem behaviors with
reports of parenting received from fathers on the MFP subscales were entered as
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85
independent variables with teen problem behaviors as dependent variables. The six
interaction terms were tested in one block. No blocks of interaction effects of mothers'
problem behaviors with teens' representations of parenting received from fathers were
significantly related to adolescents' problem behaviors. Analogous models for mothers'
problem behaviors and teens' reports of parenting received from fathers on the
Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment were examined. Again, no significant blocks
of interaction effects were found. The association of mothers' problem behaviors with
teens' problem behaviors were not statistically influenced by representations of parenting
received from fathers in this study.
Mothers' parenting as a buffer. Next, the potential for positive relationships
with mothers to influence the intergenerational transmission of their own problem
behaviors to adolescents was considered. Global models were constructed from teens'
responses to the subscales of the MFP regarding mothers, along with mothers' problem
behaviors and interactions of mothers' problem behaviors and the MFP subscales.
Again, no significant blocks of interaction effects were found. Similarly, for the
comparable model associating teens' reports of parenting received from mothers on the
IPPA subscales along with mothers' problem behaviors, no blocks of interaction effects
significantly affected adolescents' problem behaviors.
This examination of interaction effects showed that representations of parenting
received do not seem to moderate the intergenerational transmission of problem
behavior. Neither adolescents' representations of mothers, nor their representations of
fathers interacted with mothers' problem behaviors to statistically influence adolescents'
problem behaviors. Since a moderator effect was not supported by these analyses, a
potential mediator effect was examined.
Mediator Effects
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86
Another potential role that representations of parenting may play in the
intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors is as a mediator. Since some
maternal problem behaviors have been related to adolescents' problem behaviors, and
since some indication of a relationship between representations of parenting and problem
behaviors was found, there is also indication that perceptions of parenting may play a
mediating role. To examine whether representations of parenting completely mediate the
intergenerational relationship between mothers' and adolescents' problem behaviors,
teens' representations of parenting were added to the models which demonstrated
significant associations.
First, global groupings of adolescents' responses about mothers on the Mother-
Father-Peer (MFP) scale were added to the models where mothers' smoking, alcohol
and drug reports were independent variables and teens' problem behaviors were
dependent variables. If representations of parenting completely mediate the effects of
mothers' problem behaviors on adolescents problem behaviors, mothers' problem
behaviors should no longer significantly be associated with teens' problem behaviors in
these new models. As shown in Table 43, for the two models that remained statistically
significant, mothers' problem behaviors were significantly associated with teens'
problem behaviors. Consequently, adolescents' representations of parenting received
from mothers as reported on the MFP did not appear to mediate the transmission of
problem behaviors from mothers to teens.
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87
Table 43 Testing Mediating Effects of Representations of Mothers as Reported by Adolescents on the MFP on the Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behaviors Mothers' Indepen- Acceptance Idealization R2 (df) Total number Encouraged from of Mother of drug and by Mother ß alcohol problems Mother ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems .26** -.13 .31** -.30** .15** (4,96) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana in past year .25* -.00 .08 -.14 .08 (4,104) Frequency of smoking during past month .19 -.13 -.03 -.09 .07 (4,104) School grade during which first got drunk .26** .10 .07 -.14 .11* (4,108) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01.
Table 44 Testing Mediating Effects of Representations of Mothers as Reported by Adolescents on the IPPA on the Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behaviors Mothers' Mutual Alienation Communication R2 (df) Total number Trust from with of drug and with Mother Mother alcohol problems Mother ß ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems .23** -.03 .47*** .33* .18*** (4,99) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana in past year .30*** -.20 .25* .23 .15*** (4,108) Frequency of smoking during past month .19* -.21 .12 .12 .07 (4,108) School grade during which first got drunk .29** .09 .18 -.05 .12** (4,112) Note: Each row represents a single regression equation. *p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001. Table 45 Testing Mediating Effects of Representations of Fathers as Reported by Adolescents on the IPPA on the Intergenerational Transmission of Problem Behaviors Mothers' Mutual Alienation Communication R2 (df) Total number Trust from with of drug and with Father Father alcohol problems Father ß ß ß ß Teen Reports of: Total number of drug-influenced behavioral problems .23* -.29 .32* .54** .15* (4,73) Number of occasions used alcohol or marijuana in past year .16 -.33 .14 .48* .08 (4,79)
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88
The other two groupings of representations of parenting received which showed
some association with adolescents' problem behaviors were the global grouping of
representations of mothers reported on the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment
(IPPA) and the global grouping of representations of fathers as reported on the IPPA.
Representations of parenting received from mothers on the IPPA were thus added to the
models examining transmission of problem behaviors. As shown in Table 44, mothers'
problem behaviors remained highly significant in all equations that showed an
association with adolescents' problem behaviors. Similarly, when the global grouping of
representations of parenting received from fathers as reported on the IPPA were added
to models examining transmission of problem behaviors, mothers' problem behaviors
continued to show a strong relationship with adolescents' problem behaviors (see Table
45).
From these analyses, it can be seen that adolescents' inheritance of their parents'
problem behaviors does not seem to be completely mediated by their representations of
parenting. However, the association found between adolescents' problem behaviors and
their representations of parenting implies that it may have a partial mediating effect.
Discussion
The purpose of this project was to integrate three areas of research to better
explain the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. First, was a probe for
evidence of the heritability of problem behaviors that many other researchers have
found. This project found indications of an intergenerational transmission of smoking,
drinking and drug use from mothers to adolescents. Next, was an investigation of
whether the intergenerational transmission of representations of parenting may serve as
one possible mechanism by which problem behaviors are transmitted. Adolescents'
representations of parenting received were found to relate to some of their parents'
Intergenerational Transmission
89
representations of parenting received. Furthermore, for both mothers and adolescents,
representations of parenting received were significantly related to problems with alcohol
and drug use. Finally, was an examination of whether relationships with parents may
moderate or mediate the intergenerational transmission of problem behaviors. No
support for a moderator role was found, but evidence implying that representations of
parenting received may play a partial mediating role was found. However, when
representations were examined as completely mediating the intergenerational
transmission of problem behaviors, substantial unmediated effects remained.
Intergenerational Prediction of Problem Behavior
The first endeavor was to replicate the findings of numerous other studies which
have demonstrated the heritability of cigarette smoking, alcohol and other substance use
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Appendix A: Epstein's Mother-Father-Peer Scale MFPF (Youth-13) Subject ID Interviewer Visit # Target ID Use the scale provided to indicate the extent to which the following statements describe your childhood relationship with the adult female indicated below. Strongly Somewhat Uncertain Somewhat Strongly
Disagree Disagree About Agree Agree
with with Statement with with
Statement Statement Statement Statement WHEN I WAS A CHILD, : 1) encouraged me to make my own decisions. 1 2 3 4 5 2) helped me learn to be independent. 1 2 3 4 5 3) felt she had to fight my battles for me when I had a disagreement with a teacher or a friend. 1 2 3 4 5 4) was close to a perfect parent. 1 2 3 4 5 5) was overprotective of me. 1 2 3 4 5 6) encouraged me to do things for myself. 1 2 3 4 5 7) encouraged me to try things for myself. 1 2 3 4 5 8) had not a single fault that I can think of. 1 2 3 4 5 9) did not let me do things that other kids my age were allowed to do. 1 2 3 4 5
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WHEN I WAS A CHILD, : Strongly Somewhat Uncertain Somewhat Strongly
Disagree Disagree About Agree Agree
with with Statement with with
Statement Statement Statement Statement 10) sometimes disapproved of specific things I did, but never gave me the impression that she disliked me as a person. 1 2 3 4 5 11) enjoyed being with me. 1 2 3 4 5 12) was an ideal person in every way. 1 2 3 4 5 13) was someone I found very difficult to please. 1 2 3 4 5 14) usually supported me when I wanted to do new and exciting things. 1 2 3 4 5 15) worried too much that I would hurt myself or get sick. 1 2 3 4 5 16) was never angry with me. 1 2 3 4 5 17) was often rude to me. 1 2 3 4 5 18) rarely did things with me. 1 2 3 4 5 19) didn't like to have me around the house. 1 2 3 4 5 20) and I never disagreed. 1 2 3 4 5 21) would often do things for me that I could do for myself. 1 2 3 4 5 22) let me handle my own money. 1 2 3 4 5 23) could always be depended upon when I really needed her help and trust. 1 2 3 4 5
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WHEN I WAS A CHILD, : Strongly Somewhat Uncertain Somewhat Strongly
Disagree Disagree About Agree Agree
with with Statement with with
Statement Statement Statement Statement 24) gave me the best upbringing anyone could ever have. 1 2 3 4 5 25) did not want me to grow up. 1 2 3 4 5 26) tried to make me feel better when I was unhappy. 1 2 3 4 5 27) encouraged me to express my own opinion. 1 2 3 4 5 28) never disappointed me. 1 2 3 4 5 29) made me feel that I was a burden to her. 1 2 3 4 5 30) gave me the feeling that she liked me as I was; she didn't feel she had to make me over into someone else. 1 2 3 4 5
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Appendix B: Armsden & Greenberg's Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment IPPAF (Youth-12) Subject ID Interviewer Visit# Target ID Interviewer: Please have the teen fill this out for his/her mother figure. This section asks about your feelings about your relationship with . Please read each of the following statements and put a circle around the response that best describes how you feel about .
NEVER TRUE
SELDOM TRUE
SOMETIMES TRUE
OFTENTRUE
ALMOST ALWAYS TRUE
1. She respects my feelings.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
2. I feel she is successful as a parent.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
3. I feel alone or apart when I am with her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
4. I wish I had a different parent.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
5. I try to keep to myself when I am upset.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
6. She accepts me as I am.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
7. I have to rely on myself when I have a problem to solve.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
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8. I like to get her point of view on things I'm concerned about.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
9. I feel it is no use letting my feelings show.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
10. She senses when I'm upset about something.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
11. Talking over my problems with her makes me feel ashamed or foolish.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
12. She expects too much from me.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
13. I get upset easily when I'm with her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
14. I get a lot more upset than she knows.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
15. When we discuss things, she considers my point of view.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
16. She trusts my judgement.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
17. She has her own problems, so I don't bother her with mine.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
18. She helps me to understand myself better.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
19. I tell her about my problems and troubles.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
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20. I feel angry with her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
21. I don't get much attention when I'm with her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
22. She encourages me to talk about my difficulties.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
23. She understands me.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
24. I feel as if I don't know whom I can depend on these days.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
25. When I am angry about something, she tries to be understanding.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
26. I feel like what she doesn't know won't hurt her.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
27. I trust her. never seldom sometimes often almost always 28. I feel as if she doesn't understand what I'm going through these days.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
29. I can count on her when I need to get something off my chest.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
30. I feel that no one understands me.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
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31. If she knows something is bothering me, she asks me about it.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
32. I feel I need to be in touch with her more often.
never seldom sometimes often almost always
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Appendix C: CAGE Interview CAGE (Adult-8) Subject ID# Interviewer Visit # Introduction: These are some questions about your use of alcohol and other drugs.
Please keep in mind that these questions, like all the others you have answered today, will be kept confidential. Your name is not attached to your answers, only a subject code is used to identify you. Please circle the answer to each question.
1. Have you ever used alcohol at all? Yes No (If NO, go to number 6) 2. Have you ever felt the need to cut down on your drinking? Yes No 3. Have you ever been annoyed by criticism of your drinking? Yes No 4. Have you ever felt guilty about something you've done when you've been drinking? Yes No 5. Have you ever had a morning eye-opener (a drink to get you going in the morning)? Yes No 6. Have you ever used any drugs at all? Yes No (If NO, stop here) 7. Have you ever felt the need to cut down on your drug use? Yes No 8. Have you ever been annoyed by criticism of your drug use? Yes No
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9. Have you ever felt guilty about something you've done when you've been high on drugs? Yes No 10. Have you ever taken drugs first thing in the morning to get going, or to treat withdrawal symptoms? Yes No