Interdisciplinary Workshop of Comparing Regional Environmental Governance in East Asia and Europe (EE- REG) January 24-25, 2013 RIHN (Kyoto, Japan) Governing Trans-boundary Pollution in Northeast Asia Esook Yoon Kwangwoon University
Dec 17, 2015
Interdisciplinary Workshop of Comparing Regional Environmental Governance in East Asia and Europe (EE-REG)
January 24-25, 2013RIHN (Kyoto, Japan)
Governing Trans-boundary Pollution
in Northeast Asia
Esook Yoon Kwangwoon University
Contents:
◑ Trans-boundary environmental problems in Northeast Asia
◑ Environmental cooperation mechanisms
◑ Regime effectiveness
Background:
End of Cold War and Political Normalization among Countries
1992 UNCED
1992 Seoul Symposium on UNCED and Prospects for the environmental Regime in the 21st Century
Trans-boundary Environmental Problems for Cooperation
▪ Acid rain(acid deposition) ▪ Marine pollution ▪ Yellow dust and sand storms (DSS)
Acid rainCause: SO2, NOx emissions (increasing fossil fuel consumptions: coal, oil)Effect: soil, forest, water source contamination, erosions, health problems
Acid rain in Northeast Asia
Research & Arguments:
Japan: ∘ Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI): 50~80% of domestic acid rain originated from China and Korea ∘ domestic sources: volcano eruptions ∘ Spindle tree blight in Nikko National Park Korea: ∘ National Institute of Environmental Research: 23% of SO2, 20% of NOx in Korea originated from China ∘ Joint research of Seoul National University and the Chinese Science Research Institute: 49% of domestic air pollution from China ∘ Changes in tree species around Seoul, erosion of Dabotap
China: ∘ Average 1-3 % of Chinese emissions is deposited in other countries
Global sulfur dioxide emissions by region : (North America = USA+Canada; East Asia = Japan, China, and South Korea). From Smith (2011).
Marine Pollution in Two Regional Seas in NEA
Causes: Land based pollution: 80% ∘ coastal area development plan ∘ influx of industrial waste water and domestic sewage ∘ heavy metal pollutants flow from the Yellow River (China) up to 7.5 million tons into the Yellow Sea annually
Oil concentration: ∘ oil and gas exploration 21,000 tons of crude oil from offshore drilling in Bohai Bay ∘ heavy marine transportations ∘ emergent oil spills and discharges Marine dumping: Effects on marine eco system: frequent red tides decline in the number of fish species
Yellow Dust and Sandstorms (DSS): “yellow dragon”
Cause: land degradation and desertification in China and Mongolia
Gobi Desert
Taklamakan Desert
Yellow Dust and Sand Storms (DSS)
Causes: Desertification in Northern China and Inner Mongolia 1,739,000 km2
1950s-1970s: 1,560 km2 annually
Desertification in Mongolia 40% of territory: desert or being “desertified”
China’s annual production of yellow sand: 20 million tons
Effects: Korea: public health (sore eyes, respiratory disease), agricultural products, transportation, dust sensitive industries (semiconductor, precision machinery) US$6 billion in 2002 alone in Korea.
Japan: brown rain, yellow snow, public transportation
1994~Joint research/
Yen loan, Green Aid Plan,
Environmental Cooperation Center
1993~Comprehensive cooperation for environmental protection
1993~Joint investigation of the Yellow Sea, Environmental Technology Center, Joint monitoring of DSS, Forest rehabilitation
Bilateral Environmental Cooperation
China
Japan Korea Korea-Mongolia: Desertification and DSS (2009)
Korea-Russia:Marine pollution (East Sea)Natural disaster early warning system
Japan-MongoliaEnviron. Policy Dialogue(2007)
Japan-Russia Environmental Cooperation Agreement
China-RussiaChina-MongoliaChina-N. Korea
Multilateral Environmental Cooperation in Northeast Asia
The Northeast Asia Sub-regional Program of Environmental Cooperation: NEASPEC, 1993
The Northwest Pacific Action Plan: NOWPAP, 1994
Tripartite Environmental Ministers Meeting: TEMM, 1999
1.the Northeast Asia Sub-regional Program of Environmental Cooperation: NEASPEC, 1993~
UNESCAP (UN Economics and Social Commission of Asia Pacific) and the Korean government Korea, Japan, China, Russia, Mongolia, North Korea Priority areas for cooperation: energy and air pollution: air pollution abatement projects from coal fired power plants in China and Mongolia with ADB fund, 1996~2011 Ecosystem management: deforestation and desertification Capacity building: Joint date collection, standardization, analysis of environmental degradation, training
UNESCAP: the interim secretariat (Incheon, Korea, since 2007) The Vision Statement for Cooperation the Core Fund (2000): voluntary contribution of member countries
2. the Northwest Pacific Action Plan: NOWPAP, 1994
▪ Initiated by UNEP’s Regional Sea Preservation Plan
▪ Two regional seas preservation: the Yellow Sea & the East Sea (Sea of Japan)
▪ Korea, China, Japan, Russia
▪ NOWPAP Activities for Cooperation -land based pollution and waste water flow -red tides and eutrophication -oil spills -biodiversity and changes in biological communities
-the Marine Litter Activity Plan (MALITA, 2005/ 2007) -Oil and HNS (Hazardous and Noxious Substances) Spill Contingency Plan (2008/ 2009) -Assessment of the current status of marine and coastal biodiversity in the NOWPAP region (climate change impacts)
∙ Trust Fund: US$500,000 each year
Korea Japan China Russia
Basic contribution 5% 5% 5% 5%
Voluntary contribution 15% 20% 3% 5%
Total (US$) 100,000(20%)
125,000(25%)
40,000(8%) 50,000(10%)
Total US$315,000, 63% of the target amount
∙ Joint Regional Coordination Unit (RCU), Pusan & Toyama
∙ Regional Activity Center (RAC) ▹Marine Environmental Emergency Preparedness and Responses (MER/RAC, Korea) ▹ Special Monitoring and Coastal Environment Assessment (CEA/RAC, Japan) ▹ Data and Information Network (DIN/RAC, China) ▹ Pollution Monitoring (POM/RAC, Russia)
∙ MOU on Regional Cooperation on Preparedness and Responses to Oil Spills, 2004 ∙ Oil Spill Contingency Plan and joint exercises
3. Tripartite Environmental Ministers Meeting, TEMM, 1999
Environmental Ministers’Meeting of Korea, Japan, China
Priority cooperation issues: -Environmental information exchange -Air pollution prevention and marine ecosystem preservation
-Development of environmental technology and transfers -DSS issue monitoring and early warning system: Korea, China, Japan, Mongolia with joint efforts with UNEP, ADB, UNESCAP, UNCCD DSS-RETA (the regional technical Assistance on DSS) project was approved by ADB, UNEP, GEF
-Climate change issue
Characteristics of environmental cooperation in Northeast Asia:
“institutionalized, but non-legally binding cooperation” Soft agreements based: Frameworks, guidelines, conclusions Entail reciprocal promises or actions for implementation, but not contain formal clauses describing the parties’ commitments as binding obligations or legal sanctions for non-compliance. 2004 MOU/NOWPAP: “best endeavors,” no obligations
Project based cooperation
Institutionalized cooperation: existence of agreements organizational structure-administrative and decision-making system
Environmental Cooperation in Europe
1.Acid Rain: Framework convention and series of binding protocols
Convention of Long Range Trans-boundary Air Pollution
(CLRTAP), 1979
1985, Helsinki Protocol (30 % SO2 emission reduction)
1988, Sofia Protocol for NOx
1994, Oslo Protocol (87% SO2 emission reduction)
1998, Aarhur Protocol
1999, Gothenburg Protocol
Marine Pollution: Framework convention and series of binding protocols
Mediterranean Action Plan, 1975 ∙ The Barcelona Convention (the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution in 1975)∙ Protocols on Marine Dumping and Emergency Oil Pollution (1975)∙ Protocol Concerning Mediterranean Specially Protected Areas ∙ Athens Protocol on Land Based Pollution Source (1980). Baltic and North Sea:∙ Oslo Convention, 1972∙ Paris Convention, 1974∙ Helsinki Convention 1980/1990∙ Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention), 1992
What makes difference in environmental governance of different regions?
Political cultures of regions?
Simply a stage in the progressive historical development pattern for international cooperation?
Explanatory Variables
Nature of environmental problems
Political factors: domestic environmental policy making process geopolitical factors
Economic factors: costs and benefits of environmental cooperation, environmental markets
Reliable scientific community
SO2 and NOx Emissions (thousand ton)
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Japan
SO2
1,158 795 615 708 629 n.a
Korea n.a n.a 1,611 1,532 951 408
China
n.a 13,250
14,990
18,900
19,472
20,000(27,000 in 2010)
JapanNOx
819 699 780 878 837
Korea n.a n.a 926 1,153 1,136
China 4,760 - - 12,030
10,000
Source: China Environment Yearbook; Korean National Statistical office; Ministry of Environment, Japan
Energy Structure of China
Primary energy consumption structure in China (Source: Database of the National Bureau of
Statistics, 2008)
O
Coal Demands in Northeast Asia
Millions of tons of coal
2000 2010 2020
China 1,225.7 1,845.6 2,751.8
Japan 152 164 169
Korea (ROK) 65.5 93.6 95.2
Korea (DPRK) 27.3 37.1 54.5
Mongolia 5.2 6.8 9.0
Russia Far East
30.1 44.4 65.1
Total 1,505.8 2,191.4 3,145.3
China: 81.4% (2000) 84.2% (2010) 87.5% (2020)
Explanatory Variables:
Nature of environmental problems
Political factors: domestic environmental policy making process international factors
Economic factors: costs and benefits of environmental cooperation, environmental markets
Reliable scientific community
Position in regional environmental cooperation: Building a community in NEA Opinion leader/ Coordinator between different interests
Policy Interests: Cope with trans-boundary pollution as a victim Develop environmental industry and technology as a strategic export sector/ obtain advanced environmental technology Strong incentive to promote regional environmental cooperation, but; No strong interest in pursuing legal binging cooperation
Korea
Position in environmental cooperation in East Asia:
Promote broader regional cooperation in Asia Pacific Project based cooperation Cooperation among societal and local governments
Policy interests in environmental cooperation: Economic Concerns Leadership Building broader regional community in Asia Pacific
Japan
Basic Position in international environmental negotiations Secure sovereignty Primacy of economic development Emphasis on responsibility of EDCs for environmental problems Pursue financial and technical resources to solve domestic pollution
Negotiations position in regional environmental cooperation Bilateral cooperation to multilateral cooperation project based cooperation Stress common but differentiated responsibility Policy Interests Solving domestic environmental problems Enhance its scientific practice up to international standards Institutional capacity building
China
Non-legally binding cooperation in NEA:
Avoid high political and economic costs
Emphasis on practical performance with project basedcooperation
Separate environmental issues from geopolitical situation
Permit great flexibility and rapid progress in reachingconclusions
Effectiveness of Environmental cooperation in Northeast Asia
1. Direct effect: serve as a workable instrument for environmental protection in the region
∙ turn present and emerging environmental problems into policy interests ∙ incorporate agendas and cooperation projects into domestic environmental policies ∙ financial and technology transfers ∙ capacity building for environmental management ∙ Emerging Global-regional-national environmental policy coordination
2. Indirect effects: implications for Regional Politics
∙ reducing uncertainty (by information and personnel exchanges) ∙ deepening and broadening ties of interdependence
∙ promoting more diffused forms of reciprocity (from strict reciprocal bargaining of “give and take”analogus to a barter transaction to complex interdependences)
∙ lengthening the shadow of the future (by institutionalization of agenda setting and project implementation-potential spillover effects to other regional issue areas)
Discussions:
The current form of environmental cooperation in Northeast Asia is ‘informal and non-binding. What would be the future of environmental cooperation in the region?
A 1: Non-binding environmental cooperation as simply a stage in the progressive historical developmental pattern for international cooperation, which starts with a range of non-binding guidelines, declarations, and resolutions before moving through various stages of negotiation to culminate with binding conventions and protocols.
A 2: Such non-binding cooperation as consistent with the region’s legal tradition, that is to say, its consensus-based decision- making practices and distaste for legalization.
Regional Institutional Buildings: a comparison
Europe: Council of Europe (1945), Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975), EU
America: Inter-American System (1826), Organization of American States, 1948 NAFTA, Mercorsor, Andean Community of Nations
Africa: Organization of African Unity(1963), African Union (2000) African Economic Community, Organization of African Unity, Community of Sahel-Saharan States etc
East Asia: Multilateral ‘dialogues’ ASEAN Regional Forum, Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia, Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific, Northeast Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Pacific Islands Forum, APEC
Southeast Asian countries: ASEAN Northeast Asia: ?
Research Methods:
Library search:
Elite Interviewing:
▪ An excellent form of date collection when the behavior of interest can best be described and explained by those who are deeply involved in political processes.
▪ Interviews government officials, researchers, and NGO activists in Japan and Korea; Chinese government officials and scholars in Japan, Korea and the US. ▪ The validity of interviewee’statement: examining their plausibility, checking for internal consistency, written documents, and counterpart interviews.
Participatory Observations:
China’s Growth and environmental implications
▸ Average growth rate for past three decades: 10% (2011: 9.2%)
▸ 2nd largest economy in the world by mid 2010
▸ World’s largest automotive market in 2009: 15 million car sales in 2009, increasing demands for used cars ▸ By 2030: expected annual GDP growth rate: 6%
▸ Manufacturing based economic structure
Broader Regional Environmental Cooperation : Asia
Pacific
1. Environmental Congress for Asia and the Pacific (ECO-ASIA):
1991
Initiated by Ministry of Environment, Japan
2. East Asia Acid Deposition Monitoring Network (EANET): 1992
Initiated by Ministry of Environment, Japan
1st intergovernmental meeting in 1998
Secretariat, decision-making body, the Network Center(the Acid
Deposition and Oxidant Research Center: ADORC) along with
47 wet deposition monitoring sites
Technical training workshops for local engineers and scientists