1 Intercultural competence – a gendered issue?! Analysis of differences in intercultural competence in a Danish and Norwegian sample of upper secondary school students. Trond Solhaug Program for Teacher Education Norwegian University of Science and Technology [email protected]& Niels Nørgaard Kristensen Ålborg University Denmark [email protected]Abstract National and cultural diversification accompanies the pluralization of European societies. This pluralization and difference call for several needs like communication and understanding in order to achieve, recognition, equality and justice, self-determination and identification with others. This paper responds to the increasing diversity and pluralization of identities by exploring antecedents of the intercultural competence between young people in a selection of in Norwegian and Danish schools. Although the sample is Scandinavian we believe that the issue of communication, recognition and understanding is on most people’s lips in times of migration and immigration throughout Europe. The diversity, difference and pluralization call for experiences of inclusiveness and we apply Kabeer’s (2005) framework of Inclusive citizenship. This framework mentions issues of justice, recognition of uniqueness and difference, self-determination, identify with others and participatory parity to make friend s and show solidarity as important issues in feeling included. A selection of 895 students in seven schools (two Danish and five Norwegian) was asked a variety of questions on intercultural competence and relations in questionnaires. Data were analysed in IBM SPSS using standard procedures in quantitative methodology. Although more variables seem to influence intercultural competence we focus on differences between females and males. We find that females display more positive attitudes and competences throughout six scales on intercultural empathy and competence. On some scales the differences is unexpectedly large. The gender differences are therefore focused, discussed and theorized.
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1
Intercultural competence – a gendered issue?!
Analysis of differences in intercultural competence in a Danish and
Norwegian sample of upper secondary school students.
Trond Solhaug
Program for Teacher Education Norwegian University of Science and Technology
intercultural empathy, AD=accept of difference, KD=Knowledge of difference, CO= Concern, AC=
Action willingness.
Variable SI NO SI DK IE NO IE DK AD NO AD DK Q1 Gender β=.40
P=.00 β=.26 P=.00
β=-.45 P=.00
β=-.37 P=.00
β=.21 P=.00
Q2 Bi-ling home
β=.11 P=.01
β=.21 P=.00
β=.18 P=.00
β=-.29 P=.00
Q3 Cultural Capital.
β=-.17 P=.00
Q4 Par Ed.
Q7 Grades
R2 School diversity
β=.15 β.19 P=.00
R2
adjusted 20% 7% 21% 18%
6,4% 9%
Table 4 continued.
Variable KD NO KO DK CO NO CO DK AC NO AC DK Q1 Gender β=-.12
p=.00 β=-.15 P=.00
β=-.31 P=.00
β=-.24 P=.00
β=-.26 P=.00
β=-.20 P=.00
Q2 Bi lingual home
β=.14 p=.00
β=.14 P=.00
β=.09 P=.04
Q3 Cultural Capital.
β=.23 P=.00
β=.14 P=.00
Q4 Par Ed.
Q7 Grades β=-.18 P=.00
β=.13 P=.00
R2 School diversity
β.11 P=.00
R2
adjusted 11% 2% 14% 11% 9% 5%
Note, multiple regressions coefficients β are all controlled effects for all other variables in the
regression. It is beyond doubt that gender (females have the strongest competence) differences in
intercultural competence are the most striking findings in the current research in both Norway and
Denmark. There are also larger differences in the Norwegian sample compared to the Danish.
Largest are the differences in intercultural empathy. Measures in the Danish sample are a bit more
moderate, but confirm almost consistently the Norwegian pattern.
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Coming from a bilingual home seems to be important, but the effects are consistently
moderate/weak and varying between samples on all aspects except CO. Also, cultural capital display
more moderate effects in the multiple regressions.
Discussion. Across all six aspects of intercultural competence in Norwegian sample and five aspects in Danish
sample girls have scored substantially higher on the intercultural competence than their male
counterparts. Elaborating on gender differences opens up a contested field of gender differences in
emotional expression, understanding and interpersonal relations (Lisa Feldman Barrett, Robin,
Pietromonaco, & Eyssell, 1998; Brody, 1997). Particularly the generalization of such male and female
differences pointed out here should be avoided. There is a large variety of males and females which
makes such generalizations problematic. Having said this, our findings in terms of gender differences
supports the picture revealed in a number of studies that women seem to report more empathy than
men (Albiero & Matricardi, 2013; Lisa Feldman Barrett et al., 2000; Brody, 1997; Neumann, Boyle, &
Chan, 2013). The findings about the gender differences are in line the gender differences in
aforementioned school election survey as well as the reported gender differences in attitudes to
immigration by (Blom, 2014) (Statistics Norway). Due to such a body of research (of which only
samples are shown here), as well as differences in political and value orientation pointed out above,
the differences are important because they have the potential to direct females and males
differently in their orientation towards cultural difference. The affective part of the intercultural
competence, may serve as a trigger of such different orientation. In accordance with Brody, we refer
to emotions as a multi-faceted motivational system which have experiential, cognitive, psychological
and expressive components (Brody, 1997). Emotions may serve as dispositions for cognitive
orientations and actions. So, the decomposition of actions may be one way of theorizing how these
gender differences operate. However, it is also important that when interpreting gender differences
there are contextual, situational and ethnic differences which may need to be borne in mind (Albiero
& Matricardi, 2013; Lisa Feldman Barrett, Lane, Sechrest, & Schwartz, 2000; Brody, 1997). Issues of
intercultural orientation may be a contextual field which may trigger feelings of empathy, knowledge
interest, concern and further engagement among females. The results of differences in intercultural
competence may therefore in a large picture imply different attitudes to other cultures from girls and
boys and have implications for an inclusive practice.
Inclusive citizenship? In our discussion above of citizenship theory, we highlighted four key features of inclusive citizenship:
justice (effective rights); recognition; self-determination; and solidarity across difference, addressing
citizenship status, feeling and practice. If we assume that similar gender differences in intercultural
competence might be obtained in replica studies and that these scores reflect significant differences
between boys and girls in their openness/willingness and ability to empathise with social
environment the finding is very noteworthy. The differences in intercultural competences may have
consequences for ability to identify with and recognize the diversity, as well as enable solidarity
across difference. This, in turn, may imply the need to give different emphasis to certain citizenship
education practices between girls and boys in culturally and socially diverse societies.
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Conclusion. First and foremost we conclude that females in our Norwegian and Danish samples show at times
substantial differences in intercultural competence. The differences are quite similar in the two
samples but the differences are a bit greater in the Norwegian sample.
We may also conclude that coming from a bilingual home may be of some importance for their
intercultural competence. Similarly, cultural capital, students’ academic achievements and attending
a diverse school and in some cases parents education may also affect students intercultural
competence, but these predictions are all moderate even if they may be significant.
Limitations of study. First, the institutional design of the study and the accompanying school samples reduces the possible
variance in both the Danish and the Norwegian sample. This limits the generalizability of the results.
Second, as pointed out in the methodology section, although test data show fairly good results there
are also weakness in terms of uneven factor loadings and compromises needed in the measurement
of some scales.
Third, the test data for the Norwegian and Danish sample are fairly similar, but there are also some
varieties between the countries which may reduce the comparability.
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Appendix. Table shows scale name, item text, their factor loadings, Chronbachs α and the persentage of total variance in the factor which is explained by the items for Norwegian and Danish sample. Scale name Item Factor
loading N DK
Chronbachs α N DK
Explain-ed Variance N DK
Empathy feel and expression (Dependent Variable)
D1 I often speak up against anyone who tells jokes that could be perceived as discriminatory D4. When I know that my friends are treated unfairly because of their skin colour, I try to speak up for them . D5. I become angry or sad when someone at school is treated unfairly because of their skin colour or background. D6. I am easily affected by films and books in which someone who is different from me is discriminated against. D7. I will work actively to ensure that everyone, regardless of race or background, achieves equal rights. D8. I often feel sorry when people with a different skin colour or background than my own are discriminated against
.44 .50 .53 .58 .79 .74 .63 .69 .70 .64 .79 .89
.81 44% 46%
Empathetic awareness
D2. It does not bother me if people make statements that might seem racist towards some groups. D3. I don’t think much about how a joke about other people might be perceived by the victims themselves.
.64 .65 .64 .65
.58.60 44% 46%
Accept of difference
D11. Usually, I do not get on too well with people whose background is very different from mine. D12. I have little knowledge of people whose background is very different from mine.
.60 .65 .60 .65
.58.59 36% 41%
Knowledge difference
F2. I know that there are big differences in how people practice their religion. F3. I am well aware that people’s sexual orientations may differ. F4. I am well aware that girls and boys may experience inequality and injustice in schools
.66 .47 .84 .80 .40 .42
.65.55 44% 34%
Concern G1 I am very concerned about injustice towards people with different backgrounds .. G2. I try to take into account that students have different religions .............................. G3. I treat everyone equally regardless of their skin colour .........................................
.56 .58 .78 .74 .30 .34
.59.55 36% 33%
Action H2. I speak up when someone is discriminated against because of their gender .......... H3. I help others in a respectful manner if they struggle to say what they want to say ......
.70 .57 .70 .57
.66.46 50% 32%
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Sex Q1 Sex, girl boy
Language at home
Q2 What language do you speak most of the time at home.
Cultural capital
Q3 How many books do you think there are at home?
Parents education
Q4 What is the highest level of education completed by one or both of your parents?
Class Q5 Class level
Grades Q7 Mark one box indicating most of your grades (on average)
Diversity R2 Percentage of bilingual pupils at the school.
i A survey of voting and political attitudes among secondary students in Norway before every parliamentary and local election