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InternationalizationofIslamicFinancialInstitutions:ChallengesandPathstoSolutionby:
SamyNathanGaras
Villa
5,
Gate
789,
Road
3217
Manama,BuAshirah332
KingdomofBahrain
Telephone:+97339299589
EMail:[email protected]
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1
ABSTRACTTheIslamicFinancialInstitutions(IFIs)havewitnessedasignificantgrowthrecentlyand
becomeanewplayerinbankingindustry. AsIFIsmovetowardstheinternationalmarkets,they
confrontseveralchallengesoninternalandexternallevels.Internally,IFIsstillhavelimited
recognitionbyinvestors,marginalcontributiontothemacroeconomyandlimitedcustomer
service. Externally,IFIshavelackofcommunicationwithotherplayersinthefinancialmarkets.
Theirproductsarenottotallypromotedtotheinternationalinvestorsandtheirsystemisnot
completelyregulatedandrecognizedbycentralbanks. Thispaperwilladdressthesechallenges
andprovideaconceptualframeworkofsolutions.
INTRODUCTIONDuringthelastthreedecadesIFIshavebeengrowingsignificantly,bothdomesticallyand
internationally. IFIswitnessedanaverageannualgrowthrateof23%(approximately)during
theperiod19932003,and20%since2003(CIBAFI,2004).
ThesenewfinancialfirmswereestablishedintheemergingmarketoftheMiddleEasttomeet
thedemandofinvestorsandborrowerswhoaremotivatedbyprofitmaximizationbasedonthe
Islamiclaw(Sharia). IFIsofferawiderangeofIslamicfinancialinnovationsstartingfromthe
simplecontractofprofitsharingagreement(Mudaraba),whichissimilartotimedepositin
conventionalbanks,toIssuingIslamicbonds(Sukuk)andderivatives. ThegrowthofIFIs
attractedsomeoftheconventionalfinancialfirms(i.e.,ABNAMRO,CitibankandDresdner
KleinwortBenson)toaddtheserviceofIslamicwindowstotheirclients. Despitethe
advantagesthatareembeddedinIFIssystemandmanagement,IFIsencounterseveral
fundamentalchallengestotheprospectofbeingrecognizedinternationally. Thechallengesexist
inlocalaswellasglobalmarkets. Theseadvantagesandchallengeswillbediscussedthrough
thefollowingquestions:
1. WhataretheadvantagesthatmakeIFIsdifferentfromconventionalbanksandhowthe
customersperceivethesecharacteristics?
2. WhatarethechallengesthathinderIFIsfrombeingrecognizedlocallyandinternationally?
3. HowcanIFIsarticulatethepropersolutionstomeetthesechallenges?
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Thepaperwillbedividedintothreeparts. FirstpartwillexplainthecurrentsituationofIFIs,
explainingthefactorsbehindtheirgrowthinlocalandinternationalmarketsanddiscussesthe
advantagesofIFIssystemthatmakesthemuniqueandattractivetoallcustomers. Secondly,it
willpresentamodeldiscussingthetwotypesofchallengesbeforeIFIsinternationalization:
challengesinsidetheIslamiccountriessuchasthelimitedrecognitionofinvestorstoIFIs
activities,thelimitedcontributionofIFIstothecountryseconomyandthelimitedcustomer
service. TheothersetofchallengesexistoutsidethenonMuslimcountriessuchasthecultural
barrierswiththeWesterncountries,thecautiousnessofinternationalcustomersinbeing
involvedwithIFIstransactionsandthemisconceptionofIFIsstereotype. Thirdly,thepaperwill
providesomesolutionsthatcanbeimplementedtofacilitatetheprocessofinternationalization
and
provide
some
lessons
to
conventional
banks
on
the
technical
and
management
sides.
LITERATUREREVIEWInternationalizationhasbeenunderdiscussionforalongperiodoftime,wheredifferentauthors
lookedattheprocessofinternationalizationfromdifferentviews.Forinstance,Buckleyand
Casson(1976)lookedatthetransactioncostsforintangibleassetsandtheabilitytoobtainand
transferknowledgeacrosstheinternationalmarkets. ThisideahasbeenarguedbyHennart(1982)
andCaves(1996). Furthermore,JohansonandVahlne(1977,1990)andCarpanoandChrisman
(1994)arguedtheinfluenceofinternationalizationonthefirmsperformance. Inaddition,Doz
andPrahalad(1984)focusedontheorganizationandmanagementofmultinationalfirmsandthe
balancebetweeninternationalheadquartersandnationalsubsidiaries(MartinezandJarillo,1991;
PatersonandBrock,2002). Furthermore,Ghemawat(2001,2003)notedhowsometypesof
dimensionsamongthecountries(i.e.,cultural,administrativeandgeographicaldimensions)
influencetheinternationalizationprocess. Therefore,theyshouldbestudiedwiththeintegrative
framework
of
internationalization.
These
dimensions
include
the
language,
religion
and
social
norms(culturaldimension);political,legalandeconomicsides(administrativedimension);and
income,population,andeducation(geographicaldimension). Theculturaldimensionwas
studiedindetailbyHofstede(2001)andothers(Schwartz,1996;BondandChi1997;Schwartzand
Bardi,2001)wheretheybuiltarelationshipbetweenculture,valuesandpractices. Thecultural
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3
dimensionhasasignificantinfluenceontheinternationalizationprocessofIFIs. Ontheother
hand,IFIshavehighcodeofethicsderivedfromtheIslamicreligionwhichenhancestheir
CorporateSocialResponsibility(CSR),whichbroughtthemafavorableimagefromthe
stakeholdersandenhancedtheirperformanceintheirearlystage. Thisthoughthasbeen
developedinliteraturebyDonaldsonandPreston,1995;McWilliamsandSiegel,2001andRowley
andBerman,2000.
ThereisascarcityoftheoreticalliteratureinIFIsinternationalizationprocess. ZaherandHassan
(2001)provideacomparativestudyonthesalientfeaturesofIslamicbankingsupervisorysystem
in15countries,explainingthelackofregulatoryframeworkinIFIs,whichposesagreatchallenge
onIFIstouniformtheirstandardsandpoliciesandmandatethemonallIFIsregardlesstheir
countries.
In
addition,
Aggrawal
and
Yousef
(2000)
argued
the
economic
rationales
for
the
superiorityofIslamicfinancingsystemoveritsconventionalcounterpart. EbhrahimandJoo
(2001)arguedthatIFIsinternationalizationprocessgreatlydependsontheregulatorswhoshould
developamodernfinancialengineeringsystemfortheadvancementofIFIs. Thiswouldreduce
theirdependenceontheconventionalbanksfordrawingtheirexpertise. Siddiqi(2001)argued
thatIFIsinternationalizationischallengedbydevelopingtheriskmanagementandanalysistools
inIslamicfinancialtheoryandpracticetohedgeagainstthevolatilityintheinternationalmarkets.
Inaddition,
IFIs
need
to
educate
the
international
investors
with
their
Islamic
ethical
foundation
thatisembeddedintheirproductsandtheirmarkupineachtransaction(Hassan,1999;Baldwin;
HumayonandJohn,2000;Suseno,2002).
ThispaperaimstoprovideaconceptualframeworkfortheinternationalizationofIFIsthrougha
model,explainingthechallengesthatstandagainstIFIsandthepossiblesolutionstoovercome
them.
WHATISISLAMICFINANCING?Unliketheconventionalbankingsystem,theIslamicbankingsystemcanbedefinedasafaith
basedsystemoffinancialmanagement,whichderivesitsprinciplesfromtheIslamicSharia. It
promotesprofitsharingintheconductofbankingbusinessaswellasprohibitingpayingor
receivinginterestonanytransaction(SallehandHassan,2004). Thisdefinitionassertsthemain
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pillarsofIFIs:guidancebyIslamicShariathroughaboardofIslamicscholarscalledtheSharia
SupervisoryBoard(SSB)and,mostsignificantlyintermsofareconceptualizationinfinance,
theprohibitionofreceivingprofit(interest)onborrowingandlendingcash. TheIslamic
bankingsystemhasbeencriticizedforwhathasbeeninterpretedasthenotionofariskfree
rewardorreturnandthelackofrecognizingthetimevalueofmoney(Khan,1994:13). This
argumentisnottotallycorrectbecauseaccordingtothemoderneconomictheoryandanalysis,
Islamicbankingisbasedonequitybasedsystemnotonthedebtbasedsystemwhichisthebase
ofconventionalbankingsystem(Khan,2000:628). ThismeansIFIsofferanuncertainrateof
returntotheinvestorsandincaseofincurringanyrisk;itshouldbesharedbetweenthebank
andtheinvestor. ThissystemallowsIFIstoadjustthevalueoftheirassetsandliabilities
according
to
any
changes
in
the
fair
market
value
of
the
investment.
This
means
the
loss
is
alwayssharedbetweentheIFIandtheinvestors. Onthecontrary,theconventionalbanking
systemdoesnotreflectthechangesinfairmarketvalueoftheinvestment,insteadthebank
assumesthelossaloneresultingindisequilibriumbetweentherealvalueofassetsandliabilities
andendingbynegativenetworthofthebank(Haron,2000:631). Theprohibitionofpre
determinedinterestrateonloansputspressureonIFIstomonitortheborrowersatareasonable
costandgettheexactinformationaboutthegeneratedprofitbecausethelendermightprovide
asymmetricinformation
about
the
real
profit.
Therefore,
the
portfolios
of
IFIs
tend
to
be
concentratedinshortterm,traderelatedassets(DiamondandDyhvig,1983:401). This
emphasisonshorttermfinancingleadstoaninimicaleffectoninvestment,growthand
economicdevelopment. Thisconceptreflectsthesocialcommitmentbetweenthebankandthe
investorsinenhancingtheeconomy.
AccordingtoIslamicSharia,IFIscannotbeinvolvedintheproductionordistributionofspecific
activitieswhichareforbiddenbyIslamsuchasalcohol,pork,andgambling. Inreplacement,
theyshould
invest
in
long
term
assets
such
as
Profit
Sharing
Agreement
(Mudharabah),
Cost
PlusFinancing(Murabaha),EquityParticipation(Musharaka),andLeasing(Ijarah). These
activitiesarebasedonrealassetsratherthanfinancialassets(BahrainMonetaryAgency,2006:
22).
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Duringthelastthreedecades,IFIshaveincreasedsubstantiallyintheMiddleEastandNorth
Africa(MENA)countriesandwentfurthertotheFarEastandEurope. Amongallthecountries
thathostIFIs,BahrainstandsasapioneerinhostingthelargestnumberofIFIs(37banks)in
spiteofitssmallestsize1. BahrainhostsalltheregulatorsofIFIswhichwillbepresentedinthe
followingsection. ThereasonbehindthisgrowthinBahrainisthelackofnaturalresourcesin
thecountry,whichmotivatedBahraingovernmenttonourishtheIslamicbankingindustryand
makeitasoneofthemainresourcesofincome. Inaddition,thereisnocorporatetaxinBahrain,
whichsupportstheIFIssystem. AsParker(1993)notedthatBahrainiplannersarekeento
portrayBahrainsfutureasequivalenttoSingaporeintheFarEast.
GlobalIslamicEconomySofar,theexactsizeoftheglobalIslamiceconomyhasnotbeenpreciselyidentified. However,
forthepurposeofthisstudy,wehaveconsideredthe57membernationsofOrganizationof
IslamicCountries(OIC)astheprimarypromotersofIFIs(http://www.oicoci.org). Previous
studiescoveredpartofthiseconomysuchasMENAcountries,butbypassedthecountries
whereMuslimpopulationisbelow50%,asintheexSovietrepublics,U.K.,FranceandIndia.
ThetargetedIslamiccommunitieshaveincommonthecharacteristicsofahighlevelofpoverty,
debtandhighpopulationgrowth(Moore,1997:2). Thedebtaccumulationisoftencondemned
byIslamiceconomists,especiallyinthosecountrieswhohavetheopportunitytoimproveother
industries suchastourism,manufacturing,andnaturalresourcesthatcanenhancetheir
economy(Chapra,1985:84). ThesecondcharacteristicforMuslimeconomiesistheirlarge
defensebudgetsandthegovernmentsubsidiestoutilities(i.e.,electricity,communication,
water,andtransportation)insteadofprivatization. Thethirdcharacteristicisthelow
availabilityofemploymentintheprivatesector. Thepublicsectoraccountsfor3060%ofthe
labor
force
in
most
of
MENA
countries
with
almost
95%
in
Gulf
Cooperation
Council
(GCC)
countries.2
1Bahrainisasetof33smallislands,locatedattheNorthEastofSaudiArabia. Ithassmallproductionofoil
comparedtoitsneighborcountries. Accordingto2007statistics,Bahrainhasasmallpopulationof708,573
approximately(http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107313.html). 2InternationalMonetaryFund MiddleEastandCentralAsiaRegionalEconomicOutlook(2005)
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MostoftheIslamiceconomiesareworkingtowardspromotinglocalsavings,attractingforeign
investments,andreducingtheircapitalexpenditures. Themostreadilyavailableandusefultool
forachievingtheseendswasthecreationofabankingsystembasedonIslamicprinciples.
TheArabianGulfcountriesconstitutethefoundationforIFIsbecauseoftheirsimilarityin
religion,culture,languageandaridgeography. TheyhavefouroutoffivelargestIslamicbanks
intheworldandmaintainthehighestconcentrationofIslamicdepositsandcapitalduetothe
highincomeintheregion.3 ThemembersofGCCcountrieshold20%oftheworldscrudeoil
productionandhaveaGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)percapitaofmorethanUS$8,000.
Therefore,thisregionwasfoundtobesuitablesoilforthissystemtogrowinandmovearound
totheotherMuslimcountries.
Malaysia
and
South
East
Asia
are
additional
financial
regions
of
interest
for
IFIs,
after
GCC
countries. MalaysiaisconsideredthesecondmostpopulousIslamiccountrywith54%oftotal
populationafterIndonesiawhichhas90%ofpopulation(Moore,1997:183).However,Malaysia
comesasapioneerinIslamicbankingindustryforthewholeSoutheastAsianregion.
Fromtheperspectiveofconventionalbanking,thesuccessofIFIscanbegaugedbytherush
amongtheconventionalbankstoopentheirownIslamicwindows,notonlyinsidetheIslamic
worldbutintherestoftheworldsuchasCitibank,ABNAmro,HSBC,BNPParibas,andBank
ofAmerica.
Intheglobalmarket,IFIsareuniqueinproducingIslamicbonds(Sukuk)whicharedifferent
fromthetraditionalbondsandequityinstruments. Thisnewtooloffersasourceoffunding
basedontheprofitsharingconceptbetweenIFIsandinvestors,shiftingtherisksfromthebank
sideasinthecaseoftraditionalbondstobeonasharedbasisbetweenthebankandthe
investors. Itenablesthebanktoexploittheircomparativeadvantagesintheloanprocessand
maintainacustomerrelationshipevenwhenloanscannotprofitablybeheldonthebalance
sheet(Alkhan,
2003:
16).
IslamicSukukarewrittendocumentsthatcanbetradedinthecapitalmarketandbear
ownershipintangibleassets. TheyarebasicallycertificatesevidencingtheSukukholders
3AlRajhiBankingandInvestmentCorp.SaudiArabia;KuwaitFinanceHouseKuwait;FaisalIslamicBankofBahrain;
DubaiIslamicBankU.A.E.,andFaisalIslamicBankofEgypt,whichispartoftheAlBarakaBankingGroup.
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ownershipinone,ormoreassets.4 Forinstance,PartnershipFinancing(MusharakaSukuk)and
TrustFinancing(MudarabaSukuk)aregoodexamplesofSukuk,whereinvestorscontribute
moneytotheIslamicbankonthebasisofthesetwoinstruments,toacquireownershipand
profitinrealassets. Thesetypesoffinancingreflecttheconceptofprofitsharing,riskbearing
conceptbetweentheIFIsandtheirinvestors.
ThefactorsbehindtheGrowthofIFIsSeveralfactorshadcontributedtothegrowthofIFIs,suchastheeconomicalgrowthofGCC
countriesasaresultoftheoildiscoveryandtheestablishmentoftheOrganizationofPetroleum
ExportingCountries(OPEC)(Moore,1997:7). Thisunexpectedresourceofincomechanged
completelythelifestyleintheregionandprovidedthefoundationforIFIs. Inaddition,Saudi
ArabiatooktheleadamongtheIslamiccountriestopromotethespiritofIslamthroughfinancial
supporttotheMuslimcommunitiesintheformofestablishingIslamicuniversities,institutes,
andIslamiccenterstostrengthentheArabicandIslamicidentity(Halliday,1996).Duringthat
time,twoSaudifundedfinancialfirmshavebeenfounded(DallahAlBarakaGroup,1969and
DarAlMaalAlIslamiOrganization,1981)tosupporttheinternationaldevelopmentofIslamic
banking. AfterthetragedyofSeptember11,mostoftheArabinvestorspreferredtoholdalarge
portionoftheirinvestmentsintheMiddleEastincaseofanothersimilarevent. TheIFIswere
thebestagenttomanagetheirinvestments. Inaddition,thecentralbanksinGCCcountriesand
especiallyinBahrain,urgedtheAccountingandAuditingOrganizationforIslamicFinancial
Institutions(AAOIFI)tosetuptheaccountingandauditingstandardsforIFIstoprotectthese
investments.
CHALLENGESBEFOREIFIsINTERNATIONALIZATIONThereareseveralchallengeshinderingtheIFIsfrombeinginternationalized,whichcanbe
classifiedintotwosetsofchallenges. ThefirstsetincludesthreechallengesinsidetheIslamic
countries. First,theregulatorslimitedinfluenceoverIFIsactivitiesandtransactionsinmostof
OICcountriesleadstoinvestorslimitedrecognition(Grais,2004).Secondly,thelimitedroleof
4AAOIFIShariaStandardsNo.(18),InvestmentSukuk(20045),p.4,Akbar(2003),p.4
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IFIsinmoneyandcapitalmarketsresultsinlimitedcontributionstothecountrysmacro
economy(Ahmad,PradhanandAhmad,2005). Thirdly,thesignificantshortageofqualified
manpowerandmanagementinsideIFIsleadstolimitedcustomerservice(ElhiraikaandHamad,
2003).
ThesecondsetincludesthreechallengesoutsidetheIslamiccountries. FirsttheSSBinfluence
overtheIFIstransactionsandactivitiesmightbemisperceivedinnonMuslimcountriesand
createaculturalbarrier(Mirza,andHalabi,2003,347). Secondly,thedifferentcharacteristicsof
IFIstransactionsandtheirreligiousfoundationleadtocustomerscautiousnessandaddextra
challengebeforeIFIsinpromotingtheirproductsinternationally(IqbalandMirakhor1999,381).
Thirdly,
the
limited
capital
of
IFIs
compared
with
the
total
capital
of
the
financial
institutions
in
anycountryleadstomarginalrecognitionbythecentralbanksandenforcestheIFIsto
accommodatewiththeexistingruleswhichmightnotbecompliantwithIslamicSharia(Al
OmarandAbdelHaq,1996).
InsertFigure1abouthere
ChallengesinsidetheIslamicCountriesSincetheconventionalbankingsystemiswidelyspreadinsideaswellasoutsidetheIslamic
countriesfordecades,itgainstheclientstrustespeciallyifitiswellregulatedandactively
contributedtotheeconomy. Ontheotherside,IFIsarenewplayerinthefinancialmarket;
therefore,theystrivetocompetewiththeexistingsysteminsidetheIslamiccountries. IFIsare
stillbuildinguptheirregulatorysystemandtryingtocontributetothecountryseconomyin
linewithIslamicSharia. IFIsarecurrentlyrecruitingtheiremployeesandmanagementfrom
those
who
work
in
conventional
banks
because
of
the
serious
shortage
in
their
manpower.
Investorslimitedrecognition:Inthefinancialindustry,theregulatorshaveasignificantrolein
organizingandcontrollingthetransactionsandimplementingthefiscalpolicyforthewhole
country. IFIsarealwayscompliantwiththedominantregulationsofanycountrytheyoperate
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in;however,theyhavetheirownsetofregulatorsthatfacilitateappropriateinteractionwiththe
IslamicSharia. ThefirstelementoftheIslamicsupervisorynetworkisAAOIFI,whichwas
establishedin1991forthepurposeofissuingstandardsinaccounting,auditing,governance,
andShariaforIFIsinaccordancewithInternationalFinancialReportingStandards(IFRS)
(Thomas,CoxandKraty2005,207).
In2003,theIslamicFinancialServicesBoard(IFSB)wasstartedinKualaLumpurtoserveasan
internationalstandardsettingbodyofregulatoryandsupervisoryagencies
(http://www.ifsb.org). TheIFSBisfocusedonthestructuredregulatoryconvergenceof
supervisorystandards. Thisinternationalconvergenceismeanttoachievecomparable
standardsofcapitalmeasurementsandcapitalstandards.
In
2001,
the
International
Islamic
Financial
Market
(IIFM)
was
founded
with
the
collective
efforts
ofthecentralbanksandmonetaryagenciesofsixcountriestofacilitatesecondarymarketsfor
Islamicinstruments.5Ithastwoprimaryroles:marketeducationandShariaauthentication,
whichcontributetomoreselfregulationandpromotionofIslamicmoneyandcapitalmarkets.
In2005,theCentralBankofBahrainestablishedTheLiquidityManagementCentre(LMC)for
thepurposeofprovidingsecondarymarketbuyerforIslamicbonds(Sukuk). TheLMCplaysa
keyroleinthecreationofanactiveinterbankmarketwhichwillassistIslamicfinancial
institutionsin
managing
their
short
term
liquidity.
The
establishment
and
depth
of
such
inter
bankmarketwillfurtheracceleratethedevelopmentprocessoftheIslamicbankingsector
(http://www.lmcbahrain.com).
Duringthesameyearof2005,TheIslamicInternationalRatingAgency(IIRA)startedoperating
inBahraintoassistinthedevelopmentoftheregionalfinancialmarketsbyprovidingan
assessmentoftheriskprofileofentitiesandinstrumentswhichcanbeusedasoneofthebases
forinvestmentdecisions(http://www.iirating.com). TheIIRAprovidesdifferentservicesof
ratingsuch
as
sovereign
ratings
and
credit
ratings
which
include
assessment
of
an
entitys
abilitytorepaythedebtobligationsintimelymanner. Also,itprovidestheserviceofSharia
qualityratingthatincludestheassessmentofthelevelofcompliancewithShariaprinciples.
5ThesixcountriesareBahrain,Brunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,SudanandSaudiArabia.http://www.iifm.net
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Inaddition,thereistheIslamicResearchandTrainingInstitute(IRTI),whichwasestablished
undertheIslamicDevelopmentBankinBahraintosponsorsomeofthemostimportantanalyses
ofproducts,regulations,supervision,developmenteconomicsandriskmanagement(Thomaset
al.,2005:209).
Finallyin2001,theGeneralCouncilforIslamicBanksandFinancialInstitutions(CIBAFI)was
establishedinBahraintodevelopandmanageacomprehensivedatabasededicatedforIFIs
includingadministrativeandfinancialinformationsince1998. Currently,CIBAFIisconsidered
theonlyreliablesourceofinformationaboutIFIsatthegloballevel.6
InsertFigure2abouthere
In
most
of
the
Islamic
countries
the
central
banks
are
not
in
practice
of
their
main
role
in
leading
theIslamicfinancialinstitutionsintoefficientmobilizationofsavingsandallocationofresources
(Khan,2000:627). Intheory,thereisnothingthatmakescentralbanksinIslamiceconomydiffer
inamajorwayfromthetraditionalconceptofcentralbanking. Inreality,thecentralbanksin
mostoftheIslamiccountriesdonottaketheiressentialroleofinitiatingandfosteringthe
developmentofprimary,secondary,andmoneymarketsthatareapprovedbySSB. Theystill
lacknewinnovationswhicharebasedonprofitsharingconcept,notfixedinterestrate.
Also,the
central
banks
do
not
have
an
effective
role
in
regulating
the
standards
and
practices
for
IFIs. Asaresult,theiraccountingpracticeswereinconsistentandthefinancialstatementswere
nottransparentduetoinadequatedisclosure(Thomasetal.2005,207).
Despitethesignificantgrowthoftheaboveregulators,theystillhavesomelimitationswhich
maketheinvestorsreluctanttotrustIFIsinthesamewaytheytrusttheconventionalfinancial
firms. Forinstance,AAOIFIstandardsaremandatedorusedasguidelinesonlyinsixcountries
(Bahrain,Sudan,Malaysia,Qatar,SaudiArabiaandDubai)outofthe57countriesofOIC. IFSB
lacksthe
authority
and
power
to
mandate
their
standards
such
as
Financial
Accounting
StandardsBoardandIFRS.IIFMhasstilllimitedaccessandpresentationinOICandtheir
conferencesandseminarsarenotmatureyet. LMCiscontrolledbyBahraincentralmarketand
6GeneralCouncilforIslamicBanksandFinancialInstitutions(CIBAFI) IslamicFinanceDirectory(2004),p.4
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cannottakeindependentdecisions. Theselimitationsleadtolimitedrecognitionfromthe
investorsside.
Limitedeconomiccontribution:althoughthemoneyandcapitalmarketsofOICarestill
consideredasemergingmarkets,IFIsarerestrictedbyShariaregulationstoeffectivelytakepart
inthosemarkets. IFIscannottradeinsharesorbondsofanycompanythatgeneratesrevenue
fromalcohol,pork,andsimilaractivitieswhichareprohibitedbyIslam. Therefore,IFIshave
innovatednewproductsinreplacementsuchasMurabahacontract,Tawarroqcontract,BeiAl
UrboonandJoalacontract7.
However,thesetoolsareneitheravailabletoallIFIsnorsignificantlycontributingtotheOIC
macro
economy.
In
addition,
many
Islamic
nations
are
significantly
under
banked
and
this
structuralfactpointstheneedofgrowthinsidetheIslamiccommunity. Currently,mostofthe
IslamicbanksarelocalorregionalbankssuchasKuwaitFinanceHouseandBahrainIslamic
banks. TheonlyIslamicbankthatiswellestablishedwith203branchesin10countriesis
AlBarakaBankingGroup.
InsertTable1abouthere
Finally,IFIsdonothavesignificantcontributiontoincubatorsandentrepreneurshipinsidethe
membercountriesofOICbecauseoftheirshortexperience. Theirinvestmentsarefocusedon
wellestablishedbusinessesthatareapprovedbySSBonly.
Limitedcustomerservice:IFIsareinneedforaccumulationofhumancapitalasitprovedtobean
importantdriverofendogenousgrowthforIFIs(Elhiraikaetal.,2003;Barro1991,407). According
totheHumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)8fortheyear2004,Bruneiwasrankedat33andBahrain
7Murabahacontractmeansbuyinganassetforcashandsellingitimmediatelyoncredit. InTawarroqcontractthe
Islamicbankpurchasestheassetoncreditandsellsittoanotheroneforcash. BeiAlUrboonincludessettingupa
fixedpriceforacommoditytobedeliveredinthefuture. JoalacontractisaconditionalpromisebytheIslamicbankto
deliveraspecificquantityofanaturalasset(i.e.,oil,mineral,steel)uponextractiononanagreeddate. The
commoditytraderwouldpaythepredeterminedpriceforit(AlSheahabi2003,1113).8HDIisavailablewithHumanDevelopmentReportbroughtoutbyUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme
(UNDP). Itisacompositeindexthatmeasuresachievementsofacountryindifferentparameters.
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at40,despitethesmallpopulationofthosetwocountries. Evenmorealarmingindicationsoflack
includeIran,whichwasplacedat101,Sudanat139andPakistanat142. Thesecondalarming
indicatorinthisreportistheeducationlevel,where73%oftheOICcountriesoccupythelower
halfintheranksforcountrieslistedinHDI. ThesefactsshowthatIslamiccountriesand
organizationshavenotbeenpersuasiveenoughinofferingnonMuslimcountrieswithIFIsvision
andstrategy. ItindicatesthatIFIssuccessmayremainatsuperficiallevelsandchallengesposedto
theconventionalfinancialsystemmayremainfeebleotherwise.
Technology,althoughundergoingtremendousgrowth,canbesaidtoactasabackboneofthe
financialsector,aswellasbeingamaindriverofmarketpower. Itappliesnotonlytothereal
timeclearingandsettlementinmoneyandcapitalmarkets,butalsotointernetbasedofferings
andAutomated
Teller
Machines
(ATMs)
which
are
not
fully
implemented
in
IFIs
due
to
their
cost
andprocedures. EventhewebsitesofIFIsareservingadvertisingpurposesmorethantechnical
supporttocustomers.9 ArcoIndex(ArchibugiandCoco,2004)places38outof57OICcountriesin
thelowerhalfofrankingsinthesetof162countries,with8out10lastplacesandallfivelastranks
areoccupiedbyOICcountries.10
ChallengesoutsidetheIslamicCountriesOn
the
global
scale,
OIC
member
countries
face
an
economic
challenge
where
the
GDP
of
all
membercountriestogetherislessthan17%oftheGDPofUSAanddoesevenreach12%ofthe
GDPofUSAandJapan(Ahmadetal.,2005). Sincetheeconomicsituationdoesnotsupportthe
longtermgrowthprospectsforIFIs,itisimportanttopenetrateotherboundariesbeyondthoseof
thetopGDPcountries. Inaddition,theWestisreluctanttoacceptanyapproachfromOIC
countriesthatmightenhancepoliticalpowerintheOICcountries,suchasgrowthintheirfinancial
system. ThedistortedstereotypeofIslamintheWestconstitutesasignificantchallengebeforeIFIs
topenetrate
these
boundaries.
Also,
the
difference
in
culture,
language
and
religion
creates
anotherbarrierbeforeIFIstowardstheirinternationalization. Inaddition,thelimitedcapitalof
9De/Shakeel/Somashekar(2004)Deetal.hasbeendealingintechnologicalimpedimentsinDubaiIslamicbank
(U.A.E.)whichreflectsthecurrenttechnological situationoftheIslamicworld.10
Archibugi/Coco(2004),ArCoIndextakesintoaccountassociatedvariableswithtechnologicalchangessuchas(a)
Thecreationoftechnology(b)Technological infrastructureand(c)Developmentofhumanskills
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IFIscomparedtothecapitalofconventionalbanksresultsinmarginalrecognitionfromthecentral
bankssidewhetherinsideoroutsidetheOICmembercountries.
Culturalbarrier:oneofthetangibleproblemsbeforeIFIsiscommunicationbetweenMuslimsand
thenonMuslimworldingeneral,andbetweenIslamicandconventionalbanksmorespecifically.
Thisdistancebetweenthetwopartieshavebeenincreasedduetothemediaandthedifferent
attacksbysometerroristswhodistortedtheimageofIslamintheculturalconsciousnessofnon
Muslims. Therefore,IFIsfacegreatchallengeinreshapingthisimbalanceandbridgingthisgap
betweenthedifferingwaysofknowingandbeing. Althoughtheproblemexists,thereisno
IslamicorganizationchargedwiththecounterbalancingpresentationbetweenIFIsandtheir
conventional
banking
counterpart.
IFIs
need
to
arrange
for
more
conferences,
seminars
and
other
channelsofcommunicationstoshortenthisgapandcreateacommongroundwherethetwo
partiesmeet. Inaddition,theSSBshouldstudytheproductsoftheconventionalbanksand
encouragestheIFIstoinvestintheproductswhicharecompliantwithIslamicSharia. This
changeinattitudewillencouragetheconventionalbankingsystemtochangetheirstereotypeof
IFIs.
InnonMuslimcountries,IFIshavefoundclasheswithmainstreamregulations. Forinstance,
treatmentof
Leasing
(Ijara)
in
Islamic
banking
system
is
recognized
as
normal
leasing
instead
of
mortgagewhichchangestheconceptofIjarafrompurchasingtheassetbythebankandleasingit
tocustomerstoanormalleaseofrealestate. Also,imposingtaxesbynonMuslimgovernments
onIslamicreligiousalmsgiving(Zakat),leadstodoubletaxation. Zakatistreatedasanon
operatingexpenseinIFIsfinancialstatementsandconsequentlyhasnoinfluenceontheirnet
income(Ahmed,2002:120). Thus,IFIsarerequiredtopayregulatoryfeeswhichresultsindouble
paymentstomeetthedualregulationsofIslamicandconventionalsystem.
Customercautiousness:despitetheaforementionedadvantagesofsecuritizationinIslamic
banking,internationalinvestorsarecautiousintradinginIslamicSukukduetotheiruncommon
characteristics. Besides,thetaxationsysteminsomecountriesmighthaveimpact(eithernegative
orpositive)onsecuritizationprocess;therefore,issuanceofSukuksometimescanbetaxdriven.
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ThislackofsupportfromthetaxcollectiondepartmentshinderstheissuanceofSukuk.
Furthermore,thelimitedtoolsavailableforliquiditymanagementandthelackofanactive
secondarymarketaddmorebarriersbeforeIFIstocontributetothefinancialmarkets. Thelast
barrieriscausedbythepredominanceofdebtbasedmodesoffinancing,whicharedifficultto
transformintonegotiablefinancialinstruments. OnceSukukhavebeencreated,theycannotbe
transferredtoanyoneelseexceptatparvalue. ThiscausesthewholestructureoftheIslamic
financialmarkettobehighlyilliquid. Also,itleavesnoopportunityincreatingsecondary
financialmarket(AlKhan,2003:28).
LimitedrecognitionofcentralbankscreatesabarrierbeforeIFIsintheirinternationalization
process. Sofar,thereisnoIslamiccentralbankinsidetheOICmembercountries,whichmakes
theIFIs
dependent
on
the
conventional
banks
in
steering
the
financial
industry.
In
the
non
MuslimcountriessuchasEuropeandU.S.A.,Islamicbanksarenotrecognizedbytheircentral
banksbecauseofIFIsmarginalroleintheireconomiesandthelackofdefinitiontotheIslamic
bankingsystem. TheWeststillcannotfullycomprehendtheroleofSSB,wherebankingtype
decisionsaremadebynonbankers,Islamicscholars(George,1995;Patrikis,1996).
Furthermore,thecentralbanksinOICmembercountrieslackskillsofcommercialand
investmentbankersandcapabilitiesofcreditanalysis. Forexample,thecentralbanksinIran
andSudan
use
their
influence
to
steer
the
countrys
economy
by
stipulating
certain
capitals
towardsspecificindustriesthroughthereserverequirements. Also,thereisnostandardization
amongtheSSBsinOICcountries. Forinstance,ifoneSSBapprovessometransactionsinone
country,itdoesnotsecuretheirapprovalbyanotherSSBinadifferentcountry. Thus,thistype
ofdisagreementleadstoconfusionintheIFIsglobalstrategyandmakesitharderforWestern
regulatorstorecognize,understandandworkwiththissector(ClodeandElliott,1996:18).
FRAMEWORKOF
SOLUTIONS
OntheInternalLevelTheOICmembercountriesneedtoprovidesupporttoprimaryandsecondarymarketsto
enhancethecontributionofIFIs. Primarymarketsshouldfocusonpromotingnewissuesof
stock,managingsubscriptionoperations,attractingindividualandinstitutionalsavingsand
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15
directingthemtowardsproductiveprojects. Asaresult,newprojectswillbecreatedtoenhance
theproductivitybaseandimprovethecountryseconomy. Thesecondarymarketcreatesa
demandformarginaljobsandsupportsecuritiestradingforliquidationandrevenuepurposes
(Kamel,2000:641).
IFIsmustalsodevelopmoretransparencyintheirfinancialreportingbyeliminatingthe
differencesintheiraccountingtreatments;whicharemainlyattributedtotwofactors:the
differencesamongtheinterpretationsofShariascholarsandthedifferenceswithinregulatory
authorities(Karim,1994). Thistypeofinternalselfregulationscreatesaccountingdifferencesand
misleadstheusersoffinancialstatements.
Furthermore,IFIsneedtostandardizetheirrulesofreporting. Forinstance,differentIslamic
banks
will
record
the
same
accounts
differently.
Some
banks
(i.e.,
Jordan
Islamic
Bank
and
Qatar
IslamicBank)treatinvestmentaccountsthatarebasedonmudaraba(profitsharing)asobligations
whileothers(AlRajhiBankingandinvestmentandShamilBankofBahrain)treatthesame
accountsasfiduciaryinvestmentsandaccordinglyreportedthemasoffbalancesheetaccounts
(Ahmed,2001:111). Also,thecollectedincomefromtheseaccountsisrecordedusingsixdifferent
methodswhichmakestheincomerecognitionprocessdiffersfromonebanktoanother.11These
typesofprofitsharinginvestmentaccountsshouldberecordedaslimitedtermequityinstrument
withresidual
claims.
IFIsregulatorsneedtobeproactiveincreatingnewinnovationsofinvestmentsforIslamic
banks. Forexample,theyshouldenhancetheinterbanktransactionssuchasovernightfunds
andshorttermborrowingbecauseIslamicbankscannotusethesametoolsinconventional
bankingsystembecausetheinterestrateisembedded. Inaddition,centralbanksneedtoreview
thereserverequirementsonIFIsbecausetheirdegreeofriskislessthantheconventional
counterpart(Khan,2000:629;Hemat,1994). Moreover,theregulatorsinOICcountriesshould
followBahrains
model
in
securing
astrong
legal
system
for
IFIs
and
establishing
appropriate
licensingrequirements.
11Thesixmethodsofincomerecognitionare:upfront;wheninstallmentsfalldue;wheninstallmentsarepaid;equal
distributionofincomeoverperiodoftransaction;endofperiodandconstantrateofreturn. (Ahmed(2001),p.112)
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AAOIFIhasrecentlyrealizedtheshortageofprofessionalmanpowerinIFIs;therefore,AAOIFI
startedtwoprograms(CertifiedIslamicProfessionalAccountantandCertifiedShariaAdviser
andAuditor)toenhancethelevelofcustomerserviceinsidetheIFIs. Thefirstprogramisin
accountingandauditingofIFIsandthesecondinShariasupervisory
OntheExternalLevelAlthoughtherearedifferencesincultures,customsandtraditionsbetweentheEastandthe
West,effectivedialogueshouldtakeplacebasedonthefollowingguidelines: First,different
civilizationscomplementeachotherandleadtointegrationratherthanconflict. Secondly,the
dialogueleadstorecognitionoftherightofeachpartyandrespectsit. Effectivedialoguewill
identifytheobjectivesofeachpartyandgoesaboutachievingthemgraduallyandsearchfor
commoncharacteristicsineachcultureandpromotethemwiththeaimofcreatingmore
understanding(AlghatamandGalal,2007:204). IFIsshouldnotbeselfabsorbedentities;
instead,theyshouldhaveanopenmindtotheinternationalmarket,makinguseofhuman
experienceandmatchingbetweenShariarequirementsandWesternnorms. DespitetheSharia
precautionsagainstcertainmechanismsandmethods,IFIscanstillcooperatewithconventional
bankinginstitutionsinthefieldofnewinstruments.
IFIsarestillstrugglingtostandardizetheiraccountingrequisites. Forinstance,AAOIFIstandards
aremandatoryonlyinthreecountries(Bahrain,SudanandJordan)outofthe24membercountries
andformthebasisforregulatorystandardsinMalaysia,SaudiArabiaandQatar(AAOIFI,20045:
23). Therefore,itisessentialforIFIstoestablishaunifiedframeworktostandardizepracticesin
ordertoberecognizedgloballysuchastheGenerallyAcceptedAccountingPrinciples(GAAP),
whichcoverallthestandardsofauditing,accountingandfinancialproductsinasystematicway
(Moore,1997:248).
IFIs
need
to
find
ways
to
be
internationally
accepted
by
the
recognized
ratings
agencies
such
S&P500,Moodys,andIBCA. IfIFIstrytoarguethisapproachbyestablishingtheirownrating
agencysuchasInternationalIslamicRatingAgency(IIRA)inBahrain,itwillbeselfdefeating
ratherthanemergingininternationalmarket. Recently,Standard&Poorsestablishedanew
sectionforS&PShariahIndicesandDowJonesalsohasestablishedDowJonesIslamicFund,
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whicharepositivesignalstowardstheworldrecognitiontoIFIs. Toacceleratetheprocessof
acceptance,Islamicscholarsneedtounifytheirratingsmethodologytobeintroducedeffectively
totheinternationalmarket.
CONCLUSIONSGlobalizationhassignificantlyinfluenceddifferentaspectsofourlife:economically,politicallyand
financially. Thepositivesideofglobalizationisthemovementoftechnologyandhumancapital
amongthecountries,whilethenegativesideislackofgovernmentsabilitytocontroltheir
economyanddeterminethecapitalflow. Onthefinancialside,theincreaseinoilpricesflourished
theinvestmentsinGCCcountriesandencouragedtheirgovernmentstosupporttheIslamic
financialsystem. Thisnewsystemprohibitsinterestonalltransactionsandfundamentallybased
onIslamiclaws(Sharia).
Currently,IFIsareexistedinMuslimscountriesaswellassomeEuropeanandAmerican
countries. ThepotentialgrowthofIFIsisquitepossible;however,therearesomechallengesthat
shouldbeaddressedtoacceleratetheprocessoftheirgrowth. Thesechallengescanbeclassified
intotwosets:internalandexternal. Internally,theinvestorsstillrelyontheconventionalbanking
systembecausethecurrentnumberofIFIsisnotlargeenoughtomeettheneedofOICmember
countries,thecontributionofIFIsinmoneyandcapitalmarketsisrestrictedbySSBandthe
customerserviceinsidetheIFIsisstillprematuretoattractnewclients.Furthermore,IFIslacka
solidregulatorysystemtounifytheirproductsandtransactionssuchastheissuanceandtrading
ofSukuk.
Externally,thelackofcommunicationbetweenIFIsandtheothermembersinthefinancial
marketscreatesagapbetweenthemandleadstolackofawarenessaboutIFIsproductsand
customercautiousnesstowardstheIFIsactivities. Inaddition,thelimitedcontributionofIFIsto
the
financial
markets
results
in
limited
recognition
by
central
banks.
IFIsneedtoestablisheffectivecommunicationwiththeircounterpartstocorrectany
misunderstandingandfacilitatetheprocessofenteringtheglobalmarket. Asaresult,the
clasheswithmainstreamregulatorswillbeeliminatedandthestereotypeaboutIFIswillbe
correctedintheeyesofnonMuslimcountries.Finally,IFIsshouldestablishacomprehensive
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trainingprogramfortheiremployeestounderstandtheuniquenessofIslamicfinancialproducts
andhelptheinvestorstomeasuretheadvantagesofdealingswithIFIs.
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FIGURE1IFIsChallengestowardsInternationalization
Contribution in
money & capital
markets
Limited
Economic
Contribution
Limited Role of
Regulators
Investors
Limited
Recognition
Unqualified
Employees
Limited
Customer
Service
Localization International-
ization
Lack of
Communication
Different
TransactionsLimited Capital of
IFIs
Cultural
Barrier
Customer
Cautiousness
Limited
Recognition of
Central Banks
Challenges inside
Islamic countries
Challenges
outside Islamic
countries
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FIGURE2IFIsRegulatorsandInformationCenters
IRTI
Information Centers
Issue Accounting and Auditing
Standards - Bahrain
CIBAFI
Islamic Financial Institutions:
Islamic Banks, Investment Funds and Islamic
Insurance Companies (Takaful)
AAOIFI
Issue Regulatory Standards -
MalaysiaIFSB
Create environment for Islamic
secondary market - BahrainIIFM
Rating IFI and Islamic finance
instruments - BahrainIIRA
Market maker for Islamic secondary
market instruments - BahrainLMC
Promote Islamic
Research and
Training
Enhance marketunderstanding of
Islamic finance
Regulators
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Ideclarethat:
Ihavesincerelyendeavoredtoproduceapaperofoutstandingacademicquality; Ihaveproducedthispapermyself,withoutanyoutsideassistanceexceptfromthepeople
anddocumentsthatIquote;
Ihavenotcopiedand/orpastedthispaper,orpartsofit,fromotherpapersordocumentsavailableontheinternetorelsewhere,exceptwhereIhaveexplicitlystatedso;
Ihavenotsubmittedthispaperormajorpartsofittoanotherseminarorclass,eitherattheUniversityofSt.Gallenorelsewhere,andIwillnotdosointhefuture;
Imayusepartsofthispaperformydoctoraldissertation.
___________
Samy Nathan