Intelligence/Problem-Solving Lecture 6 October 17, 2007.

Intelligence/Problem-Solving

Lecture 6

October 17, 2007

Outline

• Talking about midterm

• What is intelligence?

• What factors influence intelligence?

• How does problem-solving change with age?

• What is wisdom?

• Start with mental health

Midterm Exam

• 40 multiple choice questions, 5 short answers, and 1 longer answer

• Exam will only cover through intelligence/problem-solving lecture

• Chapters 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 8 covered and articles associated.

• Office hours: Thursday, 1-2pm, room 504

Defining Intelligence

• Intelligence involves more than just a particular fixed set of characteristics

• Laypersons and experts agree on three clusters of intelligence– Problem-solving ability– Verbal ability– Social competence

The Big Picture: A Life-Span View

• Theories of intelligence have four concepts – Multidimensional– Multidirectionality– Plasticity– Interindividual variability

• The dual component model of intellectual functioning– Mechanics of intelligence– Pragmatics of intelligence

Research Approaches to Intelligence

• The psychometric approach– Measuring intelligence as a score on a

standardized test• Focus is on getting correct answers• Example: Wechlser Adult Intelligence Scale

• The cognitive-structural approach– Ways in which people conceptualize and

solve problems emphasizing developmental changes in modes and styles of thinking

Measuring Intelligence

• Primary Mental Abilities (Thurstone, 1938; Ekstrom et al.,1979; Schaie, 1994, 1996)– Numerical facility– Word fluency– Verbal meaning – Inductive reasoning– Spatial orientation– Perceptual speed– Verbal memory

Age-Related Changes in Primary Abilities

• Data from K. Warner Schaie’s Seattle Longitudinal Study of more than 5000 individuals from 1956 to 1998 in six testing cycles– People tend to improve on primary abilities until late

30s early 40s– Scores stabilize until mid-50s early 60s– By late 60s consistent declines are seen– Nearly everyone shows a decline in one ability, but

few show decline on four or five abilities

Secondary Mental Abilities

• At least six secondary mental abilities have been found (Table 8.1)– Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

• Abilities that make you a flexible and adaptive thinker, to draw inferences, and relationships between concepts independent of knowledge and experience

– Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)• The knowledge acquired through life experience

and education in a particular culture

Moderators of Intellectual Change

• Cohort differences– Comparing longitudinal studies with cross-

sectional show little or no decline in intellectual performance with age

• Information processing– Perceptual speed may account for age-

related decline– Working memory decline may account for

poor performance of older adults if coordination between old and new information is required

Moderators of Intellectual Change• Social and lifestyle variables

– Differences in cognitive skills needed in different occupations makes a difference in intellectual development

– Higher education and socioeconomic status also related to slower rates of intellectual decline

– Does a cognitively engaging lifestyle predict greater intellectual functioning?

• Personality– High levels of fluid abilities and a high sense of

internal control lead to positive changes in people’s perception of their abilities

Moderators of Intellectual Change

• Health– A connection between disease and intelligence

has been established in general and in cardiovascular disease in particular

– The participants in the Seattle Longitudinal Study who declined in inductive reasoning had significantly more illness diagnoses and visits to physicians for cardiovascular disease

– Hypertension is not as clear. Severe HT may indicate decline whereas mild HT may have positive effects on intellectual functioning

Moderators of Intellectual Change

• Relevancy and appropriateness of tasks– Traditional tests have high correlation with tests that

have been updated to measure actual tasks faced by older persons

• Modifying primary abilities– Training seems to slow declines in some primary

abilities• Project ADEPT and Project ACTIVE

– Ability-specific training does improve in primary abilities

– Effects varies in ability to maintain and transfer gains

• Other attempts to train fluid abilities– Schaie and Willis’ cognitive training

• Long-term effects of training– Seven year follow-up to the original ADEPT

showed significant training effects– 64% of trained group’s performance was

above the pre-training level compared to 33% of the control group

Moderators of Intellectual Change

Piaget’s Theory

• Basic concepts– Assimilation

• Use of currently available information to make sense out of incoming information

– Accommodation• Changing one’s thought to make a better

approximation of the world of experience

Piaget’s Theory

• Sensorimotor Period– Object permanence

• Preoperational Period– Egocentrism

• Concrete Operations Period– Classification, conservation, mental reversing

• Formal Operations Period– Abstract thought

Going Beyond Piaget: Postformal Thought

• Cognitive maturity beyond formal operations– Tolerance for ambiguity

• Developmental progressions in adult thought– Reflective judgment (Table 8.3)– Optimal level of development– Skill acquisition

• Absolutist, relativistic, and dialectical thinking• Integrating emotion and logic• Gender issues and postformal thought

Do Changes in Executive Function Affect Functioning?

• Article by Royall et al. (2004)

• What is executive control function and why might it affect instrumental activities of daily living?

• Why was it beneficial to use a longitudinal design in this study?

• What were the conclusions of the authors?

Mini-Mental State Examination • Cognitive screening tool scored out of 30.• Score <24 is indicative of impairment.• Domains tested

– Orientation: What day of the week is it? Which year is it? Which city are we in?

– Memory: I’ll give you three words and ask you to remember them.

– Attention: Substract 7 from 100 and continue. Spell the word « World » backwards.

– Language/Writing/Drawing: Name objects, carry out a 3-step procedure, repeat a sentence, copy a figure, generate and write a sentence.

EXIT25 Interview

• 10 to 15 minutes, 25 questions.

• Screens for frontal release signs, motor or cognitive perseveration, verbal intrusions, disinhibition, loss of spontaneity, environmental dependency, and utilization behaviour.

Decision Making

• Younger adults make decisions quicker than older adults

• Older adults– Search for less information to arrive at a

decision– Require less information to arrive at a

decision– Rely on easily accessible informationWhy is this?

Problem Solving

• Middle-aged adults can offer more solutions to a problem than younger and older adults (Denney, 1989), but do not differ in efficacy of strategies (Berg et al., 1994).

• We use our intellectual abilities to solve problems– Some people are better than others as problem

solving– Why is that? Could it have to do with the kinds of

abilities we use regularly versus the ones we use only occasionally?

Everyday Reasoning and Problem Solving

• Denny’s Model of Unexercised and Optimally Exercised Abilities

• Unexercised ability– The ability a normal, healthy adult would exhibit

without practice or training (fluid intelligence)• Exercised ability

– The ability a normal, healthy adult would demonstrate under the best conditions of training or practice (crystallized intelligence)

Why Is Expertise Important?

• Older adults compensate for poorer performance through their expertise– Expertise helps the aging adult compensate

for losses in other skills• Encapsulation

– The processes of thinking become connected to the products of thinking

What Is Wisdom?

– Involves practical knowledge– Is given altruistically– Involves psychological insights– Based on life experience

• Implicit conceptions of wisdom are widely shared within a culture and include– Exceptional level of functioning– A dynamic balance between intellect, emotion,

and motivation– A high degree of personal and interpersonal

competence– Good intentions

What Characterizes Mental Health?

• Positive attitude toward self• Accurate perception of reality• Mastery of the environment• Autonomy• Personality balance• Growth and self-actualization

• Pathology:– Behaviors become harmful to oneself or others.– Lower one’s well-being.– Perceived as distressing, disrupting, abnormal, or

maladaptive.

Are There Differences Pertaining to Mental Health in Older Adults?

• Aforementioned characterisitcs may not apply to older adults.

• Some behaviors considered abnormal under the preceding criterion may be adaptive for many older people– Isolation– Passivity– Aggressiveness

• Such behaviors may help older persons deal with their situation more effectively.

How May Biological Forces Influence Mental Health?

• Health problems increase with age• Evidence supports a genetic component to

Alzheimer’s • Physical problems may present as

psychological and vice versa• Irritability thyroid problem• Memory loss vitamin deficiencies • Depression changes in appetite

Do Psychological Forces Have An Influence on Mental Health?

• Normative age changes can mimic certain mental disorders.

• Normative changes can mask true psychopathology.

• Look to nature of relationships as key to understanding psychopathology.

• Young expanding relationships• Old contracting relationships

What Are The Sociocultural Forces Influencing Mental Health?

• Sociocultural forces– Paranoia or healthy suspicion?– Look at differences according to location

• Differences in ethnicity?– Recent immigrants: Lack of mental health

services– Differences Canadians of Asian/South

Asian/African vs. English vs. Jewish

How Do We Assess Mental Health?

• Elements of Assessment– Measuring, understanding, and predicting

behavior– Gathering medical, psychological, and

sociocultural information• How?

– Interviews, observation, tests, and clinical examinations

All About Assessment

• Two central aspects–Reliability–Validity

• Psychological areas of examination:–Intelligence tests, neuropsychological and

mental status examination–Mini Mental State Exam

What Factors Influence Assessment?

• Professionals’ preconceived ideas have negative effects– Biases: Negative and positive– Environmental conditions

• Sensory or mobility problems• Health of client

What Are The Treatments Available?

• How to treat the client– Medical Treatment

• Psychotropic and other drugs– Psychotherapy

• Single or group talk therapy– APA criterion

• Well-established• Probably efficacious

What is Depression?

• Beliefs pertaining to depression vary across cultures.

• Lawrence et al. (2006): UK study looked at Black Carabbean, South Asian, and White British older adults.

• All 3 groups believed it was a serious condition.• WB used the biomedical model of depression

whereas SA participants were more liekly to see it as a normal byproduct of sadness or grief.

• WB & BC defined in terms of low mood and hopelessness. BC and SA also put in terms of worry.

How Do Psychologists Define Depression?

1) Dysphoria – feeling down or blue• Loss of interest and pleasure• Feelings of worthlessness or guilt• Diminished ability to think• Thoughts of death or suicidal ideation

2) Physical symptoms• Insomnia/hypersomnia• Fatigue• Weight loss/gain• Agitation/psychomotor retardation

3) Symptoms must last for at least 2 weeks.

4) Other causes for observed symptoms must be ruled out.

5) How are the symptoms affecting daily life?

• Clinical depression involves significant impairment in normal living.