Instructional Development Models

WHAT IS

INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

MODELS ?

Instructional development modelsspecifically address challenges thatare often called upon to producematerials and strategies to supportteaching and learning withinenvironments that would seem todefy the probability of a successfuloutcome.

These are models that convey graphically,sometimes with extensive supporting text,the complex process by which educatorsdevelop instructional solutions.

Models, as applied in the context ofinstructional design, can be used by toeducators to convey between individualsmeaning of complex concepts, relationships,and processes, and facilitate study andresearch

A. THE TEACHING LEARNING CYCLE

Diagnosing students’ needs

setting up of objectives and

selecting content

preparing the setting for learning

and selecting instructional

strategies

formalizing units and making lesson

plans

motivating students and

guiding learning activities

measuring, evaluating, grading

the student’s performance and reporting on the

progress of students

Following through

THE TEACHING-LEARNING CYCLE

SYSTEMATIC TECHNIQUES USED FOR DIAGNOSING

Work Sample

Conference

Anecdotal Records

Checklist

Interest Inventory

Teacher Test

Cloze Test

• Records like Form 137, permanent records, test results

• Home visits or contacts with parents

• Direct contacts such as observations

WORK SAMPLE

From examining the mostrecent work of thestudents, the teacher canpinpoint the student’sspecific strength anddifficulties.

CONFERENCE A one-on-one

conversation between the teacher and the student puts the student at ease so that it becomes easy to have a free and open exchange of information

ANECDOTAL RECORDS It is a short written

account about thebehavior of a particularstudent.

The record does notinclude any of theteacher’s opinion orevaluation of the behaviorexhibited.

CHECKLIST Used to reveal the

frequency of occurrence of the specific type of student behavior of interest to the teacher

Used to measure observable behaviors only

INTEREST INVENTORY

Asks students to rate their degree of like or dislike for a number of alternatives givento them.

TEACHER TESTTwo types:

• Regular test – given over preciously taught content

• Specially prepared diagnostic test – has little to do with the content to which students have been previosly exposed

CLOZE TEST A good diagnostic device

which shows the reading difficulty of an individual

MEASURES:

• Language proficiency

• Reading competencies

• Vocabulary and structure

• Reading comprehension

SELECTING CONTENTSome schools provide teachers with

curriculum guides, syllabi or course outlines to ease the problem of determining the scope and sequence of the subject-matter content to be taught.

3 STEPS TO CONSIDER: First Step. Identification of the topi

Topic areas are broad aspects of the content within a subject area.

• Second Step. Identifying major Goals of InstructorGoals refer to broad and general statements.

• Third Step. GeneralizationGeneralizations are very specific that it gives the teacher a definite subject-matter to be discussed

SETTING UP OF OBJECTIVES Instructional objectives describe the

learning products or what the students are to expected to be able to do after being taught by the teacher.

Objectives should be expressed in beahavioral terms to facilitate accurate evaluation of the learner’s performance.

PREPARING THE SETTING FOR LEARNING

Good classroom management is a term generally used to describe the maintenance of a healthy learning environment

INSTRUCTIONAL UNITS

It is a planned sequence of learning activities or lesson covering a period of several weeks and centered around some major concepts, themes or topics

It may be made-up of series of mainly content-orientedlessons or semi-individualized laboraroty-oriented, experience-centered unit assigments or any variety of combinations

DEVELOPING INSTRUCTIONAL UNITS1) Choosing the topic of theme.

2) Selecting instructional goals or objectives organized into general and specific objectives.

3) Preparing an outline of subject-matter content.

4) Planning the learning activities

5) Organizing the activities into a plan.

6) Securing and preparing the materials needed for the activities

7) Planning and preparing the evaluation materials and exercise

CHOOSING THE TOPIC OR THEME

Teaching guides or syllabiusuallyprovides teachers with an organozedand logically-arranged sets of topics to be taken up.

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL GOALSTwo Types:

General Objectives – These are general statements of what the teacher hopes to accomplish through the study of the unit. It is usually the bird’s eye view of the unit.

Specific Objectives – may be prepared in behavioral terms. It will be helpful to put these objectives under the appropriate headings: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective.

PREPARING AN OUTLINE OF SUBJECT-MATTER CONTENT

This will help in making clear the subject-matter content to be covered by the different learning activities and in visualizing the organizations of the unit.

PLANNING THE LEARNING ACTIVITESThese activities should be planed very carefully because

on them depends the success of the accomplishment of the objectives.

Two Types:

basic activities for students- serves as provisions for the students who may not be academically inclined

optional related activities – designed for students who may accomplish basic activities within a short period of time

ORGANIZING ACTIVITES INTO PLANThree Phases:

Initiation or Introduction Phase – sometimes called as the approach and is designed to:

1. Stimulate interest and curiosity of the students in the units

2. Introduce what the unit is all about

3. Show relationship of the present unit with the previous

4. Elicit suggestions from the learners for possible activities to undertake.

Development Phase – activities and strategies that the teacher plans to develop key ideas in the unit. This stage gives opportunity for learners to take the basic and optional activities as planned by the teacher with possible modifications based in the suggestions of the students.

Culminating Phase – Summarizes the various parts of the unit. It is during this phase that major or key ideas of the unit are highlighted, reviewed, and integrated.

SECURING AND PREPARING THE MATERIALS Includes list of reading material, pamphlets and

newspapers, collection of audio-visual material and bibliography of books to be used. These materials are sure to provide students:

1. with source when they forget their assignments

2. Total picture of what to expect that they do

3. Definite assignments so that students do not need to wait for the teacher for new assignments

4. Definite directions to eliminate misinterpretations

PREPARING FOR EVALUATION

Checklists, rating scales, role-playing situations and group discussions can serve as evaluation exercises as well as unit tests.

LESSON PLANS

This refers to a more specific plans for a given period.

It describes in details what the teacher and students will do on a day to implement the unit objectives.

THE LESSON PLAN FORMAT

1) Objectives or Targets

2) Content or Subject- matter and materials

3) Procedure or strategy

4) Evaluations or application

5) Assignment or agreement and special reminders

Objectives or targets – definite statements of what to are to be learned in the lesson. To formulate instrucitonalobjectives, in behavioral terms, the teacher has to use verbs indicating observable behavior.

Content or Subject-Matter and Materials – indicates the subject-matter that the teacher believes will help attain his objectives as well as materials and illustrations he may need.

Procedure or Strategy – Documents the occurrence of activites that the teacher and his students are going to do during the period.

Assignments or Agreement and special Reminders

- the effectiveness of assignments will determine the success of the new lesson the next day.

MOTIVATIONMotivation is defined as something that stimulates,

energizes, directs and sustain behavior or anything that arouses and sustains people to do whatever it is they do .

It underlies the student’s behavior. It is usually responsible for the discipline and control of problems and consequently lack of effective learning in the classroom.

Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow may help the teacher in solving problems with regards to motivating students

GENERAL APPROACHESTHAT SEEM TO DEVELOP POSITIVE MOTIVATION

1) Building up of student’s self-esteem

2) Utilizing student’s present motives.

3) Making potential learning seem worthwhile.

4) Helping students establish suitable tasks and objectives

5) Keeping up pace

6) Creating a receptive mood

Building up students’ Self-Esteem – To build one’s self-esteem and gain recognition of the peer group, one needs a feeling of success. Thus, teachers should provide opportunities for success even to the least successful students and give due recognition to them in a tangible way.

Using Present Motives – Present motives includes the interest, attitudes and ideals, curiosity, needs for security, need for action and adventure, desire for play and fun, and need for friendship.

Making learning seem Worthwhile – Teacher should make efforts to show that the students are valuable to them.

Intrinsic motivation is most effective in bringing about learning. It stimulates individual to undertake activities to satisfy deeply felt personal needs.

Extrinsic Motivation refers to conditions that impels an individual to accomplish a task because of rewards available in the environment.

Establishing Appropriate Goals – Students should be made to see both their long-term goals (provides the over-all direction to their behavior) and short-term goals (responsible for stimulating students everyday).

Keeping up the Pace of the Class – Making students participate their own learning and helping in their learning can be a good source of motivation. Provide challenging yet not discouraging tasks, these will make the students work harder.

Creating a Receptive Mood – tuning the mind sets of the students through intriguing questions.

GUIDING LEARNING ACTIVITIESRefers to techniques and strategies which can provide variety in the

approaches of the teacher.

1) Recitation2) Open-Text recitation3) Lecture4) Informal Teacher Talks5) Questions6) Practice and Review7) Inquiry and Discovery Teaching8) Role-Playing9) Teacher Demonstration10) Field Trips 11) Resource Persons

3 types of Evaluation:1) Summative evaluation refers to the evaluation the

teachers undertakes at the end of the unit or the course in order to grade students and judge his own teaching success.

2) Formative evaluation refers to the evaluation the teacher performs in the course of his teaching to find out how well he is doing and what he needs to do next

3) Diagnostic evaluation refers to the evaluation the teacher does at the beginning to determine the different levels to which the students belong to serve as basic for grouping them into slow, average, or fast group.

TOOLS FOR MEASUREMENT AND EVALUTIONObservation and Work Samples – Actual observation and

examination of work samples are the two of the bases for evaluating the student’s performance.

Rating Scales – Rating scales are used for evaluating skills, procedures, and personal social behavior.

Checklist - It indicates the presence or absence of characteristics. It is most useful in evaluating products and procedures.

Tests – These are systematic procedures for measuring the results or effects of instruction on learning.

Types of Tests:

1) Standard survey tests aim to measure the attainment process or status of the students or the school.

2) Standard achievement tests aim to measure the student’s achievement as a result of instruction in a given subject or subjects.

3) Diagnostic test aim to locate weaknesses and difficulties to students and if possible, the causes of such difficulties in the performance.

4) Inventory test aim to measure the degree of mastery before the teaching of the subjects.

5) Informal or teacher-made tests aim to measure the achievement, progress, weakness of defects of an individual student

OBJECTIVE TYPE TESTS:

1) Completion Items most useful in assessing student thinking at the lower cognitive levels of knowledge and comprehension.

2) Matching items are also used to measure student’s thinking at the levels of knowledge and comprehension.

3) Multiple-choice Items have the capacity to test not only for knowledge and comprehension but also for some higher-level thinking abilities.

4) True-False Items are generally used yo assess knowledge level thinking. They can be prepared and graded relatively.

GRADING AND REPORTING STUDENTRecognized and accepted as one of the most

difficult responsibilities of the teacher is grading and reporting the progress of students in their school work.

The most important purpose that should be kept in mind is that reports should facilitate the educational development o each student in relation to his ability.

DETERMINING PROMOTION AND RETENTION

Help each child become the best person he is capable o being, considering his natural abilities and regardless his socio-economic background.

MOTIVATING PUPILS One o the most popular techniques used by teachers

to stimulate students to learn is the school mark or grade.

MANNERS IN WHICH STUDENTS MOTIVATION ARE AEECTED BY GRADES:

1) The standard his performance is compared to

2) Parents’ and friends attitudes towards grades

3) The teacher’s emphasis on grades

PLANNING CURRENT SCHOOLWORK

The grades they receive every grading period can serve as basis or current planning schoolwork because the grades reflect the areas wherein the students are weak or strong.

B. MODELS FOR FACILITATING

LEARNING

oEstablishing effective learning outcomes first will guide every decision you make regarding the content, activities, and tools you use to achieve those outcomes.

There are two kinds of learning outcomes:

oAssessing Learner’s Capabilities

Assessment is the process of gathering information about a student in order to make decisions about his or her education.

oDesigning, Selecting, Implementing Learning Activities

Learning Activities includes the methods and strategies in implementing learning.

oEvaluating Progress toward Learning Objectives

Evaluation is systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone using criteria against a set of standards. Here the objectives is being evaluated. Evaluation could come in many forms example of which is the paper-pencil test.

C. THE ASSURE MODEL

What is Assure Model?

A procedural guide for planning and delivering instruction that integrates technology and media into the teaching process.

A systematic approach to writing lesson plans.

A plan used to help teachers organize instructional procedures.

A model that can be used by all presenters

A plan used to help teachers do an authentic assessment of student learning.

The six major steps:

ANALYZE LEARNERS

General characteristics:

This is a description of a class as a whole. This includes such information as the number of students, grade or age level, gender, socio-economic factors, exceptionalities and cultural or ethnic or other types of diversity.

Entry Competencies:

This is a description of the types of knowledge expected of the learners.

Learning Styles:

This is a description of the learning stylistic preferences of the individual members of the class.

•STATE OBJECTIVES

Statements describing what the learner will do as a result of instruction.

Things to keep in mind as you write your objectives are:

Focus on the learner not the teacher.

Use behaviors that reflect real world concerns.

Objectives are descriptions of the learning outcomes and are written using the ABCD format.

The ABCD format:

AUDIENCE. Who is the audience?

BEHAVIOR. What do you want them to do?

CONDITION. Under what circumstances or conditions are the learners to demonstrate the skill being taught?

DEGREE. How well do you want them to demonstrate their mastery?

Use the following questions to assess objectives:

Does the objective will allow you to do the following with your lesson?

1. Identify what the expectations are for the learner

2. Identify the necessary requirements for the learning environment

3. Assess learning

4. Determine needs for appropriate media or materials

How would you classify your objective? Is the learning outcome primarily:

1. Cognitive?

2. Affective?

3. Psychomotor /motor skill?

4. Interpersonal?

5. Intrapersonal?

SELECT, MODIFY, DESIGN METHODS, MEDIA, AND MATERIALS

This is the step where the instructor will build a bridge between the audience and the objectives.

You need to decide what method you will primarily use: a lecture, group work, a field trip, etc. What media you will use: photos, multimedia, video, a computer?

Media Selection:

1. Media should be selected on the basis of student need.

2. We must consider the total learning situation.

3. Should follow learning objectives.

4. Must be appropriate for the teaching format.

5. Should be consistent with the students’ capabilities and learning styles.

6. Should be chosen objectively.

7. Should be selected in order to best meet the learning outcomes.

8. No single medium is the total solution.

9. Does it match the curriculum?

10. Is it accurate and current?

11. Does it contain clear and concise language?

12. Will it motivate and maintain interest?

13. Does it provide for learner participation?

14. Is it of good technical quality?

15. Is there evidence of its effectiveness?

16. Is it free from objectionable bias and advertising?

17. Is a user guide or other documentation included?

UTILIZE METHODS, MEDIA, AND MATERIALS

Plan of how you are going to implement your media and materials.

In order to utilize materials correctly there are several steps to create good student-centered instruction:

1. Preview the material

2. Prepare the material

3. Prepare the environment

4. Prepare the learners

5. Provide the learning experience

REQUIRE LEARNER PARTICIPATION

Describe how you are going to get each learner “actively and individually” involved in the lesson. Example, games, group work, presentations, skit, etc.

EVALUATE AND REVISE

Describe how you will measure whether or not the lesson objectives were met. Were the media and instruction effective?

Evaluate the student performance:

How will you determine whether or not they met the lesson’s objective?

The evaluation should match the objective. Some objectives can be adequately assessed with a pen and a paper test.

Evaluate media components:

How will you determine the media effectiveness?

Evaluate Instructor performance:

How will you determine whether or not your own performance as instructor/facilitator was effective?

D. THE CONCRETE-ABSTRACT CONTINUUM MODEL

The greatest amount of information can be presented in the least amount of time through printed or spoken words.

But if students do not have the requisite background experience and knowledge to handle verbal symbols, the time saved in presentation will be the time lost in learning.

The teacher therefore should know if instructional methods and materials match learner’s background.

CONE OF EXPERIENCE

Proponent of this is Edgar Dale (1946)

explained inter-relations of the several audio-visual materials and their positions in learning processes

What is The Cone of Experience?

First introduced in Dale’s 1946 book, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching

Designed to “show the progression of learning experiences” (Dale (1969) p. 108) from the concrete to the abstract

Concrete vs. Abstract Learning Concrete Learning Abstract Learning

First-hand experiences

Learner has some control over the outcome

Incorporates the use of all five senses

Difficulty when not enough previous experience or exposure to a concept

Every level of the Cone uses abstract thinking in come way

Intentions of the Cone of Experience

Dale (1969) wrote that

May lead to a more useful way of thinking about audio visual materials and their application in the classroom

The levels of the Cone are interactive

As one moves up the Cone there is not necessarily an increase in difficulty but rather an increase in abstract thought

Levels of the cone of experience:

Enactive – direct experiences

Direct, Purposeful

Contrived

Dramatized

Iconic – pictorial experiences

Demonstrations

Study trips

Exhibits

Educational television

Motion pictures

Recordings, radio, still pictures

Symbolic – highly abstract experiences

Visual symbols

Verbal symbols

Direct and Purposeful Experiences Direct, first hand

experiences

Have direct participation in the outcome

Use of all our senses

Examples:

Working in a homeless shelter

Tutoring younger children

Contrived ExperiencesModels and mock-

ups “editing of reality”Necessary when

real experience cannot be used or are too complicated

Dramatized Experiences

Reconstructed experiences

Can be used to simplify an event or idea to its most important parts

Monticello Students engaged in a mock trial

Divided into two categories

Acting – actual participation (more concrete)

Observing – watching a dramatization take place (more abstract)

Iconic Experiences on the Cone

Progressively moving toward greater use of imagination

Successful use in a classroom depends on how much imaginative involvement the method can illicit from students

Involves:

Demonstrations

Study trips

Exhibits

Motion pictures

Educational television

Radio, recordings, and still pictures

Demonstrations

Visualized explanation of an important fact, idea, or process

Shows how certain things are done

Flame Salt Test Demonstration

Study TripsWatch people

do things in real situations

Observe an event that is unavailable in the classroom

ExhibitsSomething seen by a spectator

Two types

Ready made

○ Museum

○ Career fair

Home-made

○ Classroom project

○ National History Day competition

Educational Television and Motion Pictures

Television Motion Pictures

Bring immediate

interaction with events

from around the world

Edit an event to create

clearer understanding

than if experienced

actual event first hand

Example:

TV coverage of 9/11

Can omit unnecessary or

unimportant material

Used to slow down a

fast process

Viewing, seeing and

hearing experience

Can re-create events

with simplistic drama

that even slower

students can grasp

Recordings, Radio, and Still Pictures

Can often be understood by those who cannot read

Helpful to students who cannot deal with the motion or pace of a real event or television

Symbolic ExperiencesVery little immediate physical actionDifficult only if one doesn’t have enough

direct experience to support the symbolUsed at all levels of the Cone in varying

importanceInvolves:

Visual symbols

Verbal symbols

Visual SymbolsNo longer involves

reproducing real situations

Chalkboard and overhead projector the most widely used media

Help students see an idea, event, or process

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Verbal SymbolsTwo types

Written words –more abstract

Spoken words –less abstract

Examples:

Discussion

Explanation/lecture

What does the Cone mean for instruction?Dale (1938) taught

teachers that they should help their students learn how the media effects us, and to critically evaluate it.

Teachers must evaluate the benefit of the learning vs. the amount of time required in the lesson

How to effectively use instructional media to helping students move from concrete to abstract thought.

Conclusion:• The Cone of

Experience is a visual device to aid teachers in the selection of instructional media

• The Cone is based on the movement from concrete experiences to abstract experiences

•The literal interpretation of the Cone has resulted in misconceptions of its use

•The Cone has practical applications in classroom instruction

The Advent of Active Learning *

Most of the time, in a typical classroom setting, students are involved only passively in learning, i.e., in listening to the instructor, looking at the occasional overhead or slide, and reading (when required) the text book.

Active Learning:

It is involving students directly and actively in the learning process itself. This means that instead of simply receiving information verbally and visually, students are receiving and participating and doing.

The Cone of Learning

According to Ronald A. Berk in his book "Professors are from Mars. Students are from Snickers”, the only way to get 100% retention of information is by :

hearing, seeing, doing, smelling, feeling, tasting, inhaling, injecting and purchasing on credit

ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE LEARNING

student-faculty interaction,

student-student interaction,

academic achievement (i.e., grades),

communication skills,

higher-level thinking skills,

teamwork,

attitude towards the subject and motivation to learn

The reason why it works is that:

individual students may get stuck on a problem and give up, whereas groups of students tend to keep going,

students become exposed to alternative problem-solving strategies,

students are much less fearful of generating and answering questions among themselves than individually and directly to the instructor in class

THE THREE-TIERED MODEL OF LEARNING

Jerome Bruner, a constructivist, proposed three systems of processing information by which people understand their world.

He suggested that people respond to the environment through action or patterned motor acts, through conventialized imagery and perception, and through language and reason. These capabilities formed the basis for the three modes of representation:

Enactive representation refers to a mode of representing past events through appropriate motor responses.

Iconic representation enables the perceiver to summarize events by the select organization of percepts and images

Symbolic representation comes about with the acquisition of a symbol system that represents things by design features that include remoteness and arbitrariness (language, musical notation, mathematical notation)

Sequence and instruction

The enactive through iconic to symbolic sequence of intellectual development suggests appropriate sequences for instruction (obviously sequences in that manner).

In order to determine the proper sequencing of material, the designer must know something about the learner's prior knowledge and dominant modes of thinking.

Are they capable, for example, of thinking symbolically? Also, Bruner indicated that sequence cannot be determined in absence of knowing the criterion on which final learning will be judges (both of these are reminiscent of behavioral/cognitive goals of learner analysis and task analysis).

IMPLICATIONS TO INSTRUCTION

1.)instruction are to use manipulables and tactile instructional strategies with young children to teach concepts with which learners have no prior experience

2.)instruction are to accompany instruction with diagrams and other strategies that appeal to the imagination

3.) instruction are to use familiar symbol systems when teaching new concepts in a subject with the learner already has prior experience