Input/Output

1

Input/Output

Chapter 5

5.1 Principles of I/O hardware5.2 Principles of I/O software5.3 I/O software layers5.4 Disks5.5 Clocks5.6 Character-oriented terminals5.7 Graphical user interfaces5.8 Network terminals5.9 Power management

2

Agenda

• 5.1 Principles of I/O hardware• 5.2 Principles of I/O software• 5.3 I/O software layers• 5.4 Disks• 5.5 Clocks• 5.6 Character-oriented terminals• 5.7 Graphical user interfaces• 5.8 Network terminals• 5.9 Power management

3

Principles of I/O Hardware

• Electrical Engineers– Chips, wires, power supplies, motors, and other

physical components that make up the hardware of I/O devices.

• Programmers– The interface presented to the software.– The commands that the hardware accepts, the

functions it carries out, and the errors that can be reported back.

4

I/O DevicesSome typical device, network, and data base rates

• I/O Devices– Block devices

• Stores information in fixed-size block, each one with its own address.

– Character devices• Delivers or accepts

a stream of characters, without regard to any block structure.

5

Device Controllers• I/O devices have components:

– mechanical component – electronic component

• The electronic component is the device controller– may be able to handle multiple devices

• Controller's tasks– convert serial bit stream to block of bytes– perform error correction as necessary– make available to main memory

6

Memory-Mapped I/O (1)

• Separate I/O and memory space• Memory-mapped I/O• Hybrid

7

Memory-Mapped I/O (2)

• Caching with Memory-Mapped I/O– With (a), hardware should selectively disable caching for I/O pages– With (b),

• First check memory, then I/O: requires additional hardware complexity• Snooping device on the memory bus: I/O devices are much slower• Filtering addresses in PCI Bridge (e.g., Pentium): preload registers at boot time

(a) A single-bus architecture (b) (b) A dual-bus memory architecture

8

Direct Memory Access (DMA)

Operation of a DMA transfer

9

Interrupts Revisited

How interrupts happens. Connections between devices and interrupt controller actually use interrupt lines on the bus rather than dedicated wires

10

Agenda


11

Goals of I/O Software (1)

• Device independence– programs can access any I/O device without

specifying device in advance (e.g., floppy, hard drive, or CD-ROM)

• Uniform naming– name of a file or device should simply be a

string or an integer and not depend on the device in any way.

• Error handling– handle as close to the hardware as possible

12

Goals of I/O Software (2)

• Synchronous vs. asynchronous transfers– blocked transfers vs. interrupt-driven

• Buffering– data coming off a device cannot be stored in

final destination (e.g., network packets)• Sharable vs. dedicated devices

– disks are sharable to many users at the same time

– tape drives would not be

13

Programmed I/O (1)

Steps in printing a string

14

Programmed I/O (2)

Writing a string to the printer using programmed I/O

15

Interrupt-Driven I/O

• Writing a string to the printer using interrupt-driven I/O– Code executed when print system call is made– Interrupt service procedure

16

I/O Using DMA

• Printing a string using DMA– code executed when the print system call is made– interrupt service procedure

17

Agenda


18

I/O Software Layers

Layers of the I/O Software System

19

Interrupt Handlers (1)• Interrupt handlers are best hidden

– have driver starting an I/O operation block until interrupt notifies of completion

• Interrupt procedure does its task– then unblocks driver that started it

• Steps must be performed in software after interrupt completed

1. Save regs not already saved by interrupt hardware2. Set up context for interrupt service procedure

20

Interrupt Handlers (2)

3. Set up stack for interrupt service procedure4. Ack interrupt controller, reenable interrupts5. Copy registers from where saved6. Run service procedure 7. Set up MMU context for process to run next8. Choose which process to run next.9. Load new process' registers10. Start running the new process

21

Device Drivers

• Logical position of device drivers is shown here• Communications between drivers and device controllers goes over the bus

22

Device-Independent I/O Software (1)

Functions of the device-independent I/O software

Uniform interfacing for device drivers

Buffering

Error reporting

Allocating and releasing dedicate devices

Providing a deice-independent block size

23

Device-Independent I/O Software (2) Uniform interfacing for device drivers

(a) Without a standard driver interface(b) With a standard driver interface

24

Device-Independent I/O Software (3) Buffering

(a) Unbuffered input(b) Buffering in user space(c) Buffering in the kernel followed by copying to user space(d) Double buffering in the kernel

25

Device-Independent I/O Software (4) Buffering

Networking may involve many copies

26

User-Space I/O Software

Layers of the I/O system and the main functions of each layer

27

Agenda


28

DisksDisk Hardware (1)

Disk parameters for the original IBM PC floppy disk and a Western Digital WD 18300 hard disk

29

Disk Hardware (2)

• Physical geometry of a disk with two zones• A possible virtual geometry for this disk

30

Disk Hardware (3)

• Raid levels 0 through 2 • Backup and parity drives are shaded

31

Disk Hardware (4)

• Raid levels 3 through 5• Backup and parity drives are shaded

32

Disk Hardware (5)

Recording structure of a CD or CD-ROM

33

Disk Hardware (6)

Logical data layout on a CD-ROM

34

Disk Hardware (7)

• Cross section of a CD-R disk and laser– not to scale

• Silver CD-ROM has similar structure– without dye layer– with pitted aluminum layer instead of gold

35

Disk Hardware (8)

A double sided, dual layer DVD disk

36

Disk Formatting (1)

A disk sector

37

Disk Formatting (2)

An illustration of cylinder skew

38

Disk Formatting (3)

• No interleaving• Single interleaving• Double interleaving

39

Disk Arm Scheduling Algorithms (1)• Time required to read or write a disk

block determined by 3 factors1. Seek time2. Rotational delay3. Actual transfer time

• Seek time dominates• Error checking is done by controllers

40

Disk Arm Scheduling Algorithms (2)

Shortest Seek First (SSF) disk scheduling algorithm

Initialposition

Pendingrequests

41

Disk Arm Scheduling Algorithms (3)

The elevator algorithm for scheduling disk requests

42

Error Handling

• A disk track with a bad sector• Substituting a spare for the bad sector• Shifting all the sectors to bypass the bad one

43

Stable Storage

Analysis of the influence of crashes on stable writes

44

Agenda


45

ClocksClock Hardware

A programmable clock

46

Clock Software (1)

Three ways to maintain the time of day

47

Clock Software (2)

Simulating multiple timers with a single clock

48

Soft Timers• A second clock available for timer interrupts

– specified by applications– no problems if interrupt frequency is low

• Soft timers avoid interrupts– kernel checks for soft timer expiration before it

exits to user mode– how well this works depends on rate of kernel

entries

49

Agenda


50

Character Oriented TerminalsRS-232 Terminal Hardware

• An RS-232 terminal communicates with computer 1 bit at a time• Called a serial line – bits go out in series, 1 bit at a time• Windows uses COM1 and COM2 ports, first to serial lines• Computer and terminal are completely independent

51

• Central buffer pool• Dedicated buffer for each terminal

Input Software (1)

52

Input Software (2)

Characters handled specially in canonical mode

53

Output Software

The ANSI escape sequences• accepted by terminal driver on output• ESC is ASCII character (0x1B)• n,m, and s are optional numeric parameters

54

Agenda


55

Display Hardware (1)

Memory-mapped displays• driver writes directly into display's video RAM

Parallel port

56

Display Hardware (2)

• A video RAM image – simple monochrome display– character mode

• Corresponding screen– the xs are attribute bytes

57

Input Software

• Keyboard driver delivers a number– driver converts to characters– uses a ASCII table

• Exceptions, adaptations needed for other languages– many OS provide for loadable keymaps

or code pages

58

Output Software for Windows (1)

Sample window located at (200,100) on XGA display

59


Skeleton of a Windows main program (part 1)

60


Skeleton of a Windows main program (part 2)

61


An example rectangle drawn using Rectangle

62


• Copying bitmaps using BitBlt.– before– after

63


Examples of character outlines at different point sizes

64

Agenda


65

Network TerminalsX Windows (1)

Clients and servers in the M.I.T. X Window System

66

X Windows (2)

Skeleton of an X Windows application program

67

The SLIM Network Terminal (1)

The architecture of the SLIM terminal system

68

The SLIM Network Terminal (2)

Messages used in the SLIM protocol from the server to the terminals

69

Agenda


70

Power Management (1)

Power consumption of various parts of a laptop computer

71

Power management (2)

The use of zones for backlighting the display

72


• Running at full clock speed• Cutting voltage by two

– cuts clock speed by two, – cuts power by four

73


• Telling the programs to use less energy– may mean poorer user experience

• Examples– change from color output to black and white– speech recognition reduces vocabulary– less resolution or detail in an image

Input/Output

Documents

separate io

beprogrammed io

stringprogrammed io

principles of io hardware5

principles of io software5

hardware of io devices

io software layers5

possiblegoals of io