Initially psychology was developed using the mental thinking expressed by persons interested in developing the subject of psychology. But John B. Watson.

Initially psychology was developed using the mental thinking expressed by persons interested in developing the subject of psychology. But John B. Watson differed from that approach and he pioneered the approach in which visible behavior and visible environmental stimulus became the subject of study. B.F. Skinner developed this behavioristic framework further by bringing in the contingent environmental consequences. Behavior is not the outcome of stimulus alone, but it is an outcome determined by the stimulus as well as the contingent environmental consequences of a behavior. This means, there are alternative behaviors for the same stimulus and which behavior is exhibited by a person depends on expected environmental consequences.

OB is extremely a complex discipline in management that involves numerous inputs and dimensions. An overall model of OB can be developed by making use of cognitive, behaviouristic and environmental consequences

1) COGNITIVE FRAMEWORK: Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses

concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention.  Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information.  In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person’s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing.

The work of Edward Tolman can be used to represent the cognitive theoretical approach. According to Tolman, learning consists of the expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of the goal and result of a behavior exhibited by it. It means that a person desires a goal and also knows the behavior that will lead to achievement of the goals.

In the subject of organizational behavior, cognitive approach dominates the units of analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, behavioral decision making and goal setting.

2)BEHAVIORISTIC FRAMEWORK: Pioneer behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and Jon B. Watson stressed the importance of studying

observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. They advocated that behavior could be best understood in terms of stimulus and response (S-R). They examined the impact of stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S-R connection was made. Modern behaviorism, that marks its beginning with B.F. Skinner, advocates that behavior in response to a stimulus is contingent on environmental consequences.  Thus, it is important to note that behaviortistic approach is based on observable behavior and environmental variables (which are also observable).

Skinner believes that behaviour function of its consequences. For Eg; an organization passes a circular to the employees asking them to stay longer in order to increase the production to meet the increasing demand. Here, the circular is the stimulus. The employees may increase the production. This is the response. If the increase in productivity is rewarded , it is the consequences. Skinner explained that certain behaviour can be expected from an individual by creating a positive consequences desired by him.

3) SOCIAL COGNITIVE FRAMEWORK:

Social learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to determine behavior.  It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A persons cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of past behavior.

Bandura developed social learning theory into the more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT).  Stajkovic and Luthans have translated this SCT into the theoretical framework for organizational behavior. Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviorism’s contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation. The social part acknowledges the social origins of much of human thought and action (what individual learns from society), whereas the cognitive portion recognizes the influential contribution of thought processes to human motivation, attitudes, and action.  In social cognitive theoretical framework, organizational participants are at the same time both products and producers of their personality, respective environments, and behaviors.  The participants as a group of produce the environment, every individual is a product of the enironment and through his behavior changes the environment for others as well as for himself, every individual is a product of his personality, but also influences his personality as consequence of results of his behavior.

Bandura identified five basic human capabilities as a part of SCT.

1. Symbolizing: People process visual experiences into cognitive models. They help in future action.

2.Forethought: Employees plan their actions.

3. Observational: Employees learn by observing the performance of the referent  group (peers, supervisors and high performers) and the consequences of their actions.

4. Self-regulatory: Employees self regulate their actions by setting internal standards (aspired level of performance).

5.Self-reflective: Employees reflect back on their actions (how did I do?) and perceptually determine how they believe then can successfully accomplish the task in the future given the context (probability of success between 0 to 100% is estimated)

Basic Human Capabilities according to Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Symbolising Employees

process visual experiences (Customer

named Applegate) into

cognitive models that serves as a

guide for future actions

(remembering his name easily)

Fore thought Employees plan

their actions(what I

am going to do) anticipate the consequences

(what am I going to get for it) and determine the level of desired performance(wh

at is my performance

goal)

ObservationalEmployees learn by observing the performance of

referent(peers or supervisors) and

credible others(High

performers) and the

consequences they receive for

their actions (what do they

get for it

Self Regulatory Employees self

control their actions by setting internal stimulus (aspired level of

performance) and by evaluating the

discrepancy between the

standard and the performance

(where do I stand) in order to improve it.

Self ReflectiveEmployees

reflect back on their actions (how did I do)

and perceptually determine how strongly they

believe they can successfully

accomplish the task in the future given the context

(0-100% certainty)

OB Models

Autocratic Model

Custodial Model

Supportive Model

Collegial Model

1) Autocratic Model: This model depends on power Those who are in command have power to demand. Main

features of the Autocratic Model are: In this model we can find that this model relies on power. For example,managers have the

ability, authority to control their employees and theemployee’s performance in this stage will be much lower than expected.

Short notes of this model:1. Depends on power2. Managerial orientation is authority3. Employee orientation is obedience4. Employee psychological result depends on boss5. Employee needs met is subsistence6. Performance result is minimumExample: Defense team, because here officer hold power and authorityto obey them and thus soldiers are obedient to execute officer’s order.

MERITS; a) Authority is delegated by the right of command over people to whom it applies b) Supervison is very close to obtain the required performance c) It is quite useful way to accomplish performance where the employees are motivated by

physiological needs.DEMERITS: a) There is no interaction between employee and manager b) Communication is one way c) Highly dependence on boss d) Human cost is very high

2) Custodial model:This model usually depends on economic resources (money). For instance, managers can simulate

their employees by offering them facilities, and benefits, but in this model the employee’s won’t work as a team (Less sharing with others) because everyone will depend on hi s

self to get more benefits than the others.

Short notes of this model:

1. Depends on economical resource

2. Managerial orientation is money

3. Employee orientation is security and benefit

4. Employee psychological result depends on organization

5. Employee needs met is security

6. Performance result is passive cooperation

Example: Garments factory, because here it is based on economical resource. Here labors execute their job for security and benefit, again here if an organization do well then employee get better benefit

MERITS:

a) It is based on the economic resource of the organisation rather than the personal obedience of the boss

b) Managerial orientation is to pay for employees benefits.

DEMERITS:

a) Unwillingness to do the right performance.

b) This models only emphasis on material rewards and dependence on organization.

3) Supportive model:This model relies on leadership. For example, managers support theiremployees by encouraging,

and supporting them to perform a better job,get along with each other and as well as developing their skills. The Performance results will be awakened drives.

Short notes of this model:

1. Depends on leadership

2. Managerial orientation is support

3. Employee orientation is job and performance

4. Employee psychological result is participation

5. Employee needs met is status and recognition

6. Performance result is awakened drives

Example: Software firm, because here leaders support there employee to perform their tasks or their project.

MERITS:

a)It helps the employees to grow and help the organization which they are capable of

b)This model helps in solving the problems of employees in achieving work.

c)The employee feel participation and work involvement in the organization.

DEMERITS:

This model is less developed b’cos there employees need structure are often at a lower level and their social conditions are different.

4)Collegial model:This model means that employees depend on each other cooperatively and work as a team to do

the task. Everyone will be having a normal enthusiasm self-discipline, and responsible behavior towards their tasks.

Short notes of this model:

1. Depends on partnership

2. Managerial orientation is teamwork

3. Employee orientation is responsible behavior

4. Employee psychological result is self discipline

5. Employee needs met is self actualization

6. Performance result is moderate enthusiasm

Example: Social organization such as willingly blood donation organization BADHON, because here every one work as teamwork and each member takes responsibilities for organizational goal. Each

member works here only for self actualization.

MERITS:

a)Employees feel responsible and give quality work to the organization

b)According to this model there is considerable job freedom

c)Employees feel self disciplined and self actualisation which motivate their performance

d)This model is used for mostly unprogrammed work

DEMERITS:

a)This model is used less b’cos the rigid work environment made it difficult to develop

b)In this model b’cos of partnership with employee ,employees feel needed and useful.

5)System model:This model is based on trust, self-motivation, and the performance results will be more than

expected, because employees will be committed to do their tasks as expected, and as well as organizational goals.

After we explained the models in brief we would like to inform you that the world nowadays requires from us necessary steps before we decide the best model to have for an each organization. One of the most important things to consider is that managers and leaders should clearly understand the nature of their organizations before making any decision.

Also, they have to consider and look at the changing in the environment and of course the employee’s needs so that they can have the best model to use to get a better result.

Short notes of this model:

1. Depends on trust, community, understanding

2. Managerial orientation is caring, compassion

3. Employee orientation is psychological ownership

4. Employee psychological result is self motivation

5. Employee needs met is wide range

6. Performance result is passion, commitment, organization goal

Example: Some corporate firm which are based on trust or community

Where employees are self motivated and committed for organizational

goals.

Autocratic custodial Supportive Collegial System

Basis ofModel

Power Economical Resource

Leadership Partnership Trust, Community Understanding

ManagerialOrientation

Authority Money Support Teamwork Caring comparison

Employeeorientation

Obedience Security & Benefit

Job and Performance

Responsible Behaviour

Psychological Ownership

EmployeePsychologicalResult

Depends on Boss

Depends on Organization

Partnership Self Discipline Self Motivation

EmployeeNeeds met

Subsistence Security Status & Recognition

Self Actualization

Wide Range

Performanceresult

Minimum Passive Co operation

Awakened Drives Moderate Enthusiasm

Passion,Commitment,Organizational

goals

Example Defense team Garments Factory

Software firm Social Organization

Some Corporate firms