INFO 3 Revision Guide

8/11/2019 INFO 3 Revision Guide

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You need to be able to discuss howICT has changed the way

organisations are run. You need tobe able to use examples and discusswhat future developments mean for

organisationsMobile Computing

(discussion points):Security issuesFunding and FinanceBandwidthMobile BroadbandProcessing powerIssues with printing

Compatibility (redesigninginterfaces/web pages)Mobile operating systemsManagement issuesNano technologyTeleworking

Battery lifeSoftware compatibilityTrainingStorage spacePortabilitySocial implicationsLegal implications

Environment implications

Discussion points for questions basedaround the developments:Mobile computingDifficulty in future proofingCost implicationsMore complex tasks can be carried outSoftware and hardware compatibility

DependencySecurity issuesJob SecurityGreen IssuesDisaster recoveryAccess (does everyone have it?)Portability of devicesIncreased globalisation

More efficient/productiveSpamExpert Systems and AI

Past Paper Questions:ICT has developed rapidly over the last 20 years. Discuss the impact of

developments in ICT on the way organisations are run in 21stcenturyThe rapid increase in the speed of broadband communications has changed the

way in which we live our lives and do business. Discuss the impact of the increase in

the speed of communication on business and societyFor most business applications mobile computing is a dream not a reality Discussthis statement


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Strategic

responsible for decision making and long-term planning and as such the information required would be at asummary level of detail; their information needs would include details of: organisation and rival company

performance, accounting and financial information, technological developments with their potential effectson the organisation, and the impact or forecast of any decisions made at strategic level.

The majority of this information will be supplied by a management information system (MIS)

Tactical

Consists of middle management who are, for example in charge of one particular department or area of a

business. Obviously they have an input into decision making & planning and they will need theirinformation in sufficient detailto complete their tactical role. This will include detailed requirements ofsenior management, the department resources allocated and associated budgetary provision, summary

reports on department and subordinate staff performance and, finally, reports on the availability ofproducts and services needed by the operation staff.

Operational

are most likely to have little impact on decision making as they are mainly responsible for the day-to-day planning and running of the production side of the business. To operate effectively they needvery detailed instructions from the tactical management regarding the operational requirements forthe organisation. They also need information about the day-to-day tasks that need to be carriedout, such as what needs to be produced, dispatched and ordered on a daily basis. In some cases

they will be responsible for their own performance and so will need data to analyse their

effectiveness.


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You need tobe aware of

the differenttype s of ICT

systems

Legacy SystemLegacy systems arecomputer systems or

application programs whichcontinue to be used even

though more modern versionsexist; this is often due to thehigh cost of replacement of

the system.

Transaction

Processing SystemA Transaction Processing

System, monitorstransactions; the normalseries of events for a

transaction is that data iscollected and entered into

the system, where processingtakes places and the

resultant information isoutput.

Back Office SystemBack office systems are in

place to take care of theadministration processes ofa business. A typical back

office system is anautomated set of processes

run by a softwareapplication on the company

computer network, forexample, an accounting

package which will: Recordsales transactions

E-Commerce SystemE-commerce consists of the

buying and selling ofproducts or services usingthe internet and the volume

of e-commerce or onlinetrading has grown amazingly

with the popularity of theinternet.

An online system isbasically a web-based

storefront where yourcustomers can browse andpurchase products.

Batch processing

SystemBatch processing is

execution of a series of

programs on a computerwithout human interaction,such as the calculation of

Electricity Bills.By way of contrast online

or interactive programswhich prompt the user for

inputs.

EDMSAn electronic document

management system(EDMS) is a computersystem which is used to track

and store electronicdocuments and/or images of

paper documents


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You need tobe aware of

the differenttype s of ICT

systems

Management Information Systems (MIS)

Management information systems are used bymanagers at all levels of an organisation to assistthem in carrying out their responsibilities by:

monitoring performance, making decisions andcontrolling company activities. Management

Information System (MIS) is a common term forthe computer systems in an organisation that

supply information about its business operation;data for this process is obtained from internal andexternal sources and the resultant information isoutput in an suitable form for the use of business

management.MIS in school = SIMS

Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Decision Support Systems(DSS) are, as the namesuggests, an information system

that supports business andorganisational decision-making

activities. The main characteristic

of a DSS that it is an interactivesystem intended to help decisionmakers compile useful information

from raw internal and externaldata, and to model what if

situations to predict the outcomefrom a particular decision.

Operational Data Processing Systems Carry out repetitive low level tasks on a dayto day basis. E.g. an electronic point of saledisplay system (EPOS)

Tactical Information Systems Summarise data for middle managers toallow them to make medium term decisions

Strategic Management InformationSystems Help Senior management to make long termdecisions


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An ICT strategy sets out a long terms vision for an organisation onhow they will make best use of the ICT available to them.

Factors influencing an ICT Strategy: Business goals

Available finance Legacy systems Geography of clients Business fulfilment External factors: compliance with external

organisations and relevant legislation Emerging Technologies

A large organisation is likely to have aCIO as a member of the company's

board at strategic level.They are in charge of the ICT

resources and information servicesThey make all t he strategic ICT

related decisionsChief Information Officers (CIO)

job involves:Being responsible for thetechnological direction of theorganisation

Responsible for ICT budgetsand projectsMaking decisions regardingstaff trainingDecisions about purchase ofhardware and softwareOverall ICT leadership

Information Security

An organisation thatacquires cutting-edge

technology may gain anadvantage over its

competitors. Buying itat an early stage will bemore expensive. It may

make more sense to buyit at the maturity stage

as costs come down andmore support will be

available, with bugsfixed.

Eventually technologybecomes obsolete andneeds to be replaced.

The life span is short
http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=technology+life+cycle&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=CKHEJQ15rhJu7M&tbnid=NBFQ_l3fAvM6wM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http://msc-technology.wikispaces.com/Designers+and+the+product+cycle&ei=jZVRUfTFB4nKhAfPtoHQCA&bvm=bv.44158598,d.ZGU&psig=AFQjCNH05NjHcY6dizGe8CxFctTzEGT0yg&ust=1364387559456813


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Preliminary

Study

FeasibilityStudy

Analysis

Design

Constructing

the Solution

Testing

Installationand

Conversion

Review andMaintenance

There are manyvariations to t he

SLC. These aregenerally the mainstages

You need to knowwhat takes place at

each of these stages


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System Life Cycle1. Preliminary

Study

This is a briefstudy to look atwhether or not

a new system isneeded.

2. FeasibilityStudy

This studylooks at theexisting and

possiblealternatives.

Considers fivefactors:

T- Technical

E- Economic

L- legal

O- Operational

S- Schedule

3. Analysis

Involves findingout about the

current system

andinvestigatingthe

requirementsof the users

Investigationtechniques:Interviews,

Questionnaires

Observations,Documentanalysis

From thefindings a a setof deliverablesis agreed with

the users

4. Design

Determineshow the new

system will be

implemented.Breaking downthe problemsinto smaller

sub-problems.These include

layout plans andtest plans.Clear timescales areneeded to

prevent theproject from

over-running. Aschedule isusually puttogether atthis stage

5. Constructingthe Solution

This is the

stage wherethe system isproduced by

thedevelopment of

programs orcustomisationof softwarepackages.

Hardware isalso installed.Work must bemonitored toensure timescales arefollowed.

6. Testing

Checking thatthe systemworks by

carrying outtests and

comparing themto the

expectedresults.

See TestingSheet forTestingMethods

7. Installationand

Conversion

Hardware isinstalled, staffare trained and

files areconverted to

the newsystem. 4

changeovermethods:

direct, parallel,phased and

pilot

SeeConversionsSheet formore info

8. Review andMaintenance

Once the newsystem is in fulloperation it ismonitored to

check it meetsthe originalsspecification.Changes that

need to memade are knowas maintenance.

SeeMaintenance

Sheet

Deliverables: Are a set of items promised under contract. Agree the content if the new system and prevents arguments later.


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Questionnaires are a valuablemethod of information collection,where the opinion of many people

is required for a range of setquestions. The analysis of

questionnaires is straightforwardwhere the answers are multi-

choice or predefined, but seldomgive the depth of information that

can be obtained form an open-ended interview.

Interviewsare a useful method and they can be

either structured (where the questions have beendetermined in advance) or open-ended (where newquestions are decided on based on the response toprevious questions). A method of recordinganswers is needed, such as tape recording so thatthe final results can be input for analysis by an audiotypist. It is possible that several interviews will takeplace across a range of staff, including users andsenior managers.

Inspection of Documentationis anessential part of the process as user

manuals and procedures help thesystems analyst discover the intendedway the existing system operates andmay highlight any inadequacies in it.

Observationof the use of thecurrent system can yield a lotof information about its goodand bad points; this is an ideal

method to get the systemsanalyst up to speed on

current system performance.

Investigation

Interviews

Questionnaires Observation

Document

Analysis


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Show themovement of datathrough the whole

organisation.

Symbols

Process

ExternalEntity

Data Store

Data Flow

Drawing a Context (level 0)DFDStep 1: Read the ScenarioStep 2: Draw your system as a single process box in themiddle.Step 3: Identify your external entitiesStep 4: Add you data flows in.

Drawing a Level 1 DFDStep 1: You need to break down your single processbox into the different tasks that it carries out and placethem in separate process boxes.

Step 2: Identify which data stores your will needStep 3: Add you data flows to and from the data stores

RulesA data store should have at least one arrow going into it and one

leading from it as data is being written to it and read from it.Data cannot flow directly from a data store to an external entity

b f h l ld


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Entity:An object of the real worldthat is relevant to an ICT system,

e.g. a place, object, person,customer, invoice, product, course,

etcRelationships

A relationship is the way in which entities in asystem are related to one another.

A B

A B

A B

(1:1)

(1:m)

(m:m)

Use capitals forentity names

Label therelationship

Crows feet on themany side

Entity names shouldbe singular. E.g.

COURSE notCOURSES

Points to Remember

Many - ManyIf you have a many to many relationship

these cannot be implemented as there willbe repeating groups in the entities. A

database cannot be implemented. You needto introduce a link entity which lies in

between the 2 original entities.

m:m would bere-drawn as:

C

A B


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Eachmodule(orpart of thesystem is

tested)

Module Testing

Sometimes calledblack box testingin which it is

checked that theoutputs arecorrect for thegiven inputs

Functional testing Sometimes called

alpha testing inwhich thedevelopers test thesystem as a whole

to make sure itmeets thespecifiedrequirements

System Testing

Sometimes calledbeta testing inwhich potential

users test the newsoftware on theirown computersusing real data.

User Testing in whichsoftware istested in itsnormal

operatingenvironment

OperationalTesting

Why is Beta Testing Used?Is used often to test a new piece of commercial software before it goes on sale. The companyprovides the software free of charge to selected users outside the company who will test thenew software. Beta tester gets to use the software for free and it may be rewarding to be

involved in this process


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T

H

a

n

is a collection of softwareand test data configures

to perform specific testsin a module of a program

by running it underdifferent conditions,

comparing actual outputs

to expected outputs

V

u

m

te

n

Test that the newsystem works with large

volumes of data. After along period of use, data

files may become verylarge. Volume testing

tests that this does not

affect the performanceof the softwareS

a

a

b

t

y

T

n

Test that the system willstill perform as required

even if the system has todeal with an increased

workload such asincreased users, large

number of transactions

and files

P

o

oy

p

n

Means producing ascaled-down, simple

version of the softwarewhich is used to showhow the new system willwork. The prototype

can be constructed andtested in a short time M

u

t

p

a

o

m

t

e

n

Ensures that thesoftware can be used

with a variety ofhardware specificationsand operating systems.For example browser

software that can workin both vista and XP.

S

m

a

e

n

r

o

m

s With various inputs andoutputs can be used to

test software in asrealistic environment aspossible

I i f ll l h


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It is necessary to carefully plan thechangeover from the old to the new

system and it is first necessary to ensurethat users are adequately trained, user

support is in place and all files needed forthe process have been converted.Methods: Direct, Parallel, Phased, Pilot

In Directconversion the original system is switchedoff and the new system started on the same day at a

pre-arranged time.Although this changeover takes the least time, it is

the most risky approach as it is difficult to revert tousing the old system again if there are problems;

consequently direct conversion is not recommendedwhere continuity of service is critical.

Using a Phased conversion is less risky than a directconversion as there is a period when both systems areoperating, which allows for an easy reversion to theoriginal system where problems take place. Thisstrategy has additional costs, as both systems haveto be operated and synchronised to ensure they areboth up to date. The amount of overlap of the two

systems makes the conversion a moderate risk.

New Systemgoes live

OriginalSystem

switched off

New System comesonline

Original Systemoperates

It i t f ll l th


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It is necessary to carefully plan thechangeover from the old to the new

system and it is first necessary to ensurethat users are adequately trained, user

support is in place and all files needed forthe process have been converted.Methods: Direct, Parallel, Phased, Pilot

This is where a suitable part of the organisation ischosen to conduct a pilot study (often called aprototype) and to transfer to the new system. The oldsystem continues to be used throughout the rest of theorganisation. As the results of the initial pilot study areanalysed more pilot studies take place throughout the

organisation. Although this is a time-consuming processthe risks of failure are minimised and problems or bugswithin the new system are fixed as they occur and priorto extending the use of the new system.

In this case the new system is run in parallel with theold system. The outputs from both systems are

compared and the old system operated until such timeas the new system is deemed to be reliable. In this

case the risk of failure is the lowest of thechangeover methods, but it is also the most expensiveas both systems have to be operated which requires

additional labour and computer resources.

Pilot Conversion in onepart of company

Original Systemoperates

Pilot Conversion inother part ofcompany

New System comes online inparallel with old system

Original System

operating


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You need to be aware of the trainingand support methods that are available.

You need to be able to discuss whichmethods would be most suitable and

why

Training MethodsInstructor-basedclassroom training.One-to-one training.

Cascade training.Computer-basedtraining (CBT).Distance learning.Use of manuals,books, softwareguides.

Support Methods:Existing user base.Help-desks.User support from

software producers.Support articles (e.g.,computer magazines,books, FAQ, etc.).On-screen help.Specialist bulletinboards/blogs.

Internal and External Users

Users who work for the organisationthat owns the ICT system are called

internal users.Any users who may not work in the

organisation that owns the ICTsystem are called external users.

Different levels of staff will needdifferent training. E.g. managers willneed to learn how to use the MIS.

Operational staff may need to know

how to use the EPOSsystem

Training may be needed when a newsystem is introduced, to learn more

advance features, changes in

functionality, procedures andlegislation.


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CBT/E-Learning One to One On The Job Instructor Based

(can be external or

internal courses)

Manuals/ Books/ User

Guides/Videos

Suitable For

A large number of

users

Small number of

users. Managers

Practical tasks,

smaller number of

users

Teaching specific skills

and needs

Large number of

users. Low level of

risk with task involved

Advantages

Work at own pace

When and where

they want

Cheaper than

sending staff on

courses

Assessment available

Effective as lots of

time can be spent on

staffs specific needs

Easy to learn doing

practical tasks

Do not have to

travel

Ask for training when

needed

Suit specific needs

External courses can

avoid distractions in

the workplace

learn on a flexible

basis.

Use for problem

solving when needed

Develop skills further

in free time

Cheap

Disadvantages

People may not

respond well as they

like to ask for help

when stuck

No evidence of how

well they responded

to course

Expensive Time consuming to

train large number of

users.

May only run at

fixed times and have

to travel to them

External courses may

be expensive

Can feel isolated, no

interaction

Task Based Skills Based

Operational level

staff carrying out

practical tasks

Analytical skills to

extract data that

can be used across

systems. Managers


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Once the system has been deliveredand installed, it is measured against the

system requirements documentationand its performance monitored.

Inevitably some aspects ofperformance will be unsatisfactory and

maintenance will be required for

reasons including:Bugs may be identified that were not

spotted during the testing phase

Users may find aspects of the

software unacceptable after using the

system for a while

More efficient ways of operating the

system may be required

It may be necessary to integrate the

system with new software and

hardware

New legislation may be introduced

that requires system modification such

as tax changes implemented onto an

account package

Security issues may force changes to

be made to protect the system from

external threats

3 Methods: Perfective, Adaptive and Corrective

Perfective maintenanceimplies that while the systemruns satisfactorily, there isstill room for improvement

and features can be addedAdaptive maintenance

All systems will need to adaptto changing needs within acompany

Corrective maintenanceProblems frequently surfaceafter a system has been inuse for a short time, howeverthoroughly it was tested


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Management Involvement

Senior management must be involved throughoutthe project. Managers need to understandclearly what specific problem the solution isaiming to solve. They need to have a knowledgeof ICT systems and be involved at the stages ofthe system development

End User InvolvementEnd User Involvement is an important aspect indeveloping ICT solutions, as the project can becentred around getting the information that theend user wants and needs. End user involvementis also critical in establishing an interface designthat is straightforward to use and has highusability. It has also been shown that there is anincreased acceptance of the developed product

if there is an early involvement of the users in theproject creation.Effective ICT Team Work

An effective ICT team is a key factor in thesuccess of the project development process;most projects are broken down into small tasksand teamwork is essential to link the processtogether.

Inadequate Analysissufficient time and effort should be made available so thatappropriate research is carried out. End users should be involvedat the start of the project and the management must ensure that aco-operative environment exists to ensure accurate and relevantdata gathering takes placeUnrealistic Project Plan

Every project has a plan that lays down which team member carriedout which task. Clear timescales and agreed deliverables need to beestablished. Thought needs to be given to give enough time andrealistic planning. If not then the project may run over time and overbudget.Insufficient Monitoring

The project leader needs to monitor the progress of the project.Unexpected problems may arise or task needs to be done that wereoverlooked. The project manager will need to adjust the scheduleand maybe change around the team members and allocation of tasks.Lack of Standards

A lack of professional standards can lead to missed deadlines and asystem that does not function as was intended. All stages of theproject need to be carried out using agreed methods that everyoneworks to.Loss of Control

Many projects fall behind schedule when the team leader losescontrol of the project plan. This can happen if agreed deliverablesare not produced or if when a mile stone is reached management are

not satisfied and do not approve moving on to the next stage.

K th t ti l th t t t


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Know the potential threats to a systemUnderstand the considerations in a backup

strategyKnow what is a risk analysis isKnow the contents of a recovery and

contingency plan

Threats to a System:

Hardware FailureSoftware FailureTelecommunications FailureComputer Crime and AbuseInvalid DataSystem Design Failure

Recovery Options:

In House ProvisionSubscription Service (cold /hot start)Reciprocal Agreements

Backup and Recovery Procedures need to be

tested and roles need to be clearly identified

A Risk Analysis Involves

1. Identifying each element of an information system2. Placing a value on that element3. Identifying any threats to that element4. Assessing the likelihood(or probability) of such

threats occurring

The organisation should then take measures to protectdata that are appropriate to the risk

Disk Mirroring: Identical data is stored on two differentdisks. Whenever data is stored to disk, it is stored on both.If the main disk fails, identical data is available on thesecond disk. The mirror disk does not have to be locatedin the same place as the first.

The set of proceduresthat are in place torestore data that is

lost

The processes thathave to be in place to

allow recovery to

happen

Contents of a Contingency Plan:Alternative computer hardware

Backup proceduresRecovery ProceduresStaff Responsibilities

An Alternative working location


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You need to be aware of the variouslaws and the impact they have on

organisations

What are the Laws Ineed to know?

Data protection act(1984 & 1998)

Computer MisuseAct(1990)

Copyright Designsand Patent Act (1988)

Health and Safety atWork Act (1974)

Freedom ofinformation act (2000)

Implications of the Laws on organisations:Copyright Design Patents Act:

Organisations have to check there is not unauthorised software on theircomputers.They have to ensure that employees are not downloading copyright materialillegally.They have to make sure they have the correct number of licences and not runningsoftware on more machinesHealth Safety Act

Appointing a safety officerRegularly inspecting workstations against health and safety criteria

Carry out regular staff training regarding health and safety with regard tocomputer useEnsuring that all software is appropriately designedProdding memos, leaflets or posters to advise on good health and safety practiceEstablish procedures that ensure faulty equipment is replaced in a timely mannerComputer Misuse Act

Carry out auditsBan on downloading any programsBan on using someone else username and passwordUse software and hardware measuresData Protection Act

Appointing a Data Protection Officer to monitor systemsEstablishing procedures to follow up possible breachesEstablishing security methods such as firewalls, the use of passwords and dataencryptionIncluding a clause in the code of practice stating that employees should not buildup their own databases of personal data

Using a variety of methods to educate staff of their responsibilities in keepingdata private. Establishing and circulating disciplinary measures


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Outsourcing is when a business contracts another firm to carry out aparticular task for it. For example, a law firm may ask an ITcompany to manage its network facilities so that the lawyers canconcentrate on legal matters and do not have o worry aboutrepairing machines or installing software.

Some companies may choose to employ a team to take care of theirsystems where others prefer to outsource. The decision will bebased on which is the most affordable and cost-effective option.

Offshoring means moving certain businessprocesses performed in a company, in onecountry to the same company or acompletely different company in adifferent country

Advantages: Solves the problem of trying to recruit and retain suitable ICTstaff

Allows organisations to concentrate on core businessfunctions

The organisation does not have to worry about legislationapplying to that part of the business

The company may not have to purchase expensive hardware

and softwareDisadvantages

Outsourcing can mean existing ICT staff may no longer beneeded

The quality of outsourced work may not be as high as workdone in house

The organisation has not direct control over staff employed by

the outsourcing company It could compromise the privacy and security of data held

Managing Internal resources

All organisations rely on managing theirresources as efficiently as possible.Involves managing the following:HardwareSoftwareCommunicationConsumablesFacilities and PowerPeople

Bulk printingSpecialist companies provide a service to carry outbulk printing for example payroll and billing systemsLeasing:Similar to renting.You pay a fixed amount per month.

You never own the goods being leased.At the end of the period you can either rent at muchlower rental or start up a new lease with more up-to-date hardware and softwareContracting/Buying Outright:When you purchase goods or services.For hardware/software when the contract ends thegoods belong to you.

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