Influence of Zechariah on Apocalipticism

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t o r f c a l a n d socfological s e t t i n g s :

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THE ROLE O F Z E C H A R I A H 1-8 IN T H E D E V E L O P M E N T

O F A P O C A LY P T I C

Steven R. S w a n s o n

D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h yU n i v e r s i t y o f E d inbu rgh

1982



This work i s c a r e f u l l y d e d i c a t e d t o :

Char les N . R a i b o u r n ,

who knows more t h a n I ev e r w i l l ;

Cather ine M. Swanson,

who i s w i s e r t h a n I ev e r w i l l be ;

Professor GeorcJe W . Anderson,

who, w i t h u n c o m m o n k n o w 1e a g e ,p a t i en ce a n d wisdom, d irected mea l o n g t h e p a t h o f my own c h o o s i n g ;

you, among many others , have been ab less ing t o me. (Zech. 8 : 1 3 )



TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s i

I n t r o d u c t i o n

T h e N a t u r e a n d D e f i n i t i o n o f A p o c a l y p t i c

I. I n t r o d u c t i o n

11 . T h e A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e

i i i

1

1

9

1 1 1 . T h e F a i t h o f t h e A p o c a ly p t i s t s 1 2

IV. P r o p h ec y a n d A p o c a l y p t i c 2 1V . A S u r v e y o f t h e E a r ly I n v e s t i g a t i on s 3 3

V I . T h e D e f i n i t i o n o f A p o c a l y p t i c 3 7

o f A p o c a l y p t i c

V I I . T h e H is t o r i c al D e v e l o p m e n t o f A p o c a l y p t i c 49

A. T h e D i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f P r o p h ec y 49

6. T h e o c r a t i c P r o p h e c y 67C. C o n v e n t i c l e P r o p h e c y 76

D . T h e R i s e o f H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m 86a n d A p o c a l y p t i c

T h e M e s s a g e a n d T h e o l o g y o f Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 108

I. I n t r o d u c t i o n 108

11. Z ech . l:2-6, T h e F i r s t M e s s a g e

1 1 1 . Z ech . 1:8-6:15 , T h e N i g h t Vi s i o n s

1 1 1

1 1 4

A. T h e F i rs t V i s io n C y c l e 1 2 0

1. Z e c h. 1:8-17, T h e F i r s t Vi s i o n 1 2 0

2. Z ec h. 1 : 1 8 4 1 , T h e S e c on d V i s i o n 1 3 4

3. Zec h. 2 :1-13, T h e T h i r d Vi s i o n 1 4 2



i i

4, Zech . 3:l-10, T h e F o u r t h Vi s i o n 151

60 Z e c h , 1: 8- 3: l O ( C o n s o l i d a t i o n ) 155

C, T h e S e c on d Vi s io n C y c l e 158

1, Z e c h , 4: l - 14, T h e F i f t h Vi s i o n 158

2. Z e c h , 5:l-4, T h e S i x t h Vi s i o n 164

3. Z e c h , 5: 5- 11, T h e S e v e n t h Vi s i o n 168

4, Zech . 6: l - 15, T h e E i g h t h Vi s i o n 172

D. Z e c h , 4: l - 6: 15 ( C o n s o l i d a t i o n ) 176

IV.Z e c h .

7: 4- 893,T h e ' F a s t i n g ' S e r m o n

17V, Z e c h a r i a h 1- 8 ( C o n c l u s i o n ) 186

E x cu r su s : T h e Tr a n s m i s s i o n o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s 196M e s s a g e s

Z e c h a r i a h a n d t h e L a t e r P r o p h e t i c M o v e m e n t ; 199Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 a n d t h e A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u re

I , I n t r o d u c t i o n 199

1 1 . Z e c h a r i a h a n d t h e L a t e r P r o p h e t i cM o v e m e n t

211

111 Z e c h a r i a h a n d t h e ' P r o p h e t i c Wo r l d - Vi e w ' 222

I V, Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 a n d t h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f 243S c r i p t u r e i n t h e A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t ur e

Bi b l i o g r a p h y 276



INTRODUCTION

I t became apparent d u r i n g my i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f The

Role o f Zechar i ah1-8

in the Development o f A p o c a l y p t ico f t h e b r e a d t h a n d complex i ty o f my c h o s e n s u b j e c t . I t

covered a per iod o f many centur ies a n d i nvo lved many a s -

p e c t s o f p o s t - e x i l i c J u d a i s m . T o i n t r o d u c e t h e r e s u l t s

o f my work i s t o renew a p r o f o u n d s e n s e o f t he enormi ty o f

t he t a s k . Concep ts such a s t he p r op he t i c movement, t h e

t r a n s i t i o n from prophecy t o a p o c a l y p t i c a n d t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

wor ld-v iew are o f a n or ga n i c n a t u re ; t h ey have dep th a n d

v i t a l i t y u n i q u e l y t h e i r own.

I h a v e become very much aware o f niy dependence u p o n

t h e i n s i g h t s o f works o f o t h e r s i n t h e s c h o l a r l y community.

As I have b u i l t u p o n t h e r e s u l t s o f s c h o l a r s from s e v e r a l

g e n e r a t i o n s a n d from many c o u n t r i e s , I have a l s o wished

for t h e o p p o r t u n i t y for f a c e - t o - f a c e d i s c u s s i o n . What I

h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d h e r e r e s t s u p o n o t h e r s , i n much the same

way t h a t Zechar i ah w a s i ndeb ted t o t he fo rmer p rophe t s .

I have been p a r t i c u l a r l y helped t h r o u g h t h e work o f P. D.

Hanson a n d O.H. S t e c k .

T h i s w o r k was undertaken in p a r t because o f a d i s -

s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h s u m m a r y c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n

between Zechar iah 1-8 a n d the phenomenon o f a p o c a l y p t i c ; I

came t o f e e l a lack o f comple t eness i n judgments i n t h i s

a r e a . As my w o r k p r o g r e s s e d , I d i s c e r n e d b e t t e r t h e



i v

i s s ue s i nvo lve d a n d bow Zechar iah a n d h i s wri t ings were t o

be understood v i s - a -v i s the a p o c a l y p t i c movement.

To break such a t h i n g as The R o l e o f Zechar iah 1-8

i n the Development o f A p oc a lyp t i c i n t o i t s component

p a r t s w o u l d be t o f o l l o w t h e w i s e s t c o u r s e . However, t h i s

a l s o r e v e a l s t h e t r u e dimensions o f th e problem, The

d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c has b a f f l e d many s c h o l a r s .

The d iscernment o f t h e p l a c e s o f Ze c ha r i a h a n d h i s w r i t i n g s

w i t h i n the pr op he t ic movement i s no mean feat . To i n v e s -t i g a t e how a p o c a l y p t i c d e v e l o p e d h i s t o r i c a l l yi s t o r e a l i z e

the pa uc i t y o f e v id e nc e f o r much o f t h e p o s t - e x i l i c e r a .

I w o u l d be remiss i f I d i d n o t acknowledge my e x t e n s i v e

use o f D.S. Russel l , The Method a n d Message o f Jewish

A p o c a l y p t i c ; P.D. Hnnson, The Da wn of A p o c a l y p t i c ; a n d 0 .

P l b g e r , Theocracy a n d Escha to logy. T h e c l e a r s ta te m en ts o f

these works a l l o w e d me o p p o r t u n i t y t o th ink through ( a n d

r e - t h i n k ) my own p o s i t i o n .

To u nd er sta nd a p o c a l y p t i c i s t o r e c o g n iz e t he t erm s

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o 1 ) a b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e , 2 ) t h e w r i t e r s o f

t h a t l i t e r a t u r e , a n d 3 ) the t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n which t h o s e

w r i t e r s e x i s t e d . I was impressed e a r l y w i t h t h e q u a l i f i e d

use o f a p o c a l y p t i c i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e a r e a s . I examined

t h e w r i t i n g s n o t i n g t h e i r marked d i f f e r e n c e s a n d the

m a r g i n a l n a t u r e o f some v i s h i s the apoca lypt ic movement)

a n d made t e n t a t i v e judgmen ts r e ga rd ing t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l



V

backgrounds o f t h e a u t h o r s . I i d e n t i f i e d s o m e o f t h e

d o c t r i n e s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t he l i t e r a t u r e ( r ec o gn i z i n g t h a t

t h e r e was l i t t l e c o n s i s t e n c yw i t h i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e a n d

t h a t many o f t h o s e d o c t r i n e s w e r e f o u n d i n n o n - a p o c a l y p t i c

w r i t i n g s ) a n d sought t o u n d er s t an d t h em wi th in t h e co n t ex t

o f t h e w i d e r J ewish community a n d e x p e r i e n c e . I h e l d

u p p e r m o s t t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e community was dynamic, t h a t

change was c o n s t a n t a n d a c t i o n s p r o d u c e d r e a c t i o n s , a n d

t h a t w ri t i n g s were p roduced for r e a s o n s (many o f which may

remain u n k n o w n , b u t some o f which c a n b e i s o l a t e d , i f o n l y

i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e ) , I have become convinced t h a t t h e

a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e was t h e e mbodim ent o f a more p e r -

v as iv e t en d en cy w i t h i n J u d a i s m a n d i t s p a r t i c u l a r p a r t i e s ,

r a t h e r t h a n t h e r e s u l t o f a n i n d i v i d u a l g r o u por m i n d - s e t

wi th in Judai sm.

I f o u n d t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s w e r e i n i n t e n s e

i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e m aj o r f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e i r s o c i o l o g i c a l

s e t t i n g , s t r u g g l i n g t o make the th ings impor tan t t o them

i m p o r t a n t t o o th e r s . Th e p a r t y s t r i f e o f t h e f i r s t c en -

tury B.C. a n d t h e u n i f i e d r e a c t i o n t o en fo rced He l l en i sm

i n t h e s eco n d cen tu ry B . L a r e , t o m e , I n d i c a t i v e o f t h a t

i n t e r a c t i o n a n d s e n s e o i m p o r t a n c e .

I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e was a

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a t en d en cy w i t h Judai sm, a r e s u l t o f a

t r a . d i t i o n which h a d a h i s t o r y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t

e



v i

a n d s t r u g g l e w i t h i n t h e m a t r i x o f t h e Jew ish community.

As much as an i n d i v i d u a l a p o c a l y p t i c work was produced as

a r esponse t o h i s t o r i c a l c r i s i s , so i t s content was molded

i n t h e y e a r s prior t o i t s bi r th .

C o m i n g t o terms w i t h Zechar iah 1-8 began as a study

o f S c r i p t u r e , w i t h t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t there has been a

l a c k o f s o l i d work r e c e n t l y on t h i s p a r t of t h e O l d Te s t a -

ment. My work l ed t o an understanding a n d an awareness

o f Zechar i ah s v i t a l i t y a s an h i s t o r i c a l p e r s o n . A co

hesiveness emerged from t h e t e x t o f Zechar i ah 1-6 t h a t

gave en t ry t o i s way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t G o d a n d l i f e .

I came t o f e e l Z e ch a ri ah s a p p r e c i a t i o n for t h e g r e a t

prophets o f I s r a e l s p a st a n d read t h a t a p p r e c i a t i o n i n

his f r e q u e n t a l l u s i o n s a n d r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e w r i t i n g s o ft h o se p r o p h e t s . H O G . M i t c h e l l , H a g g a i a n d Z ech a r i ah ,

b e s t c ap t u r ed t h e t h o u g h t o f Zechar iah for me a n d h i s s i g -

n i f i c a n c e fo r the t ime i n which he l i v e d . I caught

Z ech a r i ah s s en se o f a p r o p h e t i c h e r i t a g e , h i s a w are ne ss

o f t h e l i n e o f prophets w h o spoke fo r Yahweh, a n d h i s

a t t empts t o cap t u r e i t s e s s e n c e for t he peop le o f h i s

d a y .

W i t h i n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e p r o p h e t i c m o v e m e n t ,

s . M ow inck el, He T h a t Cometh, en ab le d me t o s e e t h i s move-

ment as something dynamic a n d Gave me my f i r s t c l u es a s t o

howZechar i ah

1-8was t o

b eu n d er s to o d a s an ex p r e s s i o n

o f



v i i

Je wish f u tu r e hope . P. D . Hanson's work with t h e e a r l y

p o s t - e x i l i c p r op h et i c w r i t i n g s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

th e a p o c a ly p t i c movement p ro vi de d me with a f ramework for

un der sta nd in g how th e pr op h et i c movement h a d be e n pu l l e d

in to the e x i l i c le ad e r sh ip vacuum and had been f ragmented

w i t h i n t h e p o l i t i c a l matrix o f th e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c e r a .

T h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f the prophet ic movement occurred a s a

r e s u l t o f t h i s f r a gme n ta t ion ; g r oups a s s oc i a t e d with the

p o l i t i c a l ' w in ne r s ' became sub se r v ie n t t o them a n d t h o s ei n o p p o s i t i o n w er e n ot a l l o w e d a cc e s s t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p

c i r c l e s t o v o i c e t h e i r d i s s en t .

O.H. S te c k ' s w r i t i ng s e na b le d me to unde r st a nd the

c on c ep t o f ' t h e o l o g i c a l s tr ea m o f t r a d i t i o n ' a n d how this

idea re la ted to the prophe t ic movement . I saw tha t the

prophet ic movement was carr ied a long initially by t h e f o r c e

o f i t s own momentum a n d that i t s a u t h o r i t y w a s ins t rumenta l

i n the development o f a pr ophe t i c ' c a non ' d u r i n g the pos t -

e x i l i c y e a rs . The accompanying phenomenon o f r e s t r i c t i n g

p r o p h e t i c a c t i v i t y i n t h e p r e s e n t ( i n f a v o r o f p ro ph ec y as

a s t r i c t l y p a s t phenomenon) l i m i t e d t he v i t a l i t y o f prophecy

as a n author i ty fo r the Communi ty.

The p ro ph e t ic movement produced the p rop he t ic h e r i t ag e

o f t h e e n t i r e p o s t - e x i l i c community, Z e c h ar i a h 1-8 be ing a

smal l p i e c e o f i t . The in f lue nc e o f prophecy varied among

the segments o f l a t e r Judaism (and a l s o among segments o f

t he a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ) . A p o c a l y p t i c , ho wev er,



v i i i

.bor r owed f r om a muc h wi de r f i e l d t han s i mpl y t he pr o phet i c

t r a di t i o n; i t s s c o pe ex t ended beyond t he bor der s o f J uda i s m.* .

W t hi n t he apo c a l y pt i c mo vemen t , t he r e we r e di f f e r ent

s t r ands of t ho ugh t , d i f f e r en t phi l o s ophi es r egar di ng bas i c

i s s ues , a n d d i f f e r e n t k i nds o f dev e l o pment . I t r us t t ha t

I ha ve ma de t h i s e v i d en t i n my di s c us s i ons .

' T he Ro l e o f Zec ha r i ah 1-8 i n t h e De v el o p me nt o f

Apo c al y pt i c ' pr oved t o be a do o r i nt o muc h o f pos t - ex i l i c

J uda i s m. T h e r e wa s no t as muc h l i g ht as I woul d have

l i k ed. Apo c al y pt i c pr oved t o be a mu ch mo r e p e r v as i v e

pheno menon t han I h ad f i r s t t hought . Zec ha r i a h 1- 8 be c ame

a wi n do w i nt o t he mi n d o f a pr o phet o f Yahweh. Th e

c ha l l enge o f t he s t udy a n d t he per s onal r es u l t s f r o m t he

wo r k h a v e be en t h e t r u e a n d l as t i ng r e war ds .

Re ma i n i ng t r ue t o my Amer i c an r o ot s , my s pe l l i ng and

gr a mma r f o l l o w t he We bs t e r ' s Ne w Twe nt i e t h Ce nt u r yUn -

abr i dged Di c t i ona r y . I beg t h e r e ad er ' s i ndul genc e f o r any

d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t hi s r egar d.

S t e v en R. SwansonSan J o s e , Ca l i f o r n i a , U. S. A.



THE NATURE A N D D E F I N I T I O N O F A P O C A LY P T I C

I. I n t r o d u c t i o n

The term a p o o a t y p t i c , along with i t s e t y m o l o g i c a l

s i b l i n g s a p o c a t y p s e a n d a p o c a t y p t i c i s m , was der ived f rom

the Greek word apokaZupsis found in Rev. 1:l. The noun

meant ' a n u n v e i l i n g . . . a r e v e l a t i o n ' . The a p p e l l a t i o n1

a p o c a t y p s e was f i r s t a p p l l e d t o the Book o f R e v e l a t i o n

( a l s o ca l l ed Th e A p o ca ly p s e ) a n d w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y u t i l i z e d

i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f o t h e r C h r i s t i a n a n d J ew i s h w r i t i n g s

w h ich man i f e s t ed f ea tu r e s s im i l a r t o those o f t h a t b o o k .

Those terms have commonly been applied.to a r a t h e r

i l l - d e f i n e d body o f l i t e r a t u r e , t h e w o r k s o f which purpor t

t o r e v e a l s e c r e t s o f a d i v i n e or s u p e r n a tu r a l n a tu r e .-

Scholars have determined that t h i s l i t e r a t u r e ' s a g e o f

f l o w e r i n g and p o p u l a r i t y w a s the pe r iod 2 0 0 B.C.-A.D. 100.

The f i r s t works i n c lu d e d i n t h i s l i t e r a r y g ro up in g we re

produced by J ew is h au th o r s ; h ow ev er, t h e i r c i r c u l a t i o n was

i n c r e a s i n g l y d i s c o u r a g e d by p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e ' o f f i c i a l I

Jewish r e l i g i o n . The causes o f the even tua l d i sappearance

o f th e l i t e r a t u r e were m u l t i p l e : R a bb i ni c d i s t a s t e f o r

' f u t u r e s p e c u l a t i o n ' , the adop t ion o f the genre by the ea r ly

C h r i s t i an g r o u p s , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the Jewish cu l tu re i n

1. W. Bauer, A Greek-English Lextcon o f the New Te s t a --m e n t trans. W. F. Arndt a n d F e . G i ngri c h , p p . 9 l f .



2

P a l e s t i n e a n d the withdrawal o f t h e l i t e r a tu r e ' s ch amp io n s

i n t o s m a l l , s e c r e t i v e c a d r e s . Many ideas conta ined i n the

l i t e r a t u r e were normative f o r o the r segments o f the Jewish

r e l i g i o n o f t h a t - e r a .

A n a p o c a t y p s e i s a g en re of l i t e r a t u r e , a f a c t i n c r e a s -2

ing ly suppor ted by r ec en t c r i t i c a l s tu di es . I t i s ' . . . a

g en re o f r e v e l a t o r y l i t e r a t u r e w i th a nar ra t ive f r amework . . .

d i s c l o s i n g a t r a n s c e n d e n t r e a l i t y ' . A n examination of the3

l i t e r a tu r e d emo n s t r a t e s t h a t t h i s form was b u t one among many

employed by the a p o c a Z y p t C s t s . Every compos i t ion l abe l led

a n a p o c a t y p s e i n c lu d ed o th e r g en r e s ; n o t every work o f the

a p o c a t y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e q u a l i f i e d a s o r i n c l u d e d an apoca-

Z y p s e .

Scholars have recent ly a t tempted t o de fi ne more pre -

c i s e l y t h e term a p o c a t y p t i c i s m because i t h a s been inc reas -

i n g l y i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s

a system o f b e l i e f s f o r i d ea s c u l l e d from var ious c o m p o s t -

t i o n s . A m o r e c a r e f u l d e f i n i t i o n o f this term has been one

f r u i t o f t h e i n q u i r y i n to t h e s o c io lo g i ca l d imen s io n b eh in d

the a p o c a t y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , t h e mat r ix o f a n a u t h o r ' s d o c t r i n e

a n d l i f e . We may d e f i n e a p o c a t y p t i c i s m as a system o f be-

l i e f s o r a d i s t i n c t i v e s y mb o l i c u n iv e r s e f r o m w h ich w r i t e r s

2 . M . E . Stone, ' L i s t s o f Revea led Things i n theA p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e ' , Ma n a l i a D e i , e d . F.M. C r o s s e t a l ,p p . 4 1 4 - 4 5 2 ; P O D . Hanson, +-r--7oca yp se Genre' a n d 'Apocalyp-t i c i s m ' , DBSu;, ed. K OCrim, pp.27-34; 3 . 3 . C o l l i n s , 'Apo-ca lypse : owar s the Morphology of a Genre ' , S B L Seminar~ a D e r g o ( l W ; ~ , d. P.3. Achtemeier, pp.359-370.

C o l l i n s , - r t . c i t . , p . 3 6 4 .



3

drew th e i r unders tand ing of h i s t o r y and the cosmos and the

l i f e - s t y l e w hi ch d e r i v e d f rom and s u pp le me nt ed t h e s e o t h e r

a r e a s .4

One i s s t ruc k by t he appearance o f the word a p o c a t y p t i c

i n a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f c o n t e xt s m od i fy in g a d i v e r s i t y o f n o u n -

sub jec t s . The c i t i n g of a f e w examples w i l l s u f f i c e : the

a p o c a t y p t i c 7 i t e r a t u r e , t h e a p o c a t y p t i c church and a p o c a -

t y p t i o e s c h a t o l o g y, I t was no wonder that M . E . Stone

w r o t e :

5 6

7

8

A g r e a t d e a l o f t h e c u r r e n t d i s c u s s i o no f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m a n d o f the a p o c a l y p s e s i sb e i n g c a r r i e d on i n the mi ds t o f a semant iccon fus ion o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r. The co n fu s io nt ur ns on t he r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s mand th e ap oc al yp se s. ., Th e two phenomena havenames derived from the same Greek word andt h i s a pp e ar s t o im ply a r e l a t i o n s h i p .

Unfo r tun a te ly, S tone admi t t ed tha t the l i n k between the two

e luded h i m a n d he despa i r ed o f using these terms meanfng-

f u l l y w it hou t e x p l i c i t m o d if i e rs .

I t i s c l e a r , then , t h a t we have en te red a f i e l d f r a u g h t

with t h e p i t f a l l s o f i l l - d e f i n e d t e r m s a n d c o n c e p t s i n h e r i t e d

f rom our p re dec esso rs . We ar e o b l i g e d t o make our way c a r e -

f u l l y, w a r y o f t a k i n g even t h e s i m p l e s t s t e p w l t h o u t t h e S U P -

p o r t o f s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e .

4 . C f . P O D . Hanson , 'Apoca lyp t i c i sm ' , I D B S u pD.28-34.5 0 H , H . R owley, ' A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e + - r e v.

60 3.W. Bowman, 'The l i f e and Teachings o f J e s u s ' ,

7 . P O D , Hanson, The Dawn o f A p o c a l y p t i c , P.11.

e d . ) , e d . M OB l a c k , pp.484-488.

-CB ( r e v, e d . ) , p.734.

8, M.E, Stone, - rt. c i t . , p p . 4 3 9 f 0



4

T a k i n g i n to account S tone 's admoni tion , l e t u s examine

the term apocatypt ic as i t may be used to desc r ibe the9

r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k ( o r w o r l d - v i e w ) o f the a p o c a Z y p t i s t --whether comprehended i n d i v i d u a l l y o r c o l l e c t i v e ly .

These w r i t e r s mo b i l i z ed many d i f f e r en t t r a d i t i o n s t o

ex p r e s s t h e i r co n ff d en ce i n the God of the Jews as the

sovere ign K i n g o f h i s t o r y a n d cosmos a n d t o aff i rm t h e i r

expec ta t ions o f His imminent triumph o v e r a l l h eav en ly and

ear th ly enemies .

The w r i t f n g s , a s r e v e l a t o r y l i t e r a t u r e , d i s c l o s e d th e

s e c r e t s o f the cosmos as we l l a s i l lum ina t in g fu t u r e even ts .

Neither the cosmological nor the future concern permeated

th e wh ole o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e . A l s o , t hey w er e b oth f r e q u e n t l y

absent in a given compos i t ion; nor was t h e i r u t i l l z a t i o n

mu tu a l l y ex c lu s iv e . A proper under stand ing o f ap oc a ly p t fc ,

a s i t d es c r ib es a w r i t e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e w o r ld , must

i n c lu d e p r o v i s io n s f o r t h e p r es ence ( a n d absence) of both

dimensions.

R.3. Bauckham has suggested that we shou ld d i s t ingu ish

between two d i f f e r e n t types o f apoca lypses -h i s to r ica l and

cos rn olog ical -i n o r d e r t o i n v es t f g a t e t he d i s t i n c t i v e

th eo lo gi ca l t r a d i t i o n s which produced them. Bauckham's10

9 . 3.3. C o l l i n s , a r t . c i t . , p.360; a t t h i s p o fn t , Iw i l l d r o p the i t a l i ci z a ' t fo n r a p o c a l y p t i c - r e l a t e d words .

111 / 2 (1978), p .17 . There was no in d i ca t io n tha t t h e t w otypes deve loped separa te ly.

1 0 . R .3. Bauckham, 'The Rfse o f Apocalyptic ' , Them



5

sugges t ion has va lu e ; however, I a l s o f e e l that these dimen-

s i on s , t aken toge the r, n ig h t app rox ima te a ' no rmat ive '

Jewish world-view, I f ap oc al yp t i c may be connected t o the

concept o f a worl d-vi ew, we ought then to be f r e e to speak

o f ' a p o c a l y p t i c c os mo lo gy ' a s w e l l a s escha to logy. Th i s11

l i n e o f thought ra i s ed the que s t i on : "Does the cosmology

a n d e s c h at o lo g y o f t he a p o c a l y p t i s t d i f f e r from t h a t o f a

corresponding member o f a (more) m ain l in e Jewish grou p?"12

A connect ion has been general ly acknowledged between

O l d Testament prophecy a n d the phenomenon ca l led apoca lyp t ic .

One cou ld say th a t the l a t e r movement ' . . .d i s p l ay s t h e f u l l e r

development o f t endenc ie s wh ich a r e ev iden t i n t h e l a t e r

s t a g e s o f prophecy ' o r t h a t ' , , . i t e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o p h e t i c13

conv ic t ions t h a t Yahweh i s King, t h atHis

Kingdom i s ne ar a th a n d , a n d t h a t a l l men a r e c a l l e d t o b e f a i t h f u l u n d e r a l l

c i r cumstan ces ' , I t was the na tu re o f the connec t ion be-14

tween prophecy a n d a p o c a l y p t i c which h as e l i c i t e d d i s c u s s i o n

a n d disagreement .

11. To my kn ow le dge , no one h a s used the phrase' apoca lyp t i c cosmology ' .unde r s t andab le , b u t the o ther d imension must be g iven i t sp l a c e .and h a d i t s p r e c e d e n c e in t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s o fEzek ie l a n d Zecha r i ah 1-8.

q u es ti o n a f f i r m a t i v e l y and c a t e g o r i c a l l y .

Testament, p . 2 0 6 .

p . 5 4 0 .

The emphasis upon es ch at ol og y i s

I t o cc up ie d a notewor thy p lace in t h e l f t e r a t u r e

1 2 . I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h e e v i d e n c e e x i s t s t o a n s w e r t h i s

13. G.W. Anderson, A C r i t i c a l I n tr o d uc t i on t o th e O ld

14.B O W .

Anderson, Understanding the O l d Testament,



I t i s t r u e t h a t t he p r o ph e t ic l i t e r a t u r e ex e r t e d a pro-

found e f f e c t upon many fa c e ts o f p os t - e x i l i c Judaism a n d was

i t s e l f i n f l u e n c e d by e x t e r i o r f a c t o r s . I h a v e s u b s t a n t i a l l y

l i m i t e d my i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o t h e p r o p h e t i c movement and i t s

i n f l u e n c e i n the development o f a p o c a l y p t i c ; b u t I am no t

unaware t h a t o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s m a d e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s

t o t h e f u t u r e - a n d c o s r n o l o g i c a l - c o n s c i o u s n es s o f the Jewish

p e o p l e i n t h e i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l p e r i o d .

I t i s e as y t o c o n tr a s t t he a p oc a l yp t i c l i t e r a t u r e withthe p ro ph et ic l i t e r a t u r e ( e s p e c i a l l y th e p r e - e x i l i c p r o p he t i c

w r i t i n gs ) to show how d i s s i m i l a r the two groups were . How-

e v e r , I am convinced tha t such a demonstrat ion (which was a

common element i n many books d e a l i n g w i t h t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

I l i t e r a t u r e ) i s unwise a n d h ig h ly mis l ead ing . The apoca lyp -

t i s t s s t o o d i n t h e l i n e o f t he ' s a l v a t i o n p r o p h e t s ' , a

t r a d i t i o n w h i c h h a d extended back a t l e a s t t o t he e x i l i c p ro-

phec ie s o f Jeremiah , Ezek ie l a n d Deutero- I saJah .1 5

No one denies t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d apoca-

lyp t l c i sm were the end p roduc t s o f p rocesse s w i t h i n Judaism

w h o s e development spanned se ve ra l ce n t ur ie s . The ap oc a l yp t i c

w or ld -v ie w drew i t s v i t a l i t y from th e p a r a d o x i c a l p o s t -

e x i l i c Jewish s i tu a t io n : on the one hand, the Jews (o r a

minor segment of the community) expected to be blessed above

15. 3. Llndblom, Prophecy i n Ancien t I s r a e l , p.421,s t a t e d that t he p o s t - e x i l i c p ro ph et s w ere ' s a l v a t i o n ' - c o n -S C ~ O U S . The t r a d i t i o n a c t u a l l y began i n e a r l i e s t t im es ; c f .A.R. J o h n s o n , The C u I t i c Prophet i n A n c i e n t I s r a e l , ~ ~ ~ 2 5 - 2 9 .



a l l others because o f Yahweh's e l e c t in g lo ve ; o n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , they were powerless and oppressed by f o r e i g n l o r d s ( o r

a n un ju s t community l e ad e r sh ip ) . The in t e l l e c t u a l and s oc ia l

c o n f l i c t p roduced by such a s i t u a t i o n p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d

much o f the l i t e r a t u r e o f p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism .

One sees a combina t ion of these v iews in the book of

Daniel (which c a n b e p r o v i s f o n a l l y a cc ep te d a s b e l o n g i n g t o

t he a p o c a ly p t ic l i t e r a t u r e ) : 1 ) th e r e was t he r e j e c t i o n o f

the communi ty leadersh ip (c f . 11 :30-32) ; 2 ) the re was the

e x a l t a t i o n o f a small group with in the community, the Mas-

k i l i m (11:33-35), with reward a n d punishment meted out on

t h e b a s i s o f f a i t h f u l n e s s under p e r s e c u t i o n ; a n d 3 ) there was

t he e n v is i o ne d d e s t ru c t i o n o f t he f o r e i g n p ower (11:45).

Some o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s p o i n t e d , on t h e one hand, toa n imminent intervention by God which w o u l d r e v e r s e t h e f o r -

tunes o f the Jews a n d / o r r e w a r d t h e f a i t h f u l n e s s o f t he i n -

d i v i d u a l a n d would e x a l t God's chosen ones f n t h e f u t u r e .

Examples o f th i s hope were found in Daniel , the Enochean Book

o f Dreams (ch. 8 3 - 9 0 ) , the Testament o f Noses and o t h e r s . O n

the o ther h a n d , other apoca lyp t i s t s made recourse to cosmo-

l o g y t o e x p l a i n the e x i s t e n c e o f e v l l i n the world and the

f a c t o f J e w i s h s u f f e r i n g ( c f . I 1 Enoch, I 1 1 B a ru c h , e t c . ) .

The book o f I Enoch provided the best examples o f cosmology

(ch. 12-16,17-36) and the bl en di ng of cosmology a n d escha to -

logy (ch . 8 5- 9 0 ) i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

16

16. R . J . Bauc k h a m , a r t .- i t 9 pp.15-17.



8

The phenomenon of ap oc al yp ti ci sm achieve d g r e a t rec og -

n i t i o n a s a r e sponse to the pe r secu t ions o f An t iochus IV

(Epiphanes) , the Se leuc id ru le r (175-163 B . C . ) who attempted

t o remove the oppos i t io n o f co nse rv a t i ve Jews to h is p l an

to Impose a u n i f o r m H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e a n d r e l i g i o n upon t h e

J e w i s h p e o p l e ( t h e r e b y e s t a b l i s h i n g a s e cu re p o l i t i c a l b as e

f o r h i m s e l f i n t he a r ea ) . The apo ca l yp t i c wor ld -v iew w a s

f i r s t re pr es en te d i n the book of Danie l , which con ta ined ex-

amples o f h i s t o r i c a l apoca lypses . Works such a s t h i s o f t en

17

o r i g i n a t e d i n h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s where a n h i s t o r i c a l l y -

o r i en ted fu tu re hope b d r e l e v a n c e a n d appeal . The b o o k o f

Daniel was c i rc u la t ed s h o r t l y a f t e r the p o l i t i c a l u n i f i c a t i o n

o f many Jews with the Has idim . T-his g r o u p c r y s t a l l i z e d the

a t t i t u d e o f r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e H e l l e n i s t i c t ' n f l u e n c e i n

J e w i s h s o c i e t y a n d p o l i t i c s , f o r m u l a t i n g a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h o s e

J ews who h a d c o l l a b o r a t e d with the Se leuc ids o r had adopted

He1 1eni s t i c cus toms . Apo ca l yp t i c e scha to logy, i n t h i s in-18

stance , spoke t o the contemporary need of the people as they

endured hard t i m e s , p r e s e n t i n g a comfort ing reward/punish-19

ment reso lu t ion o f t h e i r s t r u g g l e .

A n understanding o f t he na tu re a n d presence o f apoca lyp -

17. According to R ,3. Bauckham's sugges t ion ; c f . n . 1 0 .18. The Hasidim appear as a he te rogenous g roup : s c r ib e s ,

f i g h t e r s , l e a d e rs and p a c i f i s t s , Cf. V . Tc h e r i k o v e r, H e l l e -n i s t i c C i v i l i z a t i o n a n d th e Jews, pp.196-198.

o w e r i n g o f A p o c a l y p t i c ' ,-T h C h v i (1969), pp.168,173.



9

t i c i sm in the second cen tury B . C . requires coming t o terms

with a complex a n d mul t i - f ace ted su b j ec t . One must i n v e s t f -

g a te the r e l i g i o u s , i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l c l i m a t e o f t h e

developing Jewish community, with i t s dependence upon th e

p a s t a n d i t s p a r t y c o n f l i c t s . I am n o t i n c l i n e d t o s e p a r a t e

the apocalyptic movement, I n a l l i t s u n iq ue ne ss , f rom t h e

main st ream o f Jewish l i f e a n d f a i t h . The wide use o f t he

f e a t u r e s o f i t s w or ld -v ie w a n d m o t i f s wi th in m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l

c i r c l e s a n d the common people suggested t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

world-view can b e connected t o t h e ' J ew i sh w o r ld - v ie w ' p r i o r

t o the Maccabean upr ising a n d i s n o t t o b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

f rom i t , I a f f i r m t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m within

20

21

t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f d e v e lo p i ng t h e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s i n post -

e x i l i c ( l u d a i s m .

1 1 . T h e A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e

D o S . R u s s e l l g a t h e r e d t h o s e w r i t i n g s with a p o c a l y p t i c

o v e r t o n e s i n t o a c on ve ni en t l t s t , W hi le i t i s a dm ltte d t h a t

20. I b i d . , p . l 6 6 . One apoca lyp t i c 'wor ld -v iew ' , r e -presen ted i n t h e book o f D a n i e l , h e l d th e n e c e s s i t y o f d i r e c td i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n t o re s o l v e the Jews' d ilemma; anotherv iew fo re saw God ac t ing th rough h t s to r i ca l even t s to b r in ga b o u t H i s o b j e c t i v e s ( c f . J u b . 23:18-32 a n d the comments byR A h a r l e s , T h e Book o f Jub i lees , pp .147-151) .

21. L . Hartman, Prophecy In te rp re ted , p . 2 6 ; H . D .Preus, Jahweglaube u n d Zukunftserwartung, quoted by R.Nor th , ' P rophecy to Apoca lyp t i c v i a ZecharSah ' , VTSup x x i i(1972), p.57.



10

these works d i ffered remarkably f rom one another a n d t h a t

they cannot b e i n d i v i d u a l l y r e g a r d e d a s t o t a l l y a p o ca l yp t i c ,

R u s s e l l ’s l i s t has been r eg a r d ed f av o r a b ly by s ch o l a r s and

does g ive a n i n i t i a l i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e s co pe o f t he l i t e -

r a ry g roup :

2 2

2 3

Daniel (c , 165 8 .C . ) 2 4I Enoch (pos t -Dan ie l i c compos i t ion )The Book o f J u b i l e e s ( c . 1 5 0 B . C . )The S i b y l l i n e Ora c le s I11 (pos t-150 B . C . )The Tes taments o f the Twelve Pa t r i a rc hs ( p o s t 4 5 0 B . C . )The Psalms of Solomon (c. 5 0 B . C . )

The Testament o f Moses ( f i r s t c en tu ry A . D . )‘Martyrdom o f I s a i a h ’L i f e o f Adam a n d Eve/

Apocalypse of Moses (c , A . D . 5 0 )Apocalypse o f Abraham ( f i r s t c en tu ry A . D . )Testament o f Abraham ( f i r s t c en tur y A . D . )B o o k o f the Secrets of Enoch/

The S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s I V ( c . A.D. 80)I1 Esdras / 4 E z r a ( c . A . D . 9 0 )S y r i ac A p o caly p s e o f Baruch/

G r e e k Apoca lypse o f Baruch/

T h e S i b y l l i n e O r a c l e s V (second century A . D . )

I I Enoch ( f i r s t century A . D . )

1 1 Baruch (post-A.D. 90)

I11 Baruch (second century A . D . )

2 2 . I have recog ni zed the d a n g e r of p l a c i n g a r b i t r a r yl i m i t s o n w h a t c o n s ti t u te d th e a p o c a ly p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ; a d i s -to r ted d e f i n i t i o n o f apo ca ly p t i c may resu ’ l t . However, r ecog-n i t i o n o f the prob lem i s the f i r s t s tep toward d o i n g j u s t i c eboth t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t e r m a n d the nature o f the1i t e r a t u r e .

2 3 . D.S. Russe l l , The M e t h o d a n d Message o f JewishA o c a l t i c , pp.37f. Since I am c on ce rn ed , l i k e R u s s e l l ,

l i t e r a t u r e has been oml’t ted. C f . E . Hennecke, New TestamentA o c r h a , v o l . 2.

f . R.3. Bauckham, a r t . c i t . , p p . l 5 f . , and L T .Milik , The B o o k s o f Enoch, p p . 7 - 9 , 2 2 - 2 5 , f o r arguments advo-c a t i n g p r e - D a n i e l i c d a t i n g o f p o r t i o n s o f I Enoch.

e e w i s h a p o c a l y p t l c l i t e r a t u r e , t h e b o d y o f C h r i s t i a n



11

With t h e d i s c o v e r y i n t h i s cen tu ry o f the remains o f

the l i b r a r y o f the Qumran community ( t h e Dead Sea S c r o l l s ) ,

another body o f w r l t i ng s has been l ink ed to the ap oc a l yp t i c

l i t e r a t u r e . P o r t i o n s o f many of th es e w ri t in g s have been

d i s c o v e r e d i n t he Qumran exca va t io ns . A lthough the re a p -

pea r s to have been dependence on the ou t s i de l i t e r a t u r e a t

Qumran , t h e r e w a s no ev idence o f r e v e r s e b o r ro w i n g, l e a d i n g

some s ch o l ar s to ch ar ac te r i ze Qumran as a 'cooled-down apoca-

l y p t i c s e c t ' 0 I f e e l that th is judgment underest imated thev l t a l i t y o f the Qumran community. P o s s i b l e exp lan a t i ons o f

this phenomenon were Q u m r a n ' s e x c l u s i ve n e s s and i t s s e l f -

2 5

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s t h e t r u e Jewish community a n d t h e ' t emp le '

o f God.

These wr i t ings , f ound a t Qumran a n d e x h i b i t i n g a p o c a l y p -26t i c c o l o r i n g , w e r e :

Commentar ies on: Is a ia h , H o s e a , Micah, Nahum,

T h e Zad oki t e Document/

The Manual o f D i s c i p l i n e /

The Rule o f the Congrega t ion /

T h e S c r o l l o f Bened ic t ions ( 1 Q S b )The Te s t i m o n i e s S c r o l l /

Hymns (Psalms) o f Thanksgiving (1QH)The War o f the Sons o f L i g h t aga ins t the Sons o f Dark-

H a b a k k u k , Zephaniah, Psalm 3 7

The Damascus Document ( C D )

T h e Rule of the Community (1QS)

The Messianic Rule (1QSa)

A Messian ic Antho logy (44175)

ness/The Rule f o r the F i n a l War (1QM)

2 5 . R . P. C . Hanson, A G u i d e t o t h e S c r o l l s , ed , A.R.C.Leaney, p.64.

26. D o S . R u s s e l l , o p . -.i t 9 p . 3 9 .



12

The Book o f M y s t e r i e s /

A M i d r a s h o n the L a s t D a y s ( 4 4 1 7 4 )A D e s c r i p t i o n o f t he New J e r u s a l e mAn A n g e l i c Li tu rg y ( 4 Q S h i r S h a b )T h e P r a y e r o f N a b o n i d u s ( 4 4 2 4 3 ) a n d a Pseudo-

A G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n ( 1 Q a p G e n )

The Tr i u m p h o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s 1 4 2 7 )

D a n i e l A p o c a l y p s e ( 4 4 P s D a n )

111. The F a j t h o f the A p o c a l y p t l s t s

P.D. H a n s o n d e c l a r e d t h a t ' a p o c a l y p t i c t h i n k i n g i s the

p r o d u c t o f a m e n t a l i t y . . . b o r n o f h i s t o r i c a l a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l27

c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' . He a s s e r t e d t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i s t s were

g e n u i n e l y i n v o l v e d i n the e v e n t s o f t h e i r d a y an d p l a y e d a

u n i q u e r o l e in t h e p o l l t i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n within the c o m m u n l t y.

D . S . R u s s e l l s u p p o r t e d t h i s j u d g m en t b y o b s e r v i n g t h a t we

c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s a p a r t f r o m t h e

t i m e s i n w h i c h t h e a u t h o r s l i v e d . H a n s o n ' s s t u d y o f the28

nature o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m , o f w h l c h a p o c a l y p t i c t h i n k i n g was

a p a r t , h as c h a l l e n g e d t h a t o p i n i o n w h i c h v i e w e d a p o c a l y p t i c

a s a n e s c a p e f r o m r e a l i t y .29

I t h a s been i m p l i e d b y some s c h o l a r s t h a t the a p o c a l y p -

t i s t s l i v e d with t h e i r h e a d s i n t he c l o u d s , w i t h d r a w n f r o m

the w o r l d a n d p a s s i v e l y r e s - i s t a n t t o p r o g r e s s i v e . t r e n d s i n

s o c i e t y . I t was a s s u m e d t h a t they l i v e d i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f

2 7 . P O D . H a n s o n , op. c i t . , p.229.2 8 . DoS. R u s s e l l , o p . -.i t , p.16.2 9 . C f . t h e B i b l i o g r a p h y f o r a l i s t i n g o f H a n s o n ' s

7

w o r k s on t h i s sub jec t .



13

an imminent ca ta st ro ph e, the f i n a l Day of Yahweh, the ove r-

throw o f a l l e v i l and the b l e s s i n g o f t he r i g h t e o u s , t o t h e

exc l u s i on o f a l l ea r t h l y endeav o r. 0 . K a i s e r ' s o p i n i o n was

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e : t he a p o c a l y p t i s t . . . g a z es f a s c i n a t e d a t

the gr ea t but wicked drama which i s the wo rl d, a n d w a i t s f o r

the end o f h i s to ry ' .

I

30

I t i s my content ion, however, that t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s

must be viewed sym path e t i ca l ly ; they be l i e ve d they l i v e d i n

a t ime dominated by godlessness and bewi lder lng oppression.

As with many Jews o f that t ime, they were drawn t o t h e p a s t ,

when Yahweh had r e v e a l e d Him se lf in I s r a e l ' s l l f e and had

revealed Himsel f t o t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s . To t he v e xi ng q ue s-

t i o n s o f l i f e they g av e i n h e r i t e d a ns we rs i n new form, attemp-

t i ng t o unde r s t and t he i r e r a i n terms consonant w i t h t h e f a i t ho f the past a n d t o r e s o l v e t h e i r d i s t r e s s through the f u t u r e

hope inher i ted from t h e prophe t s o r through a deeper under-

s t a n d i n g o f God's r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e e v i l . i n t h e wor l d .

31

The pr oph eti c w r i t in g s assumed importance in the apoca-

l y p t i s t s ' v iew o f t he f u t u r e , k ee pi ng i n m i n d the supremacy

o f the To r a h for them i n d a i l y l i f e . The Qumran g r o u p , f o r

3 0 . W e Kaiser, In t roduc t fon to the Old Tes tament ,p.316.

3 1 . W.F. Albr ight , From the S t one Age t o Ch r i s t i an i t y,P. 3 3 4 , a s s e r t e d t h a t t h i s r e s o r t t o t h e p a r t b e g a n w i t h i nthe f i f t h century B.C., the 'summit o f . . . s p i r i t u a l e v o l u t i o n 'o f t he Jews.w o r k and i n t h e Book o f J u b i l e e s ; c f , R.H. C h a r l e s , o p . c i t e sP P. X l V i j - 1 i

The p r ocess c a n b e d i sce r n ed i n t h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s



14

exam ple, o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d th e p ro p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e u s i ng3 2

the curr en t events which impinged upon i t s l i f e . The

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Habakkuk's v l s i o n , ' . . . y e t f o r an appo in ted

t i m e . . . ' ( 2 : 3 ) , demonstrated how completely the Qum r a n com-

munity read i t s l i f e a n d f a i t h i n t o t he p r op h e t ic w r i t t n g s .

T h e e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f G e n e s i s a l s o a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n

a s t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s s e a r c h e d o u t t h e s o u rc e o f e v i l i n t h e i r

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f ' h i n t s ' o f h ea ve nl y r e b e l l i o n and f a l l e n

an g el s. This avenue opened on t o a w i d e f i e l d o f s p e c u l a t i o n

a n d t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s f e l t f r e e t o i n du lg e t h e i r f a n t a s i e s .

Ye t t h e y f i rm l y b e l i e v e d t h a t God w o u l d j u d g e e v i l a n d i t s

devotees a n d would remove i t s c u r s e from I s r a e l .

Scholarsh ip has d o n e much t o r e v e r s e t h e - n a t i o n t h a t

t h e a p o c a l y p t l c 11 e r a t u r e w a s o n e o f d e s p a i r a n d pessimism,

I t has been r i g h t l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s o f t e n

wrote f o r the oppressed, who had no hope t n p o l i t i c a l t e r m s

or i n human po ten t i a l . They had n o f a i t h i n human p r o g r e s s

o r i n a n o r d e r l y e v o l u t i o n t o a b e t t e r s t a t e . I t may be3 3

t h a t they began w i t h a n ' e m p i r i c a l o b s e rv a t i o n ' o f G o d ' s

absence from t h e community s l nc e the e x i l e . Perhaps the

r e p e a t e d f r u s t r a t l o n s o f t he people 's hopes w e r e s l g n l f i c a n t

In the bi r th o f the apocalypt ic movement ,

34

35b u t t he apoca lyp -

t h t s s t i l l a s s e r t e d t h e i r c o nf i d e nc e in the a c t s o f G o d f o r

3 2 . F.M. Cross , Canaan i t e Myth a n d Hebrew Epic, pp.337f.33,3 4 . R.3. Bauckham, art. c i t . , p.20.3 5 . 3. B r i g h t , A H i x r y o f I s r a e l , p.459.

D o S . R u s s e l l , op. f t 9 p.17.



15

t h e i r d e l i v e r a n c e . W. S c h m i t h a l s , w h o s e d e f i n i t i o n o f 'apo-

c a l y p t i c t h i n k i n g ' w a s f a r d i f f e r e n t f r o m m y o wn , s a w i n t h e

a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e a n a t t e m p t '.. t o d e a l p o s i t i v e l y '

w i t h a p e s s i m i s t i c a p p r a i s a l o f r e a l it y.3 6

A c c o m p a n y i n g t h i s n e g a t i v e j u d g m e n t u p on t h e h i s t o r i c a l

c o nt i nu u m' s a b i l i t y t o a c h i e v e o r t o c o n v e y G o d ' s s a l v a t i o n

w a s t h e c o n s i s t e n t n o t e o f c o n f i d e n c e i n G o d t o br i n g H i s s a l -

v a t i o n i n H i s o w n t im e. M o r e r e l e v a n t t h a n t h i s was t h e

a p o c a l y p t i s t s ' c o n f i d e n c e i n t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h God h a d

o r d a i n e d i n h i s t o r y : t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e M e s s i a n i c f i g u r e

w a s ' th e e m b o d i m e n t o f t h e r ea l i t y ' o f a D a v i d i c r u l e r ; t h e3 7

p r i e st l y f i g u r e o f Te s t , L e vi 12 w a s a n i d e a l i z a t i o n o f a

pol i t i c a l / r e 1 i g i o u s o f f c e o r i n d i v i d u a l . W. S c h m i t h a l s3 8

Is t a t ed t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s d e m a n d e d ... c o n s t a n t a n d

s u p r e m e l y h i s t o r i c a l c o m m i t m e n t ' t o t h e c o m m u n i t y a s t h e39

s u c c e s s o r t o t h e r e m n a n t a n d e l e c t i o n c o n c e p t s o f t h e p as t.

L . M o r r i s m e n t i o ne d t h e ap o c al y p t is t s ' a m b i g u i t y o n t h e

s u b j ec t o f r e b e ll i o n . H e r e a s o n e d th a t, i f t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s

h a d t r u l y d e s p a i r e d o f h u m a n e f f o r t, t h e y w o u l d h a v e c o n s i s -

t e n t ly r e f r a i n e d f r o m j o i n i n g t h e u pr i s i n g s w h i c h o c c u r r e d

i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r h i s t o r y. M o r r i s r i g h t l y o b s e r v e d ,

36. W. S c h m i t h a l s , T h e Ap o c a l y p t i c M o v e me n t , p.43. Mym a i n o b j e c t i o n t o h i s D o s i t S o n was h is e m D h a s i s o n t h e S O C ~ O -l o gi c al d i m e n s i o n a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e h j s t o r i c a l .

pp.65ff.

37. P.R. A c k r o y d , E x i l e a n d R e s t o r a t i o n s p.253.38. R.H. C h a r l e s , Te s t a m e n t s o f t h e Tw e l v e P a t r i a r c h s ,

3% W. S c h m i t h a l s , op. cit., p.39.



16

however, t h a t t h e y o f t e n i n s p i r e d t h e r a i s i n g o f the banners

o f r e v o l t , an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h u m a n a c t i v i t y c o u l d b e en-

j o i n e d with conf iden ce . The apo ca l yp t i s t s ' n a t i o n a l i s i c

40

41

z e a l a n d k i n d l i n g o f M e s s i a n i c h op es c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s

in t en t ion a l mo t i va t i on o f t he popu lace t o t ake up a rms,4 2

a n d i t w a s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the h i s t o r i c a l f a i l u r e s o f t he

J e w i s h r e b e l l i o n s a g a i n s t Rome (66-72 a n d 132-135 A . D . ) com-

p r i s e d a p r i m e f a c t o r i n t h e d i s c r e d i t i n g o f t he a p o c a l y p -

t i s t s i n J u d a i s m .

43

K OKoch s u r ve y e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f a p o c a l y p t i c i n

o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e a c o n s e n s u s f o r 1 ) t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a -

c i t y o f t h e a u t h o r s , 2 ) t h e u l t i m a t e o r i g i n o f a p o c a l y p t i c

a n d 3 ) the p a r t i e s r e s p on s i b l e f o r t he l i t e r a t u r e . tie noted4 4

that 1 ) some s c h o l a r s had di s ce r n ed th e l i t e r a t u r e a r i s i n g

from the uneducated common people , whi le o thers had asser ted

t h a t o n l y t h e w i s e we r e c a p a b l e o f producing such w r i t i n g s ;

2 ) v a r i o u s s c h o l a r s h a d o b s e r v e d i n f l u e n c e on the development

o f a p o c a l y p t i c coming f ro m B a b y l o n i a , P e r s i a , H e l l e n i s m and

P a l e s t i n e ; 3 ) s c h o l a r s h ad a l s o p oi n t e d t o p a r t i e s s u c h a s4 5

the H a s i d i m , t he Essenes , t he Phar i sees , t he Sadducees a n d

that

4 0 . L, Morr i41. This j u da segment of4 2 . T o Hensh4 3 . L. blorri44. K. Koc h ,4 5 . 3. Bloch

s , A o c a l t i c , p.40.gmente-y -u s t e q u a l i f i e d by th e othe apocalypt ic community was p aaw, The Writin s , p.60.

The R e d i s c o v e r y o f A p o c a l y p t i c ,O n t h e A D o c a l v D t i c i n Judaism.

s9 -o c o_ r_ et o

l b s e r v a t i o nc i f s t i c .

p p 0 Z l f .p . 3 5 .



17

th e Zea lo t s a s t h e p r i m e c a r r i e r s o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i -

t i o n s . H is c o n c l u s i o n s u pp or te d th e r e s u l t s o f s c h o l a r s4 6

w h o h a d a s s e r t e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f an apocalypt ic movement

with in many groups within J u d a i s m . 4 7

P O D . H an s o n co n t r a s t ed t h e min i s t r y o f t h e p r o p h e t a n d

the work o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t on the b a s i s o f the commis-

s io r : in g ac t : t h e p r o p h e t , s t an d in g i n t h e c o u n c i l o f Yahweh,

was i n s t r u c t e d t o p r o c l a i m h i s mes s ag e immed ia t e ly ( c f . J e r.

1 : 1 7 : ' a r i s e a n d speak t o them') , w h i l e t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t r e -

c e i v e d a message which was t o be se al ed f o r t he f u t u r e ( c f .

D a n . 1 2 4 ) . Th e ap o ca ly p t i s t , h o w ev e r, d i d c a l l t h e p e op l e

t o the same r e s p o n s e o f f a i t h sought by t h e prophet . The

4 8

49

a p o c a l y p t i s t d e r i v e d h i s i d e n t i t y from the t ime i n w h i c h he

l i v e d .50

Unl i k e t h e p r e - ex i 1 i c p r o p h e t s , the f i r s t a p o c a l y p t i s t s

d i d n o t d i s c er n e t h i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n a s an a r e a o f pr ime im-

p o r t a t i c e , W . S c h m i t h a l s s t a t e d that t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s5 1

e i t h e r a l l o we d d i f f e r e n t v ie ws o f Torah o r l e f t t h e m a tt e r

of observance o f Torah to t h e i n d i v i d u a l co ns ci en ce . He was

4 6 . C f . i b i d . , pp.133-137.4 7 . D . S . n s e l 1 , s i t . , p . 2 7 .4 8 . P O D . Hanson, op. c K , p.19.4 9 .

5 0 . W . S ch mi th a l s , op. -.i t 9 p.35; D o S . R u s s e l l , op.

5 1 . W. S ch mi th a l s , o . c i t . , p.46; c f . D o S . R u s s e l l ,

D o S . R u s s e l l , 2 . 7 t. 9 p.16; R .3. Bauckham~ - r t .-*c f t 9 p.22.

-*c i t 9 p . 1 8 .

E* eft 0 9 pp.100-103, a n d3 O . E . O e s t e r l e y, Th e Jews a n dudalsm d u r i n g the Greek P e r i o d , p.72.



18

c o r r e c t i n h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s d i d not

u s u a l l y i nc l ud e e t h i c a l d i s c o u r s e s in t h e i r w r i t i n g s , b u t

he did n o t f u l l y e x p l o r e t he mo ti va ti on f o r t h i s omiss ion .

5 2

The e a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e used t h e b o o k o f Torah

a s a r a l l y i n g po in t . Those who re ve re d Torah banded to-

ge ther t o p r o t e c t i t s e x i s t e n c e . The a c t i v i t y o f k e ep in g

Torah in d a i ly l i f e was supe rceded d u r i n g t imes of persecu-

t i o n by t h e i r s t r u g g l e t o r e t a in To rah a s t h e i r r u l e o f l i f e .

The standard became allegiance t o the group (whfch championedT o r a h ) ; e x c l u s i v e l o y a l t y t o Tora h, i n t h a t s i t u a t i o n , w a s

i r r e l e v a n t . .

Those engaged in theodicy and ref lect ing upon the pre-

sence o f e v i l i n th e w o r l d a b s t a i n e d from e t h i c a l d i s c o u r s e

f o r s i m i l a r a n d o the r r easons , T h e i n t e r e s t I n e v i l ( a s seen

in I E n o c h 6 - 1 9 ) l e d t o a minimiza t ion of e th ica l concern ;5 3

t he wr i t e r w a s i n v o l v e d in t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f h i s s u b j e c t .

Buttressing the mind-set t h a t d i d n o t c o n f r o n t e t h i c a l

problems was t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w in which the Jews saw them-

s e l v e s a s the e l e c t p e o p l e o f G o d and others as those w h o

spurned G o d , H i s Torah a n d h i s peop le . Th i s k i n d o f t h ink ing

d r e w l o y a l t y away from Torah. The e th ic a l concern o f the

a p o c a l y p t i s t s s i m p l y d i d not f i n d I t s way i n t o t h e w r i t i n g s ;

i t was, within t h e s i t u a t i o n s t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s o f t e n

5 2 . The e th tca l po r t ions o f t he e a r l y w r i t i n g s w er e

5 3 . R .3. B a u c k h a m , - r t . c i t . , p p. 16 f.

limited t o I Enoch 91-104 and the Testaments o f the TwelvePa t r i a r c i j s .



19

f a c e d , a b a s i c a l l y se co nd ar y c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,

The a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e a t i t s b e s t sp oke t o t h e con-54

temporary need o f i t s a u di e nc e , The a p o c a l y p t i s t s , a d d t -

t e d l y n o t p r o p h e t s n o r t r y i n g t o a c t l i k e them, n e v e r t h e l e s s5 5

gave a message of Comfort from G o d a s b e s t t h e y c o u l d ,

P er ha ps t h ey v ie we d t h e p r o p h e t i c v o i c e a s s i l e n t ( C f D Ps,

7 4 : 9 , I Macc, 4:46,9:27); they broke I t s s i l en c e a f t e r t h e i r

own fashion by renewing God's pa s t p romises . The i r e x -56

p r e s s i o n o f t h i s f a i t h was o f t e n f a n c i f u l a n d f a r - f e t c h e d ,b u t i t breathed wi th the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t e v e r y t h i n g God pro-

mised would come t o p a s s ,57

The a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s w er e i n t en de d t o s t i m u l a t e h ope

a n d t o s u s t a i n c o u r a g e i n t h e l o y a l a d h e r e n t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l

Judaism within the Jewish community. They a l s o h e l d o u t

c o n s o l a t i o n f o r t h e weak i n t he as su rance t ha t G o d would

v i s i t H is p e o p l e wi th t h e s a l v a t i o n t h e y d e s i r e d :

58

-

59

W h a t God had f o r e t o l d would come t o p a s s ,i f not i n t h e p r e s e n t a g e , then i n a new ageabou t t o d a w n , The ancien t prophecies were t o b er e a d in t e rms o f ' t h e E n d ' and were t o be i n t e r-p r e t e d a n d r e i n t e r p r e t e d s o as t o f i t i n t o t h eg r e a t f i n a l d r a m a i n which the triumph o f G o d

5 4 , R-3 Bauckham, art , - , 9 i t pDz2D5 5 The a p o c a 1 y p t i s W messages w ere i n t e r p r e t i v e

5 6 , R. J . Bauckham, a r t , C i t D p.20; o t h e r s c h o l a r s a s -r a t h e r t h a n d e c l a r a t i v e ,

s er te d the con t i n ua l a c t i m y o f p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e : c f D RDMeyer i n H, K r h e r e t a l , I i ( ~ + { r n s e t a l ' T D N T, V O L i ,, -PP.823°8Z5.

5 7 , D e s , Russe l l , C i t e , p ~ l 8 .5 8 , H , H , Rowley, T R x v a n c e o f Apoca lyp t i c , p .23 .59D D e s R u s s e l l , OD -,'it- p . 1 8 3 ~



and o f God's pe op le would be made known ov e ra l l t h e n a t i o n s r o u n d ab o u t . P r o p h e t i c p r o -mises became apocalypt ic assurances . In a n -s wer t o t h e p r o p h e t s ' c r y , H O W l o n g , 0 L o r dhow 1 ong? ' t h e ap o ca ly p t i s t s g a v e t h e y e a r ,the day, and the hour

20

The e n t h u s i a s t i c r e c e p t i o n of t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s within

the cauldron o f oppression was evidence enough o f t h e v i t a l -

i t y a n d t i m e l i n e s s o f t h e i r me ss ag e.

I t would be t e r r i b l y unfa i r t o c o m p a r e t h e h i s t o r i c a l

s t t u a t i o n o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s with t h a t o f t h e p r e - e x i l i c

prophets or the missionary movement o f e a r l y C h r l s t i a n i ty

a n d t o c on cl ud e d i s p a r a g i n g l y : ' t h e dominant i d e a i s t h a t

God wi l l s ave g o o d men from trouble, not that he w i l l s a v e

b a d men f rom s i n ' . L ike wis e , one ough t no t ca r i ca t u r e the63

a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s a s t h e - en d - p r o d u c t o f d i s ap p o in t ed

h o p e s or a s t h e r e l e a s e - v a l v e f o r r e p r e s s e d e mo ti on s. T he re

was i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e t h e c o n c e p t o f a d i v i n e p u r p o s e f o r

e x i s t e n c e a n d h i s t o r y. The ap o c a l y p t i s t s ad d r e s s e s them-61

s e l v e s t o t he p a s t o r a l t a s k s o f conso la t ion and encourage-

ment with in a community faced w i th p e r s e c u t i o n o r t h e e a s y

o p t i o n of conforming t o t he H e l l e n i s t i c way o f l l f e . The

62

promise o f f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n c annot be a t t r i b u t e d s o l e l y t o

t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f d e s i r e s a r i s i n g f r o m r e s e n t m e n t , b u t as a

consequence o f t he a u th o rs ' b e l l e f i n a G o d o f d e l i v e r a n c e .

60. C O R o S m i t h , T h e B i b l i c a l D o c t r i n e o f E l e c t i o n ,

P.125 . 6 1 .62.

C f . T Henshaw, OJ. -*c i t ' pp.6Of.L . M o r r i s , x *c i t , p.58.



2 1

I V. Prophecy and Apocalypt ic

I have demonstrated t h a t , i n a d i sc us s i on emp loy ing the

term ' a p o c a l y p t i c ' , c a r e must be taken t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e be-tween the apoca lyp t i c wrf t e r s , apoca lyp t i c themes ( i . e . the

s u b j e c t m at te r o f t h e w r i t i n g s ) a n d t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w o r l d -

v ie w. These a r e a s w er e a l l ( ea c h j u s t i f f a b l y ) c ov e re d by

t he same a d j e c t i v e . I f we f a i l t o be d i s c er n i ng i n t h i s

m a t t e r , o u r i n v e s t i g a t i v e methods w i l l b e f r u s t r a t e d .

H . H . Rowley co ined t h e p h r a s e , ' . . . a p o c a l y p t i c i s the63

c h i l d o f p ro ph ec y, y e t d i v e r s e fr om i t ' . His under-

s tand ing o f t h e connect ion between the two was revealed by

his judgment tha t they share a p r e d i c t i v e e l e m e n t , a n

e t h i c a l c o n c e r n , a sense o f importa nce of th e Immediate

h t ' s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , a n d the p o s s e s s i o n o f t he ' d i v i n e u rg e 't o communicate a message abo ut God. Rowley d i d n o t seek

64

p r e c i s i o n i n h i s u s e o f t he t erm ' a po ca ly p t i c ' , however we

c a n see how h i s s ta te me nt s r e f l e c t h i s u n d e rs t an d in g o f t h e s e

c a t e g o r i e s .

Glhile t h e c on se ns us o f s c h o l a r s h o l d s t h a t t h e f l o w e r

o f a p o c a l y p t i c g r e w f r o m the s tem of O l d Testament prophecy,

G. von R a d L s t h e s i s t h a t i t w a s d e r i v e d e x c l u s i v e l y f r o m t h e

Wisdom movement i n I s r a e l h as o c c a si o n ed much r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n

a n d reassessment o f i t s d ev el op me nt and d e f i n i t i o n . Other

6 3 .6 4 . -.b i d 9 p p e 1 5 f .H e H eRowley, x .i t ' p.15.



2 2

s c h o l a r s have hegun t o s e a r c h o t h e r s e g m e n t s o f Juda ism for

p o s s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a p o c a l y p t i c . 'R.G. Hamerton-Kel ly,

f o r example, h a s proposed that the Temple and i t s p r i es t hoo d

played a r o l e i n m o t i v a t i n g E z e k i e l t o a d o p t a ' v i s f o n a r y '

p o s i t i o n , from which the ap oc a l yp t i c wor ld -v ie w emerged

w i t h t n J u d a i s m , and i n the development o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

nature o f the Qumran community.6 5

Scho la r s h ip con t inues t o deba te the no t ion t h a t f o r e i g n

i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d d e t e r m i n a t i v e p r e s s u r e in the developmen-t a l p r o c e s s . W. O . E . O e s t e r l e y i n d i c a t e d t h a t we ought to b e

wary o f any supposed fo r e i gn in f l ue nc e which was no t Baby-

l on ian e x i l i c ) o r H e l l e n i s t i c ( c o v e r i n g th e e r a 3 5 0 - 5 0 B . C . )66

i n o r i g i n . S i m i l a r i t i e s fou nd between t h e J e w i s h apoca lyp-

t i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d o the r Nea r Eas te rn wr i t ings a r e p redomi -

n a n t l y s u p e r f i c i a l . T h e apo ca lyp t i c wor ld -v iew cou ld not be

s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a me nta l i ty wh ich conce ived o f

h i s t o r y i n a c y c l i c a l / m y t h i c fo rm ; o n l y P e r s i a n Z o r o a s t r i a n -

Ism shared t h l s f e a t u r e o f a l i n e a r c o n c e p t i o n o f t ime.67

The v i t a l i t y o f the J e w i s h in te l lec tua l communi ty during the

Greek per iod m a k e s i t u n w i s e t o r e s o r t t o e x t e r n a l s o u r c e sa s primary f a c t o r s .

The a p o c a l y p t i c w o r l d - v i e w was such t h a t i t c o u l d h a v e

6 5 . R . G . Hamerton-Kelly, ' T h e Te m p l e a n d t h e O r i g i n o f

660 W, O . E , O e s t e r l e y, O J c f t . , pp .75 -77 .67.

J e w i s h A p o c a l y p t i c ' v - VT x x (1970), pp.1-15.

W. Schmitha ls , OJ -.i t 9 p.77.



23

been adopted e a r l y by Jewis h groups which h a d n o t i n h e r i t e d

i t , The l a t e p rophe t i c movement gave sev e r a l fe a t u r es t o the

common Jewish m i l ie u . The pe r io d o f the emergence o f the

apoca lyp t i c 1 i terature was marked by e x t e n s i v e c r o s s - f e r t i -6 8

l i z i n g o f i d e a s a n d l i t e r a r y fo rms . Th i s ama lgamation o f

t r a d i t io n s occu rre d when many Jewish p a r t i e s were u n i t i n g in

o pp os it io n t o the H e l l e n i s t i c p o l i c i e s p r i o r t o t he r e b e l l i o n

in 1 6 7 B.C.69

The Ha sf d i c movement employed the ap oc a l yp t i c l i t e r a t u r e

a s p r o p a g a n d a , a re sponse t o p e r s e c u t i o n , w i t h i n t h e i n t e r -

change o f l i t e r a r y f o r m s a n d themes. I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , ap-

p ro p r i a t e t o r a i s e a c a ut io n f l a g r e g a r d l n g th e ' e x c l u s i v e '

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e or w o r l d - v i e w a f t e r

t M s p o i n t . We canno t e scape the obse rva t ion t h a t t he

Enoch material stemmed from a d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n t h a n t h a t

o f the b o o k o f il an ie 'i . The Enoch Book o f Dreams (ch. 8 3 - 9 0 )

a n d Daniel p re sen te d oppos ing vi ews on the v a l i d i t y o f armed

r e s i s t a n c e . However, the dependence o f I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 u p o n70

D a n . 10-12 i n d i c a t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n s found a common ground.

The Enoch writ ings were vlewed a s having connect ions

w i t h a r a t h e r v a g u e movement w h i c h o u g h t t o b e understood a s

68. O . H . St e c k , ' T h e o l o g i c a l S trea ms o f Tra d i t i o n ' ,Tra d i t i o n a n d Theology i n t h e O l d Testament, e d . D . A . Knight ,P.211,

6 9 . 3.3. C o l l i n s , The A p o c a l y p t f c Vi s i o n s o f the Book

o f Daniel , pp.201-205.7 0 . I b i d . , pp.204,209.



2 4

7 1a Wisdom gr ou p. We d a r e no t spe ak of a n e x c l u s i v e l i n e o f

development f rom prophecy to apoca lyp t ic , b u t r a t h e r o f

l i n e s of i n f l u e n c e , and t ho s e b e i n g i n t e r t w i n e d with in t he

being of the J e w i s h community from early t imes.

T.W. Manson n ot ed t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e r a f o r the

c e s s a t i o n of p ro ph ec y was a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with t he deve lop -

ment o f r a b b i n i s m a n d a p o c a l y p t i c . As rab bin ism was an72

a c t i v i t y o f s c r i b a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Torah wh ich l ed to the

Mishnah, s o a p o c a l y p t i c was viewed by h i m as an a t tempt tor a t i o n a l i z e and s y s te m a ti z e th e p r e d i c t i v e s i d e o f prophecy.

D . L . P e t e r s e n s t a t e d t h a t t h e t a s k o f t h e p r o p h e t i c t r a d i -

t f o n i s t s ( t h e s u c c e s s o r s o f t h e c a n o ni c a l p r o p h e t s ) was n ot

t o be prophets bu t t o r e f l e c t upon t h e p r op h e t i c w r i t i n g s

a n d t o i n t e r p r e t them f o r t h e i r own d ay. S. Mowinckel73

a l s o a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e l a t e r s t a g e s o f p ro ph ec y w er e i n -

s p i r e d r e v i s i o n , amp1 i f i c a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e a r l i e r

prophecy. This w a s no t meant t o p ro ve the in t ima te connec-7 4

t ion between prophecy a n d a p o c a l y p t i c t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y

were i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e ; t h e se s c h o l a r s w er e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f

t he op in ion tha t , a s p rophecy w a s abandoned and apoca lyp t icemerged, there w a s a co r r e spond ing s h i f t away from the

71. M. Henge l , J u d a i s m a n d H e W a h m , V o l . 1 , pp .135f . ;

7 2 . To W. Manson, 'Some Reflections on A p o c a l y p t i c ' 9 - A U X

73. D . L . P et er se n, L a t e I s r a e l i t e P r o p h e c ~ , p.45.7 4 . S. Mowinc ke l , He T h a t Corneth, p.266.

R.3. Bauckham, art . c i t . , pp.15-17.

Sources de l a Tr a d i t l o n C h re t i e n n e , p.140.



2 5

c l a s s i c a l p r op h e ti c m i n i s t r y tow ard th e i n t e r p r e t i v e r o l e

a s s o c i a t e d with t h e s c r i b e .7 5

Prophecy i t s e l f was d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i ne . I t h a s been

d e s c r i b e d a s ' t h e f u n c t i o n of a c o n c e n t r a t e d s u c c e s s io n o f

men' , mean ing the c la ss ica l p rophe ts end ing with Ez e k ie l76

or D e u t e r o -I s a i ah , o r as the t a sk o f those who . . , ac te d a s

a m outhpiece f o r God'. Most d e f i n i t i o n s s t e e r e d c l e a r o f7 7

anything more t h a n a v a g u e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f the

proph et ic message . For the pr oph et s , with widely acknow-

ledg ed freedom, plumbed the dep ths o f i n d iv id u a l a n d c o r-78

p o r a t e e x i s t e n c e a n d r e s p o n s ib i l i t y. Tha t th ey c r e a t e d much

turmoil i n I s r a e l a n d y e t p o in t e d t h e w a y in to t h e fu tu r e

d u r in g th e e ' x i l e em ph asi ze d th e d i v e rg e n c i e s w i th i n t h e n a tu r e

o f the prophetic movement.Many d i f f e r e n t images o f p r op he t s and p r o p h e t i c a c t i v i t y

were d i s c e r n i b l e p r i o r t o t he e x i l e . The d e u te r on o m is t ic

s t e r e o ty p e o f the p reacher o f repentance I 1 Kings 17:13) ,

the prophet of doom ( J e r . 2 5 : 8 - 9 ) and the o f f i c i a l ' s a lv a -

t i o n ' p ro p h e t ( J e r. 2 8 9 - 4 ) were r e c o g n i z a b l e . N a t u r a l l y ,

a strong case cannot be made f o r a s t r i c t d i v i s i o n of t he

7 9

7 5 . Cf. R . Re n d to r f f i n H . Krimer e t a t , - r t . t i t .PP.796-812.

7 6 . 6.D. Naple r, 'P rophe t , Prophe t i sm ' s - DB, vo l . 3 ,p . 8 9 6 .

7 7 . A.A. MacRae, 'Prophets a n d Prophecy' 8 - E B , v o l . 4 ,p . 8 7 5 .

78. G o u o n Rad, O l d Testament Theolo XI, p p . 7 0 - 7 9 .7 9 . C f . J . L . C r e n s h a w . i C t , PP.39-48,

r e g a rd in g t h e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e f i g u r e s o t I Kings 13.



26

prophetic movement a l o n g t he se o r any o t h e r l i n e s , b u t the

b i b l i c a l w r f t e r s w e r e a w a r e o f p ro ph et ic c o n f l i c t , i d e a l i -80

zed the ' t r u e ' p r o p h e t a n d t r i e d t o e x p o s e t h e f a l s e ( D e u t .

18:15-22) and accepted the prophet as an independent81

f i g u r e o r a s a member o f t he cu l t i c pe rsonne l .

O . H . S t e c k r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e s e n s e o f u n i t y o f t h e

p ro p h e t i c movement o r i g i n a l l y d e r i v e d f ro m t h e n a t u re o f t h e

p r o p h e t s ' d e l i v e r y a n d the reception by the conimunity o f t he

prophets ' messages more t h a n f rom the na ture of the messagesthemselves . A message spoken in connect ion with the s tan-

82

d a r d p ro p h e t i c fo rm u l a e a n 7 lt3~ t o r m a 7 D N ~ a s , i p s o

f a c t o , a pr op he t i c message . The qu es t io n o f t he s t a t emen t ' s

v e r a c i t y was d e a l t with under the rub r i c o f f a l s e / t r u e p r o -

phecy. I t seems that w h i l e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f pro-83

p h e t i c a c t i v i t y w ere g e n e r a l l y a cc ep te d a n d r e c o g n i z e d , t h e

p ro ble ms i n h e r e n t i n d i s c e r n i n g t he f a l s e from the t rue were

n o t a d d re s s e d u n t i l the na t ion was th rea tened by d i s a s t e r .

T h e y e a r s a f t e r t h e e x i l e saw t h e p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e frag-

mented i n t o s e v e ra l m o re -o r- l e ss d i s t i n c t g ro u ps a n d the

' s p i r i t of prophecy' moving from the spoken w o r d t o l i t e r a r y

a c t i v i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e r e c e i v e d c o l l e c t i o n s o f t he pro -

p h e t s ' m e ss ag e s. C e r t a i n g ro u p s , by v i r t u e o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n -

80. I b i d pp.49-61.81. In t he e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r io d t h i s process dege-

n e r a t e d i n t o o p e n co nf ro nt a t io n which demeaned a l l p rophecy.82 . O . H . S t e c k , - r t . c i t . , p p .2 0 lf .83. 3 . L . Crenshaw, o p . -.i t 9 pp.1-22.



2 7

s h i p with t h e p ro p h e t s o f t h e p a s t , b e c a m e c r i t i c a l o f s e g -

ments of the community le ad er sh ip . Evidence o f the pr op he t i c

movement decreased a s i t e n t e re d t he p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ; t h e

l i t e r a t u r e r em ai ni ng p o fn t ed in d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , w h i c h

were open to new growth and development.

O . H . Ste c k p o s tu l a t e d a ' p r o p h e t i c - e s c h a t o l o g i c a l '84

t h e o l o g i c a l s tr ea m o f t r a d i t i o n w h i c h ran from the time

pr ior t o the appearance o f t h e e ig h th c e n tu ry B.C. prophe ts

in to t he Ch r i s t i a n e r a . Th is t h e o ry assumed th e c o n t in u i t y85

between prophecy a n d ap oc a l yp t i c and ne g lec ted the p roblems

i n h e r e n t i n a s tudy o f t h i s t r a n s i t i o n . O n a d i f f e r e n t t a c k ,

R .3. Gauckham suggested a r e a l break between th e two. He

s t a t e d that prophecy came to a n end , tha t the p rophe t ic

w r i t i n g s w e r e i n h e r i t e d by s c r i b e s w h o h a d l i t t l e b a c k g r o u n d

in them and that c o n t i n u i t y w a s main ta ined wi th the p rophe t ic

movement only on a n i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s a n d only by those who

c o n s c i o u s ly i n t e r p r e t e d t he p r o p h e t ic w r i t i n g s . P O Vi e l -86

hauer approached the problem from a w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t a n g l e

by ask ing two ques t ions : Was i t t he i n t e n t i o n o f t h e a po ca -l y p t i c w r i t e r s t o c o n ti n ue p ro ph ec y? " a n d D i d t h e y a c t u a l l y

con t inu e p rophecy?" Vi e l haue r answered thes e ques t ion s with

"y es " a n d " n o w s r e s p e c t i v e l y . tie s t a t e d t h a t d u a l i s m , d e t e r -

84. Cf. O.H. Steck , art . c i t . , pp .194-198.

860 R.3 Bauckham, - r t . c i t p p . 1 7 f .85. Ib fd . p p .2 0 1 -2 1 TT



28

minism a n d pess imism cons t i tu ted the gu l f which separa ted

apoca lyp t i c f rom prophecy.8 7

T here a r e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t models o f c o n t i n u i t y d i s c er n e d

by s c h o l a r s i n r esearch ing p rophecy a n d apoca l y p t i c . T he

f i r s t was O . H . S teck ' s under s tand ing o f t h e t r an s i t i o n . He

wou l d sugges t t ha t w i th in a c i r c l e ( o r group o f c i r c l e s ) ,

the composers o f t h e i n t e r p r e t l v e m a t e r i a l b ased on t he

p r o p he t i c w r i t i n g s and t he e a r l i e s t a p o c a l y p t i c t h i n k er s

co-mingled, each i n h i s turn g i v i n g way before new develop-

m en t s w i t h i n t he t r ad i t i on a n d t h e ex t e r n a l i n f l ue n ce s which

a f f e c t e d i t , un t i l t h e o c c a s i o n a r o s e fo r t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

1i t e r a t u r e t o be wri t t e n .

S t e c k ' s v ie w w ould b e p a r a l l e l e d , t o a n e x t e n t , by t h a t

o f POD. Hanson , who asse r t ed tha t the d i sc ip les o f Deu te ro-I s a i a h ( Tr i t o - I s a i a n i c a u t ho r s ) c o n s t i t u te d th e f i r s t apoca-

l y p t i c g r o u p . He thereby concluded that t h e a p o c a l y p t i c88

es cha to lo gy was f i r m l y embedded i n the prophetic movement o f89

t h i s p e r i o d . He made a di s t i n c t i o n between t h i s ' v i s i o n -

a r y ' pr op he ti c movement and a th eo cr at ic p ro ph et ic movement

( E zek i e l , Hagga i and Z echa r i ah ) , b u t h e s t a t ed t h a t t he90

theocra t i c p rophe t i c movement d i sappeared in to the r anks o f

8 7 . P O Vi e l haue r, ' I n t r odu c t i o n : Apoca l y pses and Re-l a t e d Sub je c t s ' , New Tes tament Apocrypha , v o l i - 2 , ed . R.McL. Wilson ( t he or i g i n a l German ed i t o r was E. Hennecke),



2 9

91t he l e v i t i c a l Temple pe rsonne l , t he reby g ran t ing the

v i s i on a r i e s s t a t us as the endur ing p rop het ic movement, which

l a t e r p roduced t he a p o c a ly p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ,

The second model was rep resen ted by R . 3 . Bauckham, who

s po ke o f l i t e r a r y c o n t l n u i t y. He l i m i t e d t h i s c o n t i n u i t y be-

tween prophecy a n d a p o c a l y p t i c t o those cases in which the

p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s were a c t u a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d , c l a im i n g d i s -

c o n t i n u i t y i n t he a reas o f world-view a n d t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

o f t hose g roups wh ich hand led the p rophe t i c l i t e ra tu re and

t h o s e which p rod uc ed t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e . I n Bauck-I

h a m ' s m i n d , t he p ro p h e ti c l i t e r a t u r e l i n k e d t he p r o p h e t i c

movement only to t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e

which e x h i b i t e d p r o ph e t ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T hi s p o s i t i o n l e d

h i mt o l o o k e l s e w h e r e f o r

asou rce fo r t he o the r segmen t s

o f

t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ,

I t was a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t Bauckham brought in the sub-

j e c t o f mantic wisdom and h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f G o von Rad's

arguments o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ' s d e r i v a t i o n f r o m

Wisdom c i r c l e s . Bauckham po st ul at ed a d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n t o

the Wisdom movement a n d , i n c o n t r a s t , o n l y a tenuous one to

the prophetic movement a n d l i t e r a t u r e ,9 2

G o v o n Rad argued tha t the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s b el on ge d

to the wi sdom t rad i t i on o f I s r a e l : t h e h eroe s o f th e a po ca -

91I s r a e l e

9 2

,P

e

C f . A.R, JohnR 3 B a u c k h a m

p . 5 6 - 6 3 . on, The Cu l t i c Prophet in Anci en t- r t . c i t pp.13 -16.



30

l y p t i c w r i t e r s were 'w is e ' ; the forms and con ten t o f Wisdom

a n d a p o c a ly p t i c w not na t ive to Judaism; Wi s d o m and apoca-

l y p t i c were both concerned with 'knowledg e ' , shared a d e t e r -m i n i s t i c view o f ex is te nc e and pursued the odi cy. Bauc kham

93

and von R a d s to o d i n agreement i n t h i s : t h e - se o f the p ro -

p h e t i c wri t ings p ro v id e d c o n t in u i ty in t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m

p ro p h e c y to a p o c a ly p t i c , w h i l e t h e b u lk o f t h e i n f lu e n c e u p o n

the l a t t e r came from Wisdom c i r c l e s .

The third model was derived from PO Vi e l h a u e r ' s v i e w

t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s t r i e d t o c o n s c i o u s l y s t a n d i n t h e

' p ro p h e t i c l i n e a g e ' . He s u g g es t e d t h a t t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

w r i t e r s t o o k u p t he i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t he p r o ph e t i c w r i t i n g s

because they wanted to maintain the prophetic message and

f a i t h t p e r s p e c t i v e and t o p re s e n t a r e v i s e d fo rm o f t h e o ld

p ro p h e t i c m es sa ge . Th is a p o c a ly p t i c p e r s p e c t iv e , Vie lh a u e r

t h o u g h t , was supposed to have been the same a s t h a t o f t h e

p rophe ts a n d , t h e r e f o r e , p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s o f c o n t i n u i t y

no ted be tween p rophecy and apo ca lyp t ic . Vie lha ue r s t re ss ed

th e f a c t t h a t t h e p ro p h e t i c o u t lo o k r a t h e r t han th e p ro p h e t i cl i t e r a t u r e was d e te r m in a ti v e a n d based this argument on the

a p o c a l y p t i s t s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a n d i n t e r e , s t i n o t h e r b o d i e s

o f l i t e r a t u r e and non-prophetic themes.

I t i s common, i n d i s c u s s i o n s re g a r di n g t he t r a n s i t i o n

9 3 . G o von Rad, o . c i t . , pp.301-308; 6 . von R a d , - is-i n Xsrael , Pp.263-283; . Sc h m i th a l s , op. -.i t 9 pp.128f.



31

f rom p rophecy to apoca lyp t i c , t o t race the deve lopmen t o f

e s c h a t o l o g y i n the Old Testament p ro ph et i c w ri t i n g s and the

l a t e r a p oc a ly p t i c w r i t i n g s . There w a s g re a t d i s a g re e m e n tamong sc ho la rs on the na ture o f esc ha to l og y and the e ra o f

i t s f i r s t a ppeara nce . H . Gressmann's thesis t h a t there was

a f i x e d c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f m y t h i c l e s c h a to l o g i c a l i d e as t o

whlch Amos re fe r red (c f . Amos 5:18-20), r e t a i n e d l i t t l e94

s c h o l a r l y su p p o r t . O t he r s c h o l a r s wou ld a rg u e t h a t escha to -

l o g y w a s d i f f i c u l t t o d e f in e i n te rms o f the p rop he t ic works;

the p rophe t s d i d not t h i n k i n a b s o l u t e terms ( e . g . h i s t o r y ) ,

b u t i n images (e .g . t he man i fe s t a t ion o f God's k i n g l y r u l e ) .

They envis ioned God's triumph b u t i n c r e a s i n g l y f a i l e d t o r e -

f l e c t upon the connect ion between th e i r p r e se n t and the

f u t u r e ' a g e o f b l e s s i n g ' .9 5

3. Bright was c o rr e c t when s t a t in g 'whether o r no t one

desc r ibes the hope o f p r e - e x i i i c I s r a e l a s a n e s c h a t o l o g y i s

a mat ter o f d e f i n i t l o n ' . However, t he f a c t o f t h i s admis-

s i o n d i d not grant h i m l i c e n s e t o u s e t h e t e rm i m p re c i s e l y.

96

97

3 . P. M . v a n d e r P l o e g , t a k i n g t h e s i d e o f S. Mowinckel, i n -

9 4 . H. Gressmann , Der Ursp rung de r i s ra e l i t i s ch e n -j i d i s c h e n E s c h a t o l o g i e ( r e v. e d. Der M e s s i a s ) .

9 5 . B . M . Anderson, c i t -p.538; D.R. J o n e s , I s a i a h5 6 - 6 6 a n d J o e l , p p . 2 4 f 0 , % t x 0 ; s c h a t o l o g y in terms' e s c h a t o n ' o f God 's p u rp o se s f o r t h e wo r l d . G o von R a d , O l dTe s t a m e n t T h e o l o y 11, p.115, commented t h a t the ' a b s o l u t rend o f time and h story' d i d n o t e x i s t f o r t he p rophe t s .

9 6 . 3 . Bright , 0 - . c i t . , p . 4 5 5 .9 7 . C f . 3 . Brig I+ , Covenant and Promise, pp.18f.



3 2

s i s t e d upon a l i t e r a l d e f i n i t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f the

word. He concluded t h a t ' . . . we may on ly speak of es ch ato -

l o g yi n

t he making '. Thus he wou ld exc lude v i r t u a l l y a l l

9 9

p r o p h e t i c m a t e r i a l , whereas some sc h o l a rs would in c l u d e much

o f t h e p ro p h et i c l i t e r a t u r e from t h e e i g h t h c en t ury B . C .

prophec ie s o f Amos a n d I sa i ah onwards .100

Brigh t ' s admiss ion o f t h e i m p re c i s e a p p l i c a t i o n o f

' e s c h a t o l o g y ' t o t he p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n w a s t e l l i n g . I t

was a term borrowed from New Testament studies a n d was ack-

w a r d t o employ i n Old Testam ent r e s e a rc h . To my m i n d ,

e s c h a t o l o g y d o e s r e q u i r e a concept o f a n ' end-t ime' a n d a

program of events (however s l igh t ) which were t o precede the

E n d . P a s s a g e s l i k e I s . 2 2 - 5 and 11:1-10 were ideal lmages

which the p rophe t p ro j ec t ed in to the fu tu re .In t he p l ace o f t he t e rm escha to logy, I p r e f e r S. Mowin-

c k e l ' s p hr as e ' f u t u r e hop e' f o r , a lt ho ug h i t i nc l ud e d

e s c h a t o l o g y a s a l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p r i m i t i v e f u t u r e

o r ie n ta t io n , i t wa s n e u t r a l a n d a more comprehensive ex-

p re s s i o n . The p r e - e x i l i c p ro ph e t s te nd ed t o r e f r a i n f ro m

p r e c l s e f o r m u l a t i o n s a n d t h e e x i l i c p rop h et s were m a in l y

concerned with t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f the community a f t e r i t s

c a p t i v i t y. I t was o n ly a f t e r th e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c y e a r s

pp .261ff .Yf S E o v9 8 . S. Mowinckel,9 9 . 3.P.M. v a n d e r l o e g , ' E s c h a to l o g y i n t h e O l d

1 0 0 . C f . T.C. Vriezen , ' P rophecy a n d E s c h a t o l o g y ' ,Tes tament ' , - T S x v i i (1972) , p . 9 7 .

V T S U P 4 (1953), pp.199-229.



33

tha t the fu ture hope of the prophets began to lose the con-

nec t i on with c o n c r e t e h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y. B u t even then,101

that i s o nly one e lement o f a t r ue e sch a t o l ogy.

R . J . Bauckham made a very conc i se a n d i n s i g h t f u l s t a t e -

ment when he commented (on P O D . Hanson, The Dawn o f Apoca-102

l y p t i c ) :

The r e a l i s s ue i s whether theo logy mayseek the ul t i ma te meaning o f human l i f e a n dthe ul t imate achievement o f God's purpose be-yond the h i s to ry o f t h i s w o r l d . . . P r e - e x l l i cp rophecy F o r Hanson] i s the Old Testamenttheological norm par t ly because i t d i d not d ot h i s , w h i l e a p o c a l y p t i c i s a s e r i o u s d e c l f n efrom the norm because i t d i d .

The apocalyptic authors made much greater u s e of a cosmo-

log ica l -geograph ica l mode l o f the world than the prophets

d i d . T h i s i s owed t o th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e , t he p e r v a s i v e

He l l en i s t i c atm osphere i n which they l ived, a n d t h e i r a c -

ceptance o f mythic a n d cultic concepts from the common

m i l i e u o f t h e i r d a y. They w er e a l s o d e a l i n g with u l t i m a t e

i s sue s r ega r d i ng t he wor l d , good and e v i l , and t he de s t i n y

o f m a n k i n d . The canvas upon which they worked had to be o f

a comparab le s i z e . The p rophe t s , min i s t e r ing to the im-

mediate needs o f I s r a e l , s e l d o m a t t a i n e d t h i s s c o p e .

V . A Survey o f the E ar ly I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f A p o c a l y p t i c

Study of the apo ca l yp t i c l i t e r a t u r e t r a i l e d beh ind much

~

101. S. Mowinckel, 0.p . c i t . , p.150.102. R.3. Bauckham, - r t . c i t . , p.19.



34

o f t he re sea rch f n o the r a reas o f Old Tes t amen t s tudy fo r

s e v e ra l r e a s o n s : the d i s c i p l i n e b e g a n i n the New Testament

f i e l d , p r e - c r i t i c a l r e s e a r c h d i d not extend t o t h e e x t r a -

canonica l wri t i n gs and compos1 t i on s were not in te rp re te d

with in t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n te x t s. L a t e r ,

i n v e s t ig a t i o n was s t i f l e d by 3 . We ll h au s en ' s a s p e r s i o n s o f

a p o c a l y p t i c a s a degenera t ion o f t h e p r o p h e t l c f a i t h , s o

t h a t in recen t decades i t has been un jus t ly neg lec t ed by

German s c h o l a r s h i p p a r t i c u l a r l y . I t has come in to i t s103

own i n t h e l a s t ha lf- ce ntu ry, a l though much work remains t o

b e done before scholars can unders tand the apoca lyp t fc

l i t e ra tu re aga ins t t he env i ronmen t wh ich gave i t b i r t h a n d

in which i t f l o u r i s h e d .

The i n i t i a l work i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i cl i t e ra t u r e was p roduced by F . L k k e i n 1832, He began with

the book of Revelat ion a n d ex tended the des igna t ion ' apoca lyp -

t i s c h e L i t t e r a t u r ' t o o t h e r w or ks , s e t t i n g a p a r t a c a t e g o ry

due sp e ci a l i ze d study. Lucke determined t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c w a sI

e s s e n t i a l l y a v ie w o f his tory formed by t h e e f f e c t s o f d i s -

a l lu s ionmen t o f hope and the tension deriving from i n t r a -

community conflict a n d p e r s e c u t i o n by enemies. A . Hi lgen -

f e l d ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n was t he r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c

was the intermed4 a t e s te p , h i s t o r i ea1 l y a n d t h e o l o g i c a l l y ,

t h a t b o u n d Judaism t o e a r l y C h r i s t ia n i t y.104

103. K. Kpch, a . *c i t 9 w a s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h i s .104. F , Lucke, Versuch e i n e r v o l l s t a n d i g e n E i n l e i t u n g

i n d i e 0 ffenbaruncl Johannfs und in d i e ses ammte ADoca1YD-;

. Hff g e n f e l d , D l e j u" d is ch e Ap o k a l y p t i kin i h r e r s e s c h i c h t l i c h e n E n t w i c k l u n g (1857).



3 5

3. Wellhausen d i d no t r eg a r d t h e ap o ca ly p t i s t s a s

c r e a t i v e t h i n k e r s , b u t as borrowers o f e a r l i e r p r o p h e t i c

f o rms . He j ud ged t h e ap o ca ly p t i c l i t e r a t u r e a f a i l u r e105

ag ai n s t the s ta nda rd o f the Old Testament pro phe ts . He

argued that t h e s p i r i t u a l p r e d e c e s s o r s o f Jesus were the

c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s o f I s r a e l and n o t t h e ap o ca ly p t i c

v i s i o n a r l e s .

When H. Gunkel turned h i s fo rm-cr i t i ca l method to a

s tudy o f t h e ap o ca ly p t i c l i t e r a tu r e , h e b eg an the inqu i ry

i n t o th e s o c i o l o g i c a l r o o t s o f a p o c a l y p t i c . He argued106

t h a t t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i d e a s a s s o c i a t e d with the Day of

Yahweh were de r iv e d from the Babylon ian c re at i o n myth, where

pr imeva l ex i s t ence was p r o je c te d in to the fu tu re , chaos r e -

turned a n d a new heaven and ea rt h were c re at ed . H. Gressmann

. j o in ed Gunkel in concluding t h a t the apoca lyp t i s t s d rew

heavily on Canaanite myth, t h o u g h Gressmann argued that the

e s ch a to l o g i c a l i d ea s w er e o f g r e a t a n t i q u i t y and were common

t o t h e an c i en t S emi t ic w o r ld - v iew. He v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i -107

f i e d t h e e s c h a t o l o g y o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e w i t h t h e s e

myths recast i n Jewish thought-forms. S. Mowinckel m a i n -

t a i n e d that escha to log ica l fo rmula t ions de r ived f rom the Day

o f Yahweh 's en thronement l i turg ies i n the New Yea r ' s f e s t i v a l

in ea r l y I s r a e l . Hebrew e s ch a to lo g y w as , t o h i m , a pro-108

105, 3 . Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur G e s c h i c h t e I s r a e l s(1879) .

106. H . Gunkel, Schgpfung u n d Chaos I n U r z e i t u n dEndtei t (1895).

108. S. M o w t n c k e l , % G s t u d l e n I 1 (1922).7 7 . . Gressmann, ci o



36

j e c t i o n i n t o t h e f u t u r e o f w h a t had been dramat ica l ly

presen ted i n t h e c u l t .109

3. Weiss a n d A . Schwel tzer broke with Wellhausen ' s

e v a l u a t i o n o f th e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e by d e c l a r i n g t h a t

Jesus' message of the Kingdom o f God could be understood

o n ly within the con tex t o f Jewish apoca lyp t ic though t o f

t h a t day. They s t re ss ed th at Jesus ' message he ra l de d the110

imminent d is rupt ion o f the age by the coming Kingdom, a

d i s t i n c t i v e e lem en t in many examples o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

l i t e r a t u r e and long removed i n time and t h o u g h t from the

prophe t s .

I t r emained f o r R.H. C h ar l e s t o e d i t a n d p u b l i s h t h e

a l l -i m p o r t an t t e x t s o f t he a p o c al y p t ic l i t e r a t u r e , a s w e l l

as to produce commentaries o n many o f the i n d i v i d u a l com-

po s i t i on s . His work remains the found at lon upon which111

r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p h a s continued t o b u i l d , His l i t e r a r y

ca t eg o r i e s h av e n o t w i t h s t o o d t h e t e s t o f t ime, b u t the en-

d u r i n g v a lu e o f s o l i d t e x t u a l w o r k i s nowhere s o e v i d e n t a s

here . He r eco g n i zed t h e r o o t o f a p o c a l y p t i c i n O l d Tes ta -

ment prophecy ( f i n d i n g a p o c a l y p t i c i n the canonical pro-

phets ) and r e je c t ed Wel lhausen ' s omis s ion o f a p o c a l y p t i c112

i n the development of New Testament t h o u g h t .

109. c'Prolegomena- e i , ed.

F. M110. . Jand A . Schwe

111. RO l d Testamen

112, RI s r a e l J u d a

f . T o Ht o the

, Cross

. Weissi t z e r ,.H. Chat , v o l .TH. Chaism, an

enshaw, o c i t . , p p 0 4 9 f . , and P O D . Hanson,S tu d y o f j e i jTTh A p o ca ly p t i c ' , Magna1 i a

e t a l , p p . 3 8 9 f f ., Di e Pr ed i- gt desu vom Reiche G ot te s (1892)Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-korschung ( 1 9 0 6 ) .r l es , The Apocrypha a n d Pseudepigrapha o f

2 (1933).r l e s , T h e Doct r ine o f a F u t u r e L i f e I nd C h r i s t i a n i t y, p.200.



37

In essence , the b e q u e s t o f e a r l y s c h o l a r s h i p t o t h e

community o f modern scho la r s i s a body o f l i t e r a t u r e , with

many of the major l ineso f

i nv es t ig a t i on a l r ead y d rawn . Thes u r v i v i n g works have l i t t l e i n common, written i n d i f f e r e n t

languages a n d c o nt a in i ng l i t t l e c o n s is t e n t d o c t r i n e o r o ut-

l o ok . T h ei r u n i t y i s n o t u n l l k e that o f the O l d Testament

i t s e l f , many d i s p a r a t e v o i c e s r a i s e d i n devot ion to God,

a t t e n t i v e t o His word and expectant of His imminent act to

d e l i v e r H is p e o p l e. The e a r l i e r s c h o l a r s r e c o g ni z e d t h i s

and have pointed the way toward a f u l l e r u nd er st an di ng o f the

a p o c a l y p t t c l i t e r a t u r e a s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t he Jews' v i t a l

f a t th.

VI. The Def in i t i on o f Ap o c a l y p t i c

Having seen t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c h a s been used i n r e f e r e n c e

t o a body o f l i t e ra t u r e , a group o f i deas o r themes and a

way o f look ing a t the wo rl d , we may proceed toward a de-

f i n i t i o n : ' w h a t i s a p oc a ly p t i c ?" In l o o ki n g f o r a s t a r t i n g

p o i n t t o c o n s t r u c t t h a t d e f i n i t i o n , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o

r e a l i z e that from the very beginning the te rm apocalyp t ic h a s

been used t o descr ibe a body o f l i t e ra tu re , wh ich has been

d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a s e t o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n ce p ts .

3 . Lindblom, W. Baumgartner, H O W .Robhson and H.H.

Rowley a l l r e c o g n i z e d t h i s f a c t and, wri t ing within the space

o f a few ye a r s , made s i g n i f i c a n t con t r ibu t ion s t o the unde r-s t and ing o f ap oc al yp t i c as a l i t e r a r y phenomenon.

1 1 3



38

Their j ud gm en ts c o n t i n ue t o c a r r y t h e w e i g h t o f c r i t i c a l

s c h o l a r s h i p i n sp i te of the many advances i n the f i e l d .

T h e w i s e s t c o u r s e o f a c t f o n , i n pursu ing the goa l o f a

d e f i n i t i o n , w ould be t o b e gi n with the judgment of a r e -

c o g n i z e d a u t h o r i t y on t h e p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e and

t r a d i t i o n s .

In his monograph on I s . 2 4 - 2 7 , a s e c t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e

l o n g r e c o g n i z e d by many scholars as h a v i n g a n a f f i n i t y w i t h

t h e id e as o f t he l a t e r ap o c al y p t ic l i t e r a t u r e , 3 . Lindblom

l i s t e d c e r t a i n fe a tu r es a s c h a r a c t e r l s t i c :114

t ra nsce nde nta l i sm, mythology, cosmo logica lo r i e n t a t i o n , p e s s i m i s t i c t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t o r y ,d u a l i s m , d i v l s i o n o f h i s t o r y i n t o p e r io d s , t hed o c t r i n e of t w o a g e s , p l a y i n g with numbers,pseudo-ecs tasy , a r t i f i c i a l c l aims o f i n s p i r a t i o n ,pseudonymity, a n d m y s t e r i o u s n e s s .

Later Lindblom compared prophet ic eschato logy and apoca-

l y p t i c :1 1 5

The d i f f e r e n c e be tw ee n e s c h a t o l o g y a n da p o c a l y p t i c d o e s n o t l i e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r o ft h e i n d i v i d u a l i d e a s e m p l o y e d , b u t i s seenr a t h e r i n t he e n t i r e l i t e r a r y ch a ra ct e r o f t h etwo g e n r e s . , I n t he a p o c a l y p t ic w r i t i n g s o fl a t e r Juda ism, a su s t a in ed a t t empt i s made t o

113, 3 , Lindb lom, Die Jesa j a -Apoka lypse ( Je s . 2 4 - 2 7 ) ,( L U A x x x i v / 3 , 1938); W Baumgartner, ' E i n Vi e r t e l j a h r -hunder t DaRobi nson ,B i b l e , e d .R e l e v a n c e

114.115.

n i e l f o r s c h u n g ' , - h R x i' T h e R e l i g i o n o f ApocalTOW, Manson

o f A p o c a l y p t3. L l n d b l omJ . L i nd b l orn

p p . 3 0 7 - 3 1- c ( 1 9 4 4 ) .

9 Prophecya r t , - i t ,

( 1 9 3 9 )y p t i c '1 ; H.H

s P.10i n Anc

p p . 1 3 6 f f . ; HOW., A Companion t o t he

kowley, The

2 ,i e n t I s r a e l , p . 4 2 2 .

3



3 9

g i v e a coheren t a n d systematic form t oeschato log ica l ideas taken over f rom theprophets and from popular be1 i e f , p re s e n t i n gthem as d iv ine secre t s a n d mysterious doc-t r ines . . .g en er a l ly intended t o be read byt he g ro u ps o f th e i n i t i a t e d . . . W h a t i s d e t e r-m i n a t i v e i s genera l t endency, p sycho log ica lbackground, a n d l i t e r a r y c h a r a c t e r.

Sc ho la rs hi p has passed beyond Lindblom's o u t l in e of the

d i f f e re n t i a t i o n between p rophecy a n d apocalyptic. He did

n o t touch on the mul ti -dimensional na ture of the ap oc a l yp t i c

l i t e r a t u r e nor the d i f f e r e n t t r ad i t i o ns and developmentswithin t he apoc a ly p t i c movement i t s e l f .

-In an a r t i c l e which d i d n ot a t t a i n much i n t e r e s t , M.

Ris t p ro t e s t e d a g a i n s t t he va gu en es s of p r e v i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s

o f a p o c a l y p t i c . He p o s t u l a t e d a b a s i c p a t t e r n o f apoca-116 -

l y p t i c thou ght ( d u a l i s t i c a n d escha to log ica l ) wh ich was

oc ca si on al ly supplemented by such secondary fe at ur es a s

vis ion -fo rm , pseudonymity, the Messiah , an ge ls , symbolism,

e t c . , which were ne i th er normat ive nor co ns t i tu t i ve . The

id ea was sound, b u t Ris t d i d no t carry th rough with i t .

Pseudonymity a n d a n g e l o l o g y a r e s u c h w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t

phenomena t h a t they ought never to be included under thesame des ignat ion . T o be sure , they are importan t t o an

unders t and ing o f apoca lyp t i c a n d should be inc luded i n I t s

d e f i n i t i o n , b ut n ot in t h i s manner. Ne ve rt he le ss , the ob-

s e r v a t i o n t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c id e a s a r e more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n

l i t e r a r y forms i s espec ia l ly no tewor thy.

116. M . R i s t , 'Apoca lyp t i c i sm ' a - D B , vol. 1, pp.157-161.



40

G . E . Ladd, w h o h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

' r e a l i z e d e s c h a t o l o g y ' i n New Testament s tudies , d i s t i n -

g u i sh e d b et we en a p o c a l y p t i c a s a l i t e r a r y g r o u p a n d a s a

system of tho ught . Because h i s emphasis l a y more upon117

t h i s dichotomy than on a rigorous d e f i n i t i o n , L a d d a l s o

f a i l e d t o c o n s i d e r a p o c a l y p t i c a s an h i s t o r i c a l phenomenon

o r a d i s t i n c t i v e world-view.

Prior t o bo th R i s t and Ladd , 0 . P l E g e r o u t l i n e d a number

o f prel iminary arguments and then conc luded tha t t he

a p o c a l y p t i c w or ld -v ie w was t he i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t o f t h e l o s s

o f t h e k i n g s h i p and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the t heocracy, t he

r u l e o f God through a p r i e s t l y h i e r a r c h y .118

P.D. Hanson has cont r i bu t ed t o the unders tanding of the

a p o c a l y p t i c o u t l o o k a s t h e p r o d u c t o f c e r t a i n s o c i o l o g i c a l119and p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e s with in the Jewish community.

He s h i e d away f r o w r e l i a n c e upon l i s t s o f l i t e r a r y o r

i d e a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n h i s d e f i n i t i o n s , o b se rv in g t h a t

no o n e book conta ins a l l the f e a t u r e s o f any l i s t a n d t h a t i n

r e t a i n i n g a l i t e r a r y d e f i n i t i o n t h e re was t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f

d e f i n i n g a p o c a l y p t i c a l l t oo b road ly and w i t h o u t coming t oI 2 0

g r i p s with the i n d i v i d u a l t e x t s . H i s d e f i n i t i o n s f o r

p r o p h e t i c a n d a p o c a l y p t i c e s c h a t o l o gy r e c o g n i z e t he h i s -

t o r i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f the t a s k , A p o c a l y p t f c e s c h a t o l o g y



41

took over f rom prophet ic eschato logy when the p r o p h e t i c t a s k

o f i n t e g r a t i n g v i s i o n a r y i n si g ht - th e g l lm p s e o f t h e f u t u r e

r e c e i v e d i n the heaven ly counc i l - in to the s t ru c t u r es and

p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t he r e a l w o rl d i s a b d i c at e d .121

Hanson observed that the forms o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

l i t e r a t u r e were f i r s t used in the e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e o f

J u d a i s m . Hence, he tu r ned t o th e h i s t o r i c a l , s o c io -122

l o g i ca l c i r cu ms tan ces as more important to a proper under-

s t a n d i n g o f ap oc al yp t i c . He d i d a d m i t t h a t the l i t e r a r y123

forms which the apocalypt is ts took u p w e r e o f t e n h y b r i d i z e d

s o t h a t some acq u i r ed a d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r. However ,124

the neces sa ry fo rm -c r i t i ca l work h a s no t been ca r r i ed ou t

on the tex ts to a l low any summarizat ion .

W .Schrnithals went much further t h a n Hanson i n moving1 2 5

away from a l i t e r a r y d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c :

The ap o ca ly p t i c u n de rs t an d in g o fe x i s t e n c e i s p ro po se d a s a b a s i c e x p e r i e n c eo f e x i s t e n c e f o r e v e r y p o s s i b l e d e r i v a t i o nfrom th e e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n . I t i s alw ay smore t h a n a r e a c t i o n t o ca u s al s t r u c t u r e si n e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y . I t cannot d ie becausei t was never born , and the f a c t t h a t his-

tor ica l development cannot k i l l i t showsthat i t w a s a l s o n o t b e g o t t e n by h i s t o r y.

A p o c a l yp t i c , f o r S ch m it ha ls , i s an o u t lo o k on l i f e , an o p t i o n

always open i f n o t co n s i s t en t l y ch o s en . I t i s based upon a

p e s s i m i s t i c m e n t a l i t y j o i n e d t o a fa i th-sys tem which pos tu-

la te d d i v i ne in te rv en t i on . However, Schmi tha ls has gone t o o

POD.I b l d .m

*p e *i t p p . l l f *

s , OJ -.i t p .148 .



4 2

f a r i n j e t t i so n i ng the deve lopmental a spec t o f a p o c a l y p t i c

a s we l l a s i t s p l a c e with in the conte x t o f the O l d Testament

a n dJudaism

a n din n o t r e c o g n i z i n g t h e u n i q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between apoca lyp t ic a n d the Judae o-Christ ian concept o f

t ime /h i s to ry. Apoca lyp t i c w a s t i e d t o h i s t o r y a n d , w i t h i n

J ud a is m , was s e v e re l y s t l f l e d a f t e r t h e d is ap p oi nt me nt s o f

7 0 and 1 3 5 A . D .

Whi le i t i s e a sy t o a g r e e with Hanson in h f s e v a l u a t i o n

of t he h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t a s important i n the development o f

apoca lyp t i c , he has e r red i n denying a l i t e r a r y d e f i n i t i o n

t o a p o c a l y p t i c i n order to speak o f i t s emergence w i t h i n the

p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e e a r l y po s t - ex i l i c pe r io d . He

would , o f course , affirm t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c c a n r e f e r t o a

l i t e r a r y movement which , un l i ke thec ~ i t r 7

LIS? o f t he p rophe t s ,had no p r e - l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y. Be ca us e a p o c a l y p t i c i s d e s-

c r i p t i v e o f a l i t e r a r y g r o u p , i t seems wise to seek a d e f i -

n i t i on which inc ludes tha t po in t . Fo r, i f we begin from

Ha n s o n ' s h i s t o r i c o - s o c i o l o g i c a l m o d el o f c o n f l k t , we w i l l

h a v e d i f f i c u l t y i n understandfng a n apocalypt ic work which

does not conform to his model . 1 2 6

When formulat ing a defini t ion o f apocalypt ic , we must

take in to account that i t was, a t t imes , a l l t e r a t u r e o f the

underground, the product o f a group denied i t s f u l l s t a t u s

In s o c i e t y. A t other t imes, t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i c wri t ings o f a

126. H.H. Rowley, a r t . cite, p.487, a n d h i s commentsr e g a r d i n g the h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t o f t h e Testament o fAb r a ham.



43

s m a l l nation pushed around the r ing o f wor ld p o l i t i c s would

be a good d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e . A n d a g a i n ,

e s p e c i a l l y l a t e r , i t was th e l i t e r a t u r e o f s e c r e t g r ou p s,

w h i c h c i r c u l a t e d i t p r i v a t e l y , h a vi n g w it hd ra wn i t from

t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e when t h e w r i t i n g s ' p o p u l a r i t y had

cheapened i t s impact a n d meaning,

The a p o c a l y pt i c l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n i t s l a t e r

s t a g e s , i s a m aj or l i t e r a r y g ro up ( o r g e n r e ) , a s f u l l y unique

a s the Wi s d o m l i t e r a t u r e or th e p r o p he t i c l i t e r a t u r e . As

D o S . R u s s e l l o b s e r v e d :

127

128

The c h a r a c t e r o f J e w is h a p o c a l y p t i c[l i t e r a t u r d throughout the in ter- tes tamen-t a l p e r i o d i s c omplex i n t he ex treme; t h e rea r e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s b et wee n on e booka n d anoth er. . .Th ere i s , however, a homogeneitya b o u t i t which j u s t i f i e s i t s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a sa d i s t i n c t l i t e r a r y c or pus . t i s n o t a l w a y se a s y t o d e f i n e i n what this homogeneity con-s i s t s f o r , a lt ho ugh i t r e v ea l s c e r t a i n f a i r l ywe1 1 -d ef l n ed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a p o c a l y p t i c i sr e c o g n i z a b l e e v e n w h e n some o f i t s f o r m a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a bs en t ,

I t i s here that Hanson par ,company. Hanson poin ted out the

h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f ' f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ' b e i n g a b s e n t in

m a j o r a p o c a l y p t i c w or k s. He n ot ed t h a t Tr i t o - I s a i a h d oe s

n o t p o s s e s s t h e ' f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ' o f a p o c a l y p t i c l i k e

Z e c h a r f a h 1-8, y e t he c a t e g o r i z e d Tr i t o - I s a i a h a s ' e a r l y -

127. 3 . 6 . G a m m t e , 'The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , S t ag es o f Growth,and C h a n g i n g I n t e n t i o n s i n the Book o f D a n i e l ' 9 5 (1976),p . 1 9 2 .

128. D o S . R u s s e l l , OJ c l t . , p.104.



4 4

129a p o c a l y p t i c ' a n d Zechar i ah 1-8 ' a p o c a l y p t i c - fo rm ' .

KO Koch a r r i ved a t conc lus ions s i mi l a r t o t hose o f130

Russet 1 . Part o f the d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t Hanson was

working with s i x t h - a n d f i f t h - c e n t u r y B . C . works , wh i l e t he

o thers focused on the wri t ings of the second cen tury B.C.

P O von der Osten-Sacken has examined the re fe re n c es i n

Dan. 2,7,8-12 t o a d e t e rm i n i s t i c view of h i s tory and has

analyted them with a view t o v e r i fy i n g wh e t h e r t h i s p e r s p e c -

t i v e was taken from Wisdom o r proph ecy. He looked a t them

th rough the ca t ego r i e s o f Wisdom: the or de r o f c r e a t i o n

a n d t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f na tu ra l phenomena, the d oc tr in e t h a t

e v e ry t h i n g h a s i t s ' t i m e ' , a n d t he o rde r ing o f a man's

l i f e . tie c on cl ud ed t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c , a s r e p re s e n t e d i n131

the book o f D a n i e l , c a n n o t d e r i v e s o l e l yfrom

Wisdom. HeIs t a t e d that i t can be c a l l e d . . . a l e g it i m at e , i f a l s o l a t e

a n d s p e c i a l , c h i l d o f prophecy which, with t h e p a s s i n g y e a r s ,

f i r s t o p e n e d i t s e l f t o Wisdom, although i t w a s not wi thout1 3 2

l e a r n i n g i n e a r l i e r t i me s ' .

The theme o f determinism i s a weak l i n k i n von Rad's

at tempt t o de r iv e ap oc a l yp t l c f rom Wisdom. There i s a v a s t

1 2 9 . P O D .Hanson, a . c i t . , p p o 2 3 4 f , , 2 4 9 f f . ; c f . H .

1 3 0 .131. P. von de r Osten-Sacken, 'Di e Apokaly pt ik i n ihrem

132. I b f d p.63; t h e t r a n s l a t i o n ~ m i n e .

Gese, ' A n f a n g u n d E n d e de r Apoka lyp t ik , d a rg e s t e l l t amSachar j abuch ' , Z T h K l x x (19731, p.22.

Verhal tnis zu Prophe t l e und Weishe i t ' , T hE H c l v i i ( 1 9 6 9 ) .

K . Km OJ c i t . , p . 3 3 .



4 5

133d if fe re n c e between the 'determinism' of Qoh ele t h 9 f o r

example, a n d the 'determined end' of t ime i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

l i t e r a t u r e ; de te rmini sm i s no t , however, an es se n t ia l doc-

t r i n e o f any Wisdom o r ap o ca ly p t i c t r ad i t i o n .

J O G . Gammie h a s o f f e r e d a d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c134

which recognized i t s l i t e r a r y and i d e a t i o n a l n a t u r e s :

A p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e i s a major a n dcomposite 1 i t e r a r y genr e comparable to wisdoml i t e r a t u r e and p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e ; a work

may b e c l a s s i f i e d a s belonging t o t h i s com-p o s i t e 1 i t e r a r y g en r e p r o v id ed i t co n t a in s( i ) some form of re ve la t i .o n , whether o f f u t u r eeven ts o r heaven ly con ten t s ; ( i i ) a c l u s t e r o fsub-genres or component genres; a n d ( i i i ) ac l u s t e r of id ea ti o na l elements common t o worksa l r e a d y a g re e d t o b e lo n g t o t h e ap o ca ly p t i cl i t e r a t u r e .

I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n i n these s ta tements a n dis

to incorporate work a l ready done i n t h e f i e l d , i t , n e c e s s a r yto modi fy t h i s d e f i n i t i o n .

I would amend Gammie's point ( i ) by in s i s t i n g upon the

a r t i f i c i a l n a t u r e o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s ' b l a i m s t o i n s p i r a -

t i o n . G . E . L a d d a n d H . H . Rowley asser ted t h a t the135

r e l e v a n c e o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e l a y i n i t s power to

summon s p i r i t u a l s t r en g th i n i t s r e a d e r s , n o t i n i t s v e r a c i t y

133. C f . the commentaries on passa ges l i k e Qoh. 3: l- 15 ;D o S . R u s s e l l , op. -.t t 9 p p . 2 3 0 - 2 3 4 ; H.H. Rowley, 9p c i t . ,pp.167-171; a n d G o von R a d , ' T h e D iv in e D e t e r mjn a t i o n o fTimes', Wisdom i n Is rae l , pp .263-283. W. Zimmerli-, OldTestament Kheol ogy i n O u t l i n e , p.237, observed : ' I fh t e r p r e t a t i o n o f ap o ca ly p t i c i s m a s determinism were correc t ,

there would be no p l a c e f o r f r e e w i l l ' . B u t s i d e - b y - s i d e a r e' t h e l eg en ds o f t he f a i t h f u l n e s s o f D an ie l a n d h i s f r i e n d s ' .134. 3 . 6 . Gammie, ar t . c i t . , pp.192f.135. Cf . R . N o r t h , a r t . T t* 9 p . 6 2 .



46

a s a n c i e n t w r i t i n g s b u t as a s lncere s ta tement o f God ' s

coming Kingship. The i d ea o f p r e - d i l u v i a n w r i t i n g s may have

been re jec ted ou t o f h a n d , b u t the Jews were less concerned

with aUthOrShip, s o the a u t h o r i t y o f t h e ap o ca ly p t i c

l i t e r a t u r e c o u l d b e s ep ar at ed from i t s a u t h en t i c ft y f a i r l y

e a s i l y .136

Gammie's point ( 1 1 ) ag a in p o in t s u p the lack o f d i s -

tinction in many works between 1 i t e ra ry fo rm a n d 1i t e r a r y

dev i ces . K . Koch ' s fo rm-cr i t i ca l s tudy, al though not aI37

d e t a f l e d s t u d y o f t he ap o c a ly p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , lumped t o g e th e r

f e a t u r e s s u c h a s pseudonymfty and symbolism a n d p a r e n e t i c

speeches. Pseudonymity a n d s y mb o l i s m a r e l i t e r a r y d ev i ce s138

and no t l i t e r a r y forms. Gammie's own l i s t o f sub-genres

( l i t e r a r y f orms o c cu r ri n g i n the complex l i t e ra ry genre o f

a p o c a l y p t i c ) p r o pe r ly i gn or ed l i t e r a r y de v i c e s , b u t t h e i r

omission from t h e d e f i n i t i o n i s S ne xc us ab le; t h e l i t e r a r y

devSces o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e form a d i s t i n c t i v e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

Gammie's po i n t ( I i i ) l acks the idea o f a h i s t o r i c a l

or s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t a s a background fo r the idea t iona l

e lements , a p o i n t which Hanson and P l8 ge r p a r t i c u l a r l y em-

p h a si z ed . A p o c al y p t ic i s m o r e than a cer ta in menta l

a t t i t u d e a g a i n s t o p p r e s s f v e p o w e r s ; Gammie's d e f i n l t i o n does

n o t sugges t th i s .

3 . 3 . C o l l i n s ' d e f t n i t t o n o f ' a p o ca ly p s e ' t s a n e x c e l l e n t

136. W. O . E . O e s t e r l e y, o . c i t . 8 pp.74f.137. Cf. my d e f i n i t f o n r mts o f d e v i c e s , forms

a n d idea t fona l e lemen ts .138. K O Koch, Op. cft .8 pp.24-28.



47

139one t o u t i l i z e :

'A po caly ps e ' i s a g e n r e o f r e v e l a t o r y1 i t e r a t u r e with a narra t ive f ramework, i nwhich a r e v e l a t f o n i s mediated by an other-w o r ld ly b e in g t o a human r e c i p i e n t , d i s -c l o s i n g a t r anscenden t r ea l t ty which i s bothtemporal , i n s o f a r as i t env isages escha to -l o g i c a l s a l v a t i o n , a n d s p a t i a l , in s o f a r a si t invo lves ano ther, superna tu ra l wor ld .

Thi s d e f i n i t i o n has been employed i n a narrow sense , as a

l i t e r a r y form employed by the apoca lyp t i s t s ; more b road ly,

i t i s v i r t u a l l y a d e f i n i t i o n f o r ' a po c a ly p t ic l i t e r a t u r e ' .

taken a s a whole.140

M o d i f i c a t i o n s o f P O D . H a n s o n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f apoca-

l y p t i c i sm produce a n adequate unders tanding of the nature141

o f t he term: ' ap o ca ly p t i c i s m i s a system o f thought pro-

duced within movements which see themselves i n c o n f l i c t

( i . e . with o p p r e s s i v e l e a d e r s , f o r e i g n n a t i o n s , t h e f o r c e s

o f e v i l , or the 'w or ld ' ) . This sys tem o f t h o u g h t b u i l d s

upon a s p e c i f i c c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e

in g en e r a t i n g a symbol ic univ erse which serv es t o e s t a b l i s h

t h e i d e n t i t y o f the community i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s o p p o n e n t s142

a n d t o God a n d by w h i c h t h e cornmunl ty in te rp re t s r ea l i ty ' .

139. 3 . 3 . C o l l i n s , a r t . c i t . , p . 3 6 4 .1 4 0 . T h e b r o a d e r d e m i t = runs in to t rouble when the

more nar row d e f i n i t i o n i s r e q u i r e d ( Te s t . L e vi 2 : 5 - 5 : 7 ) ;c f . POD. H a n s o n , 'Apoca lyp t ic i sm ' , I D B S u p , p . 2 9 , and piVi e l h a u e r , - r t . -.ac i t p.582.

s u f f e r e d because i t was consciously rnolded t o t h e s i t u a t i o ni n the e a r l y p os t -e x i l i c community and not on the second-cen tu ry B . C . r e l i g io u s env ir on ment .

1 4 2 . P . Vo l z , Die Eschato logie der judischen Gemeindei n n eu te st am e nt li ch e n Z e i t a l t e r , pp.4f .* . M o r r i s , o p . I t ,

141, P O D . Hanson , a r t . c i t . , pp.28,30. T hi s d e f i n i t i o n

P*27.



40

The term ap oc al y p t i c can be u s e d a s a d e s i g n a t i o n o f

t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1 ) a p o c al y p ti c can r e f e r t o a r e l i g i o u s o ut lo ok on l i f e a n d

h i s to ry, wh ich i s informed by the knowledge o f the imminent

a n d t ransforming t r iumph o f God a t the end of the a g e ( o r a

v i c t o r y w i th in h i s t o r y with ' e t e r n a l ' e f f e c t s ) o v er H is

enemies, cosmic a n d e a r t h l y, a n d o f t he bene f i t s wh ich th i s

v i c t o ry w i l l bring t o H i s p e o p l e a n d of the punishment which

w i l l be unleash ed upon His enemies, and/or w h i c h i s i nforme d

by th e d i s c l o s u re o f t h o s e a g e n c i e s within t he cosmolog ica l

dimension whereby the commands o f God concerning nature a n d

h i s t o r y a re c a r r i e d o u t ;

2 ) a p o c a l y p t ic can r e f e r t o a major a n d c o m p o s i t e l i t e r a r y

g e n re (o r g ro u p ) , p ro du ce d by r e p re s e n t a t i v e s o f t h i s p e r -s p e c t i v e , w h i c h f e a t u r e s :

i ) some c la im , a l b e i t a r t i f i c i a l , t o be ing a r e v e l a t i o n

o f t h e f u t u r e and/or t he cosmolog ica l wor ld ,

i f ) a c l u s t e r o f i d e a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s w h i c h acco rd wi th143

t h a t o u t l o o k ,

i i i ) a c l u s t e r o f s ub -g en re s ( l i t e r a r y f or m s) s u i t a b l e144

t o e x p re s s t h e i d e a t i o n a l e l e m e n ts ,

i v ) a c l u s t e r o f l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s which m o d ify t he s ub -145

g e n r e s i n w a y s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e ;

3 ) a p o c a l y p t i c can b e used , with r e s e r v a t i o n s , t o d e s c r i b e

a l i t e r a r y p a s s a g e , no t included under 2 ) , wh i c h f e a t u re s :i ) t h e o u t l o o k d e s c r t b e d in l),

i f ) a c l u s t e r o f i d e a t i o n a l c o n c e pt s , s u b-ge nres and/146

or l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s which a c c or d with t h a t o u t l o o k .



4 9

V I I . The H i s t o r i c a l D ev elopmen t o f A p o ca ly p t i c

I h a v e c o n s c i o u s l y l i m i t e d t h i s s t u d y o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l

d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p o c a l y p t i c t o t h e l i n k s between prophecy and

a p o c a l y p t i c , a l t h o u g h I h a v e a l r e a d y s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e

l i n k s t o o t h e r m a j o r J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s . Within t h i s co n -147

t e x t I w i l l u s e t h e t e r m a p o c a l y p t i c i n the f u l l v a r i e t y o f

i t s mean in g an d d e f in i t i o n .

A . The D i s in t e g r a t i o n o f P ro ph ecy

P.R. Ackroyd w a s u n d o u b t e d l y c o r r e c t i n h i s a s s e s s men t

o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y B.*C. a s a n e r a c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an

abundance o f c r e a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l thought . C e r t a i n l y148

143. Mo di f i ed cosmic , temporal and moral dual ism ;e s ch a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t , M ess i an i sm , an g e lo l o g y and demon-01 o g y, p e s s i m i s t i c v ie w o f h i s t o r y, mod if f ed d e te r min is m,e t h i c a l c o n c e r n , e t c .

1 4 4 . Vi s io n a n d d i a l o g u e f or ms , v a t i c i n i a e x even tu ,p a r e n e s i s , l i t u r g i c a l g en r es , n a tu re w l s d o m , s t o r i e s , f a b l e s ,a l l e g o r y, d i a l o g ue , r i d d l e , p a ra b l e , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f pro-p he cy, e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r e d i c t i o n , e t c .

145. Symbolism, u s e o f rmagery, numerology, pseudo-nymity, e t c .

1 4 6 . In t h i s s tudy I w i l l u s e t h e t e r m ap o ca ly p t i c f n

e v e r y s e n s e o u t l i n e d h e r e . I a ck no wl ed ge t h e p o s s i b i l i t y ofmi s u n d e r s t an d in g , a l t h o u g h I h ave made an e f f o r t t o c l a r i f y ,th rough con tex t a n d a d d i t i o n a l m o d i f i e r s , t he c o r r e c t s en seo f t h e w or d. N ev e r th e l e s s , the r e a de r i s e n j o i ne d t o b eaw ar e o f t h e f u l l scope o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a p o c a l y p t i c a n dt o c h os e c a r e f u l l y t h e a p p r o p r i a t e shade o f meaning i n ap a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n .

147. C f . Gen. 15 a s a non-prophet ic pas sag e whicht en ds t ow ar d t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a n a p o c a l y p t i c p a s s a g e .

148. P. R . Ackroyd , E x i l e and Res to r a t io n , pp.7-12 .

s

I



5 0

t he e x p e r i e n c e s of e x i l e a n d the p rophe t ic p romises o f re -

s tora t ion promoted t h i s a c t i v i t y by s t i m u l a t i n g a r a d l c a l

re th ink ing o f the bas ic conv ic t ions by which the Jews had

o rd e re d th e i r l i v e s . One would n o t e x p e c t t h i s s u rg e o f

v i t a l i t y to bypass t h e prophetic movement, fo r i t h a d , i n

g r e a t measure , been g iven b i r t h by i t .

Indeed the s ix th century B.C. was a turning p o i n t f o r

the prophetic movement. A r e a d i n g - o f those prophets whose

ca re er s spanned the ye ar s o f d i s a s t e r , 5 9 7 and 5 8 7 B . C . , re -

v e a l s that the sequence o f 'doom' proclamations, s o charac-

t e r i s t i c o f the p r e - ex i l i c canon ica l p rophe t s , came to a n

abrupt end a t t h e f a l l o f Jerusalem. B o t h Jeremiah a n d

E ze ki el ce ase d speakfng c r i t i c a l l y o f I s r a e l ' s f a i l u r e s and

began to e l a b o r a t e on the theme o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n f o r t h eJewish comrnunlty t o J u d a h a n d t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f normal

p a t t e r n s. o f l i f e . D O L OPe te r sen may be r i g h t i n a s s e r t i n g

that Jeremiah and Ezekie l mark the end o f c la ss ica l p rophecy

a s such , a rgu ing that the demise o f prophecy fo l lowed149

q u i c k l y upon the c r i s i s o f a u t h o r i t y r e f l e c t e d in Jeremiah's

c o n f r o n t a t i o n s with o the r Yahwis t ic p rophe ts and upon the im-

p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c o n t i n u i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p with the de func t

I s r a e l i t e monarchy.

Whi le i t i s t r ue t ha t prophecy underwent a grea t change

a t the same time th at the kin gs hi p w a s l o s t t o I s r a e l , i t i s

149. D o t . Pe te r sen , op. -0c i t , p . 9 7 .



m f s lead in g t o emphasize - a n inherent re3attan9Afp between

k f n g and prophet.150

The -o s s o f kfngshtp altered t h e

nature o f I s r a e l from a p o l f t i c a l s t a t e to a r e l i g l o u s eem-

munity; the prophe t ic f tgures o f the e a r l y pos t - ex t l l c

p e r i o d , g i v e n s ta ture because o f the prophetic ro le S n the

e x i l e e x pe r ie n ce , s p o k e with freedom within t h e polltfcal

ar en a, The pr op he ti c movement, taken as a whole, I s much

too var ied t o be comprehended s o s i m p l i s t i c a l l y.

were t h e g r e a t f n d i v i d u a l prophe ts , excep t iona l persoaa l f -

t i e s wfthin the J e w f s h communlty whom one should n o t expec t

t o occur on a r e g u l a r b a s i s .

There

There were the prophets who

f i l l e d an ' I n s t i t u t i o n a l ' r o l e w it hi n the Temple c u l t u s , a s

w e l l a s the r o y a l co u r t . These s ev e ra l o f f i ce s assumed a

b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n within the s t ruc tu re ins t i tu ted , most

forcefu l ly, by Solomon. However, t h e prophets were not151

l i m i t e d t o o n e , or any combination o f r o l e s , They c a n n o t be

understood a s ex c lu s iv e ly a t t a ch ed t o court or c u l t , and they

cannot be understood without reference t o these i n s t i t u t i o n s ,

Prophecy, toward the e n d o f the e x i l e , was oriented to-

ward the proclamation o f de t fverance a n d restoratfon, A t152

l e a s t from an external perspec t fve , th is p h ase o f prophecy

stood i n the shoes o f t h e ' s a lv a t i o n prophets' whom deremfah



5 2

had co nf ro nt ed . However, any semblance o f uni ty soon d i s -

appeared; from t h i s time the p ro p h et ic movement began t o

f ragment a n d the r esu l t ing segments d iverged a n d p r o g r e s s e d

a l o n g pat hs q u i t e u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p r e - e x i l i c p ro ph ec y.

The message o f sa l va t i on add r e s sed t o the Jewish community

(o r some por t i on o f i t ) s t ands cen t r a l t o t h e p o s t - e x i l i c

prop hets . Pete rsen may be co rr ec t i n a r g u i n g f o r a t r an s -

format ion o f the prophetic movement around a ' r e l i g f o - p o l l t i -

c a l l o c u s ' a s a r e a c t i o n t o the le ad er sh ip vacuum cre at ed1 5 3

by th e f a l l o f the k ingsh ip .

The l a t e r t h eoc r a t i c l e ade r s h i p o f t he Jews l ook ed t o154

E zek i e l , n d t he p r i e s t l y t r a d i t i o n he r e p r e s e n t ed , a s

i t s s o u r c e and l e g i t i m a t i o n . 0. Pl tger has a rgued conv in-

* c i n g l y t h a t the theocracy viewed the prophetic movement a s155' b r i d g e s o f l e g i t i m a t i o n ' : E z e k ie l r e p r e s e n te d p r o p h e t i c

l e g i t i m a t i o n f o r t h e f o r m o f the p o s t - e x i l i c community a n d

H a g g a i a n d Z e c h a r i a h ( c f . E z r a 5 : l - 2 ) g a v e a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o

the second Temple and i t s c u l t .156 -

E z e k i e l ' s r o l e i n the pr op he ti c movement i s accompanied

by h i s im portance to p o s t - e x i l i c r e l i g i o n i n ge ne ra l . He has

been ca l l ed t he ' f a t he r o f a poca l yp t i c ' f o r h i s u se o f sym-

1 5 3 . D . L . P e t e r sen , x -.l t 9 pp.6-8.1 5 4 . O . H . Steck, ar t . c i t . , pp.201,206, ment ioned th at

E zek i e l a n d h is f o l l o w e r s ' a m v a t e p r o ph e t i c a l ly ' the Jeru-s a l e m p r i e s t l y t r a d i t i o n .

1 5 5 . O.-P l i jge r, o p . c i t . , p p . 4 2 f .156. D . L . Pete r sen , 9p -.i t B p . 5 6 .



53

157b o l i s m , v i s i o n , a l l e g o r y and a n g e l s . He i s a l s o r e f e r r e d

t o as th e ' f a t h e r o f Judaism' because of h is connection with158

Ezra and the legal a n d r e l i g i o u s a sp ec ts o f h i s m i n i s t r y.

Severa l r easons a re sugges ted to exp la in the change i n

the prophetic movement as i t moved through the e x i l i c and

e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r io d . We c a n ment ion seve ra l fo rces159

( i . e . the c u l t , t he l ac k o f n a ti o n -s t a tu s , the p o l i t i c i z a t i o n

of the p rop he t i c g r o u p , the inc rea sed wor ld -consc iousness o f

the community) w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d t h e v o i c e s r a i s e d a s suc-

c e s s o r s t o t h e g r e a t p ro ph e t s . L ik e w is e , t h e r e a r e g e n e ra l

t ren ds ( i . e . toward canon , t r anscendence , e scha t o logy , e t c . )

w h k h charac te r ized the who le o f pos t -ex i l i c Juda ism and

the prophetic movement i n p a r t i c u l a r .

I t was in t he p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d t h a t the 'burden ofh i s to ry ' , a s sumed by the p r e - e x i l i c prophets , became too

much fo r t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s w i th in a n d w t th o u t t h e c u l t t o

b e a r. SO B. F r o s t a t t r t b u t e d t h i s d e c l i n e o f prophecy to

p ro p he t ic c o n f l i c t , t h e extended oppress ion o f the Jews, a n d

an ov er-1 ong framework o f h i s t o r y . T h is a n t i c i p a t e d t h e

160

161

p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t o f the ap oc al yp t i c wor ld-v iew and the

157. 4. M u i l e n b e rg , ' E z e k i e l ' , P C B ( r e v. e d . ) , p . 5 6 9 .158. A.S. Peake , The Peo ple a n d t h e Book, p . 285 ; c f .

159. Cf. F ~ ~ t e r s e f i t ~ ~ .i t . , p p 0 5 f . , for a summaryof t h e o r i e s o f R . P f e i f f e r , 6. v o n T d , A.R. Johnson, J.1,Crenshaw, E. Hammershaimb, F.M. C r o s s , P O D . Hanson, 0 . P l o g e r.

160. Cf, 3.L . Crenshaw, o p . c i t . , pp.91-109; the ' bu r -den ' t h a t God w o u l d f u l f i l 1 His pr?r"ii-rses through h i s t o r y.

G.W. Anderson, c i t . , p .

161. S O B . Frost, 'A p o c a ly p t i c and H i s to r y ' , The B i b l eand Modern Scbolarship, ed. 3 . P. Hyatt , p.112.



54

accommodating p o s i t i o n s of Wisdom a n d t he C h r o n i c l e r ' s p ro -

p h e t i c f i g u r e s v i s - a - v i s I s r a e l ' s f u t u r e hope.,162

D . L .P e t e r sen w a s c o r r e c t , t o a degree, when he pointed

o u t that the prophetic movement continued in t w o r a d i c a l l y

d i f f e r e n t c ha nn els i n t h e po s t - e x i l i c pe r i od and that t h e s e

channe l s a re r epresen ted by t h e Ch r o n i c l e s a n d the ' deu te ro -

p r o p h e t i c ' c o l l e c t i o n s . A cc or di ng t o h i s a n a l y s i s , t he163

C h r o n f c l e r c r e d i t e d t h e L e v i t i c a l g r o u p s within the Temple

c u l t a s t h e o f f i c i a l s u c c e s s o r s o f t h e e a r l i e r prophe ts ,

whereas the e s c h a t o l o g t c a l l y - o r i e n t e d prophe t i c g roups pro-

duced t he deu t e r o - p r ophe t i c l i t e r a t u r e . Coup led t o t h i s164

d i v i s i o n i n t he pr o p h et i c l i t e r a t u r e was t h e d e s i r e o f pos t -

e x i l i c Judaism to unders tand the p rop he t ic movement a s a

u n i f i e d t r a d i t i o n . Some of these a t t empts a re found i n165

the pr op he ti c l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f a n d reveal how the prophet ic

movement was misfnterpreted by l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s .

Ezek. 38-39 c on ta in s such a d i s t i n c t p e r s p ec t i ve , p re -

s e n t i n g a p i c t u r e o f a success i on o f p r o p h e t s p r ed i c t i ng t he

162.i n t e r v e n t i o n i n h i s t o r y ; t h e o t h e r s d i d n o t cons i de r thep r e s e n t a s t he a re na o f G od 's a c t i v i t y .

163. D . L . P e t e r s e n ,p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e s s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 , 5 6 - 6 6 , 2 4 0 2 7 ; Mal ach i ,3 oe l 3 - 4 , Z echa r i ah 9-14 , Ez e k . 35-39.

1 6 4 . I b i d . , p.8; he assumed th e gr ou ps were an t i t h e t i -c a l , b u t t h ' m u d g m e n t i s t o o s i m p l i s t i c .

165. Cf. O . H . Steck, ar t . c i t . , pp.193-198,201f.; wea r e t r u l y j u s t i f i e d i n speaking o f a ' pr op he ti c t h eo l og ic a lstream' i n t he p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . B u t , a t th e same t im e,we m u s t a l l o w for t h e d i v i s i o n s within p r o p h ecy ( i . e . pro-phe t i c s t r eam s o f t r a d i t i o n ) .

The apoca l yp t i c wo r ld - vi ew cou l d env i s i on d i v i ne

. c l t . , pp.13-19; deutero-pro-9



5 5

a t ta ck of Jerusa lem by the na t ion s and the d e f e a t o f t h o s e

n a t io n s t hrou gh d iv in e i n t e rv e n t io n . Ezek. 38:17 i d e n t i f i e s

a 3 r a d i t i o n o f sa lva t ion p rophe ts heav i ly in f luenced by con-

c e p t s u n d e r ly in g the J erus al em c u l t , ( b u t t h i s v e r s e d oe s166

n o t r e f e r t o a l l p r f o r pr op he ti c a c t i v i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t ha t

of E z e k i e l h h s e l f , which was a c t i v e d u r i n g and /o r a f te r the

exi I e).

Zech. 1:6 a n d 7 : 1 2 r e f e r t o the ' former prophets ' who

gave To r a h and the word o f Yahweh t o I s r a e l . These r e f e r e n c e s

a re found i n passages s t ro ng ly marked by deuter onomis t i c

phraseology and thought, a n d they sugges t the deu te ronomis t ic167

prop het s of repe ntan ce. Zech aria h seems to be aware o f

a t r a d i t i on o f l on g s t a n d in g , i n which he p a r t i c ip a t e s , f o r

we can d i s c e r n i t s a c t i v i t y b e f o r e and a f t e r t he e x i l e .168

The enig mat ic pass age Zech. 13:2-6 dec re es t h a t Yahweh

w o u l d make an end to the prop het s . In l i g h t o f t h e d i v i s i o n

w i t h i n the e a r l y po s t -e x i l i c community and the p rophe t ic

a c t i v i t y o f t h e Le v i t i c a l f i g u re s (w hich th e a u th o r o f t h i s

pa ss ag e would have opposed), such a r e f e r e n c e t o the end of

prophecy makes better sense when limited to prophecy w i t h i n

t h e c u l t ( i t c e r t a in ly w o u ld n o t be d i r e c t e d a t t he a u t h o r 's

o w n p r o p h e t i c a c t i v i t y ) . There a p pe a rs t o be i n Zech. 13:Z-6

the i m p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e true p r o p h e t i c f u n c t i o n

h a d somehow been modified as a r e s u l t o f t he c o n f l i c t within

166. C f . G o v o n Rad , Old Testament Theology 1 1 , p . 2 9 3 .1 6 7 . O.H. S t e c k , I s r a e l und d as gewaltsame G e s c h i c k der

Pro heten, pp.74-80,133-C f .

t n O l d Testament Prophecy, ed . H.H. Rowley, p p . 2 7 - 3 5 .S.A. C00::~'The Age o f Z e r u b b a b e l ' , S t u d i e s



56

the community.

I propose to sketch the p a t h s of prophecy in the post-

e x i l i c p e ri o d t o c l a r i f y th e forms prophecy a s s u m e d a s a

continuing phenomenon. I b e l i e v e that the p rophe t ic wri t ings

t h e m s e l v e s d i s c l o s e c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s a n d tendencies w i t h i n

the l a t t e r st ag es of the pro ph et ic movement. From t h i s we

sha l l be ab le to speak to the sub jec t o f the con t inu i ty be -

tween the prophetic tradi t i o n i s t s a n d t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s a n d

the p rophe t ic and apoca lyp t ic wor ld-v iews .

The reconstruct ions o f the l a t e r p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i od

by 0. P l i g e r a n d the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c e r a by P.D. Hanson

have been accepted, i n essence , by the ma j o r i t y o f r ece n t

sc ho la r sh ip . These recons truc t i. ons pos tu l a ted a deep r i f t

wi th in the community, which created cer ta in condi t ions within

which the p rophe t i c f i gu re s a n d c i r c l e s h a d t o o p e r a t e . I t

has been demonstra ted th at most o f the p o s t- e x i l ic pr op he t ic

l i t e r a t u r e i s e i t h e r ' t h e o c r a t i c ' o r ' c o n v e n t i c l e ' , r e -169

f e r r i n g t o p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e s o c i o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s

which f e a t u r e o p i n io n s o f the o f f i c i a l J ewis h l e a d e r s h i p a n d

i t s c on se rv at iv e, c o n t r ol l in g p o l k i e s .

M o s t scholars have accepted S. Mowincke l ' s observa t ion

tha t the fu tu re hope o f the p rophe t s a f t e r the r e s to ra t fon170

p e r i o d was i nc reas ing ly de tached f r o m the 'present moment' ,

169.

170. S. Mowinckel, o p . -.i t p .170.

0. Pl tger, Theocracy and E scha to logy, o r ig ina tedthese terms.



5 7

171( i . e . t h e c o n c re t e t im e i n w h i c h the prophet minis te red )

a s w e l l as t h e s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l e ve nt which p a s t pr o ph e ts

h a d p r e d i c t e d .

The b o o k o f Joel i s a n example. The ter mi nol ogy o f

e a r l i e r p ro ph et s i s g e n e r a l i z e d : t he n a ti on s r e p l a c e A s s y r i a

o r Babylon . Events a n d con d i t ion s a re exaggera ted . The

d e s c r i pt i o n p a r a l l e l s c u l t i c d e s c r i pt i o n s o f mythic t a l e s ;

Yahweh does not act through human agencies, as He was des -

c r i b e d by e a r l i e r p r o ph e t s, b u t in a manner reminiscent o f

c u l t i c d r a ma t i za t i on s . T h is k i n d o f description 1s common

t o t he a p oc a ly p ti c l i t e r a t u r e a s w e l l .

I n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e t h e f u t u r e h o p e o f t h e

a u th o r s b e g in s t o t r an s ce n d t he h i s t o r i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d f u t u r e

hope o f t he e a r l i e r p r o p h e t ic w r i t i n g s . The d o c t r i n e s o fl i f e a f t e r dea th ( i . e . r e su r re c ti on a n d immor ta l i ty ) t ake

172

t h e i r p l a c e b e s i d e t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f a n earthly kingdom i n

which the k i n g s h i p was re s t o r ed to I s r a e l . These newer doc -

t r i n e s may v e ry w e l l b e t he r e s u l t o f normal developments

with in J ud ai sm , f o r such marks a r e fo un d, a l b e i t i n f r e q u e n t l y,

i n t h e P s a l t e r.

171. G o v o n Rad, o . c i t . , p . 2 9 9 , s t a t e d t h a t t h e p ro -phets were convinced t ;et 'they s tood e x a c t l y a t t h a t

t h e d o c t r i n eo f

i mm or ta li ty t r B o o k o f J u b il e es ( 23 :3 0f .)

turning p o i n t i n h is to ry which w a s c r u c i a l f o r t h e e x i s t e n c eo f G o d ' s p e o p le ' .

172. Cf. H . H . Rowley, o . c i t . , ~ p . 6 6 ~ 7 3 ; e d i s c e rn e d

b u t j u d g e d t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e o f r e s u r r e c t i o n ( Te s t . Benj .1O:6-8, e t c . , Dan. 12 :l -3 ) was much more r ep re se n ta t i ve o fJewish t h o u g h t i n g e n e r a l .



8

Furt her informat , ion concerning the development of be-

l i e f s i n i mm o rt al it y and r e s u r r e c t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d by the

s e v e r e l imitation o f ev i dence for the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d .

I fee l , however, t h a t such r e fe rences t o e x i s te n c e a f t e r

dea t h i nd i ca t e a depa r t u r e from the t r a d i t i o n al h i s t o r i c a l l y -

b ased b e l i e f ( L e . t he ea r t h l y Jewish kingdom m ed ia t in g God's

r u l e t o t h e na t i ons ) a n d a s i g n i f i c a n t d e v i a t i o n o f the

au th or ' s b e l i e f s from the norm, the ' o f f i c i a l ' hope.

According to D O L OP e t e r sen , the C h r o n i c l e r w a s J u s t as

con sc i ous o f p r ophe t i c t r ad i t i on a s t h e deu t e r o - p r o p h e t i c

w r i t e r s . He noted t h a t t h e Ch r o n I c l e r p l aced the p r o p h e t i c

f i g u r e i n a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n v i s- h -v i s t he r i s e and f a l l o f

the monarchy. G o von Rad m en t i o ned t ha t i n s t i t u t i ona l173

a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s dom i na t e t h e L ev i t i c a l s e r m o ns o ft he C h r o n i c l e r ' s p r op h et i c f i g u r e s ,

174whichP e t e r sen I n t e r -

p r e t ed a s the theocracy ' s use o f pas t p rophe t s t o l e g i t i m a t e

i t s own a u t h o r i t y. The Chronic ler por t rayed the prophets

as h a v i n g ' t h e dogma f o r I s r a e l i t e success ' . T h i s was

175

176

communicated through the sermon-form: d o ct r in e , a p p l i c a t i o n

a n d ex ho rt at io n. The hermeneutical method o f t h e se177

173. D O L OP e t e r sen , o p . c i t . , p . 5 5 .174. G o von Rad, 'The l e m i c a l Sermon i n I a n d I 1

175. D . L . P e t e r sen , o p . -.i t , p.57.1 7 6 . I b i d . , p.55.177.

Chronicles ' , The Problem of the Hexateuch a n d Other E s s a y s ,p . 2 7 7 .

n o n ad , - r t . c i t . , p . 2 7 1 .



5 9

preacher s was t ex tu a l and a t om is t i c a l ; t e x t s from Torah or

o t h e r wr i t i n gs we re sepa r a t ed from t h e i r co n t ex t s and a p p l i e d

t o w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s . T h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s o u t l o o k178

was governed to a degree by h i s s u b j e c t ( t h e p a s t h i s t o r y o f

I s r a e l ) , b u t t h e r e i s substance i n the arguments of 0.

P l g g e r

f r a i n e d f rom eschatol o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

179and others t h a t t h e C h r o n i c l e r i n t e n t i o n a l l y r e -

180

I woul d app l y t wo c r i t e r i a t o t he p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t ic

wri t ings w h i c h w i l l e n a b l e a t e n t a t i v e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f the

d i f f e r e n t s t r an ds o f wri t ing : a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e c u l t a n d

community leaders and the form o f the proclamat ion of a

fu tu re hope . A n a n a l y s i s o f t he p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t ic

w r i t i n g s w i l l f l e s h o u t t he h i s t o r i c a l p at h s on which p ro -

phecy moved toward the era o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

During and a f t e r t he e x i l e , c e r t a i n segments o f t he

community moved into leadership vacuum l e f t by the loss o f

the k i n g s h i p . Some segments o f the prophetic movement a l s o

en te red the a rena o f p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y. The D a v i d i c l i n e

d i d n o t seem to influence the community i n exile as much asm i g h t be expected. A l t h o u g h t h e D a v i d i c l i n e a g e w a s the

178. Ibid., pp.268-276.1 7 9 . O . I o g e r , o . c i t . , p . 4 1 .180. C p . W.F. St e s v n g , ' E s c h a t o l o g y i n C h r o n i c l e s ' ,

J B t 8 0 (1961), pp.209-219; h i s arguments are n o t convincing.K i s o r c e d t o make inferences based u p o n the C h r o n i c l e r ' si d e a l i z a t i o n o f D a v i d .



60

s u b j e c t o f s p o r a d i c e r u p t i o n s of hope a f t e r t he e x i l e , t he181

r o y a l f i g u r e d i d not re-emerge a s a p o l i t i c a l f o r c e .

The hopes which had centered on the k i n g became latent , were

t r an s fe r r ed to God o r d i sappea red as the theoc racy exe r-

c i sed p r ie s t ly con t ro l ove r the communi ty and suppressed the

concep t o f k ingsh ip a n d p o l i t i c a l e x i s t e n c e . With the182

c o n v e n t i c l e g r o u p s r e j e c t i n g t h e p o l i . t i c a 1 l e a d e r s h i p o f the

community, the re was l i t t l e expec ta t ion which wou ld a t ta ch t o

the k i n g ( w h o was a p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e a s w e l l a s r e l l g i o u s ) .

Kingsh ip d i d not become a v iab le ' op t ion fo r the Jews u n t i l

they once a g a i n e n j o y e d s e l f - r u l e i n the l a t t e r h a l f o f t h e

sencond century B . C . The Hasmonean dynasty provided a touch-

s t on e f o r the r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f the concep t o f the idea l

k i n g , the Mess iah .

A g ro u p o f f o l l o w e r s o f Deutero-Isaiah, who h a d demo-

c r a t i z e d t h e r o y a l o f f i c e ( I s . 5 5 : 3 ) by s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e

peo ple f o r the non-e xls te n t monarch , took t o themselves the

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f d e c l a r i n g God's i n t e n t i o ns t o t he r e s t o f

the community. The i r v iew o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n (Is.60-62)183

was patterned on t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e f r m as te r. T h e i r

p o l i t i c a l p l a t f o r m may have been naive, b u t i t provided an

a l t e r n a t i v e t o a n 'or thodoxy' bogged down i n ear th ly machi-

181. Jehoiachin (11 Kings 2 5 ) appears to have h a d noin f luence upon the Jews In Babylon; Zerubbabel d i d no t longhinder the theocracy 's development , i f he d id a t a l l ; t h er o y a l P s a l m s and the Davidtc promises could have been re-I n t e r p r e t e d w l h i n the con tex t o f the theocracy.

A p o c a l y p t i c ' , J T hC h v i (1969), pp.164f.

182. 0 . P l o g e r , op. c i t . , p.34.183. Cf. F.M. C r o s s , ' N e w D i r e c t i o n s in the Study o f



61

na t i on s. The whole thrust o f t he Deu te ro - and Tr i t o - I s a i an ic

t r a d i t i o n i n I t s e n t ry i n t o the p o l i t i c a l a re na i s t o a s s e r t

God's a b i l i t y t o a c t d i r e c t l y t o de te rm ine t he f u t u r e o f t h e

peop le . Th i s movement sp e l l e d a d i s t i n c t a n d i r r e v e r s i b l e184

development with in the prophetic movement.

T h e c i r c l e o f D e u te ro - Is a ia h 's d i s c i p l e s w r e p u l s e d

in i t s a tt em pt t o g a i n a v o i c e i n the govern ing o f t h e

people by a p a r t y c o n t r o l l e d b y Z a d o k i t e i n t e r e s t s . T h i s

g r o u p a l s o h a d a s t rong p rop he t i c background. I t ha rkened

back to Ezekie l and t o t he Je rusa l em Temple t rad i t i ons185

behind h i m . T h e i r r e s t o r a t i o n p l a n s ( c f . Ezek. 4 0 - 4 8 ) were

much more pragmatic than those o f Tr i t o - I s a i a h : t he y w er e

a b l e t o e n t e r i n t o p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e s , i n v e s t c o m m u n i t y i n -

s t i t u t f o n s with a d e g re e o f r e a l i z e d h o p e a n d l i v e in theconf idence t h a t Yahweh was working through i t and th rough

186h i s t o r y f o r t h e b e t t e r m e n t o f t h e p e o p l e . I t i n t e r p r e t e d

e v e n t s t o j u s t i f y i t s p l a ns and suborned past prophecy t o

l e g i t i m a t e i t s e l f .

Since the pos t -ex i l ic communi ty cen tered around the

Temple a n d i t s p r i e s t h o o d i n s t e a d o f con t inu ing the p re -

. c i t . , pp.71-75; Hanson spokeo f Tr i t o - I s a i a h l o s i n g t he P O i t K l s i d e o f t h e p r o p h e t i co f f i c e ( p . 2 6 ) , wh i l e I am here a rgu ing f o r an en t r y i n t op o l i t i c s . Hanson r e f e r r e d t o t he a d v i s o r - s ta t u s ( a s e n j o ye db y I s a i a h ) ; I am a s s e r t i n g t h a t Tr i to - I sa i ah became thep o i n t o f p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e theocracy. There i sno c o n t r a d i c t i o n h e r e .

185. Cf, POD, Hanson, op. -.i t 9 p p . 2 0 9 - 2 4 0 .186, The theocracy d i d n o t r e j e c t t h e i d e a o f contem-

pora ry p rophecy ( c f . Joe l a n d t h e L e v i t i c a l Te m p l e p e r s o n n e l )a s l ong a s i t remained within i t s c o n t r o l .

Y84, C f , POD. Hanson,



e x i l i c p a t t e r n o f the k i n g a n d r o y a l c o u r t , a sugges t i on

germane to the discussfon o f the p ro ph eti c movement i s i t s

awar eness and u t i l i z a t i on o f t h e c u l t i c t r a d i t i o n s i n the

communicat ion o f i t s messages . Sch olar s have reco gni zed

E z e k i e l ' s use o f p r i e s t l y forms a n d Deutero- Isa iah ' s marked

a f f i n i t y with t h e P s a l t e r. P . von de r Osten-Sacken l i s t e d

a number o f scholars who h a d concluded that the thought-

wor ld of many of the e x i l i c and po s t - e x i l i c p rophe ts p re-

supposed the c u l t i c p i c t u r e o f Yahweh a s ' e sc ha t o l og i ca l

K i n g ' . S c h o l a r s l i k e 3. Bright would a d m i t t h a t t h e c u l t187

of the second Temple proclaimed Ya h w e h ' s Kingship and Hi s

' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l triumph' o v e r a l l p e o p l e s .188

T he t wo p i l l a r s o f t h e Je r u sa l em cu l t t r ad i t i on we r e

the choice of God t o have His Te m p l e t h e r e a n d t o makeDav i d ' s l i ne age t he r u l i ng f am i l y o f H is p eo p l e. The

189

I s r a e l i t e s had i n h e ri t e d a t r ad i t i on o f Z i o n wh i ch dep i c t ed

the combined a s s a u l t on Zion of nat ions and k i n g s and t h e i r

re pu ls io n by Yahweh. I t was the p r i e s t l y w r i t e r who gave190

th i s b e l i e f i t s most impor tant co ro l l a r y : Yahweh was the191true K i n g o f t h e wor l d , b o t h i n f a c t a n d f o r a l l t ime.

187. P O v o n de r Osten-S acken. a r t . c l t . , t1.32.188. 3. Bright ,189. Cf. H.-J . Kraus, Di e Konl'

Alten Testament, p p . 9 9190. G. v o n Rad,191. W. E i c h r o d t , T

A Hi-story o f - l ~ e l , ~ . 4 4 8 .

f f .g s h e r r s c h a f t G o t t e s im

O l d Testament Theolo I , p.46.heol ogy o f the O l dYe s t a n e n t , v o l .

1 , p . 2 3 9 .



6 3

0. E i s s f e l d t ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e ' a cce s s i on songs ' o f t he

P s a l t e r , which e x t o l 1 t he r o y a l r u l e o f Yahweh, 1 ed192 193

h i m t o t he conc l u s i on that t hey f r e q u e n t l y d i s p l a y a r a t h e r

escha to l og ic a l out1 o o k :194

The k ing ly r u l e of Yahweh, o f which int he p r e sen t on l y t okens a r e t o be seen , w i l lr e v e a l i t s e l f I n g l o r y v i s i b l y t o t h e w h o l ew o r l d ; o f t h i s the w o r s h i p p i n g community i sq u i t e persuaded.

I . Engne l l s t a t ed t h a t t h e i n t en s e ex p ec t a t i on o f a

Messiah d u r i n g t h e c e n t u r i e s o f the a p o c a ly p t ic l i t e r a t u r e ' s

po pu l a r i t y g r ew o u t o f t h e r o y a l i d e o l o g y, t he s a c r a l k i n g -195

s h i p which I s rae l shared with many Near Eastern peoples.

He s ta ted that the concept o f 'world dominat ion ' was a n

essen t i a l e l em en t i n t h e sac r a l k i ngsh i p i deo l o g y and , t h e r e -

f o r e , w a s a p r i m i t i ve t hough t a n d not a n e x f l i c i n n o v a t i o nby Deut ero- I s a iah . Engne l l he ld t h a t Judaism appl ied

196

m ess i an i c s t a t u s t o l i v i n g p e r s o n s i n much the same way t h a t

e a r l i e r I s r a e l had an t i c i p a t e d an i de a l k i n g f rom David ' s

l i n e . Whi le the prophets may have adopted the c o n c e p t197

o f an ' ex pe ct ed o ne' from i t s c u l t i c co n t ex t , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s

remained within the c u l t i n some form, r ep re se nt ed a t l e a s t

by those passages i n the Psa lms which r e ta in the t r ad i t iona l

192. 0. E i s s f e f d t , T h e O l d Testament: a n I n t r o d u c t i o n ,pp.109-111.-

193. Cf. H. Gunkel , E in le i tung i n die Psalmen, p . 3 2 9 ,P s . 47,93,96:10ff . ,97,99.

194. 0. E i s s f e l d t , op. c i t . , p p . l l 0 f .195. I . E n g n e l l , ' Mess i ah i n t h e O l d Tes t am en t ' ,

Cr i t ica l Essays on the Old Testament , pp .215ff .1 9 6 . Ib.ld p.218; C. Westermann, The Praise o f God i n

the P s a l m s , pp.144f .197. I . E ngne l l , - r t . c i t p p . 2 3 5 f .



64

a 1 r i t u a l c a t e g o r i e s .

The arguments o f t hese scho la rs conce rn ing the n a t u r e

a n d i n f l u e n c e o f th e c u l t i n t he p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d must be

taken in to account . T h e cul t became a po ten t i n f luence upon

the prophet ic-movement and a c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e c h a n g e s

which occurred within t h a t t r ad i t i o n . When sc ho la rs c l a im

t h a t t he p rophe t s gave the ap oc a ly p t i c movement i t s ce n t r a l

themes (Yahweh's Ki ng sh ip , His judgment upon Hi s enem ies,

t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f H i s p e o p l e a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f His

r u l e )198

t he y o f t e n n e g l e c t the f a c t that t h e c u l t p r o -

c l a imed these same themes a s w e l l . T hl s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y

the argument of S. Mowinckel , who de sc r ib ed the r o l e of the

c u l t in the development o f Jewish e scha to logy.199

The s i m i l a r i t i e s between th e c u l t i c and p o s t - e x i l i cp r o p h e t i c r e p r e s e n t a ti o n s o f Yahweh' s un iv er sa l Kingsh ip ,

the dominat ion of most phases o f pos t -ex i l i c Juda i sm by the

c u l t a n d i t s l e a d e r s , a n d t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f h i s t o r i c a l

g round ing o f t he p rophe t i c fu tu re hope ( s o t y p i c a l o f the

c u l t and u n t yp i c a l o f th e p r e - e x i l i c a n d e x i l i c p r o p h e t s '

s t a t emen t s ) t end to con f i rm the conc lus ion t h a t t h e r e w a s a

s i g n i f f c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t he t r a d i t i o n s o f t he c u l t

a n d p o s t - e x l l i c p r o p h e t i c wri t ings . T h i s has been emphasized

by t h o s e s c h o l a r s who h ave o bs e rv ed t h a t t h e p o s t - e x i l j c

198. C f . 3. Hengel , OJ. -.i t , p.181.1 9 9 . S. Mowinckel, Psalmenstudien 1 1 , p p . 2 l l f f .



6 5

200prophe t s se rved in t h e c u l t i n a v a r i e t y o f wa y s .

Images taken from the m i l i e u o f the c u l t , which had

f o r m e r l y been u t i l i z e d a s i d e a l i z e d p i c t u r e s o f s a l v a t i o n

( e . g . I s . 2:2-5) and j udgmen t ( I s . 2:lO-22), became more

h i s t o r i c i z e d . i n t h e p o s t - e x i l i c wri t ings ( i . e . p l a c e d i n a

n o n - s p e c i f ie d f u t u r e s e t t i n g or d e s c r i b e d w i t ho u t a r e a l i s t i c

h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t ) . The c o nc e pt s most r e l e v a n t a r e :201

t h e a t t a c k o f the nat ions, the coming o f Yahweh to judge a n d

t o r u l e , a n d the theophany o f Ya h w e h ( c f . Ps. 48:4-8, 96:13,

97:2-5, e t c . ) . These themes turn u p i n s i g n i f i c a n t p a s s a g e s

i n the p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e t i c wr i t i ngs . The a t tack o f the

n a t i o n s i s f ou nd i n e l a b o ra t e fo rm i n Ezek. 38-39,2 0 2

Joe l 3-4, a n d Zech. 12-14. The theophany i s a n importan t

' e lement in the message of H a g g a i , while the coming of Godin judgment and to ru le over His p e o p le i s f ou nd i n Malachi

A n examinat ion o f t he p r e - e x i l i c p ro ph et s r e v e a l s t h a t

t hes e e lemen ts were used qu i t e e a r l y within s p e c i f i c h i s -

t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s ( c f . Amos 5:18-20, Mic. 1:2-5, Zeph.

1:2-8, e t c . ) , where h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t i e s c ou ld be i d e n t i f i e d .

Such se t t i ngs d i d n ot e x i s t f o r t h e p o s t - e x i l i c p ro ph et s,203

s o they became instead proclamations o f Yahweh's ( u n i v e r s a l )

2 0 0 . Cf. 3. Lindblom, o . -. i t s pp.206-210.201.

2 0 2 . T h i s Dassase may b e o f e x i l i c o r i g i n .

W. Zimmerl i , o p . A .196, d e s c r i b e d t h i sI s a i a n i c p a s s a g e s a s ' images . -

203. 6 . von Rad; Old-Testament Theolog 1 1 , p . 2 9 7 ,a t t r i b u t e d to t h i s f a c t , Inter a l i a , t h e d e m f s e o f c l a s s i c a lprophecy.



66

Ki ngs h i p .

I would conclude by s t a t i n g that there were two major

b i fu rca t io ns o f the p rophe t ic movement a f te r the e x i l e , one

concerning the future hope a n d the other concerning the

a t t i t u d e toward t h e c u l t a n d I t s l e a d e r s h i p . Every p o st -

e x f l i c pr op he ti c f i g u r e a n d composi t ion can be character ized

a s e i t h e r p r o - c u l t i c or a n t i - c u l t ic o r , s i m i l a r l y, a s ex=

p r e s s i n g a future hope . . 'beyond history ' or within h i s t o r y.I t appears to me t h a t H a g g a i , Zechariah 1-8 a n d Joel

a r e a l l p r o - c u l t i c and t h a t t h e y e a c h o f f e r a d e f i n i t e

fu ture hope. -T he p rophe ti c f ig u re s o f the C hron ic l e r2 0 4

a r e a l s o p ro -cu l t t c , ye t they do no t speak o f a future hope

beyond 'an immedia te h is to r ica l s i t u a t i o n . Taken together,

t h e s e w r i t i n g s may be taken a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the form

o f theocrat ic prophecy. Within the theocrat ic f ramework,

they represent the extremes o f prophe ts express ing a f u t u r e

beyond his tory a n d r e s t r l c t e d t o p a r t t c u l a r s i t u a t l o n s .

The an t i - c u l t l c pr op he ti c movement i s more complex

than the pr o- cu l t ic . Since the Temple s tood c l o s e to the

core of the essence of Judaism, i t he ld an a t t r ac t ion fo r

a l l Jews. The an t i - c u l t i c conven t i c l e s w ere in f luenced by

the Temple and i nc lu de d i t i n t h e i r v i s i o n s o f t he fu tu re

( c f . I s . 66:ZO-24). Tri to - Isa iah , Deute ro-Zechar iah a n d

204. I h o l d t o t h e e s s e n t i a l un i ty o f the book o fJ o e l ; c f . H.W. Wo l f f , J o e l a n d Amos, p p . 6 - 8 . I cannota g r e e with Wolff th at Joel belonged t o t he conven t i c l emil ieu (p .12) .



67

Ma la chi a l l r e p r e se n t c l r c l e s which were o r i g i n a l l y pr o-

c u l t i c a n d which became es t r ange d f rom the c u l t and d ise n-

chanted with i t s l e a d e r s .Their

o p p o s i t i o n t o the c u l t

c a n n o t , t h e r e f o r e , be r e a d i n a17 passages with the same

i n t e n s i t y ; the i r w r i t i n g s r ep r es e nt d i f f e r e n t de gr e es o f

a l i e n a t i o n f ro m t h e i r s p i r i t u a l home. They h o l d o u t hope

f o r t he p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t he community and i t s i n s t i t u t i o n a l

s t r u c t u r e s .2 0 5

There was no permanent break between the theocracy and

t h e c o n v e n t i c l e s , f n , t h e s e ns e o f permanent open c o n f l i c t .

Han so n' s c o n j e c t u re t h a t th e C h r o n i c l e r ' s wri t ings i n d i c a t e

a more harmonious relat ionship between the t w o f a c t i o n s i s

c e r t a i n l y a p o s s i b i l i t y .

B . Theocra t ic Prophecy

I have argued that w e c a n e x p e c t c e r t a i n p o s t - e x i l i c

p ro p he t s t o be s u p p o r t i v e o f t h e c u l t a t J e ru s al e m and o f

i t s l e a d e r s . Of t he p o s t - e x i l i c p r o ph e t ic w r i t i n g s , H a g ga i ,

Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 and Joel f i t t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n . Hag ga i and206

Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 stem from t h e r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d ; J o e l h a s

b e e n d a t e d t o t h e fo u r t h o r third century B . C .

POD. Hanson has a rgued convinc ing ly tha t Ezek. 4 0 - 4 8

a n d I s . 60-62 r e p r e s e n t ' r e s t o r a t i o n p r o g r a m s ' o f groups

205. Both 0. Pl6ger and POD. Hanson, i n s t r e s s i n g theconvent ic le as the home o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g , m i s s t h ep o i n t t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l b r e a k was o v e r e t h i c a l m i s c o n d u c t byt h e t h e o c r a t i c l e a d e r s .

a l s o . Ty p o l o g i c a l l y, i t i s simtlar to Joe l 3-4 .206. E z e k . 3 8 - 3 9 ( i f p o s t - e x i l i c ) c o u l d b e i n c l u d e d



68

v y in g f o r t he l e a d e r s h i p o f t he e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c com-

m u n i t y. He rep resen ted the fo l l ow er s o f E z e k i e l a s207

p r ag m a ti c p r i e s t s whose ' a p o c a l y p t i c ' t e n d en c i e s, l i k e t he

messages of H a g g a t a n d Z e c h a r i a h , we re o p e ra t i v e within a

s i t u a t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y c o n f l i c t a n d d e s i g n e d t o a c h i e v e

supremacy a n d c o n t ro l in that c on f l i c t . Whi l e Hanson208

d i d admit a r e a l f u t u r e -o r i e n t e d i m p a t i e n c e i n E z e k i e l h i m -

s e l f , he has s t r e s se d to o s t r o n g l y the l e g a l i s t i c s i d e o f

t h i s p ro p h e t a n d h a s wro n g l y l i m f t e d h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o

Judaism to the theocracy a lone . G.W. Anderson summarized

Ezekiel we1 1 :209

6 z e k i e g r e p r e s e n t s a t r a n s i t i o n t o anew emphasis i n prophecy a n d to new develop-ments i n I s r a e l ' s r e l i g i o n . A lt ho ug h t he mes-

,

sag e i s by no means ab se nt from t he t each ingso f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , h e p r e s e n t s i t with af u l n e s s o f d e ta i l wh ich i s new. In t h i s heh e r a l d s th e p o s t - e x i l i c p r op h e ci e s o f r e s t o -ra t ion. He i s a l s o the morning star o f apoca-l y p t i c , e v e n i f we hold that x x x v i i i a n dx x x i x are f rom a l a t e r w r i t e r .

The Zadoki te party, which included the remnants o f the

p r e - e x i l i c p r i e s t h o o d , c l a i m e d E z e k i e l a s i t s own. I t may

h a v e c a r r i e d o u t a n e d i t i n g o f Ezek . 40-48 which l i m i t ed

p r i e s t l y f u nc t io n in g t o t hemse lves (c f . 44 :lO-14 , e t c . ) .210

T h e Z a d o k i t e s we re fo r c e d , d u r i n g th e r e s t o r a t i o n e r a , t o

walk t he l i n e between t h e e x t r a v a g a n t , u n r e a l i s t f c c l a i m s

2 0 7 . P.D. Hanson, OJ. ci t . , pp.71-75.208. I b i d . , pp.233-259.2 0 9 . Anderson, op. c l t . , p.139.210. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , op. -. r p.380; P O D . Hanson, op.-.i t s pp.238-240.





7 0

no t su ff e r the con s t r a in t s o f h i s to ry upon h i s f reedom to

c r ea t e a d e s c r ip t i o n o f the future.

H a g g a i ' s message centered on the rebuilding o f the

Temple. He w a s c r i t i c a l o f the community a n d i t s l e a d e r s

o n ly s o long a s the dec i s ion t o r eb u i l d (1 :Z-11) was p o s t -

poned. He l i n k e d agr icu l tu ra l abundance with the l ay ing o f

the Temple 's foundat ion (2 :15-19) . The le ad er s ' ded ic at io n

t o t h i s p r o j e c t e l i c i t e d H ag ga i ' s a ss ur an ce t h a t God was

with them (1 :1 3 ). The Temple's p re se nc e seemed t o as s ur e

th e f u tu r e p eace , p r o s p e r i t y a n d g l o r y o f I s r a e l ( 2 : 7 - 9 ) .

H a g g a i assumed that the 'new order ' w o u l d have t o have a

. s ac ra l ce nt er . The Temple rep re se nt ed Yahweh's pre sen ce214

on e a r t h a n d provided the s o l e b a s i s fo r I s r a e l ' s e x i s t e n c e

a s the peop le o f God.215

H a g g a i ' s use o f the theophany t rad i t ion (2:6-7,21-ZZ),2 1 6

w h ich o r ig ln a t ed in the c u l t , appears t o b e t h i s p r o p h e t ' s

way o f b r i d g i n g t he gap between t h e r e a l i t y o f l i f e i n

5 2 0 B . C . a n d . t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e a n t ic fp at ed i n t h e f u t u r e

( t h e ' a g e o f bounty ' descr ibed by Deutero- Isa iah) . The

v iew tha t the theophany re fe r red so le ly t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l

turmoil o f 5 2 0 B . C . f a i l s t o b e convincing because i t cannot

acco u n t f o r t h e b r i n g i n g o f t h e n a t i o n s ' w e a l t h t o t h e

Jerusalem Temple.

2 1 4 . G . von Rad, 0 ~ 9 i t . , p.282.2 1 5 . R O E . Clements, God and Temple, p . 1 2 5 ; P.R.

216. L T r e m i a s , Theophanie, p.68.Ackroyd, 9p c i t . , p.157.



71

From our perspect ive , i t seems odd tha t the l l t e r a r y

depos i t o f Hagga i ' s min i s t ry shou ld have been g ran ted

can o n ica l s t a tu s : h i s p r e d i c t i o n s d i d not come to p a s s .

However, as G o v o n R a d and R . P. C ar r o l l h av e p o in t ed o u t ,

t h e same ch arg e co u ld b e - l ey e l ed ag a in s t D eu t e r o - I s a i ah .217

There were those who e i t h e r s aw a k i n d o f f u l f i l l m e n t o f

H a g g a i ' s m in is t r y - i n the comple t ion o f the Temple o r w h o

c r e d i t e d H a gg a i ' s r o l e in t h e r eb u i l d in g ab o v e h i s message.

We have a h i n t o f t he l a t t e r o p i ni o n i n the b o o k o f E z r a

( k l , 6:14), whose au thor r e fe r red t o t h e m i n i s t r y and no t

t o the subs tance o f hls message.218

Zechar iah posses sed a p os i t i v e a t t i t u d e t ow ar d t h e c u l t

a n d the Temple l ike H a g g a i , though he d i d n o t e x p r e s s i t as

f o r c e f u l l y . He d i d n o t d r i v e t h e p eo p l e t o b u i l d the Temple

th r o u g h ex h o r t a t i o n , b u t motivated them by his confidence

t h a t Yahweh h a d w i l t e d i t s renewed ex i s t en ce (l:l6).219

H i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f p r i e s t l y t r a d i t t o n s was n o t a b l y less

than i t could have been, although one can argue t h a t He took

fo r gran ted these th in gs . The p r ies thoodwas

g iven af e a t u r e d p o s i t i o n (3:l-lO), b u t t h e r e a r e q u e s t i o n s a s t o

au th o r s h ip a n d i n t e n t i o n . The p r i e s t l y theme of community

p u r i t y i s f o u n d in t h e v l s i o n s o f Zech. 5 , b u t i t could have

been derived from the message o f E z e k l e l , which included the

same theme.

217; G. von

218. C f . D .219. 60 von

Prophecy Fa i led ,Rad, op. c f t . ,

L . P e te r s en , o pRad , op. c i t . ,

pp.150-156.p.284;

c i t . ,p X 5

R.P. C a r r o l l ,

p.56.

When-



7 2

Zechar iah was s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by E z e k i e l , f o l l o w i n g

h i m i n a s t r e s s upon humil i ty and e t h i ca l concern, hopes f o r

the future Temple, a n d the use o f the v is ion- form and b i z ar re

imagery. His t heo logy showed a g re a t ap p re c ia t io n f o r

the thought o f Ezekie l , b u t he a l so had a d e e p i n c l i n a t i o n

220

221

toward the message o f Deu te ro - I sa i ah ff themes o f com-

fo r t , un ive r sa l i sm , dependence u p o n grac e , assurance o f God 's

f a i t h f u l n e s s , a n d con f idence in God's in t en t ion s f o r the

Jerusalem community. These two prophe ts a l s o sha red ce r-

t a l n 1 i t e ra ry fo rms , leading some scholars to comment on

t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Deutero- I sa iah on Zechar iah .

2 2 2

2 2 3

2 2 4

A t t he same t im e, t h e r e a r e s t r f k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s be-

tween Zech. 1:2-6 a n d 7:4-14 a n d t he p rose sec t ions o f

3 erem i a h . One i s simply unable t o c a t e g o r i z e Z e c h a r i a h2 2 5

on the b a s i s o f on ly one of h is p rop het i c p re dece ssor s . One

220. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , S i t . , p.433.221. POD. Hanson, op. c K , p p . 2 4 9 f .2 2 2 .

2 2 3 . R.F. Melugin, The Formation o f I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 ,

P.R. Ackroyd, o ~ . T t . , .177; R . Mason, H a g g a i ,Zechar iah a n d Malachi , pp .28 , J3 ff0

i d e n t i f i e d t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' s s a l v a t i o na n d ex ho rt at io n or a c le s , pp,13-19,121-128, which a l s o a r eu t i l i z e d by Zecha r i ah ,

D.R. Jones , H a g g a i , Zechar iah a rthe Twelve Proph

i e N a c h t g e s k h t e d e s S icilswende i n der S i c h t d e s

p.36; W.S. McCullough, The Histora n d L i t e r a t u r e o f - t h e P a l e s t i n i a n Jews from C y r u s - - T z x foP. 3 1 .

-224. D.R, Jones, H a g g a i , Zechar iah a n d Malach i ,

p.60; G . A . Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets , v o l . 2,pp.190f . ; L O G . R i g n e l l , Die N a c h t g e s k h t e d e s S a c h a r j a ,pp .244f . ; KO G a l l i n g , ' D i e Exilswende i n der S i ch t desS a c h a r j a ' V T i f (1952), p.36; W.S. McCullough, The Histora n d L i t e r h u r e o f t he P a l e s t i n i a n Jews f rom C y r u s - - T z x foP. 3 1 .

2 2 5 . M , Weinfeld, Deuteronomy a n d the DeuteronomicSchoo l , p.7; c f . O . H . Steck, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 - 4 ,143f .



73

must recognize h i s mul t tp le re la t ionsh ip and keep them in

b a l a n c e in analyzing his message.

The prophet Joel was a worthy s u c c e s s o r t o H a g g a i a n d226

Zechar i ah , f o r he ma in ta ined the i r pos i t i ve a t t i t u d e to-

w a r d the Temple a n d i t s r f t u a l s , a f f i rm e d t h e i r hope f o r2 2 7

a g r e a t f u t u re a n d contin ued t h e i r emphasis upon repenta nce

accompanying Yahweh's Invol veme nt wi th the community.2 2 8

J o e l appeared a s a c l a s s i c a l e x a m p l e o f t h e p o s t - e x i l i c

c u l t i c p ro ph e t. G.W. Anderson summarized Joel with in

the prophetic movement:

2 2 9

230

There a r e no denunciat ions o f ther e l i g i o u s , m o r a l , a n d soc ia l abuses a t t ackedby t h e p r e - e x i l i c p ro p h e t s ; a n d t he gene ra lr e c a l l t o l o y a l o b se rv an ce o f t h e c u l t i st y p i c a l o f t he p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . Thed e s c r i p t i o n o f the coming Day of Yahweh, ando f the judgment o f t he n at io ns i s a l s o i nkeeping with l a t e r prophecy. Taken as awhole, the atmosphere and ideas of the booka r e t y p i c a l o f the s t a g e o f t r ans i t i on f romprophecy to apoca lyp t ic .

J o e l ' s c a l l t o th e p eo pl e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e r i t u a l s o f

the Temple marked the accepted view t h a t J o e l was i n h a r -

mony with t h e c u l t a n d the Temple leadersh ip o f h i s day.

There i s l i t t l e q u e s t i o n t h a t the Day o f Yahweh i s the

226. G.W. Ahlstrh, ' J o e l and the Temple Cul t o fJe rusa l em ' , V T S u i x (1971), p.61.

2 2 7 . Joe p sarcasm ( 2 : l Z f . ) d o e s n o t i n d f c a t e h f sdisenchantment with the c u l t; i t i s h i s means t o m o t i v a t et ru e r e p e n t a n c e b e fo re G o d .

2 2 8 . A .2 2 9 , D. p.131; A.S.

:a p e l rud,230.

S. Kapel rR. dones,c i t . , p.

W x n d e r s

l u d , Joel Studies, p .180I s a l a h 56 a 66 and Joel ,176:o n , op, c i t 8 p.147.



7 4

231cohesive themeof the b o o k . The f i r s t two chapters des-

c r i b e a l o c u s t p l a g u e a s a manifested 'Day o f Yahweh'; the

l a s t c h ap te rs d e c l a r e the Day of Yahweh as a fu t u re e v e n t

o f judgment aga ins t the na t ions . A b lend ing o f the

p re s e n t and fu t u r e p i c t u r e s a p pe ar s i n 2:1-17. Joel was232

t he f i r s t p r op he t t o us e the phrase a7a7 b l 7 i n r e l a t i o n t o

t he Jewish fu tu re hope o f the condemnation o f t h e n a t i o n s .

G.W. Ahl stra m has conc lud ed , depending upon the works

of H. Gunkel and I . E n g n e l l , t h a t the f i n a l s e c t i o n o f Joel

presen ted the un fo ld ing o f a ~ f v , h e ' t r u e o r d e r o f

e x i s t e n c e ' . T h i s apt^ h a d always been present i n the c u l t233

a s t he ' r e a l o r d e r ' o f t h i n g s . The n p t v inc luded the

r e a l i t i e s o f Yahweh a s C re a t o r and King, a l though these

r e a l i t i e s were unseen. The Jewfsh community attempted t oo r d e r i t s e x i s t e n c e by the ;\3tr and saw i t as the g o a l a n d

future s t a t e o f t h e p e o p l e .

I t i s c u r i o u s that J o e l seemed not t o seek t h e manifes-

t a t i o n o f the a 3 t u . He r e j o i c e d i n answered prayer (2 :18f . )

and in the prospec t o f an unclouded future .

In J o e l , a s in H a g g a i a n d Zechariah, Ezekiel made h i s

H O W.Wo l f f , o . c i t . , pp.7-12, asserted the authen-t i c i t y o f the Day o f Ya weh passages a n d h e l d t o t he un i ty o fthe b o o k , r e j e c t i n g t h e o l d e r c r i t i c a l p o si t i on .

H O W. Wo l f f , op. c i t . , p p . 6 f . , a s s e r t e d t ha t 2 : l -17r e f e r r e d t o a co mfn g c a t a s t ro p h e for Jerusalem. tie a r g u e d1 ) t h e passage l ooks t o the future, 2 ) i t speaks o f a g r e a t

army not a p lag ue of lo cu s t s , 3 ) i t e m p l o y s ' t r a d i t f o n a l 'p rop he t i c de sc r ip t ion . However, t he con tex t s t a n d s a g a i n s tthls view and Wolff's arguments a r e s t r a i n e d .

31.

2 3 2 .

233. G.W. A h l ' s t r h , - r t . c i t . , pp.60f.



75

i n f l u e n c e f e l t . T here a r e s tr o ng s i m i l a r i t i e s between

Ezek. 38-39 and Joel 3 - 4 : t h e n a t i o n s a r e g a th e r ed , d e f ea t ed ,

a n d judged ; the Spiri t I s poured out upon the peop le ; the

f o r t u n e s o f I s r a e l a r e r e v e r s ed (WIXJ 3 7 ~ ~ ) . These2 3 4

p as s ag es ex h ib i t t h e f u t u r e hope l a ck in g i n t h e C h r o n k l e s ,

b u t t hey minimize t h e e t h i ca l s ta tement s ch a r ac t e r i s t i c o f

Tr i t o - I s a i ah , D eut e ro - Zecha r iah and M a lach i . F or t h i s

r ea s o n among o t h e r s , I cannot accept 0. P l t g e r ' s c o n c l u s i o n ,

a n d oth ers who have fo l lo we d h f s t h i n k i n g , t h a t Joe l 3-42 3 5

must have been the product o f a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n v e n t i c l e

opposed to the community leadership.

During the years spanned by t h e s e t h r ee p r o p h e t s ,

. ano ther s t r and o f t h e o c r a t i c p roph ecy i s d i s c e r n i b l e , which

i s r ep r e s en t ed in t h e C h r o n i c l e s . The Lev i t e s , c r e d i t e d2 3 6

with the r o l e o f p ro phe t ic spokesman, d id no t man i fes t a

f u tu r e - o r i en t ed o u t l o o k ; t hey f o cus ed on t h eo lo g i ca l d o c -238

t r i n e s a s they m i g h t r e l a t e to s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l c r i s e s .

237

They d i d , however', p la ce g re a t emphas is upon c u l t i c r i t u a l

a s a means t o s e c u r e v i c t o r y I n b a t t l e . These v i c t o r i e s ,

2 3 4 . I assume t h a t Ezek. 38-39 was w r i t t e n by Ezek ie lor a d i s c i p l e w i g h t h e t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e of h i s f o l l o w e r s .

2 3 5 .-.it 9 p.12. W o l f f ' s c a t eg o r i e s ( To rah o r co n v en t i c l e p ro -p h e t s ) a r e t o o r e s t r i c t i v e .

236. C f . F. M . C ross , A Recons t ruc t ion o f the JudeanR e s t o r a t i o n ' , J B l 94 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , pp.11-14.

238. G, v o n Rad, - r t . c f t pp.269f.

0 . P l o g e r , op. -i t . , p p . 9 6 f f . ; H O W .Wo l f f , o p .

2 3 7 . 0. " ITger, op. -.i t , p.41.



76

fo l lowing upon proper sacramenta l prepara t ion , were seen as

p r o o f s o f Yah w eh ' s f a i t h f u ln e s s a n d a b i l i t y t o s a v e. The

h o ly war i d eo lo g y o f co n f id en ce i n Yahweh who f i gh t s f o rI s r ae l w as co n s t an t l y ap p l i ed .

239

T h e c o n t r o l l i n g a s p e c t o f t he C h r o n i c l e r ' s s en s e o f

h i s t o r y was Yahweh's method o f work ing th rough cu l t i c

r i t u a l a n d th rough the fo rces o f I s r a e l t o ach i ev e His pur-

p o s e s . T h i s a t t f t u d e i n v o lv in g t h e ev en t s o f I s r a e l ' s2 4 0

d i s t a n t p a s t a l s o had c u r r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e C h r o n i c l e r ' s

p o s t - ex i l i c s i t u a t i o n ; ev en t h o u g h h e d ea l t with prophecy a s

a n h i s t o r i ca l phenomenon, the teaching min is t ry of the suc-

c e s s o r s o f those prophets was being car r ied out i n his own

day.2 4 1

C. Conventicle Prophecy

I have s tated my s u p p o r t f o r t h o s e s c h o l a r s who have

d i s c e r n e d a p o r t i o n o f th e p ro ph et ic movement which was r e -

j e c t e d b y and d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h t h e c u l t i c l e a d e r s h i p o f

t he e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . I t i s p e r h ap s t o o g r ea t a2 4 2

s tep to speak o f a p r o p h e t i c ' t r a d i t i o n ' b ec au se t he e v i -

d e n c e f o r this movement fnvolves independent blocks of

mat e r ia l (T r l to - I sa ia h , Deutero -Zechariah and Malach i ) with

O.H.

G o v o0. P 1

I b i d .ma r t .

n Rad

s P.4PP.e f t .

6ger D

-

, D e r h e i l i g e K r i e gop. c t , p . 3 3

3L

53ff . ; P O D . Hanson,, pp.208-211.

s P.9.

OJ c i t . , pp.32-208;



77

l i t t l e e x t er n a l e vi de nc e t o s u p p or t o r t o d e s c r i b e an on-

g o i n g prophetic movement apart from the Temple and p r i e s t -

hood, Wecould indeed

w i s hf o r an o b j e c t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f

the c i r c l e s f r o m w h i c h t h e s e writ ings came, f o r th e

l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f bea r s t he d i s t o r t i o n o f s u b j e c t i v e re-

a c t i on t o d i f f i c u l t c on di t i on s within the Jewish community.

Moreover , our know1 edge o f th e p o s t - ex i 1 i c pe r i od i s

ch ar ac te r i ze d by enormous gaps , More than one sc ho la r has

l amen ted the l ack o f s o l i d e v id e nc e and d e f i n i t i v e s t a t e -

ments on t h i s per io d and has ques t i oned the p rese n t s t a tu s

of r e s e a r c h a n d t h e f i n a l i t y o f r e c e n t work,243

As Ezekie l was a d o p t e d a s t h e b e g i n n i n g p o i n t f o r t h e

. a pp ea ra nc e o f p r i e s t l y t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n the prophet ic move-

ment and as the sp rin gbo ard f o r fundamental developmentswith in Judaism, s o t h e p r o p h e t i d e n t i f i e d a s D e u t e r o - I s a i a h

p l a y e d a p i v o t a l r o l e i n t he p ro phe t i c movement o f I s r a e l .

D . B a l t z e r has st ud ie d t he themes common t o Ezek ie l and

Deu te ro - I saSah . He n ot ed t h a t b ot h u t i l i z e d t h e Exo dus244

t r a d i t i o n , E z e k i e l s t r e s s i n g the new se rv i ce t o God a n d

D e u t e r o - I s a i a h t h e c o mf o rt i ng a s p e c t o f r e l e a s e f r o m b o n -

dage. They u s e d i f f e r e n t v o c a b ul a r i e s , E ze ki el f a v o r i n g2 4 5

Temple phraseology a n d Deutero-Isa iah employing Jerusa lem/

Zio n ca t e go r i es . Ezek ie l spoke o f Yahweh 's ' g l o r y ' as246

2 4 3 , P.R. Ackroyd, a p e=

c f t8

p . 1 3 8 ;S,A,

Cook ,-

r t ,2 4 4 . D . Bal t ze r, Ezech ie l und Deu te ro - Jesa j a ,2 4 5 . I b i d . , p.25.246 . -.brd 8 p.48.

-.f t 8 p.31,



78

t h e man i f e s t a t i o n o f H i s p r e s en ce , w h i l e D eu te r o - I s a i ah

s a w i t a s the w i tnes s o f His so ve re i gn ty. Ezekie l saw247

the people o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n a s ' p u r i f i e d ' , w h i l e D eu te ro -

Isaiah declared them 'redeemed' . B a l tzer concluded2 4 8

that, al though Ezekie l represented the rea lm o f the p r i e s t

a n d Deutero - Isa iah was th oroughly s teeped i n Psalmic

traditions, they have much in common and t h e i r r e s t o r a t i o n2 4 9

messages were q u i t e s i m i l a r .

I t i s s i g n i f k a n t t h a t w h e n D e u t e r o - I s a i a h c i r c u l a t e d

h i s messages o f l i b e r a t i on , the immediate h i s t o r ic a l

s i t u a t i o n c o u l d , a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y , b e a r t h e w e ig h t o f h i s

exag gera t ion s . Scho la r s have l o n g noted that Deutero-

. I s a i ah d e s er v ed t he ap e l l a t i o n ' f a l s e p r op h e t' ( a cco r d in g

to t h e g u id e l i n e s o f D eu t . 1 3 A - 5 a n d 18:15-22), f o r his

p r e d i c t i o n s d i d not come t o p a s s . H is ex ce s s iv e an t i -2 5 0

c f p a t i o n wi thou t h l s t o r i c a l g r o u n d i n g o f f e r e d n o r e a l a l t e r -

n a t i v e t o a n h o n e s t g r a p p l i n g with t h e r e a l i t i e s .

ld Zimmerli has s tated t h a t t h e o l d t r a d i t l o n s o f

H ei l s g e s c h i ch t e w er e i n t ro d uced i n new form to undergird

Deu tero- I s a i ah ' s dep i c t i on o f a fu t u re s a lv a t io n , He

2 5 1

2 5 2

f o l l o w e d that statement by n o t i n g t h a t I ... he escha to lo -

0

3

I b i dm

I P. 70 s P.90 P P.Ander

1 .

178-son,S R,Rad

90182.o p . c i t . , p .113 , and his

P . C a r ro l l , o p e c i t . , p p .

, O l d Testament theology

r e f e r e n c e1 5 l f11,

r r e y. AlsoC f , G, von

t o C

PP.22 5 2 . W. Zimmerl i, 'P r oph et i c Proclamat ion a n d Refn te r-

p r e t a t t o n ' , Tr ad i t i o n and T h e o To g y I n the O l d Testament, ed.D.A. k n i g h t , pp.90f.



7 9

g i c a l m i r a c l e o f t h e new e x od u s' i s br o ug h t i n t o t h e re a l m

o f h i s t o r y t h r o u g h i t s I d e n t l f i c a t i o n with t h e r e s t o r a t i o n

e v e n t , T h e crux o f Deut ero - Isa i ah ' s message was : God 's253

adven t i s imminen t and i t w i l l b e the f i n a l t h e o p h a n y t o

I s r a e l a n d the w o r l d .2 5 4

Th i s co n cep t o f t e n s i o n b e t w e e n h i s t o r i c a l event and

d i v i n e a c t i v i t y i s impor tan t . B u i l d i n g upon I t , POD, Hanson

h a s argued t h a t D e u t er o - Is a i a h m ai nt ai ne d ' t h e c l a s s i c a l p r o-

p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n ' o f b a la n ce between ' v i s i o n ' and ' r e a l i t y '

(myth and h i s to ry ) . In D e u t e r o - I s a i a h t h i s t e n s i o n wa s i n -

c r e a s e d t o t h e b r e a k i n g p o i n t :2 5 5

T h e v i s i o n i n ch, 4 0 t u g s h e a v i l y a t i t sh i s t o r f c a l m o o r i n g s ; the myth in c h . 5 1 seemsr e a d y t o b r e a k l oose f r o m mundane real i t i e s ,and the dis junct fon coming ' between pas t andf u t u r e a c t s t h r e a t e n s t o s p l i t t ho s e a c t sasunder. Few a d d e d s t r a i n s w o u l d b e re-q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e a p o c a l y p t i c .

Hanson a l s o n ot ed t h a t t h i s t e n s i o n d i d n o t r e q u i r e t h e

a p o ca l yp t i c l i t e r a r y d e v l ce s .

H e G es e c o n t r a s t e d t h e ' f or ma l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

a p o c a l y p t i c c o n t a i n e d i n E z e k l e l ( e x c e p t ch, 38-39) w i t h

t h e a p o c a l y p t i c ' c o n t e n t ' o f D e u t e r o- I s a i a h and came t o

a c o n c l u s i o n s i m i l a r t o Hansen s, The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e

return w a s a l l - i m p o r t a n t :256

2 5 3 . W. Zlmmerli, o p e c i t . , p . 2 1 8 ; c f . R.C , Dentan,

2 5 5 . P, D . Hanson, Tes tament Ap oc a l yp t i c Re-

2 5 6 .

The Knowledge o f G od i n A n c f e n t I s r a e l , pp.212f.

examined ' , Inter x x v (1971), pp .467f .

g e s t e l l t am S a c h a r j a b u c h ' , -ThK l x x (1973) , p.23,

2 5 4 , - C f G. v o n Rad:O%. c i t . , pe243.

d e , A n f a n g und E n d e d e r A p o k a l y p t l k , d a r -



80

D ie s i s t n i c h t e i n E r e i g n i s u nt er denv ie l en E r e ig n i s s en d e r We l tg e s ch f ch t e , son-

1 n i s t z u Ende, der neue beginnt mit d e rKonigsher r schaf t Go t tes a u f dem Z i o n .

e r n Z i e l u n d Ende de r Geschfch te . . .Der a l t e

I t was a t t h i s p o i nt , f o r Gese a n d Hanson, t h a t the apoca-

l y p t i c movement b e g a n to s epara te f rom the p rophe t ic move-

ment.

Hanson has demons trated how Tr i t o- Is a i ah i s t o be d i f -2 5 7

f e r en t i a t ed f r o m D eu te r o - I s a i ah . fie a rg ued f o r c o n t i n u i t yon the grounds t h a t t hey s h ar ed t h e ' e s ch a to lo g i c a l ' i d e a l

and d e s t i n y o f the community a n d Yahweh's r e l a t i o n s h ip t o

th e community. He a s s e r t e d that , i n Tr i t o - I s a i a h , t h e r e

i s a n i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r o n g an d pervas ive po lemic e lement ,258

. w hich i s ab s en t from D eu te r o - I s a i ah .

I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f Tr i t o - I s a i ah , Hanson d i sce rned a

p a t t e r n o f g ra du al d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e a r c h a i c p o e t i c

s t y l e ad op te d by t h a t c i r c l e f rom D e u t e r o -I s a ia h . T h i s

process enab led h i m t o determine the sequence i n which the

v a r io u s p a s s ag es o f Tr i t o - I s a i a h w e r e composed. Com-2 5 9

bined wi th th is breakdown of poet ic form a n d meter, Hansonp o in t ed t o an acrimonious at t i tude toward the Temple

lea de r s which became in c r ea s i ng ly b i t t e r . He a t t r ib u t ed

2 5 7 . P.D. Hanson, OJ -.i t , p p . 3 2 - 4 6 .258 . I b i d . , p.42.259. I bi d, , p.60, a nd c f . pp.46-208. The 'co nt ex tu al -

typological ' model which Hanson h a s developed ( p . 4 1 ) i s ade-quate , i f a l l h i s a s s u m p t i o n s are t r u e ( e . g . the b r e a k d o w ni n p o e t i c s t y l e c o u l d be b e t t e r a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i f f e r -ences between authors ) . A g l a r i n g abuse i s h i s a t t e m p t t op r e c i s e l y d a t e t h e p o r t i o n s o f Tr i t o - I s a l a h .



81

t h i s a t t i t u d e t o th e r e j e c t i o n , by Z ad ok ft e p r i e s t s , o f t he

Tr i t o - I s a i a n t c b l u e - p r i n t f o r r e s t o r a t i o n ( I s. 6 0 -6 2 ) i n2 6 0

f a v o r o f t h e i r own program. I t was t h i s p o l i t i c a l d i -v is i o n which co lo re d much o f th e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r io d

and determined the nature o f the p r ophe t ic movement a t t h i s

t ime and for years to come.

The l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e d u nde r t h e r u b r i c o f 'conven-

t i d e prophecy ' i s c h a r a ct e r i z e d by p r e d ic t i o n s o f and

y e a r n i n g s f o r judgment ag a i n s t enemies . I n a c h a r a c te r i s t i c

pas sag e , Tr i t o - I s a i ah env i s ione d judgment by God Himsel f

(59:16-19) on be h al f o f h i s own c i r c l e ( 5 9 : 9 - 1 5 ) a g a i n s t

those w h o h a d o p p re s s e d them, f o r s a k i n g j u s t i c e , p e ac e a n d

truth (59:l-8). Deu te ro -Zecha r iah fo re sa w the des t ruc -261

t i o n o f a l a r g e p o r t i on o f the Jews (13:8, 14:Z) a s w e l l a s

t he an n ih i l a t io n of the a rmies o f the nations who would march

a g a i n s t Z i o n (12:3-9, 1 k 1 2 - 1 3 ) . M al ac hi a s s e r t e d t h e

n e c e s s i t y o f a purifying judgment upon t h e p r i e s t h o o d (3 : l -4 )

a n d o f d e s t r u c t i o n o f the wicked among the people (3:5,19-21).

Hanson h a s a s s e r t e d t h a t the use o f t h e D i v i n e Wa r r i o r

Hymn bound t o g e t h e r t he Tr i t o - I s a i a n i c c or pu s w i t h t he

Deu te ro -Zecha r i ah passages . T h i s l i t e r a r y form i s w e l l -

a t t e s t e d i n the P s a l t e r a n d t h e e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e ( e . g .

2 6 2

263

260 . I b i d . . pp.71-75.261. Tbfd. , pp.119-121.2 6 2 . f . .98; c f . P O D . Hanson, 'Zechar iah 9 a n d the

R e c a p i t u l a t K o f an A nc ie n t R it u a l Pattern' s - J BL 9 2 (1973),

2 6 3 . P O D . Hanson, E i t . , pp.305-308.pp. 37-59 0



a2

Exod. 15, J u d g . 1 5 ) . He f a i l e d t o c o n s i d e r, h ow ev er, t h e

use o f th is fo rm wi t h i n the t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e s ( i . e . t he

c u l t ) t o de sc r i be Yahweh's Kingsh ip over the na t io ns . Heassumed, I f e e l w r o n g l y, t h a t o n l y t h e v i s i o n a r y c i r c l e s

o u t s i d e th e t he oc ra cy u t i l i z e d t h e form. T o b e s u r e , i t

s e r v e d t h e i r p u rp os es w e l l a s a d e s c r i p t f o n o f pending

div ine judgment , b u t i t a l s o s e rv e d t h e t h e o c r a c y, p e rh a ps

with in some p o s t - e x i l i c form o f t h e e a r l i e r c u l t i c

d r a m a t i z a t i o n s o f Yahweh 's un iversa l K i n g s h i p .

T h e a ut ho rs r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m a t e r i a l o f Z ec k. 9 - 1 4 ,

c o l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r r e d t o as D eu te ro -Z ec ha ri ah , w er e p a r t o f

a n eschatological movement which over lapped t h a t o f Tr i t o -

I s a i a h , y e t r em ai ni ng d i s t i n c t from i t . D e u t e ro - Z e ch a r ia h

r e v e a l e d a connec t ion w i t h t h e t h eo c ra c y, a r e l a t i o n s h f p

2 6 4

2 6 5

l a t e r r ep ud ia te d by b o t h s i d e s ( c f . 11:7-14). There a r e

p o i n t s o f s t r on g p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f E z e k i e l upon D e ut er o-

Zecha r i a h . whereas t h e D e u t e r o - I s a i a n i c t radi t i o n d o e s266

not appear to make m u c h o f a n impress ion . Hanson 's be s t

arguments f o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p between Tr i t o - I s a i a h andDeutero-Zechar iah re s t e d upon the u s e o f t he D i v i n e Wa r r i o r

Hymn a n d t h e in t ra -communi ty invec t ive . I have a l r eady

argued t h a t t h i s Hymn, s in c e i t o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e c u l t ,

. c i t . , p.286.

96 4 . Cp. POD. Hanson,

265. R. Mason , Na gg ai , , echar fah a n d M a l a c h i , p . 1 1 2 ,sugges ted t h a t the c e n t r a l f f g u r e o f Zech. llt4-14 was ar e j e c t e d c u l t i c o f f f c i a l (p rophe t? ) , wh ich m i g h t p r o v i d esome i n s i g h t i n t o t h e d e c l a r a t i o n in 13:Z-6 of the end o fprophecy.

266. R. Nor th , - rt. c i t . , pp.5lf.



83

c o u l d h a v e y e t b e e n u t i l i z e d by p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s wlth in the

c u l t . I b e l i e v e t h a t Z e c h a r i a h 9 i s a n example o f t h a t

usage ,a s

a n orac l e aga ins t t he na t ions round a b o u t the

Jews.267

A l s o , H a n s o n has ser io us ly mis in t e rp re t ed Zech. 11:1-3,

c l a i m i n g t h a t i t was a t a u n t a g a i n s t J ewish l e a d e r s in the

community. I t was an o ra c l e d e l i v e re d a g a i n s t t h e J e ws '

no r the rn ne lghbors , a ga i ns t whom Is ra e l he ld t rad i t i o na l

enmfty. The term inol ogy, with mention made o f Lebanon268

a n d B a s h a n (a re as to the nor th) and the la y i ng waste o f

t r e e s a n d ' j u n g l e ' (th e no rthe rn ar ea s were much more

f e r t i l e t h a n t h e Jerusalem a r e a ) , would make this inter-

p re t a t i o n n e a re r t h e truth.

0. P l S g e r s t a t e d that Zech. 9 - 1 0 have r e l a t l v e l y s l i g h t2 6 9' e sc ha to lo gi c al ' i n t e re s t when compared t o Zech. 12-14,

H a n s o n noted a narrowing concern f r o m a wo r l d -p e r s p e c t i v e

(Zech . 9 ) t o J u d a h (Zech. 14) i n the present arrangement o f270

t he o r a c l e s . The key t o t h e s e p a t t e rn s w a s the i n -

c re a s i n g n o t e o f disappointment with the e t h i c a l l a x f t y of

t h e l e a d e r s ( c f . 10:2-3, l l : 5 v 1 2 -1 3 , 1 6 -1 7 v 1 2 : l O) . T h e

b r e a k between the group o f Deutero-Zechariah a n d the com-

munity l e a d e r s c l e a r l y o c c u r r e d on e t h i c a l grounds a n d no t

on t h e b a s i s o f t h e o c ra t i c ( i . e . n o n -e s c h a t o l og i c a l ) and

2 6 7 . C f . POD. H a n s o n , op. -, f t 9 pp.304-309.2 6 8 . I b i d . , pp.334-337.269. n l o g e r , 9p c i t . , pp.79-82.2 7 0 , POD. Hanson , op. -, t t ' p . 3 5 5 .



84

c o n v en t i ct e ( e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ) r i v a l r y.

Whereas Tr i to - I s a i ah on ly env is ioned pun ishment f o r

t h e i r enemies ( c f . 66:24), Deutero-Zechar iah held out fo r

a change o f h e a r t by the community leaders a n d a r e a l i z a t f o n

o f t h e g r e a t e v i l t h e y h a d done ( 1 2 1 0 - 1 3 : l ) . D eu te ro -

Zechar iah d i d n o t f u l l y abandon t h e u n i t y o f the peop le o f271

God, a lthough Tr i t o - I s a i ah appear s t o have done s o .

Deutero-Zechar iah d i d s e e a n ex tens ive pur i fy ing judgment ,

i . e . t he d e s t r u c t i o n o f two- th i rds o f the peop le i n 13:8 a n d

one-ha l f in 14:2.

G.W. Ahlstr8m's comments on t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw een

c u l t i c a p t 3 a n d h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y a r e h e lp f u l in under-

s%anding Deutero-Zechariah. t a l l o w s how c u l t i c f e a t u r e s

suck a s t h e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f Zion (Zech. 1 2 a n d 14) can bebrought i n t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s by the author t o f l e s h ou t

a statement of hope.

T h is d l s t i n c t i o n a l s o g i v e s i n s i g h t i n t o H anson's

s tatements t h a t Deutero-Zechar iah mainta ined ' a v e r y l o o s e '

connect ion t o the events a n d persons o f h i s t o r y. In272

Zech. 1 2 a n d 1 4 , according to Hanson, th f s connection broke

down co mp le t e ly : ' t h e v i s i o n i s l e f t l a r g e l y on t h e cos mlc

l e v e l ' . Th e e s ch a to lo g i ca l ex p r e s s io n t z j aa ~ 3 7 2 as273

2 7 1 . T h e b r eak in g o f t h e p a s to r a l s t a v e s i n 11:10,14

2 7 2 . P O D . Hanson,x

-.i t s p . 3 2 3 .2 7 3 . I b i d B p.368.

a p p e a r a s I m i t a t i o n o f - p r o p h e t i c sy mb oli c a c t i o n s .



85

l i t t l e h i s to r i ca l v a l i d i t y a n d i t a p p e a r s f i f t e e n t i m e s i n

Zech. 12-14.

The b o o k o f M al ac hi was u n iq ue f o r i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f

a con ven t i c l e from a m o re-o r- l es s e x t e rna l p e r s p e c t i v e

( 3 : l b f f . ) . I t i s on ly c on j ec t u re whe ther t h i s was an o rga -

n ized group or an a d hoc ga ther ing o f d i s g ru n t l e d p e r s o n s i n

response to the l a x i t y o f the pr ies t hood . Malachi does

d e s c r i b e t h e members o f t h i s c i r c l e as b e l i e v i n g t he m se l ve sto be the t rue p rop le o f G o d ( c f . t h e short d e s c r i p t i v e

phrases of 3:16-18), se pa ra te d from the wicked (3 :1 8) , a

segment o f t h e p e o p l e s i g n i f i c a n t e n o u g h t o be recogn ized

as the enemfes o f God w h o w i l l b e judged when Yahweh comes

(3:18-19).

Malachi no ted severa l th ings about th i s g roup h e h a d

f o u n d o u t s i d e t h e o f f i c i a l c i r c l e s a n d t o which h e a t t ached

h i m s e l f : i t s p a s t o r a l c on ce rn was i m p re s si v e t o h i m - , i t s

e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d was h i g h a n d i t s e s c h at o lo g ic a l b e l i e f s w ere ,

a t l e a s t t o h i m , unique. The concept of judgment o f s i n ,

perhaps over looked by t h e theocracy, p rovided a sure remedyf o r the s i ck n e ss o f i n d i f f e r e n t p r i e s t s . Malachi d i d no t

r e j e c t the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f Judaism b u t he retained them, a l -

b e i t i n a p u r i f i e d f o r m . I t was t h i s hope f o r r i g h t e o u s n e s s ,

ra ther than the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t , which l e d H a l ac h i

away f r om -t he theocracy i n w h i c h he h a d served a n d toward

t h e c o n v e n t i c l e .

I



86

Mal. 3:l-4 a n d 3:16-24 d o rep res ent areas of agreement

b e tw een t h e< co n v en t i c l e a n d the prophet , which a r e n o t

shared by the theocracy. The esc ha t o lo g ic a l no te was f u l l ysounded: th e day f o r p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d recompense, ' the day

which i s coming' ~ m7 a ) , impinged upon the present i n

a more d i r e c t way. Malachi was t o t a l l y immersed In t h e

h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d , s o t h a t h i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f judgment

appears a l l that more h i s t o r i c a l ( i . e . l e s s ' n o n - w o r l d l y ') .

I t was the emphasis on e t h i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w hich b ro u g ht

a n ' e s ch a t o lo g ic a l p r es su re ' on the p resen t . Whereas Jo e l ,

f o r example, could allow the Day of Yahweh t o r emain apar t

f r o m th e p r e s en t , M a lach i s t r o v e t o b r i n g i t t o t h e p r e s e n t

as the na tu ra l r esponse o f God t o e v i l ; He co u ld n o t mo r a l l y

t a r r y

<

The theme o f M a l . 3:1-4 centered on t h e p u r i f k a t i o n

o f t h e p r i e s t h o o d , i n d i c a t i n g a con t inua t ion o f the in -

s t i t u t fo n s o f the community. The de st ru ct io n o f 3:19-24

ap p ea r s t o g o b ey o n d t h i s l f m i t a n d t o i n c lu d e a n o t e o f

vengeance , wh i le p romis ing the b les s ing and h e a l i n g o f the

r ighteous. Some a 1 t e r a t i o n o f t ho ug ht p r o b ab ly o ccu r r ed

be tween these o rac les , b u t the wickedness o f the peop le

remained the cause a n d focus o f judgment.

D. The R i s e o f H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m and Apocalypt ic

The emergence o f Alexander the Great a s a w o r l d p o w e rI n t h e f o u r th cen tu r y B . C . (336-323 B . C . ) was accompanied



87

b y t h e i n c u r s i o n o f He1 len t s ti c a n d o ther wes te rn i nf 1 uences

i n t o the Near Eas t . Al though th is process t o o k many2 7 4

y e a r s , v i r t u a l l y e ve ry a r ea of the Near Eas t exper ienced a

cul ture shock as Greek se t t lements were p laced nearby major

c i t i e s . A lex an d e r ' s g en e r a l s , who d iv i d ed h i s emp ir e between

them after h i s death i n 3 2 3 B.C., re l ied upon the Greek

s p i r i t - d ev o t i o n t o t he a r t s , a t h l e t i c s and i n t e l l e c t u a l

p u r s u i t s - - t o h o ld t o g e th e r t h e d i s p a r a t e s egments o f t h e i r

kingdoms. However, the Greek c i t y , es ta b li s h ed en masse in

conquered areas t o promote trade a n d c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y, was

a n a l i e n b e in g . I n i t i a l l y p op ul at ed by s o l d i e r s a n d t h e

l o w e r c l a s s e s o f Greek s o c i e t y ( h a r d l y t he e l i t e co r p s o f a

HelJenis t ic miss ionary movement) , i t remai ned i s o l a t e d2 7 5

f o r y e a r s .There were other causes o f t u r mo i l . M O Hengel pointed

t o a w a v e o f s k ep t i c i s m th a t ' s w ep t t h e M ed i t e r r an ean r eg io n s

i n the four th a n d th ird c e n t u r i e s B . C . The author o f276

Q o h e le th may have been a par t o f t h i s t r e n d , a l t h o u g h h i s

c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l o f l i f e i s unders tandab le wi t h i n Judaism

and w i t h o ut r e c o u r s e t o f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e . T he re was, i n

t ime , a back lash to the e thos r ep resen ted by Qoh e le th . Th is

r eac t i o n t o o k t h e f o r m o f i n c r ea s ed p a t r i o t i s m ( c f , Ecc lu s ,

5 0 ) , the emergence of mystfc ism a n d u n u s u a l p e r s o n a l r e l i -

2 7 4 , I have fo l lowed the t rea tment o f V . Tc h e r i k o v e r ,H e l l e n i s t i c C l v i l l z a t i o n and th e Jews, f o r my g e n e r a l u nder-s t a n d i n g o f the even ts a n d t r ends o f t h i s p e r i o d .

275 . I b i d . , pp,33f.2 7 6 . m e n g e l , J -*c i t ' p p . 2 1 0 , 2 4 9 .



g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d t h e i n c r e a s e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

thought-forms.

The meeting o f Judaism a n d Hel len ism d i d not immedi-

a t e l y i s s u e i n a s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n r i v a l r e l i g i o n s : b e c a u s e

r e l i g l o n was a s ec on da ry c o n s i d e r at i o n t o t he H e l l e n i s t s

a n d because o f the cha rac te r o f t h e p e o p l e who f i r s t i n t r o -

duced H e ll e ni sm t o th e Jews, t h e re was l i t t l e c o n f l i c t . I f

H e l l e n i s m h a d been r ecogn ized a s c o n t a i n i n g a r e l i g i o u s

d imension , th er e may have been a h o s t i l e re ac t i on . However,

the Jewish community i n Al ex an dr ia , f o r example , was much im-

p r e s s e d with Hellenism, which admired Judaism as t h e o l d e s t

(and , the reb y, the most v a l i d ) r e l i g i o n , f a v o r a b l y c o m p a r e d-.

Moses with the Greek ph i losophers , a n d p r a i s e d t h e e t h i c a l

s ta tements o f t he Hebrew Sc r ip tu re s , As i t happened, Judaismwas o n ly g r a d u a l l y exp osed t o H e l l e n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e , with

such a c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t that PI. Henge l judged a l l Jewish

r e l i g i o u s e x p r e s s i o n o f t he s ec on d ce nt ur y B . C . a s ' H e f l e n i s -

t i c J u d a i s m ' .277

In t he p rocess o f i n i t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , the s y n c r e t i s -

t i c H e l l e n i s t i c r e l i g i o n , a p o t p o u r r i o f m od if ie d b e l i e f s

taken from e a r l i e r Near E a st er n s p i r i t r e l i g . f o n s , began t o

i n f i l t r a t e t he h i s t o r i c a l l y - b a s e d , m on ot he is ti c J ew is h

f a i t h . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s r e l i g i o n (o r, perhaps be t -278

2 7 7 . I b i d . , p.104.2 7 8 . m C . MacGregor and A . C . Purdy, Jew and G r e e k ,p . 3 0 .



89

t e r , c om bi na ti on o f r e l i g i o n s ) was h e a v i e s t on t h e y ou ng er

g e n e r a t i o n s o f Jewish people , bo th i n Judah and throughout

t h e D i a s p o r a . T he re w er e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t i n r o a d s made i n

t he ru l ing p r i e s t l y c l a s s e s , which we re a c t i v e around t he

Jerusalem Temple.2 7 9

The re was d i f f i c u l t y in c o m b a t t i n g t h i s i n v a s i o n ,

f o r t h e r e w a s accep tance in some quar te rs and because there

was n o appa ren t r ea son why J u d a l s m c o u l d n o t e x i s t i n a

Greek form a s w e l l a s i n Hebrew dress. A c o m p o s i t i o n l i k e

the Wisdom o f Solomon (c. 8 0 B.C . ) , which was wr i t ten in an

a t t emp t to w i n bac k wayward Jews t o th e t r a d i t i o n a l f a i t h ,

c o u l d n ot m us te r e f f e c t i v e a n t i - H e l l e n i s t i c a rg um en ts .280

T h e Wisdom s c h o o l s , t he i n t e l l e c t u a l m e et in g p l a c e o f Judaism

a n d H e l l e n i s m , g a v e t h e l a t t e r a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o n s o l i d a t ei t s in f l u en ce among the Jews a n d t he i r mafnly p h i l o s o p h i c a l

o p p o s i t i o n (a nd then o n l y l a t e r ) d i d l i t t l e t o check i t s

i n i t i a l s p r e a d .281

I t i s beyond doubt t h a t H e l l e n i s t i c b e l i e f s and be-

hav ior in f luenced much o f Judaism. Thi s doe s no t mean t h a t

t h e e s s e n c e o f J u d a i s m was a l t e r ed o r th a t Juda ism accep ted

f o r e i g n c on ce pt s u n c r i t i c a l l y . H e ll e ni s m d i d c o n t r i b u t e

id ea s to the i n t e l l e c t u a l and popu la r atmosphere, t he back-

ground o f Jewish l i f e . F o r example, T . F . G l a s s o n h e l d t h a t

2 7 9 . There was no f i n a l a u t h o r i t y i n t h i s m a t t e r t ow h i c h a l l Jews and Jewish groups would submi t .280. E.G. C l a r k e , h e Wisdom o f Solomon, pp.4f.281. M . Hengel , o p e c i t . , p.78,110.



9 0

Greek t h o u g h t played an imp o r t an t r o l e i n the development of

Jewfsh es ch at ol og y. He d i d n o t a s s e r t u n c r i t i c a l a c c e p -

tance or minimize Pers ian in f l ue nc e . He poin t ed out t h a t

2 8 2

283

co n t ac t with other cu l tures s t imula ted the Jews t o d ev e lo p

a n d extend t h e i r own th in ki ng . Such motifs as heavenly

j o u r n e y s , v i s i t s to the rea lm o f the dead , ange l mar r iages ,

v i s i o n s o f existence beyond death, demons a n d watcher s a re

c o m m o n i n Greek wr i t ings o f this p e r i o d . T h e G r eek i n f l u -2 8 4

ence w a s more pervas ive t h a n some scho la r s have r ea l i zed ,

wlth a r e a l mark upon features in the b o o k o f D a n i e l .2 8 5

At t h e beglnning o f the second century 6.C., t h e J e w i s h

i n t e l le c tu al community was f u l l y engaged a l o n g a wide

f r o n t . In t e rn a t io na l Wisdom was b rough t i n t o c r ea t i ve286

c o n f l i c t w it h t r a d i t i o n a l p i e t y. T o r a h and p r o p h e t i c / s c r i b a lt r a d i t i o n i s t s g r a p p l e d with the forms of Greek re l ig l ’ous e x -

p e r i e n c e s , with t h fo re ig n r e l i an c e upon the cosmos a s the

b a s i s f o r u n de rs t an d in g ex i s t e n ce . M y st ic i sm , l eg en d s a n d

specula t ion came in to thei r own. The n o v e l t y o cca s io n ed by

the presence of Hel lenism a n d t h e q u e s t i o n i n g s p i r i t o f t h e

a g e produced a movement o f g r ea t b r ead th an d v a r i e ty.

The movement which embodied the rejection of Hellenism

2 8 2 . T.F. Glasson, Greek Infl irence crf Jewish Eschato-l o g y , p.84.

-.i t 9 p.256.

283, D.S. R U S S e l 1 , x i t b , p . 1 9 ; 0 . E i s s f e l d t , E b

2 8 4 . T. F. G la s so n , c i t e , ~ ~ . 8 - 12 , 2 0 -2 5 , 5 9- 6 0 , 6 9o285.286. M O Hengel, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 4 7 f .

A , S c h l a t t e r , kmhte I s r a e l s , p p . l O 9 f .



91

came in t o be ing s lo wl y, o n ly m a k i n g e x t e n s i v e g a i n s a s t h e

conf l ic t be tween Jewish and H e l l e n i s t i c t h o u g h t a n d behav io r

was br ou gh t i n t o the open. The members o f this movement have

come to b e known a s the Hasidim. The name i s taken from the

Hebrew t w h , which meant ' p i o u s ' o r ' f a i t h f u l ' . T he re i s no

consensus on the cons t i tuency o f th e movement, wh ether th e

name was a n u m b r e l l a d e s i g n a t i o n o f a17 a n t i - H e l l e n i s t i c ,

p a r t i e s o r b e l o n g e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p with its own h i s t o r y

a n d purpose .

The Hasidim were mentioned i n I Macc. 2 : 4 2 , i n c o n t r a s t

t o Jews who w ere w i l l i n g t o d i e r a t h e r t han t o b r e a k the

Sabbath by defending themselves ( I Macc. 29-41). The Hasidim287

.I. were not a l l p a s s i v e ; they w ere w i l l i n g t o f i g h t , t h e y

were devoted t o the Torah a n d they w e r e w i l l i n g t o t rus t the

l e a d e r s o f the community t o d e a l f a i r l y ( I Macc. 7:12-14).

There was a coa l i t ion be tween the Maccabees a n d the Hasidim

under Judas Placcabeus ( I Macc. 2 : 4 2 - 3 : 9 ; I 1 Macc. 14:6), which-

s e r v e d a s a p o ln t f o r i n t t i a l r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e S e l e u c i d

armfes. The Has id im were a l s o d e s c r i b e d i n I Macc. 7:12-14

a s p a r t o f a g r o u p o f s c r i b e s who s ou gh t p ea ce a t the f i r s t

o p p o r t u n i t y a f t e r t h e o u t b r e a k o f h o s t i l i t i e s , y e t w ere mas-

s a c r e d for t he i r adhe rence t o t r a d i t i o n a l p i e t y .

I have concluded t h a t the Hasldim inc lud ed many di v e r se

p a r t i e s under th e i r banne r, r a th e r t h a n be ing a s e p a r a t e g r o u p

o f i n d i v i d u a l s e x tr e me l y z e a l o u s f o r Torah a nd e x tr e me l y a b l e

2 8 7 . T h i s a t t i t ud e i s a t t r i b u t e d t o the au thor o f D a n i -e l ; c f . A . Ben tzen , Dan ie l , p.87.



9 2

s o l d i e r s . I r e a l i z e t h a t many scholars h o l d d i f f e r e n t

op in ions a n d , more to the poin t , t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y o f the

Hasidim was n o t c e n t r a l t o the i s su e o f o p p o s i t i o n t o the

f o r c e s o f Hellenism and .the armies o f t h e S e l e u c i d s .288

The Hasidim probably came i n t o ex is te nc e by opposing

t h os e s o c i a l i n no v a tf o ns c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f H e l l e n i s m ( e . g .

the gymnasium and a t h l e t i c con tes t s ) which cu t ag ai ns t289

the grain o f Jewish me nt al i t y and custom. The concomitant

a c t i v i t y o f such behavior Included emphasis o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r i t u a l s and p r ac t i ce s o f Judaism. As the movement grew, s o

d i d t h e c o n s t e r n a t i o n f o r t h e cor rup t Temple p r ac t i ce s , t he

compromises with the H e l l e n i s t i c l i f e - s t y l e a n d t h e p l o t t i n g

b f r i v a l s f o r c on t r ol o f the h i g h p r i e s t l y o f f i c e . T hi s

3 produced a n ent renching o f o p p o s i t i o n a n d a p o l a r i z i n g o f

behav io r a n d b e l i e f , w h a t amounted t o a r e t h i n k i n g o f w h a t

Judaism represented. At t h a t po in t , open oppos i t i on by

demonst rat ion needed on l y ex t e rn a l p res su re t o i n t e ns i f y

i n t o c i v i l w a r , T h a t pr ess ur e was prov ided by Antiochus X V

(Epiphanes) a n d t h e a t t a c k o f Jason, a former h i g h p r i e s t ,

on Jerusalem ( I 1 M a c c , 5 : 5 f f . , 8 : l f f e ) .The Jews under the l ea de rs h ip o f J u d a s Maccabeus were

s o s u c c e s s f u l that they were ab le to rededica te the Temple

288. C f . 3 . Bright , O c i t , , p . 4 2 6 ; N . H . S n a i t h , - he

2 8 9 , M . Hengel , OJ -0c i t s p.103.

Jews from Cyrus t o Her od, p.38;. T ch er ikov er , op_. -*c i t sp. 198.



93

i n 1 6 4 B . C . Antiochus ' p rob lems i n other areas of h is em-

pire made i t i m p o ss i b le f o r t he S e l e u c i d s t o m o u n t a

c rush ing campa ign aga in s t t he J ews. H a v i n g ach ievedthe

o b j e c t i v e o f se l f -d e t e r mi na t i on , the Hasi d ic movement began

t o d is i n te g r a te . Th is happened main ly because many o f the

Hasidim d i d no t w a n t t o pu rs ue p o l i t i c a l in de pe nd en ce ; t h e s e

were con ten t to en joy r e l f g i o u s f reedom under any fo rm of

g o v e r nme n t o

From the b e g f n n i n g , d l f f e r e n t f a c t i o n s of t h e H a s i d i c

movement had aimed a t t h e i r o w n go a ls . The fo rer unn er o f

t h e P h a r i s e e s a n d the Essenes withdrew from t h e m i l l t a r y

le ad e r s who had assumed p o l i t f c a l co n t ro l . The Ph a r i see s ,2 9 0

intent upon educating the common people i n Torah, were not

s o .concerned with p o l i t i c a l f r e e d o m a s wi th f r eedom to ca r ryon w i t h t h e i r work. The Essenes, a p r i e s t l y d om ina te d

p a r t y, w i t h d r e w t o t h e d e s e r t s o f J u d a h when the leg i t imate

Z a do k it e fa m i l y w a s a o t re tu rn ed t o the o f f i c e o f h i g h

p r i e s t and they r e a l i z e d t h a t the Hasmoneans perpetrated291

the same ev i l s a s t h e i r H e l l e n i s t i c p r e d e c e s s o r s . One s uc h

g r o u p s e t t l e d a t Q u m r an , where a community developed with a n

e m p h a s i s u p o n r i t u a l p u r i t y, e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s and apoca lyp -

t i c o r i e n t a t i o n .

In time, when tempers h a d c o o l e a a n d l i f e had r e t ur n e d

290. Cf. 3. Bright , o pp.448-452; th e s e two

2 9 1 . G. Vermes, T h e Dead S e a S c r o l l s i n P e r s p e c t i v e ,

g roups main ta ined a form of h e a p o c a l y p t i c p e r s p e c t i v ei n t o t h e New Testament p e r fo d .

p . 6 6 ; W. Foerster, From t he E x i l e t o C hr i s t , p.50.



9 4

t o no rma l, He l l en i sm re - en te r ed the c i r c l e s of Jewish l ead e r-

sh ip . The SaddUCeeS, the s o c i a l c l a s s which had formed

around the o l d Zadok i t e a r i s toc racy, emerged to h o l d power

i n Jerusalem. The Ph ar is ee s and t h e Z e a l o t s ( the l a t t e r t h e

t r u e h e i r s o f th e f i g h t i n g Maccabees) remained most c l o s e l y

l i n k e d t o the common people, who maintained a marked sympathy

with t h e a p o c a l y p t i c o u t l o o k .

The apoca lyp t i c a u t h o r s who had g iven e xp re ss io n to

t h e i r b e l i e f s in the hea t o f b a t t l e e n t e r e d a p e r i o d o f

c alm . W hereas e a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c ( e . g . D a n i e l ) h a d en joyed

a w id e c i r c l e o f r e a d e r s b ec au se i t add ressed i t s e l f t o

g r e a t i s s u e s , l a t e r a p o c a l y p t ic w r i t i n g s w ere d i r e c t e d t o

sma.11 groups of secret communities, such a s Qumran.4 2 9 2

S p e c u l a t i o n s a n d f a n t a s i e s w e r e g i v e n g r e a t e r s p a c e a s

a p o c a l y p t i s t s , h a v i n g lost t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t o f h i s t o r i c a l

c r i s i s , l o s t t h e i r p a s t o ra l z e a l and i nd ul ge d in rather i r -

r e s p o n s i b l e t o p i c s a n d themes. They re ta in ed , however, a

s p a r k o f s p i r i t u a l c r e a t i v i t y which fla me d t o l i f e i n the

re b e l l io n s a ga ln s t Rome i n 7 0 a n d 1 3 5 A.D. and which car r ied

them through, however ina de qu at el y, the dar k days th at

f o l l o w e d t h o s e d e f e a t s t o a l i n g e r i n g e x i s t e nc e on t he f r i n g e

o f J u d a i s m ' s l a t e r l i f e .

The v l o l e n t c o n f l i c t w h i c h marked the Maccabean uprising

cen te r ed on a g r o u p o f Jews , l o y a l t o t r a d i t i o n a l J u d a l s m ,

292. ld. Hengel , o p . c i t e , p p . 2 1 8 f .



95

who were .oppressed by ad herents to the H e l l e n i s t i c way o f

l i f e wi th in the Jewish community a n d l e a d e r s h i p a n d were

pe r secu ted by th e i r Se l euc ld ov e r l o rd . The Jewish

293

Hel len is t s were main ly concerned with unlty, which was im-

p o s s i b l e s o l o n g a s those Jews s t u b b o r n l y h e l d t o the ways

o f t he pas t . T h e S e l e u c i d s d e s i r e d p o l i t i c a l u n i t y wi th in

J u d a h , which would const i tu te a s t a b l e b a s e c l o s e t o E g y p t ,

t h e i r m l l l t a r y enemy, from which t h e i r armies cou ld op er at e

f r e e l y .

The c o n f l i c t w a s s o s e v e r e t h a t o p p o s i t i o n t o H e l l e n i s m

( o r i g i n a l l y f r a g m e n t e d a n d u n o rg a n i z e d ) t r a n s c e n d e d a l l p a r t y

b a r r i e r s a n d produced a unified movement with a l i f e and a

s e t o f g o a l s u n i q u e l y i t s own. M o s t e x p r e s s i v e o f t h i s u n l t y

was th e l i t e r a t u r e produced by the Jews o f t h i s era. Given

the turmoil o f the s e c o n d cen tury B . C . ( f o l l o w i n g h a r d upon

a p e r i o d o f i nt en se i n t e l l e c t u a l c r e a t i v i t y ) , t h e l i t e r a t u r e

which surv ived f e a t u re d d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s

theo log ica l s t r eams o f t r a d i t i o n : t h e o c r a t i c - p r i e s t l y,

p r o p h e t i c - e s c h a t o l o g i c a l , wisdom a n d deu te ronomis t i c .2 9 4

Such works a s t h e b o o k o f D a n i e l , the ear ly segments o f

I E n O C h , the Book o f Ju b i le es , the Tes taments o f the Tw e l v e

Patriarchs, T o b i t , e t c . , were products o f t h e m i x i n g o f

293. H.H. Rowley, o . c i t . , p.43, s ta ted t h a t 'circum-

2 9 4 . O.H. Steck , o p . c l t o pp .205f . ; O . H . Steck , - r t .

s t ances c r ea ted apoca lyp ' 7 ecogni t ion o f t h e r o l e eventsp l a y e d i n apoca lyp t ic ' s emergence a s a l i t e r a t u r e .

-.i t @ pp .197f.



9 6

t h e s e d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s . The cu r r en t o f p o p u l a r s t o r i e s

a n d l egends which c rys ta l l i zed a round the heroes o f t h e

p a s t ( e . g . Daniel , Enoch, Tobi t , Esther, J u d i t h , Noah, e tc . )

w e r e a f f ec t ed by th i s ac t ive In te rchange . S ince the b o o k

o f Daniel w a s a r e su l t o f h y br i di z ed t r a d i t i o n s , i t s authors

used a v a r i e ty of p r o p h e t i c a n d other k inds o f mate r i a l i n

t t s composit ion.2 9 5

In ske tch ing h i s ana lys i s o f t h e r i s e o f a p o c a l y p t i c ,

0. Plgger a rgued from the Maccabean rebel 1 ion backwards,

through t h e per iod o f t he Ch r o n i c l e r t o t h e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l l c

p e r io d . He co n t r a s t ed the a c t i v i t y o f the Maccabees with the

message o f the author o f Dan iel . He the or i zed th at ther e296

were groups behind these contras ts , e a c h with a l i t e r a t u r e2 9 7

and a world-view o f i t s own. Then, n o t i n g tha t there was

a divis ion among the people i n Maccabean days i n r esponse to

the incurs ion o f Hellenism, he argued t h a t Danie l r ep resen ted

a group which emphasized t h e prophe t ic wri t ings a n d the

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t l o n o f them a n d t h a t I Maccabees

was the product o f those w h o r e j e c t e d t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n -

t e r p r e t a t i o n o f cur ren t even ts and l i m i t e d ' I s r a e l ' t o t h o s e

who accepted Maccabean rule a n d a s t r i c t adherence t o Torah.

From t h i s se t of 'c i rcumstances , P lgger argued that a new men-

t a l i t y was r eq u i r ed f o r the development o f t h e ap o ca ly p t i c

2 9 5 . L . Morris, op.

2 9 6 .297. I b i d 9 pp.17 .

Book o f D an ie l , ~p.34f.

9. P l o g e r ,

p p . 7 9 f 0 ;

p o l l .

E.W. Hea ton 8 T h e-



97

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s : t h e t h e o cr a c y o f the p o s t - e x i l i c

p e r io d , w it h i t s r e d e f i n i t i o n o f I s r a e l a s a r e l i g i o u s , n o n -

p o l l t ical community, p a v e d the wayfor

a p o c a l y p t i c .2 9 8

P l i g e r ' s i n s i g h t i n t o t he pr of ou nd ch an ge g e n e r a t e d by

the loss o f I s r a e l ' s n a t io n a l i d e n t i t y needs t o b e a f f i r m e d .

Ye t , c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s of h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s ec on d

cen tu ry B . C . community shows problems i n h i s c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s

o f w r i t i n g s a n d p a r t i e s . He n e e d l e s s l y r e s t r l c t e d b oth

t h e o c r a t i c a n d c o n v e n t i c le m e n t a l i t i e s a n d c r e a t e d f a l s e d i s -

t inc t ions be tween the two.

He made r e f e r e n c e t o I Maccabees and the book of Danie l

a s work s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f o p p o s i t e w o r l d- v i e ws : I Maccabees

t r e a t e d t he c o n f l i c t w i t h A n ti oc hu s E p ip ha ne s w i t h o u t

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d a p p r o v e d a c t i v e m i l i t a r y

o p p o s i t i o n . D an ie l t r e a t e d th e c o n f l i c t with e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d d i s a p p r o v e d , a p p a r e n t l y, o f m i l i t a r y r e -

s i s t a n c e .

There was, however, o t he r t reatments which do n o t f i t

Plgge r ' s scheme: I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 n a r r a t e d t h e c o n f l i c t with an

e s c h a t o l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , with a p p r o v a l o f t h e Macca-

b e a n f o r c e s . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o i mag ine how t h i s p o r t i o n o f

I ,Enoch m i g h t f i t i n to P18ge r' s unde r s t and ing .

The answer would involve t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t I Enoch

85-90 o r i g i n a t e d w i t h a group which h e l d that God c o u l d a c -

hieve His purposes th rough human ac t lv l ty-

nd tha t He would

2 9 8 . -0I b i d p .29 .



9 8

a l s o i n t e r v e n e i n h i s t o r y t o ga in His ends . T h i s must

a l t e r P l i g e r ' s h yp oth es ls t h a t t h e t h e o c r a t i c a n d escha to -

l o g i c a l m e n t a l i t i e s e m e rg e d i n the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ,

m a i n t a i n e d s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e s a n d were behind t w o m u t u a l l y

d i s t i n c t i v e b o d i e s o f l i t e r a t u r e i n the second century B . C .

D i v e r s i t y r a t h e r t h a n u n i t y , a l b e i t with in ce r t a in con -

s i s t e n t t h e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , seems t o have been th e r u l e

du r i ng th i s pe r iod . I have a l r e ad y a rgued , on the ba s i s o f

the book of Joel, Ezek. 3 8 - 3 9 a n d t h e P s a l t e r , that t h e r e

w a s a r e a l f u t u r e - o r i e n t a t i o n wi t h i n the theocracy (which

c an n ot be e l i m i n a t e d by r e f e r e n c e s t o p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s i n

C h r o n i c l e s o r t o I M ac ca be es ). D i f f e r e n t e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

in t e rp re ta t ions were app l i ed to the same even t s by the au thors

o f the book of Daniel a n d I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 ( d e s p l t e t he f a c t t h a t

t h e l a t t e r was pa t t e rned on D a n . 10-12).

t r emendous va r i e ty o f e scha to log ica l fo rms a n d f e a t u r e s i n

t he l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s . I t i s i l l o g i c a l t o a s s u m e

a u n i t y o r a s i mp l l c i ty o f o rd er when such a design cannot

t ake in to accoun t a l l t he ev idence .

We must note the

L . H ar tm an made a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n when he

s t a t e d , on t h e b a s i s o f h i s a n a l y s i s o f m a n y a p o c a l y p t i c

t e x t s , t h a t a n ' a p o c a l y p t i c schema' u s u a l l y i n v o l v e d : 1 ) a

t ime o f t r o u b l e f o r t he peop le o f G o d , 2 ) God ' s in t e rven t ton

( o r an a p p o i n t e d s e r v a n t on h i s b e h a l f ) , 3 ) the judgment o f

God, 4 ) the punishment o f 6 o d ' s enemies a n d 5 ) t h e r e j o i c i n g



99

299o f God 's peo ple . This program developed ove r a long

p e r i o d o f time a n d could be read back i n t o such events as

t h e r e l e a s e from e x i l e or the Flood ca tas t rophe , which be-came t y p o l o g i c a l f o r a c t s o f div ine judgment f n the apoca-

l y p t i c 1 i t e r a t u r e .300

The s i g n i f i c a n t aspe c t o f Hartman's work was the fa c t

t h a t a ' t ime o f t r o ub le ' was the on ly obse rva b le p o i n t f o r

the apo ca l yp t i c au tho r s ; t he o the r s t ag es were the r e sp ons i -

b i l i t y o f t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e a l i t y . For example, the

au thor o f D a n . 10-12 observed the ' t ime o f t r o u b l e '

(11:29-39), b u t he c o u l d o n l y e n v i s i o n - ow God would i n t e r -

vene , judge a n d punish and - ow the righteous Jews would r e -

j o i c e . The schema was avai lable t o the authors of D a n . 10-12

a n d I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 , who applied i t wl th in the con tex t o f t h e i rd t f f e r e n t e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e f u t u r e .

T h e conc lu s ion t h a t I drew f r o m my s tu dy o f t h e s e sub-

j e c t s wa s that t h e t h e o c r a c y / c o n v e n t i c l e d i v i s i o n o f the

p o s t - e x i l i c e r a w a s not as pronounced i n the second century

B.C. a s i t had been i n the e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d (when

the c onv en t i c l e p rop he t i c wr i t in gs were composed). The

a t t i t u d e s a s s o c i a t e d with t hese t r ends d o have a n a t u r a l

soc io log ica l foundat ion (which means t h a t t h e y could h a v e

2 9 9 . L . Hartman, Prophecy Interpreted, p e 3 ; C f e D e

P a t t e , ~ E a r l y Jewish Hermeneutic I n Palest ine, ppe169-175.3 0 0 . L e Hartman, OJ c f t . , p . 3 2 .



100

emerged a t any p o i n t i n t i m e , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f p a s t or

f u t u r e -o r i e n t a t i o n ) . 0 1The con t inu i ty o f t h e t h e o c r a t i c

a n d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l m e n t a l i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p o s t - e x i l i c

p e r i o d i s q u e s t i o n a bl e .

B o t h P O D o Hanson a n d 0 . Pl8ger have asser ted such con-

t i nu i ty. Hanson dec la r ed t h a t t he e scha to log ica l men ta - l i ty

was m ost c l e a r l y d e l i n e a t e d during t h e e r a o f Tr i t o - I s a i a h

a n d Deu tero -Zechar i ah. Acco rd ing to h i s r ec ons t ru c t io n ,

there was a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f sort a r o u n d 4 0 0 B.C., because

t he C h r o n i c l e r ' s a t t i t u d e r e f l e c t e d a n h c l u s i n e s s t o w a r d

p r e v i o u s l y a l i e n a t e d g r o u p s within Judaism. However ,02

t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n was not comple te ; ap oc a l yp t ic au thors were

s t i l l s t r ug g l in g f o r l e gi t i ma t i on i n t h e t h i r d a n d second

c e n t u r i e s B.C.30-3

P l i g e r s t a t e d t h a t t h e t h e o c r a t i c m e n t a l i t y d e v e l o p e d

i n the l e a d i n g p a r t i e s . o f the . r e s t o r a t i o n e r a a n d was the

b a s i s f o r th e a p o ca l y p t ic o u t l o o k which developed f r o m i t .

T h a t ou t look w a s adopted by t h e c o n v e n t i c l e s by r e j e c t e d by

t he l eade r s , who fo l lowed a d i f f e r e n t f o r m o f t h e o r i g i n a l

a t t i t u d e .304

. c i t . , pp.211h e a v l l y u p o n t h e works o f S O C o l 5 s t s K OMa

0 1 . C f . P O D . Hanson,

and Uto i a , M O Weber, Socl 'ology o f R e l i g i o nTeaching o f the C hr i s t i a n C hurche

'RoddB 'Ma x Weber and Anc ien t Judaism' ET l z T z k T

pp.457-469.

- 2 1 7 ; h ennhelm,and E. TS . C f .Y x i i (19

re1 1ed

' r o ePYs ccos .I791



101

The books o f Daniel a n d I E n o c h a r e c r i t i c a l in the

development o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c movement , f o r they a re the

i n i t i a l a po ca ly p t ic w o r k s . To understand this movement, we

h a v e t o s e e k a f t e r their au thors a n d t h e i r f o r e r u n n e r s .

I t h a s been gene ra l ly accep ted t h a t Danie l h a d a com-305

p l e x l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y b e h i n d i t s p re se nt form. The most

c r u c i a1 ques t i ons concerni n g i t s nature are: the two-1 an-

guage composi t ion o f the b o o k , t h e r e l a t i o n o f ch. 7 to what

p recedes a n d fo l l o ws i t and the nature and purpose o f

ch. 8-12. I t w o u l d be most r e a s o n a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e306

t h e s e l a t t e r c h a pt e rs f o r t he b e s t c l u e s r e g a r d i n g th e au th or -

s h i p o f the b o o k o f Danie l and the t h e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s

behind i t s composi t ion .307

E . W. Heaton p o l n t e d out t h a t , s i nc e the re was a lmos t n o

p r o p h e t i c m a t e r i a l . n D a n i e l , t h e a u t h o r s o f Daniel were

c l o s e r t o b e i n g s c r i b e s t h a n f o l l o w e r s o f the p rophets .308

He s t a t e d that the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r o p h e t i c t r a i t s a r e m i s -

s i n g : cosmic imagery, b a t t l e s c e n e s , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the

Golden Age and t h e f a t e o f t h e n a t i o n s , a n d the Messiah.

Heaton a lso a rgued t h a t t he au tho r s o f Dan ie l a n d Ben Sira

shared the same Misdom tradi t ion. He po in ted o u t t h a t309

Dan ie l med i t a t ed i n Torah (1:8-16, 9:10-11) , sought out the

305, 0 E l s s f e l d t , o . c i t . , p p . 5 2 2 - 5 2 8 .306.

3 0 7 . W. Zimmerlf , o c i t . , p . 2 3 2 .3 0 8 .3 0 9 . I b i d @ pp.19ff.

3. Barr, ' D a n & , T B- rev. e d . ) , ed. M OB l a c k ,

E . W. Heaton, d E k f D a n i e l , pp.34f.

p.591.



102

wisdom o f the ancients (1:17, 2:19-22, 4 : 3 5 , 5:23), and

occupied himself with prophec ies (9:Z) . He w a s a l s o in-

t e r e s t e d i n the d a r k s a y i n g s o f p a r a b l e s (227-28 , 4 : 1 9 f f . ,

5:12). These th ings Heaton re la ted t o the framework o f Ben

S S r a 's s t at e d purpose f o r t he l i f e o f a s c r i b e ( E c c l u s .

39: 1-5).

T h e d i f f i c u l t y with Heaton ' s f i r s t argument was th a t

Danie l w a s not ad d r e s s in g h ims e l f t o t h e d e s t i n y o f I s r a e l

v i s - h i s the n a t i o n s ; h e w a s concerned about t h e d i v i s i o n

within the Jewish community (Jew vs. Jew, those who k n o w

G o d , 11:32, against those who have forsaken the covenant ,

11:30). He was concerned wlth t h o s e who t o o k u p arms t o

f i g h t ( c f . 11:34) and o t h e r s w h o p a s s i v e l y e n d u r e d s u f f e r i n g

while they awafted the expected end (11:33,35; 1212).

Danie l ' s au thors were n o t a s c l o s e to Ben S i ra as

Heaton t r ied t o prove. F i r s t , Daniel was portrayed a s a

l o y a l Jew who obeyed the Torah; he was never ch ar ac te r i ze d

a s me dit at i ng in the Torah. Second, he d i d not seek o u t t h e

wisdom o f the anci en ts ; h is wisdom was imparted to h i m by

God t h r o u g h d i r e c t r e v e l a t i o n . Third , the author o f310

Daniel may have occupied himself with prophec ies , b u t Ben

310. The author o f Daniel sought to show t h a t d i v i n ew i s d o m ( g i v e n by r e v e l a t i o n ) was s u p e r i o r t o a l l e a r t h l ywisdom, even that possessed by Ben Sira . The w i s d o m forwhich Daniel wa s c e l e b r a t e d was n o t the proverbia l /gnomicwisdom o f Strach b u t a 'mantic' wisdom, a knowledge o f t h efuture o r s e c r e t s , g a in e d through dreams or d i v i n a t i o n .T h i s mantic wisdom was n o € e n t i r e l y f o r e i g n t o the na tu reo f I s r a e l i t e Wi s d o m , b u t moreso t h a n gnomic w i s d o m ; c f .R.3. Bauckham, - rt . c i t . , pp.13f .



103

Sira d i d not appear to do s o ( d e s p i t e h i s c l a i m t o the con-

t r a r y ) . Fourth, Daniel was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n the dark311

s a y i n g s o f pa ra bl es . When fa ce d with a r i d d l e , h e d i d no tattempt to fathom i t s my s te r i e s t h r o u g h h i s i n t e l l e c t ; h e

prayed for the answer.

I grant t h e p o s s i b i l i t y that Ben Sira a n d the authors

of Daniel may have been b ro ther s c r i be s , f o r the charac te r-

i s t i c s o f the off ice ( the books , s tudy a n d wri t ing , and the

i n s t r u c t i o n of others) are found i n both books. T h i s f a c t

i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y t e l l i n g , however, for s c r i b a l i s m was

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f most of Judaism d u r i n g t h i s era. I con-

cluded that the d i fferences between t h e t w o b o o k s were more

s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s :

1 ) D a n . 9:2 r ep resen ted a c h a r a c te r i s t i c a c t i v i t y o f

the a u t h o r s h i p c i r c l e o f D an ie l ( i . e . t he r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

bf the p rophe t ic w r i t i n g s ) . T h i s i s beyond the scope o f

Ben Sira .

2 ) Th e co n cep t o f s u f f e r i n g d i f f e r en t f a t ed the t w o a s

w e l l . Ben S i r a conformed t o the t rad i t ional Wisdom pos ture

311. 6. v o n R a d , Wi s d o m in I s r a e l , p.258n.25; he wasc o r r e c t when he s tated that Ben Sira 's concept o f the p r o -phets w as astonishingly inadequate ' . Ben Sira r eg a r d edthem almost total ly as wonder-workers (48:l-16) and r e v e a l -ers o f t h e b l e s s e d future o f I s r a e l ( 3 6 : 1 5 f . , 4 8 : 2 3 - 2 5 ,49:10). While he s t at ed hi s concern with prophec ies (39 :1 ) ,h e d i d n o t mention the ethical dlmenslon o f t h e p r o p h e t l cwri t ings . A s tudy o f h i s p i c t u r e o f the end-time (36:l-17)d l d n o t reveal specif ic dependence upon the prophets . O nt h e whole, w h a t Ben S i r a s a t d o f the prophets d i d not r e -f l e c t well on h f s r e p u t a t i o n a s a s c r l b e .



104

on s u f f e r i n g : i t was a v o i d ab l e , on the most p a r t , by the

w l s e man and w a s an e x p e c t e d r e s u l t o f human f o l l y . The

authors o f Danle l in te rp r e t ed Suff e r in g (11 :33 ,35) a s proof

o f a s p e c i a l r e l a t f o n s h i p t o God a n d something to be recom-

pensed in the end-time.

3 ) The central theme o f Ben Sira was devotion t o the

Torah o f God, which al on e must b e obeyed (34:5-8). I t was

the Wisdom of G o d which led men t o perfect ion; dreams and

specu la t ions on the u n k n o w n a r e t o b e r e j e c t e d ( 3 : 2 1 - 2 4 ) .

The authors o f Daniel do not r e j e c t Tor ah , b u t the theme o f

Daniel wa s s p i r i t u a l r e a d i n e s s f o r the end-time. Fo r Ben

Si ra , the end-t ime was far -d is ta nt ; t t cou ld n o t g i v e

meaning t o l i f e ; a n d e s c h a t o l o g y was p e r l p h e r a l t o g o d ly

l i v i n g .F o r

the authorso f

Daniel, the end-time was im-minent a n d fundamental f o r h o w the Jews were to l ive .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e e t h e authors o f Danie l a n d Ben

S i r a a s members o f a b road sc r lba l t r ad i t ion , b u t we must

a l s o e mphasize t h e i r q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s . Daniel 's

authors have a k i n s h i p w f t h escha to log ica l though t which i s

fo re ig n to Wisdom c i r c l e s . However, we a r e unab le to s ay

whether t h i s escha to log ica l awareness deve loped within o r

ou ts ide the theocracy or whether the c i r c l e o f D a n i e l ' s

a u t h o r s o r i g i n a t e d w i t h i n or ou t s tde the theocracy.

H a v l n g s t a t ed t h a t t h e au th o r s o f the b o o k o f Danie l

had some k i n d o f a background i n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c i r c l e s and

not i n Wisdom groups ( a t l e a s t , t o the same d e g r e e ) , w e



105

must examine a n a p o c a l y p t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d t r a d i t i o n wh ich

d i d have i t s r o o t s i n the Wisdom t r ad i t io n : the Enoch

1egend.

The b o o k o f I Enoch i s g en e r a l l y ag r eed t o b e a c o l -

l e c t i o n o f w r i t i n g s from groups whose in te res t s inc luded :

the man Enoch, the theme of cos mo log ica l s pe cu la ti o n and

w h a t may b e i d e n t i f i e d as p r im i t iv e s c i e n t i f i c i n v es t ig a -

t i on . Many b i b l i c a l d e t a i l s g iven abou t Enoch (Gen .312

5 : 2 1 - 2 4 ) correspond t o the Babylonian myths regarding the

seventh pr imeval k i n g , Enmeduranna, a n d i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

pos tu la te Enoch ' s un ique t r ans la t ion to the heaven ly r ea lm

by comparing i t t o the Sumerian legend o f K i n g Etana, who

attempted t o j o u r n ey t o h eav en ag a in s t t h e w i l l o f the313

gods. However, t h e r e i s l i t t l e s u bs t an c e t o th e s e

r e f e r en ces a s they r e l a t e t o t h i s l a t t e r p has e o f the Enoch

t r a d i t i o n ; i t remains th at Enoch's wisdom /righteous ness

w a s emphas ized in contras t to h is pagan counterpar ts and was

presented within a genu ine ly Jewish r e l ig ious f r amework .

I ag r ee t h a t one o f t h e o r i g i n a l m o t i v a t i o n s o f t h i s

Enoch c i r c l e was theod icy, a sea rch ing o u t o f t h e o r i g in an d

development o f e v i l , i t s judgment by God i n h i s t o r y and i t s

3 1 2 . M OHengel, 0 ~ . i t . , pp.204,217f0 This m a t e r i a lder ived f rom the wor ld-v iew o f H el l en i s t i c J u d a i s m. I t i sd i f f i c u l t t o imagine that they could l i m i t themselves top u r e l y h i s t o r t c a l material a m t d s t the cosmological specu-

l a t i o n s , e t c . , which Hel lenism had impor tedi n

the p rev iousc e n t u r i e s .313. C f . 0. E i s s f e l d t , 1 ) p . c i t . , p . 6 2 1 , for the

r e f e r e n c e s on t h e s e s u b J ec t s .



106

314r e l a t i o n s h i p t o God. T he re was a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i n t he

p r e - h i s t o r i c s eg ment o f G e n e s i s : t he c on ce rn w i t h f a l l e n

an ge l s , t he r i s e o f w ickedness amongm a n k i n d a n d

the j udg -ment o f angels and mankind i n the Flood . T h i s s e t t i n g o f

judgment p rov ided a po in t o f con ta c t whereby an e sc ha to l og i -

c a l i n t e r e s t c ou ld e n t e r a p r e v i o u s l y n o n - e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

t r a d i t i o n . L a t e r c o n t r ib u t i o n s t o t h e o r i g i n a l E n o c h

m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n g r e a t e r a m o u n t s o f f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d

m a t e r i a l .

T h i s e a r l y m a t e r i a l was l i m i t e d t o t h e Book o f315

Watchers (ch. 1-36) a n d the Ast ronomica l B o o k (ch . 7 2 - 8 2 ) .

The themes o f t he f or me r s e c t i o n we re t h e f a l l e n a n g e l s , t h e

d e m o r a l i z a t i o n o f mankind and the pronouncement o f doom

upon t h o se a n g e l s . The l a t t e r s e c t i o n c o n ta i n e d a l a r g ep o r t i o n o f s c i e n t i f l c o bs er va t i on ( c h . 7 2 - 7 9 ) , d e a l i n g with

the movement o f c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s a n d g e o g r a p h y.

The Enoch t radi t ion underwent a profound change as i t

e n t e r e d t h e e r a o f the Maccabees . The Enoch t r a d i t i o n d i d

have proponcts within the Jewish community i n P a l e s t i n e ,

for add i t iona l segmen t s appea r t o h a v e been composed there.

The Book of Dreams (ch. 8 3 - 9 0 ) c o n t a i n e d a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

a p oc a ly p se s i m i l a r t o Dan. 10-12 and i s d a t e d t o the same

p e r i o d . M o r e o v e r, i t was o f t r u e H a s i d i c a u t h o r s h i p316

3 1 4 . R.J . Bauckham, a r t . c i t . , p p l 6 f .315.

3 1 6 . R . J . Bauckham, ar t . c i t . , p.16.

Bauckham f o l o w e ~ . T . i l i k , op. c i t . , pp .22 -41 ,i n s t a t i n g th e pre-Maccabean da te s o f t h e s e segments.



107

( i n the sense t h a t i t g a v e p o l i t i c a l suppor t t o the Macca-

bean f ami ly ) a n d encouraged the Hasidim i n thei r s p i r i t u a l

a n d p o l i t i c a l e n d e a v o r s .The Enoch t rad i t ion , therefore , con ta ined two apoca lyp-

t i c f o r m s . O n the one h a n d , ch. 8 5 - 9 0 conta ined an escha to-

l o g i c a l a p o c a l y p s e , c o n c e r n e d with t h e f u t u r e a n d using

v a t i c i n i a e x e v e n t u n a r r a t i v e s t o connect the t ime of the

hero t o t h e Maccabean p e r i o d . I t r e f l e c t e d t he v a l u e s o f

the H as id ic movement and had h i s t o r i c a l l i m i ts p la ced upon

i t . O n t he o the r h a n d , the Book of Watchers (ch. 1 - 3 6 ) h a d

a cosmolog ica l apoca lypse . Through the f i c t i o n o f Enoch's

jou rn ey to heaven , the au tho r s were f r e e to specu la t e o r

e l a b o r a t e on t he s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s u p e rn a t ur a l w o rl d f o r

them and t h e i r peo ple .

317

GIhile i t i s c l e a r t h a t I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 came from a

H a si d ic group which had giv en su pp or t to the Maccabees and

d i d n o t r e f l e c t a p o l i t i c a l p a c i f i s m ( a s does D a n . 10-12),

i t w a s dependent upon the Daniel work f o r i t s form and con-

t en t . The Enoch tr ad en ts were poor aut hor s with l i t t l e

c r e a t i v i t y , The l a c k o f s k i l l appa ren t i n the construe-318

t i o n o f I Enoch 85 -90 suppor ts the v iew tha t the b o o k o f

Daniel was the f i r s t c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f tha t p re-occupat ion

with in the Jewish community which came to be called apoca-

l y p t i c .

3 1 7 . The S l m i l i t u d e s o f Enoch ( c h . 3 7 - 7 1 ) c o m b i n e dboth fo rms, bu t these chap te r s were da ted much l a t e r .

v o l . 1 , p.258.318. A . Ben tzen , In t roduc t lon t o the O l d Testament,



108

T H E M E S S A G E AND T H E O L O G Y OF ZECHARIAH 1-8

I . I n t r o d u c t i o n

319Zech ar fah 1-8 o r ig i n a t ed a t a n important j u n c t u r e o f

I s r a e l i t e h i s t o r y. The r e s to r a t i o n p e r i o d , w hich we may

date 538-516 B . C . , was an era o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e l l e c t u a l

c r ea t i v i t y . I t ex p er i enced v a r io u s f o r c e s w hich molded t h e

behavior, b e l i e f s a n d ex p ec t a t i o n s o f t h e p eo p l e .

Scho la r s h a v e observed t h a t t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f the

Jews to J u d a h was an t ic ipa ted by the canon ica l p rophe t s o f

t h e e x i l i c y ea r s : J eremiah ( ch . 2 9 - 3 0 , 3 3 ) , Ezekie l (ch .

3 6 - 3 7 ) a n d Deuter o- Isa iah . The exp ecta t io n was passed to

the G o l a h community a s a wh ole . The hope o f r e s t o r a t i o n

has been viewed as a natural consequence o f t h e f u tu r e -o r ien ted Jewish f a i t h , whlch sch o la r s have t r aced f rom very

ea r ly t imes a s t h e r o o t o f Jewish escha to logy.3 2 0

319. In view o f the ov er- a l l d i r e c t io n o f my su b j ec t ,I have chosen t o l i m i t my a n a l y s i s o f Zechar iah 1-8. Newc r i t i c a l work i s r e q u i r e d on t h i s r a t h e r n e g l e c t e d p o r t i o no f t h e p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e . I have only touched upon thisa r e a a n d have t r ea ted on ly the more bas ic ques t ions o f r e -d a c t i o n - c r i t i c i s m , l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c i s m and f o rm - c ri t ic f sm .My pr imary in t e r e s t has been in t h e a r e a o f t h e t h eo lo g y o fZechar iah 1 -8 and , more spec i f i ca l ly, Zechar iah ' s under-s tand ing o f t h e e x i l e a n d r e s to r a t io n pe r io d s , h i s s i g n i f i -cance to the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n a n dt o ' the formatfon of the pos t -exi l ic prophetfc movement a n dh i s co n t r i b u t t o n s t o the emergence of the apocalypt icworld-view a n d c e r ta i n a p o ca l y pt i c b e l i e f s .

320. Cf. S. Mowinckel, He T h a t Corneth; 3 . Brlght, -H i s t o r y o f I s r a e l , p.150.



109

The return f r o m t h e B ab y lo n i an ex i l e , w h i l e mo t iv a t ed

b y t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f u t u r e h o p e , was complicated by the hard-

s h i p s encountered i n t h e l an d ( c f . Hag. 1 ) . The e a r l y p o st -e x i l i c p ro ph et s w ere f o r c e d t o deal with a n unp leasan t

p re se nt r e a l i t y a n d with t h e u n f u l f i l l e d p r o p h e t i c p r o m i s e s

f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n ( c f . H a g . 2:15,19: 'from t h i s d ay ' and

Zech. 8:lO-11: ' b e f o r e t h o s e d ay s . . . b u t n o w ' ) .

These promises grew o u t o f the words o f t h e e x i l i c p r o -

phets a n d from the subs tance o f the J e w i s h f a i t h . Haggai

a n d Zech a r i ah t o o k u p t h e h o p es o f t h e ' o f f i c i a l ' t h eo lo g y

o f t he p r e - e x i l i c s t a t e a n d the exi l ic communi t ies i n3 2 1

t h e i r c o n c e r n f o r t h e D a v i d i c sc i on ( H a g . 2 : Z O - 2 3 , Zech.

6:12-14), the coming time o f p r o s p e r i t y (Hag . 2 7 - 9 , Zech.

8 ) a n d t he s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t he f u t u r e f o r t he n a t i o n s roundabou t . These p rophe ts r e i t e r a t ed a n d remolded the

322

t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e past much more t h a n t h ey i n t en t t o n a l l y

broke new g r o u n d fo r fu tu re th eo l og i ca l development . Whi le

H . Ringgren may be co r rec t in s t a t i n g that the use of v is ions

and b iza r re images p rep are d the way f o r new developments,323

t h e r e wa s no evi den ce f o r any 'new developments ' u n t i l the

second century B.C ., more t h a n three centuries removed from

t h i s p e r io d .

Zechar iah was t he f i r s t pr op he t t o i d e n t i f y a 'pro-

3 2 1 . 3 . Bright, o pp. 3 5 3 f .3 2 2 .Zech a r i ah ' s hope h a d a d i s t i n c t i v e u n i v e r s a l i s t i c element.

3 2 3 . H . R i n g g r e n , I s r a e l i t e R e l f g t o n , p p . 3 3 2 f .

Hagga i l o o k e%.o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the n a t i o n s ;



110

3 2 4phe t i c t r ad i t i o n ' which gave a ce r t a i n sense o f coherence

to st at emen ts abou t pa s t p rophe t i c a c t iv i t y. The concep t o f

a u n i f i e d p ro g re s s i o n o f prophets was in te rpre ted i n d i f f e r -e n t ways by t ho se o f comprehended i t . Since much o f

3 2 5

p o s t - e x i l i c Judaism cl ai m ed t he e x i l i c p ro ph e ts as t h e i r

s p i r i t u a l p re d e ce s so rs t he se d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s took

on important- ov er to ne s.

These d i f f e r e n t i n t e rp re t a t i ons were symptomatic o f a

d e e p d i v i s i o n within the Jewish community o f t h i s e r a .

Zechariah 1-8 o u g h t t o be read with Tr i t o - I s a i a h i n o rd e r t o

more ful ly grasp the dynamics o f t h e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c

p e r i o d . A r e a d i n g o f Zechar iah 1-88 H a g g a i and t he h i s -326

t o ry o f t h e e r a (Etra 1-6) prov ides on ly one ve rs ion o f the

even t s , the the oc r a t i c i n t e rp re t a t i on . The l f t e r a t u r e o fd i scon ten t (T r l to - I sa i a h , Deu te ro-Zechar i ah and Malach i )

g i v e s t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e s t o ry.

Zechariah 1-8 i s t o b e understood as the record of an

e a r l y po s t -e x i l i c p rophet who was consc ious o f h l s r e l a t i o n

t o pa s t p rophe ts and o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f his day. His

m i n i s t ry i s t o b e viewed as sympathettc to the l e a d e r s h i p

o f t h e community. Whi le h i s messages were s p e c i f i c a l l y

d i r e c t e d t o h i s h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , they can c o l l e c t i v e l y

324. I f i tt h a n Z e c h . 2 t 2 - 6

3 2 5 . . Otherp ro p h e t i c t r a d i t ireworking o f the

326 . C f . P.

assumed that Ezek. 3 8 - 3 9 was wri t tena n d 7 t 4 - 1 4 .

passages wh ich exh ib i t ed an awarenesson are: Ezek . 38:17, Zech. 13:Z-6 andp r op h et ic f i g u r e i n the Chronfc les .

l a t e r

o f athe

0

andl6ger , TheocracR e s t o ra t T T i dn



111

be desc r ibed as ' . . . a compendium of Old Testament r e l i -

g i o n ' . His r o l e i n the deve lopment o f the apoca lyp t ic327

o u t lo o k and b e l i e f s must be v iewed f rom the prespect iveo f h i s r e f l e c t i o n o f h i s own era a n d h i s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r

fu r the r advances i n i n d i v i d u a l concepts .

1 1 . Zech. 1:2-6, The F i r s t Message

In th is opening s ta tement , Zechar iah se cu re ly grounded

h i s s tatement i n a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n . He men-

t i o n ed 1 ) t h e d i v i n e d i s p l e a s u r e with t he p r e - e x i l i c p e op l e

( v . 2 ) , the need fo r p resen t r epen tance ( v . 3 ) , the obs t inancy

o f t h e p a s t g en e r a t i o n s ( v . 4 ) and the punishment which h a d

accrued t o such d i sobed ience ( v . 6 ) . The message o f t h i s

p a s s ag e , with those of 7 : 4 - 8 : 2 3 , formed a n effec t ive com-plement t o t h a t o f the N igh t -Vis ions (1 :8 -6:15) .

Th is p a s s ag e r ev ea l e d Zech a r iah ' s r e co g n t t i o n o f a

p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n . The ' f o r m e r prophetd, t o whom he re-

f e r r e d i n v . 4 , a r e v i ew ed a s c a l l l n g t h e p eo p l e t o r ep en t an ce

a n d obedience. O . H . Steck viewed t h i s passage a s one member

o f a l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the prophetic move-

ment, which he i d e n t i f i e d as be long ing t o the deu te ronomis t i c

t r a d i t i o n . He summed u p t h i s t r a d i t i o n ' s view o f p a s t

h i s t o r y :

328

329

327. W O E .B328. O.H. Sd e r Pro heten, pp- -. d 8

arnes , Hagga i and Zechar iah , p .xx i f i .t e ck , Is rael und d as g e w a l t s a m e G e s c h i c k.60-800

pp.63f.



1 1 2

... i e s e s im Verlauf se ines gesamtenv o r e x i l i s c h e n A u f e n t h a l e s im Verheissungs-lande s tets ungehorsame Vo l k ( A ) i s t t r o t zd e r d e r t a n g m u t Gottes ents rungenen Vermah-

n u n g durch d ie Propheten ( 6 Ph a l s s t a r r i g ge-b l i e b e n ( C ) u n d h a t s o d a s S t r a f g e r i c h tJahwes ( D ) in den Katastrophen v o n 7 2 2 u n d587 v . Chr. a u f s ich gezogen.

Zech a r iah h as f o l l o w ed q u i t e c lo s e ly t he d eu t er o n o mis t ic

p a t t e r n a n d h a s accepted the deuteronomis t ic assessment o f

t h e p a s t .

G i v e n th i s s i m i l a r i t y between Zech. 1 :2-6 a n d thed e ut e ro n o m is t ic w r i t i n g s , i t would no t b e s u r p r i s i n g t o d i s -

cover o the r s imi la r i t i e s w i th compos i t ions e i the r composed

or preserved by the d e u t e r o n o m i s t i c c i r c l e s . M OWeinfe ld

has s ta te d th at Zech. 1:4-6 i s f o r m - c r i t i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o

the prose sermons o f Jeremiah (e.g. 25 :4 -5 , 2 6 : 3 - 5 ) .330

O . H . Steck declared t h a t t h e r e i s s o l i t t l e d i f f e r e nc e be-

tween the two that Zechar iah must have borrowed the

p r e a c h i n g s t y l e a n d t h o u g h t o f t h e d eu t e r o n o mis t i c c i r c l e s

u p o n h i s ar r iva l from Babylon . The deu te ronomis t i c c l r -331

d e s a n d the Jeremian mater ial s h a r e d with Zechariah a con-

cern f o r the word o f God, the Toraha obedience and repen-tance a n d judgment.

3 3 2

The deu te ronomis t i c theo logy p ic tu red the word o f God

as t h e r e a l i t y wh ich g av e co n t i n u i t y and u n i t y t o h i s t o r y

through a pa t t e rn of p romise and fu l f i l lm en t . That word was

330

3 3 2mis t i c H

. M. Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomicp.7; I . Meyer and L L . H o s s t e l d , Prophet gegen

. O.H. Steck, o p . c i t . , pp .143f .p. 1 5 6 .

W. Brueggemann, -e ma o f the Deuterono-i s t o r i a n ' ,



113

an a c t i v e f o r c e i n h i s t o r y which, when spoken i n the333

pr es en t , caused fu tu re events . We in fe l d ' s comments on

Jeremiah co u ld be ap p l i ed t o Zech a r iah a l s o :

334

Like the deuteronomic ora t ions i nJoshua-Kings , the pr op he ti c sermons i nJeremiah are programmatic in c h a r a c t e r ,the i r pu rpose be ing t o demonstrate thatthe f a l l o f J u d a h a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o fthe temple, the m o s t h o r r i f y i n g and over-whelming o f ca tas t rophes i n I s r a e l i t e h i s -t o r y, o c cu rr ed , l i k e the f a l l o f the kingdom0.f I s r a e l , b y t h e f o r c e o f t h e p r o p h e t i c

w o r d o f G o d .Zechar iah 's use of the phrase 'word o f God' i s t h o r o u g h l y

deu teronomi s t i c .

This passage was not concerned about the repentance

and obedience o f the n a t i o n as a w h o l e , a s t h e e a r l i e r

deuteronomic theology had been, b u t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .3 3 5

The dest iny o f the Jewish people h a d a l ready been de te r-

mined by t he f a c t o f th e r e s t o r a t i o n a n d the promises o f the

e x i l i c p r o p h e ts . Zech a r iah spoke t o o d i r ec t l y ab ou t t h e

d e s t i n y o f the community ( 2 1 - 5 , 3:10, 8:1-8) fo r t h a t336

a s p e c t t o be co n d i t i o n a l ; t h e s a l v a t i o n o f the people was

Yahweh's major g o a l (2:lO-l2, 8:ZO-23). Zechariah makes al a t e r d i s t i n c t i o n b etween t he i n d i v i d u a l a n d the community

( 5 : 1 - 4 ) ; a n appeal i n t h i s message would n o t co n t r ad i c t t h e

333. M. We-.i t ' p.202.334. M . We

335. I b i d .3 3 6 . -9

f e l d , - t t .

i n

i8

f e l d ,

PP.31n Heb 6-? I

c i t .

9 h a v e

p . 2 1 ; P.R. Ackroyd, a .

, p.28.

chosen t o u s e t h e E n g l i s hvers lon for r e f e r e n c e s .



114

other d imensions of Zechar iah ' s message .

I f t he N i g ht -Vis i o ns a r e b e s t u nd e rs to od a s a l i t e r a r y

composit ion from the beginning, Zech. 1:Z-6 i s p r o b a b l y an

example o f Zechar i ah ' s speak ing ml n i s t ry, a l o n g with the

var ious f ragments conta ined i n ch. 7 -8 a n d appended to i n =

d i v i d u a l v i s i o n s , S O B . Fro s t ' s t h e o ry t h a t Zechar iah 1-8

r e s u l t e d f ro m t h e c o l l a b o ra t i o n o f two ind iv idua l s (one

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e N i g h t - Vi s i o n s a n d t h e o t h e r f o r t h e

pu b l i c min i s t ry ) , seems t o unnecessari l y simpl i f y the3 3 7

d i f f e r e n c e s o f m a t e r i a l wi th in Zechar iah 1-8. Th ere i s a

wholeness a n d a humanity t o these chapters which i s l o s t

through such a d i v i s i o n .

111. Zech. 1 r 8 - 6 A 5 , The N i g h t Vi s i o n s

The Night-VisSons co ns t i tu te the cor e o f Zechar iah

1-8 a s we ll as sup plyi ng most o f t h e i n t r i g u i n g f e a t u r e s338

a n d ind iv idual p roblems fo r i n t e rp re t e r s . They con ta in

those e lements which form Zechar iah ' s cont r ibu t fon to the

prophetic movement t h a t in fl ue nc ed the development of the

apoca lyp t i c wor ld -v iew a n d d o c t r i n e s o f the second century

B.C. They a re c r i s p and o r de r l y i n s t y l e , t h e i m a g e r y i s

mundane, y e t b i z a r r e , and t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s c ry p t i c . The

presumption o f s c h o l a r s i n p r e c i s e l y I d e n t i f y i n g t h e

337, L B . F r o s t , O l d Testament Apocal pt ic , p p . 9 3 - 9 6 .3 3 8 . A . Weise r, In t roduc t ion t o t h e estament,p.270.



115

images with f l g u r e s o f t he ea r ly pos t -ex i l i c e ra has spawned

w i d e l y - d i f f e r i n g o p i n i o n s o f the prophet ' s purpose and

message. T h e r e a l p r o b l e m o f h i s t o r i c a l g r o u n d i n g makes thei n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e v i s i o n s h i g h l y s p e c u l a t i v e a n d p ro -

voca t i ve .

The fac t t h a t Zechariah worked Joshua, the h i g h p r i e s t ,

a n d Z e ru b b a b e l , t h e c i v i l g o v e rn o r, i n t o t h e v i s i o n s e q u e n c e

c o m p o u n d s the d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r the i n t e r p r e t e r . The e i g h t

v i s i o n s d e s c r i b e h ea ve nl y a c t i v i t y n o t e a r t h l y e v en t s. They

a l l p oi nt t o the imminent peace o f the community and a r e i n -

tended t o g i v e comfor t to a t r o u b l e d p e o p l e , i f n o t t o3 3 9

help them understand why the promises o f God have been de-

l ayed.

Each v is ion f o l l o w s t w o broad ru l e s : 1 ) adhe rence toa common pattern a n d 2 ) unique v a r i a t i o n f ro m t h i s p a t t e rn .

C . Jeremias ' s tudy of the Nigh t -Vi s ions emphas i zed th i s

p a t t e r n , which cons i s t s o f 1 ) a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e3 4 0

v i s i o n - s c e n e , 2 ) t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e p ro p h e t f o r an i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f the scene and i t s meaning and 3 ) t h e response

o f the angel b r i n g i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t he scene and i t s

im ag ery. The f i r s t v i s i o n v a r i e d t h e i n t e rp re t a t i o n a n d

appended or ac u l ar ma te r i a l . The second v i s i on repea ted the

p at te rn (1:18-19,20-21). The thi rd v i s i o n v a r i e d a l l t h e

elements a n d or ac ul ar ma te r ia l was added. The fourth v i s i o n

3 3 9 . Y . Kaufmann, History o f the R e l i g i o n o f I s r a e l ,

340. C . Jeremias , D i e Nach tges i ch te des Sac ha r j a , p .10.v o l . 4 , p.306.



116

dispensed with the requ es t and the in te rp re ta t i on and added

mater ia l . The f i f t h v i s ion t reb led the reques t and in -3431

ser ted two short orac les . The s i x t h vis ion t ransformed ther e q u e s t i n t o a statement . The seventh v is io n inc lud ed a

t r i p l e s e r ie s o f t he pa t t e rn ( 5 : 5 - 6 , 7 - 8 , 9 4 1 ) with c e r t a i n

omis sion s. The eig hth vi si on conformed t o t h e p a t t e rn . A

symbol ic ac t ion-scene (6:9-14) w a s added with a short con-

cl u s i on.

The imagerylsymbolism o f t he Nigh t -Vi s ions i s un ique3 4 2

i n the O l d Testament , surpas s ing even the ap oc a l yp t i c

f i g u r e s o f the b o o k o f Danie l with i t s b i z a r r e a n d incon-

s i s t e n t f or ms . In l a rg e measu re , t he Dan i e l i c imagery i s

s e l f - i n t e r p r e t i n g ; Z ec h ar ia h' s f i g u r e s a r e a b s t r a c t a n d de-

tached and cannot b e unders tood apar t from the provided i n -

. t e r p r e t a t i o n .

The l i t e r a t u r e de vo te d t o t he N i g h t -Vi s i on s ( c f . t he

B i b l i o g r a p h y ) y j e l d e d s u r p r i s l n g l y l i t t l e c onse nsu s on th e

n a t u re o f the imagery or the source o f the symbolism.

Scho la rs have p r o l i f e r a t ed re fe renc es t o my th ic themes and

f o r e i g n r i t u a l , b u t Z e c h a ri a h ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n o t en-

hanced by these references and they do n o t g i v e i n s i g h t i n -

t o h i s p ur po se . I f t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t sources from which

341. M a n y s c h o l a r s have concluded that the fourthv i s i o n d e v f a t e s t o o far from the pat tern o f the o the r N i g h t -

Vi s i o n s t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d with Zec har iah. They conclu det h a t i t was o f o t h e r, l a t e r au tho rsh ip .3 4 2 . C f . t h e s t u d i e s by C O Jeremias, o p . c i t . , and

L . 6 . R i g n e l l , D i e Na c h t g e s i c h t e des S a c h a r j a .



117

Zecha riah drew hi s imagery, they a r e pr es en t l y unknown to

Thisconclusion has drawn G.A. S m i t h t o s t a t e t h a t t h eNi g h t -Vi s i o n s we re . . . a s e r i e s o f conscfous a n d a r t i s t i c

a l l e g o r i e s- t h e d e l i b e r a t e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o a c a r e f u l l y c o n -

st ructed symbolism o f t h e d i v i n e t r u t h s with which t h e pro-

phet w a s e n t ru s t e d by h i s God ' . Other scholars , however,343

h a v e a s s e r t e d a genuine v i s i o n a ry e x p e r i e n c e b e h i n d the

v i s i o n - fo rm s , The conc lus ion o f 3 . Lindblom t h a t h a l f344

o f the Night -Vis ions were based o+ cs ta t ic exper ie nce and

the o t h e r h a l f w c rea t ed by the prophet in an i n s p i r e d3 4 5

s t a t e f e l l ha l fway between thes e p os i t io ns . The un-

n a t u r a l imagery, the number o f v i s i o n s i n se r i e s and the

a p p a re n t c a r e in c o n s t ru c t i n g t h e v i s i o n s t o s t imu la t e re -f l e c t i o n seems to lend weight t o Smi th ' s pos i t i on . However,

t h e r e c e i v e d ( c i r c u l a t e d ) form o f the N i g h t - V i s i o n s appears

t o have been as a l i t e r a ry c o m p o s i t i o n .

There was a s i m i l a r d i v i s f o n on t h e s e t t i n g o f the

m a t e r i a l o f the Night -Vis ions . L O G . R i g n e l l p l a c e d the

v i s i o n s i n t h e p e r i o d a f t e r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the Temple r e -

b u i l d i n g p ro j e c t ( a s p e r t h e d a t e o f 1:7), as do many346

343. G.A. S m i t h , The Book o f the Twelve Prophets ,V O I , 2 , P.274, . Rudolph,

. L i n d b l o r n ,

.Go R i g n e l l

I # p.134.344, w

und Maleachi345 .346. L

Haggai , Sa c h a r j a 1-8., Sa c h a r j a 9-14 ,

Prophecy i n Ancten t I s rae l , p .145 .vw- c I . p.243.



118

s c h o l a r s . K OGal l ing , however, would a s s i g n the v i s i o n s t o

d i f f e r e n t t i m e s within a m in is tr y which began i n Babylon347

pr io r t o 5 3 8 B . C . . C O Jeremias went t o g r e a t l e n g t h t odemonstrate that t h e v i s i o n s c o u l d b e d a t e d t o the same

t ime. I f i t i s a c c ep te d t h a t the Nigh t -Vis ions were f i r s t348

presen ted a s a l i t e ra ry composi t ion , the accuracy o f the

d a t e g i v e n i n Zech. l t 7 i s , seconda ry conce rn .

Insofar as the theme o f t h e N i g h t - Vis i o n s i s c on c er n ed ,

d

KO E l l i g e r s t a t ed t h a t they d e a l with the in-br eaki ng t ime

o f s a l v a t i o n . G o von Rad pointed out how Zechar iah d i f -3 4 9

f e r en t i a t ed the ' h eaven ly wor ld ' f rom the ea r th ly a n d t h a t

h e s t r e s s e d t h e ' a rc h e ty p a l e x i s t e n c e ' o f the f i n a l t h i n g s

i n heaven.350

S t r i c t l y o pp os in g t he s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ' v i e w s was S. Mowinckel, who d e c l a r e d t h a t

Zecha r i ah 1-8 had nothing to d o with esch a to log y. He s t a t ed

t h a t Z e c h a r i a h a w a l l t e d h i s t o r i c a l ' r e v o l u t i o n , w h i l e h i s

imagery o f h e a v e n l y a c t i v l ty p i c t u r e d c e l e s t i a l b e i n g s w h i c h

worked behind a n d through natura l a g e n c i e s . I b e l i e v e351

that Mowinckel w a s c o r r e c t t o i n t e r p r e t Z e c h a r i a h wi t h i n the

c o n t e x t o f h i s h i s t o r f c a l s i t u a t i o n b y h i s predecessors and

3 4 7 . K OG a l l i n g , ' D i e Ex l ls w en d e in d e r S f c h t d e s

3 4 8 . Jeremias concluded t h a t nothing i n the N i g h t -

3 4 9 . K. Ell iger, D a s Buch d e r zwtflf kle inen Propheten ,

S a c h a r j a ' , VT 9 1 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , pp.18-36; c f . B . S . C h i l d s , I n t r o -duc t fon t o n e O l d Testament a s S c r i p t u r e , pp.476f.

Vi si on s speak a ga in s t them a s a ' s i n g l e n i g h t ' e x p e r i e n c e .v o l . 2, p.107.

3 5 0 . G. von R a d , O l d Testament Theolo 11, p.288.351. S. Mowinckel, He Th a t Cometh, p p 3 2 l f .



119

n o t , a s E l l i g e r a n d v o n Rad s t a t ed , by h i s succes so r s . There

are no reasons t o j u s t i f y t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Zech a r i ah ' s

' cos mo log i ca l ' s t a temen ts , wh ich a r e s econdary t o his ' h i s -t o r i c a l ' s t at emen ts , s h o uld be g iv en pr ima ry s t a tu s .

However, i t remains t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l a g e n c i e s t o

w h ich M o w in ck e l r e f e r r ed a r e n o t i d en t i f i ed i n Zechar iah 1-8

(and, perhaps , are not i d e n t i f i a b le ) . Zechar iah may have

f o r e s e e n r e v o l u t i o n , o n l y t o see h i s hopes d i s s i p a t e d . I t

w a s a t t h i s s o r t of. j u n c t u r e t h a t h i s t o r y, a s i t had once

s e r v ed p r e - ex i l i c p ro ph ecy, showed i t s e l f u n abl e t o produce

the con tex t which the ea r ly po s t - e x i l i c p rophe t s sough t o f

i t . L A . Smith, f o r example, argued t ha t when Zecha riah was

, un ab le to fo re se e the genera l overth row o f the heathen i n

h i s to r i c a l t e r ms , h e was f o r c e dI

. . . t o c a l l i n the apocalyp-3 5 2t i c ' . S m t t h went too f a r i n th i s d i r ec t ton because he

f a t l e d t o d i s c e r n L e ch a r ia h 's a n t i c i p a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l

events to be caused by heaven ly fo rces th rough ea r th ly

agen c ie s . The ques t ion r ev o lv es on the ques t ion o f whether

Z e c h a r i a h p i c t u r e d s p e c i f i c p e o p l e r i s i n g i n r e v o l t , a gene-

ral image o f ea r t h ly r ev o lu t i o n o r t h e imp r es s to n t h a t

h eav en ly f o r ce s would i n t e r v en e within t h e h i s t o r i c a l co n -

t i n u u m .

H. Gese pos tu la ted tha t t h e N ig h t - Vi s io n s o f Zechar iah

3 5 2 . L A . Smlth, OJ. c i t . , p.281; S m i t h appears to havemeant th e ap o c a l yp t t c w o r l d x e w , which would h a v e i n c lu d edt h e i d e a o f d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n h i s t o r y.



120

3 5 3c o n s t i t u t e d t he e a r l f e s t ' a p o c al y p s e ' . T hi s v ie w has

been opposed on many g r o u n d s , with common rebuttals being:

1 ) Zechar iah 1-8 shares on ly some ch ar ac te r i s t i c s with thel a t e r a p o ca ly p ti c l i t e r a t u r e , 2 ) the re i s no t enough ob-

servable development to sugges t a connect ion with the apoca-

l y p t f c l i t e r a t u r e a n d 3 ) the development of the apocalypt ic

l i t e r a t u r e d o e s n o t r e a l l y i n c l u d e Z e c h a r i a h 1-80 Zecha-3 5 4

r i a h d i d employ important f ea t u r e s which p a r a l l e l t h o s e o f

t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s ( e . g . v i s io n - f o r m, an g e lo lo g y a n d3 5 5

imagery ) which m i . g h t be taken as a t r an s i t i o n f r o m p r o -

phecy t o ap o c a ly p t i c , b u t t he re i s l i t t l e e vi de nc e t h a t such

a development o f these concepts occurred , t h a t such a develop-

ment i s co n ce iv ab l e or that such a development i s c o n s t i t u -

t i v e o f o r es s en t i a l t o t h e d ev e lo p men t o f ap o ca ly p t i c .~

A . The Fi rs t Vis io n C y c l e

1 . Zech. 1:8-17, The F i r s t Vi s i on

The f i r s t v i s i o n was a scene with movement. A ' m a n '

a s t r i d e a h o r s e a n d w a i t i n g i n a shady ho l low rec e iv ed3 5 6

other horsemen, who reported t h a t they h a d t r a v e r s e d t h e

3 5 3 . H. Gese, ' A n f a n g und Ende der Apokalypt ik darge-s t e l l t am Sachar jabuch ' m - Z T h K l x x (1973), p . 2 4 .

354. ' P.D . Hanson, o . c i t . , p . 251 .3 5 5 .

W r i ters , p. 2 3 .3 5 6 . The fargum rendered t W t n ~ 1 : 8 ) ' a t B a b yl o n ',l i n k i n g t h e v i s i o n to the slte o f t h e e x i l e .

F. C . P o r t e r , + Messages o f t h e A p o ca ly p t i c



121

e a r t h and h a d found i t ' a t r e s t ' . The pronouncement

prompted the man ( i d e n t i f i e d a s the a n g e l of G o d , h l w 7 ~ S n )

to lament to God and to inquire how long the Jews w o u l d haveto en d u r e H i s i n d ig n a t i o n ( v. 1 2 ) .

The image of horse a n d r i d e r was n o t f o r e i g n t o t h e

O l d Testament, not even i t s v i s i o n p a ss a ge s ( c f . I 1 K i n g s

6:17) . A lt ho u gh f o r m e r l y used t o r e p r e s e n t m i l i t a r y

strength, the image was used here t o po r t ra y something akin

t o s c o u t i n g or i n f o rma t io n g a th e r in g . Wh i l e a b a n d o f

Per s la n army scou ts wou ld have been a v a i la b le f o r Ze char iah ' s

r e f e r e n c e i n 5 2 0 B . C . , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d et er mi ne t h a t he

a c t u a l l y d i d s o . A l s o , th e r e f e r e n c e i s s u p e r f l u o u s , s i n c e

the v i s i o n prov lded the neces sa ry in fo rmat ion to under s tand

the r o l e o f the horseman a n d t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e .

The th rus t o f the v i s ion- scene (apar t from the whole

v i s i o n ) i s f oun d in v.11: ' a l l t h e ea r t h r emains a t r e s t ' .

This phrase h a s g en e r a l l y b een co n n ec t ed t o t h e i n t e r n a t f o n a l

s t t u a t i o n i n Zechar iah ' s day (c . 5 2 0 B . C . ) . Some scholars

have a rgued tha t Dar ius h a d concluded his campaigns to con-3 5 7

s o l t d a t e h i s c o nt r ol o f the shaken Pe rs ia n Empire. Others

have s ta ted that Dar ius h a d captured Babylon in 5 2 0 B . C . , e f -

f e c t l v e l y c r u s h h g a s e r i e s o f r e v o l t s i n t h e w es t e r n r eg io n

3 5 7 . A g a i n s t t h i s argument c f . W. Rudolph, op. c i t . ,p.78n.18, w h o s t a t e d t h a t Darfus ' e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t Baby-l o n w a s y e t in the f u t u r e ( i . e . d i d not b eg tn u n t i l t h e sum-mer o f 5 1 9 B . C . ) .



122

358of the empire . W O E .Barnes a rgued tha t the qu ie t i n the

w o r ld a l l o w ed t h e work en the Temple, in te rr up te d by the r e -

v o l t s , to be resumed. Others have s t a t ed th at the q u i e t

3 5 9

o f t h e w o r l d r e f e r r e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o i'ts p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a

new act of G o d , t h a t p o l i t i c a l e ve nt s w er e i n e f f e c t u a l when

God made r e a d y t o a c t .3 6 0

H O G .Mitche l l a s se r ted tha t the on ly t ime when th i s

v i s i o n - s cen e co u ld hav e been h i s t o r i c a l l y a ccu r a t e was t h e

per iod o f Baby lon ' s domlna tion o f the k n o w n w o r l d p r i o r t o

i t s d e f e a t by C yr us i n 5 3 8 B . C . I f Z e c h a r i a h ' s d e s c r i p -3 6 1

t i o n o f h i s p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e i s not r e j e c t e d a s an unsuc-

ce s s f u l a tt emp t t o p r ed i c t t h e i n t e r v en t i o n o f God i n h i s -

t o r y b u t a cc ep te d a s a r e a l i s t i c r e f l e c t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c

p e r i o d o f h is to ry, the we igh t o f Mi tche l l ' s a rgument mus t bea ckn ow 1ed ge d .

The dashing of expectat ions a n d the absence o f s i g n s

o f God's a c t i v i t y l e d t o the expres s ion o f f r u s t r a t e d

f a i t h i n v. 1 2 . T h i s c l a s s i c st at em en t o f a n gu i sh ( a l s o362

f o u n d in Is . 6:11) was d e r i v e d f r o m t h e c u l t ( a s s e e n in i t s

f r equen t use i n t h e Psalms , 74:9, 8 2 2 , 94r3, e t c . ) . P.R.363

3 5 8 . D . R . Jones, H a g g a l , Zechar iah and Malachi , pp .58f . ;R . Mason, Hasgai , Zechar iah and Ma l a c h f , p.37.

3 5 9 . W O E .Barnes , op. e f t . , p.24.3 6 0 . L O G . R l g n e l l , o . T t . , p.42.3 6 1 . H O G . M l t c h e l 1 , f ; a s F a n d Zech a r i ah , p p . 1 2 l f .3 6 2 . Y. Kaufmann,3 6 3 . H . Gunkel, E f n e i tung in d i e Psalmen, pp.212,230.o p 0 3 0 b 0



123

A ck ro yd l a b e l l e d t h i s v e r s e t h e key t o t h e v i s i o n : t h e p ro -

p h e t ' s e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s f rus t ra ted ex p ec t a t i o n o f the coming

o f God, T h i s emotion was contained i n t h e v i s i o n t o s e t

364

th e s t ag e f o r w h a t f o l l o w e d ; f t was not meant t o b e c e n t r a l .

The pas sag e 1:14-17, which the att end an t angel char ged

Zechar iah to p roc la im t o the community, s t r i k e s the most365

r espons ive chord i n the v i s i o n ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e r e s t o f

Zechar iah 1-8 and ought to be regarded as the rea l poin t o f

t h e v i s i o n , The s ec t i o n , w h i l e o f t en t ho ug ht s eco n da r y

because o f i t s o r a c u l a r f o r m , m u s t b e o r i g f n a l i n the

3663€7

s en s e t h a t t he v is i o n -s c e ne c o u ld no t e f f e c t i v e l y s ta n d in -

dependen t ly. The scene makes no sense , e i t h e r as a p i c t u r e

o f q u i e t or as a s tatement o f f r u s t r a t i o n ; i t must be s e e n

as p r ep a r a to r y f o r t h e mes s ag e en t r u s t ed t o Zech a r i ah ,C o n ce r n in g t h i s o r acu l a r s ec t i o n , Y , K a u f m a n n c o m m e n -

368t ed :

[They] are t o be understood a s i n t e g r a lp a r t s o f the v i s i o n s , These are n o t prophe-cies appended by Zech a r i ah ( o r some subsequente d i t o r ) ; they a re imag ined a s spoken by theangel-speaker who p r o ceed s t o ex p l a in t h ev i s i ons ,

While th i s s t a temen t may b e t o o s i m p l i s t i c r e g a r d i n g t h e

3 6 4 , P. R , Ackroyd, 'Zechar iah ' - CB ( r e v, e d , ) , e d , M OB l a c k , ~ 6 4 7 ,

365 . These i s no compel l ing reason t o l a b e l t h i s v i s i o na ' c a l l v i s i o n ' , i . e . Z e c h a r i ah ' s com missioning a s a p r o p h e t ,a s W,A.M, Beuken, Haggai-Sacharja 1-8, p.242, a n d o t h e r s h a v es u g g es t ed .

3 6 6 . K OEl l ige r, OJ -.i t p . 1 0 1 ; L O G , R f g n e l l , op.7t t ' p.60.3 6 7 . C O Jeremias , a i t . , p p , 7 4 f f .3 6 8 . Y , Kaufmann, o p , - p.275.



124

o r i g i n o f t he o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l , t h e re i s truth i n Kauf-

m a n n ' s s ta tement insofar as t h i s m a t e r i a l w a s e s s e n t i a l t o

the sense o f the v i s i on . I t suppo rt s t he t heo ry t h a t theN i g h t- Vi s io n s w ere i n i t i a l l y a l i t e r a r y c om po si ti on and were

never preached messages.3 6 9

The t r an s i t i o n from confus ion (v.12) to cons o la t ion

(v.13) was managed through a s k i l l f u l i nt er ch an ge of r o l e s

by the angel o f Yahweh and the interpretfng angel, with each

a s s u m i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l prophe t ic r o l e : i n t e r c e s s i o n a n d pro-

c l ama t i on. The prophet him sel f was a c t u a l l y exc lud ed from3 7 0

h ea r ing t he d i v i ne decr ee t o t he ange l , a r e f l e c t i o n o f

Zechar iah ' s sense o f Yahweh's transcendence ( a n i n c r e a s i n g

t r e n d d u r i n g the po st -e x i l ic pe r i od ) . Yahweh was conspicu-

ous ly absen t f rom the v f s ion ; He was ' o f f - s t a g e ' , n e i t h e rseen nor heard by the p rophe t. However, His p a r t i a l i t y to

the Jewish community and H i s con t r o l o f h i s t o r y a r e f u l l y

communicated.

The scene car r ied out with the horsemen a n d the angel

o f Yahweh gave the appearance o f the i r independence o f

Yahweh. The angel was ign or an t o f the d i v i n e in te nt io ns f o r

the community a n d t he ' s cou t s ' ope r at ed a t t he beh es t o f the

ange l ( n o t Yahweh). T h i s r a t h e r a b s t r a c t i d e a o f a n g e l i c i n -

dependence can be viewed a s marking a depa r t u r e f r o m the

3 6 9 . C f . R. North , 'Prophecy to Apo caly pt ic v i a Zecha-

3 7 d . R . Johnson , T h e Cul t i c Prophet in Ancien tr i a h ' , VTSu x x i i (1972), p . 5 0 .

I s r a e l , p.63.



125

e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e , i f i t i s assumed th at t h i s was the im-

pression the author wished t o convey.

The essence of the message Zechariah received i s ex-p r e s sed i n v.13 : ' g rac ious a n d comfor t ing words ' . D,W.

Thomas missed the point of the vision when he stated that i t

r e la te d tha t Yahweh's anger s t i l l burned and tha t on ly signs

of comfor t' were ob ser vab le . The th ru st of the v i s io n was371

Yahweh's turning to the Jews, i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o e x t e r n a l

appearances.

The preaching of comfort a s a recompense for past s u f -

f e r l n g developed i n the e x i l k prophets and was continued

by the po s t - e x i l i c p rophet s a t the expense o f t h e e a r l i e r

prophetic emphasis . upon proper e th ica l behav ior ( a l though

Zechar iah inc luded both elements, the ethical dimension wasc l e a r l y seconda r y) . Deu t er o - I sa i ah was the prophet most

c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d with the proclamation o f a message of

comfor t ( I s . 4 0 : 1-2).

Deutero - Isa iah determined the expe cta t ion of the people

as they returned from Babylonla for w h a t should have awaited

them in Judah. His de sc r i p t io ns were unique; Zechar iah was

i nf lu en ce d, d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , by h i s m i n i s t r y,

Many scholars have detected the inf luence o f Deutero-

I s a f a h i n Zechar iah , m o s t n o t a b l y i n t h e o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l

o f 1:14-17 a n d 2:6-13 i n the matters o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s s t y l e

371. D.W. Thomas, 'Zechariah' , I B, v o l . 6 , ed. G.A.B u t t r i c k , p.1060.



126

3 7 2and theology. K O G a l l i n g s t a t e d t h a t , i n many areas,

Zechar fah was c l o s e r to Deu te ro- I sa iah a n d Tr i t o - I s a i a h

t h a n t o Haggai , with whom Zechar iah i s most often connec-t ed .

3 7 3

T he r e l a t i on o f Zechari ah 1-8 to Deutero- and T ri to -

I s a i a h h a s been confirmed by s i m i l a r i t i e s i n s t y l e , s u b j e c t

matter and vocabulary. R.F. Melugin has noted that the

o r a c l e s o f Deutero- I sa iah took t h e f o r m o f announcements o f

sa lva t ion and assurances o f s a l v a t i o n , s i m i l a r t o st at em en ts

g i v e n in a c u l t i c s e t t i n g : t he r es p on se t o t he i n d i v i d u a l

psalm o f lament, o f which Zech. 1:12 was a c l a s s i c , i f374

shortened, example.

Melugin analyzed the response formula i n Deutero- I sa iah3 7 5

a s f o l l o w s :

ab

de

C

the admonit ion not t o f e a r ,t he d i r e c t a dd re ss t o t he s u p p l i c a n t ,the statement o f imminent he lp ,the assurance t h a t Yahweh has heard,the announcement o f the future

Yahweh w i l l b r i n g .

The pas sag e Zech. 1:13-17 corresponded w el l t o Me lug in ' s

a n a l y s i s :

a ) v.13 gave the eq ui va le nt o f ' f e a r n o t ' ,v.14a included t h e ' d i r e c t a d d r e s s ' ,vv.14b-15 in di ca te d the for thcoming h e l p ,v.16a expressed the assurance t h a t Yahweh

has heard the pray er o f v.12,e ) vv.16b-17 announced the f u t u r e w h i c h

Yahweh h a d determined.

372. G.A. S m i t h , OJ. c i t . , pp.259f.; SmRo D r i v e r , - heMinor Prophets, v o l . 2 p p . m f . ; C . G . R i g n e l l , O c i t . ,P P. 2 4 4 t * s w .S. McCullough, T h e Hi s t o r y and L i t e r a t u r e o f thePa le s t in ia n Jews, p .31.

pp.259f.; SmRo D r i v e r , - hem f . ; C . G . R i g n e l l , op. -.i t ,

? w e o f the



127

Forms s i m i l a r to those employed by Deute ro-Isa iah re cu rre d

in 2:6-9, 2:lO-12 a n d 8 : l -3 .

Zecha r i ah ad o p t ed certain themes w h i c h , although by no

means exc lus ive ly, are found i n Deutero- a n d Tr i t o - I s a i a h .

He made use o f the Zion-Jerusa lem the olo gy, which l e d K .

G a l l i n g - t o s t a t e t h a t h e w a s a f o l l o w e r o f De u t e ro - I s a i a h .3 7 6

The theme o f com fort f o r the Jews was s t re ssed by these p ro -

p h e t s. De u t e ro - I s a i a h ' s t e ac h in g on t h e b l e s s i n g o f t he

na t io ns was reproduced i n Zech. 2:lO-12 and 8:20-23.

Z e c h ar i a h fo l l o w e d Tr i t o - I s a i a h ' s theme o f a l l Jews being

p r i e s t s f o r t h e Ge n t i l e s ( I s . 6 1 :6 , Ze ch . 8 :2 0-23 ). The

temporal dichotomy between the ' former thtngs' and the 'new

t h i n g s ' ( I s . 48:3-8) se rved a s a p a t t e r n f o r Z e c h a r i a h ' s

... e fo re those days . . . bu t now' d i s t i n c t io n (8 :10 -11 ) .

D.R. Jones pos tu l a t ed t h a t Zechar i ah was a c t u a l l y t a k i n g u p

the problem o f D e u te r o- I sa i ah ' s u n f u l f i l l e d p ro mi se s, t r y i n g

to g iv e them meaning by i n t e r pr e t in g cu rr en t events i n t h e i r3 7 7

l i g h t .

6 . von R a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t the kerne l o f De u t e ro - I s a i a h ' smessage wa s the immfnent advent o f Yahweh t o r e v e a l H i s g l o r y

t o the wo rl d. He then st at ed that the Ni g h t -Vi s i o n s r e -378

3 7 3 . K. G a l l i n g , a r t . c i t . , p . 3 6 .3 7 4 . R . F . Melugin,he-&mation o f I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 ,

375. I b i d . , pp.13f .3 7 6 .3 7 7 .378.

pp. 4,130

K . a l l f n g , - r t . c l t . , p.36.D.R. J o n e s , op. c r , p.60.60 von Rad , o p . c ft9 9 p.243.



128

3 7 9v e a l e d c e r t a i n d e t a i l s o f t h e ' a g e t o come'. The

tendency t o r e f e r t o the r e v e r s a l o f the fo r tu n e s o f the

Jews gained momentum from Deutero-Isaiah and hls expectationo f t h e r e s to r a t i o n . Ze c ha r i ah a n t l c ip a t e d a future adapted

f rom tha t o f Deute ro - I sa iah .

The occasion which von R a d perce ived a s t h e d i v i s i o n

between the 'o ld age ' and the ' age o f s a l v a t i o n ' was the r e -

turn o f Yahweh t o Z i o n , He imposed a s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t

sense o f the ' r e t u c n ' of Ya h w e h upon t h a t used by Zechariah.

The Hebrew verb 3 7 w c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d ' r e tu rn ' , ' turn' and

'change (one 's m i n d ) ' . According to H O W. Wo l f f , t h i s w o r d380

can mean ' r ep en t ' , p a r t i c u la r l y when ap pl ie d t o human be-

h a v i o r ; i t h e ld a c e n t r a l p l a c e i n d e u te ro n o m is t i c ,

th oug ht. When a p p l i e d t o Yahweh, i t need n o t mean 'return'381

i n a phys ica l sense.

Zechar iah d i d not employ 3 1 0 1 (1:16) t o r e p r e s e n t t h e

concept o f a p h y s i c a l r e t u r n o f Yahweh to Z i o n . He spoke of

Yahweh's decision t o 'come' a n d t o ' dw e l l ' the re ( t he Hebrew

v e rb s NI> and 730), concepts which were borrowed from Ete-k i e l . The d f ff e r en ce s between Ezek ie l and Deu t e ro - I s a iah

a re n o t t a k e n u p by Zechar iah , who d i d not speak o f the

p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e g l o r y ( a s Deutero-

p.2t5.79 . 6 . von Rad, o p . c i t . ,

380.- ent, pp.53ff .381. HOW. Wolff , 'Das K e r y g m a d e r deuteronomis t ichen

Gesch ich tswerks ' , ZAW l x x i i i (1961), pp.17lff.

W.L. Holladay, T h e R o o t 3 BH i n the Old Te s t a -



1 2 9

I s a i a h ) o r o f the physical changes i n Jerusalem a n d the

Temple area ( c f . Ezekie l 4 0 - 4 8 ) . One can di sc e r n attempts

t o harmonize the messages o f t h e e a r l i e r p r o p h e t s .

There was indeed a s t rong dependence upon Etekiel by

Zechar i -ah , inc luding s t ress upon humil i ty before God,

e t h t c a l b e h a v i o r a n d the Temple, which was communicated

t h r o u g h the use o f the v is ion-form and obscure symbolism.3 8 2

I have s t ressed t h a t Zechar iah depar ted from many o f theemphases o f the book of Ezekiel i n o r d e r t o show his freedom

i r y h i l i z i n g th e te ac hi ng s o f D e u te ro - I s a i a h .

connect ion i s a l i n e o f s t u d y worth f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,

T h i s l a t t e r

fo r t h e r e i s a re la t ionship be tween these two prophets

which i s l i k e l y to be ignored by those see in g Zechar iah e x -

c l u s i v e l y a s a d i s c f p l e o f E z e k ie l .

There was n o genera l ag reemen t rega rd ing the p rec i se

meaning of v.15 . One cannot i de n t i fy the na t ion s ' a t ea se '

with c e r t a i n t y nor can the in te rp re ta t ion o f ay35 ~ W Y ,

' f u r t h e r e d t h e d i s a s t e r ' o r ' h el pe d th e e v i l ' , p r o v i d e h e l p

in p o i n t i n g t o s p e c f f i c n a t i o n s w h o disregarded Yahweh 's

w i l l . P.R. Ackroyd made the point that the instruments o f

Yahweh's wrath, meaning Assyria a n d B ab yl on ia , l a t e r f e l l

under His judgment because they had overstepped their com-

3 8 2 .p . 4 3 3 ; F .Russe l l ,

0. Eis s f e ld t , Th e O l d Testament : an In t roduct ion ,

The Method and Message o f 3ewish Ap o c a l y p t i c , p.90.Horst, Die z w o l f k l einen Propheten, p.205. D 0 .



130

3 8 3m is s io n t o c h a s t i z e I s r a e l . H i s t o r i c a l l y, t h i s t he or y

i s v e r i f i a b l e , b u t t h a t does not c o n s t i t u t e p r o o f o f t h i s

s p e c i f i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S t i l l , A ck ro yd 's u nd er st an di ng

does f i t the context and no other hypotheses have been yet

offered which equal f t .

The i n q u i r y i n t o t h e i d e n t l t y o f t h e n a t i o n s r e f e r r e d

t o i n v.15 does not take us f a r . The second vision (1:18-21)

t o o k u p the theme of judgment, a n d scholars have connected

v.15 with the succeed ing v i s i on . Whi le i t , t o o , d i d n o t

s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f y t h e n a t io n s , i t d i d h i n t t h a t Babylon

was t o be inc lud ed . I t seems adequate , a t t h i s p o i n t , t o

a d m i t t h a t Ze c h a r l a h h a s n o t e x p re s s e d h im s e l f c l e a r ly

enough to a l low a s o u n d in t e rp r e t a t i o n a n d t o r e t a i n t h i s

d a r k s ta temen t a s .one secondary de ta i l wi th in the g rea te r

theme o f Ya h w e h ' s turning back to the Jews. I t he ightened

the impact o f Yahweh's renewed compassion f o r the peo ple by

a s s e r t i n g His a n g e r a g a i n s t t h e f o r e i g n n a t i o n s .

I t i s my con ten t ion t h a t t h i s f i r s t v i s f on d e sc r i be d

the decision of Yahweh t o turn back to the Jews, ending t h e i r

languishment i n e x i l e a n d t h e i r s u f f e r in g in the yea rs o f

r e s t o r a t i o n . T h i s unders tanding was d r a w n from s e v e r a l

r e f e r e n c e s within the v i s i o n w h i c h m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t a w h o l l y

f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Z e ch a ri a h d i d no t expec t a

d ra m a t i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Yahweh ' s power such a s t h a tpro-

383. P.R. Ackroyd, -.art. -f t . , p.647.



131

mised by Haggai t h r o u g h his use o f the theophany motif . I

a rgue t h a t Zechariah has p ic t u re d heavenly ac t i v i t y which r e -

f l e c t e d e a r t h l y e v e n t s from the end of the e x i l e to thef u t u r e e s t ab l i shm en t o f t he ' ag e o f b l e s s i n g ' :

F i r s t , H . G . Mitche l l a rgued tha t the o n ly time in which

the wor ld h a d been ' a t r e s t ' ( v. 11) was th e pe r i od p r i o r t o

5 3 8 B . C . However, . t he f u l l a t t ainment o f the b les s in gs384

o f Yahweh's change o f h ea r t toward the Jews (1:16b-17) re =

mained yet i n the fu tu re . The end o f the e x i l e and the r e -

s t o r a t i o n were viewed as th e ' f i r s t - f r u i t s o f the advent o f

the kingdom of G o d ' by the Jews, a view which pers is ted385

i n some segments o f the community into the second century

B . C . ( c f . t h e Book o f J u b i l e e s k l 6 - 1 7 ) ,

Second, Zechar iah ' s use of the pe r f ec t tense 7 n ~ 3 3 n386

v.14 and i n v.16) ind ica ted a change i n t h e a t t i t u d e

of Yahweh toward the Jewish community, a change which had

already taken place and h a d al ready been manifes ted in h i s -

tory i n t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f the ex i l e ' s . The re1 ease h a d3 8 7

3 8 4 . Notice the phrase Y ?N Z 3s a ~ p w n I s . 1 4 : 7 ,where r e fe rence was made to Babylonian ru le , a n d t h e s i m i l a rphrase n t q m r a . . Y 7 m 3s i n Z e c h . 1 : l l .

3 8 5 . A . Bentzen, Introduct ion to the Old Testament ,v o l . 1 , p . 2 5 9 ,

3 8 6 . The per fec t t ense verbs irnayf, 'you have been an-g r y ' (v.12) , and t ? f y , ' t h e y f u r t h e r ed ' ( v. 15 ), r e f e r r e d t othe cause o f t h e e x i l e a n d the ex e r f e n c e o f t h e e x i l e .

and a m 7 , i t w i l l be s t r e tched o u t ' ( v . l 6 ) , r e f e r r e d t o t h eeven t s of r es to r a t i on ; they a r e to be separa ted from theevents to which anayvt and n t y r e f e r r e d .

The per fec t t ense verbs 7 n ~ a p nd 71130 a r e , t h e r e f o r e ,t o r e f e r t o Yahweh's change o f h e a r t p r io r t o the end o f thee x i l e . I am u n w i l l i n g t o d i s m i s s these verbs a s ' p r o p h e t i c

i h e i m p e r f e c t tense verbs *will3 3 7 be b u f l t ' ( v. 1 6) ,



132

i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s c han ge, a cc or di ng t o Deutero- Isa iah and

the l a t e r , t h e o c r a t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d C h r o n i c l e r ( c f . I 1 Chron.

3 6 : 2 2 f . ) . When P. R . A ck r o y d s t a t ed t h a t t h e ' r e t u r n ' o fYahweh was part o f the process by which He would intervene

f o r H is p e o p l e, I would sugges t t h a t t h e t e r min a t i o n o f the

e x i l e was a p a r t of t h a t i n t e r v e n t i o n . Z e ch a ri a h, l i k e388

De ute ro- Isa iah , counted the days o f Yahweh's g o o d w i l l to-

w a r d the Jews from the release from Babylon. Al though the

f u l l m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f G o d ' s b l e s s in g s h a d not been immedi-

a t e l y a p p a r e n t ( a n d s o m i g h t b e r ead in to the an ge l ' s lament

i n v . l Z ) , Zech a r i ah d i d n o t doubt that Yahweh was once again

on t h e s i d e o f H i s p e o p l e a n d t h a t t h e f u l l r e s t o r a t i o n

w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y be r e a l i z e d .

Third , n ea r ly ev e r y s ch o l a r has j u d g ed t h a t Zech a r i ah

borrowed the Jeremian phrase ' s even ty ye ar s ' (v.12 ) . I t was

a l s o a g r e e d t h a t i t was a round number, no t t o be taken

l i t e r a l l y d e s p i te t he c l o s e co r r e l a t i o n with t h e p e r i o d from

the beg inn ing o f t h e e x i l e t o Z e c h a r i a h ' s day ( i . e . 587 B . C .

t o 5 2 0 B . C . ) . The phrase, a s i t was used i n J e r. 2 5 : l l - 1 2389

and 29 :10, r e fe r r ed t o the pe r i od o f c a p t i v i t y , which was to

end with the punishment o f Babylon (25:12) and t h e r e t u r n o f

p e r f e c t s ' , - - s i n _ .H. Lowe, The Hebrew S tu d en t ' s Commenta ryon Z e c h a r i a h , p..l8.

3 8 7 . C.F. Kef1 , Z e c h a r i a h ' ,Commentary o n the Old Testament, vS . R . D r i v e r , op. c i t . , p .

H O G . M i t c h e l l , OJ. - tR i g n e l l ; OJ -.l t p . 4 5 .

rckroyd, - : c i t389.

T he Kef1 a n d D e l i t t s c h0 1 . I O / Z , pp.236T.; a l s o

., p.647., pp.124f . , and L O G .



133

t h e J e ws t o t h e i r l a n d (29 : lO) . B o t h of these even t s occu r-

r e d a r o u n d 538 B.C. a n d underscored the importance o f the

e x i l e / r e s t o r a t i o n r e v e r s a l o f J ew ish f o r t u n e s . The

390

' s ev en ty -y ea r' p e ri od was concluded when the Jews were

a l l o w e d t o re tu rn home. L at er use o f t he ' s even ty -yea r '

p e r i o d by t h e C h ro n i c l e r ( I 1 Chron. 36:21f . ) da ted i t s con -

c l u s i o n t o the d e c r e e o f C y ru s ( i . e . 5 3 7 B.C.).391

Fourth , a carefu l compari son o f v.12 and v.16 re v e a l s

a c e r t a l n p a ra d o x ( i f t h i s v i s i o n i s t o be u n d e r s t o o d t o t a l l y

r e f e r r i n g t o th e future). I f i t i s assumed t h a t t h e v i s i o n -

scene w a s s e t i n 5 2 0 B . C . (or was in t ended to des c r ib e a

fu tu re se t t i n g ) , t he ange l ough t t o have been aware t h a t the

Temple h a d been under const ruc t ion fo r f i v e months (cp . H a g .

1 : 1 4 f . t o Zech. 1 :7 ) , J eru sa le m was a l s o b ei ng r e b u i l t ( c f .

Hag. 1 : Q ) a n d t h e c i t i e s o f Judah (by ana logy) were a l so i n

v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f comple t ion .

Accord ing t o v.12 , even wh i l e t hese th i ngs were i n pro-

g r e s s , Yahweh y e t r e t a i n e d His In d i g n a t i o n with the Jews .

However, t he ind ica t ions t h a t Yahweh's m i n d h a d changed were

t o b e t he r e b u i l t Tem ple, t h e r e s t o r e d J e ru s al em and t he

n e w J u d e a n c i t i e s ( c f . 1:16b-17). The era o f t h e r e s t o r a -

t ion, which extended from 5 3 7 B . C . , was apparen t ly v i ewed by

Zechariah as a t ime i n te ns io n, In which the Jews w e r e both

3 9 0 . C . F . Whitney, 'The Term Se v e n t y Ye a r s C a p t i v i t y ' ,V T i v ( 1 9 5 4 a p . 6 4 ; A . Orr, 'The Seventy Years i n B a b y l o n ' ,v v i ( 1 9 5 6 , pp.304-306; P. R . Ackroyd, 'Two O l d TestamentW s t o r i c a l P r o b l e m s o f t h e E a r l y P e r s i a n P e r i o d : B. The" Se v e n t y Ye a r s ' Pe r i o d ' , NES x v f i (1958) , p .2 5 .



134

the ob je c t of Yahweh's renewed lo v e a n d s u b j e c t t o t h e h a r s h

r e a l i t i e s o f l i f e .

The pu rp os e o f t h i s f i r s t v i s i o n , a p a r t from an ys t r u c t u r a l r o l e i t m f g h t p l a y i n t h e N ig h t - Vi s io n s e r i e s , was

o b v i o u s l y t o comfort the peop le o f G o d a n d to assure them

tha t the p romises o f the p as t w e re i n p r o ce s s o f b e i n g f u l -

f i l l e d . We can s e e that Zechariah has confirmed the e f f i c a c y

o f Yahweh's change o f h ea r t and H i s i n t en t i o n t o b l e s s J er u-

sa lem, o nly he recogni zed t h a t he was l i v i n g i n t h e i n t e r r e g -

num b e tw een ex i l e and f u l l r e s to r a t i o n , when Yahweh's r u l e

was o b s e r v ab l e t o n e i t h e r Hi s p eo p l e nor t o the n a t i o n s .

2 . Zech. 1:18-21, T h e Second Vision

The second v i s ion cons i s ted o f two s ta t i c images o f

f o u r h o r n s a n d f o u r workmen. The ex pl an at io n o f the meaning

o f the combined p res en ta t ion , s up p l i ed by the in te rp re t i ng

angel ( v v . I 9 b , Z l b ) , provided the so le means o f unders tand ing

the r e la t ion be tween the t w o , f o r t hey a r e d e p i c te d a s n o t

in t er ac t i n g: the workmen are the agents o f God, s e n t t o pu t

t o f l i g h t the horns , the enemies of G o d a n d His p e o p l e .

T h e p i c t u r e o f the 'horn ' ( l i p ) as a symbol of an i n d i -

v i d u a l ' s strength and honor was t r a d i t i o n a l i n Hebrew t h o u g h t

( c f . I Sam. 2:1, Ps. 18:2 , e t c . ) and could a l s o be s u g g e s t i v e

391. ~ f . . Plager, L)P. c i t . , p p . 4 2 f . ; P l6 g e r a ccep t edt h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . o f the C h r x c l e s ' r ef er en ce , b u tcharged that Zechar iah adapted t h e phrase to h is own use .



135

of roya l power ( Je r. 4 8 : 2 5 ) , a l t h o u g h i t s or ig ina l mean ing392

was unknown. The f i g u r e o f the ' w o r k m an ' ( W m ) was not

a b s e n t from t he p ro p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e . De u t e ro -I s a i a h u sedthe t e rm to re fe r t o t hose who cons t ruc t ed ido l s (40:19)

and Ezekiel , more c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l i n g Z e c h a r ia h ' s u s a g e, in

21:36 spoke of 'workmen o f d e s t ru c t io n ' .

The v i s i o n i t s e l f c o n s i s t e d o f th e r e v e l a t i o n o f c e r-

t a i n h e a v e n l y a c t i o n s p r e l i m i n a ry t o t h e d e s t ru c t i o n o f

God' s enemies and was ( ap pa re n t ly ) l in ke d to t h e f i r s t v i s i o n

through a r e f e r e n c e t o ' t h e n a t i o n s ' ( 1 : 1 5 ) and (p e rh a p s ) t o

t he l a s t v i s i o n , whic h p o r t ra y e d t he be g i nn i n g o f j udgm e n t .

T he re i s a n immediate problem when we attempt to iden-

t i f y the ' f o u r horns ' . T hi s a p p e l l a t i o n i s u s u a l l y ta ke n t o

r e f e r t o t h e f o u r p o i n t s o f the compass a n d , consequen t ly,t h e t o t a l i t y o f nat io ns h o s t i l e t o Yahweh. However, th i s

v i ew i s co n t ra d i c t ed by the s ta t emen t t h a t the judgment w a s

d i rec t ed on ly aga ins t t hose na t ions wh ich had sca t t e red

J u d a h (vv .19 ,21 ) . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o see how the punishment

o f t he few cou ld p rope r ly b e extended to a u n i v e r s a l j u d g -

ment.

We do know t h a t the empires beglnning with Assyr i a and

Babylon comprised such vas t geographica l reg ions tha t they

were pe rce ived by the Jews a s 'w or ld ' empires. We co ul d then

understand 1:18 a s a r e f e r e n c e t o a wor ld empi re , r a the r t han

t he na t io n s a s a s l n g u l a r e n t i t y.

3 9 2 . F . Brown, S . R . D r i v e r , C . A . Briggs, Hebrew andE n g l i s h Lex icon o f t he O l d Testament, p.901.



136

This br i ng s us to another problem. The on ly 'w or l d

empires' which would q u a l i f y for judgment around the time of

Zech aria h would have been B aby lon ia a n d P e r s i a . P e r s i awould have been exempt from judgment because she d i d not

p l a y a r o l e i n Je rusa lem ' s defea t a n d because she had re-

leased the Jews from t h e i r e x i l e . When the v is io n s t i pu la te d

judgment against those who scat tered the Jews a n d s u b j e c t e d

them to the humili .ation o f t h e e x i l e ( i n f e r r e d i n l:Zl),

Babylon i s g i ven cen t e r s t age . A l a rge- sca le judgment3 9 3

a g a i n s t a s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l e n t i t y w ould a pp ea r t o fo c us

on the cr i t ica l events upon which the ru le o f t h i s r e g i o n

hinged.

I b e l i e v e that i t i s n ece ss ary t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s v i s i o n ,

a s t h e f i r s t , a s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f heav en l y p r epa r a t i ons f o r

c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s w i t h i n t h e p e r i o d o f r e s t o r a t i o n .

Bab ylo n's empire was destro yed by the Per s ians i n 538 6.C.

and t h e c i t y was r et ak en i n Z e ch a ri a h' s l i f e t i m e a f t e r a

short r e b e l l i o n . The theme o f r e t a l i a t i o n was s t r e s s e d ;

Babylon was the cu l p r i t o f the pas t a n d t h e v i c t i m o f God's

vengeance.

The thrust o f the v i s i on was the pre par at i on of God's3 9 4

f o r ce s f o r j udgm en t . H . G . Mitchell commented:

T h i s [ i n t e r p r e t a t i on o f the horns as thesum o f the world powersj seems t o have been

3 9 3 . H O G .M i t c h e l l , s - i t p.134.3 9 4 . -.b i d 9 p . 1 3 3 .



137

nea r ly the though t o f t he p rophe t ; b u t i n de-v e l o p i n g i t care must be taken to avoid themis take o f i nc lud ing . . . t he enemies o f bothkingdoms, o r those of the Jews after the Baby-l o n i a n p e r i o d , fo r t hese h o r n s symbollze thepower only o f t h e p e o p l e s , e s p e c i a l l y th eB a b y l o ni a n s , who by t h e l r h o s t i l i t y c o n t r ib u -t ed to the f i n a l ove rth row o f t he Jewish s t a t ea n d the bantshment o f the Jewish people f r o mt h e i r s o i l .

In t h i s way, M i t c h e l l i d e n t i f i e d t he horns a s Babylon and,

perhaps , the smal le r people-groups which h a d helped the Jews

t o t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n ( Je r. 12:14, Ezek. 2 5 : 3 , 8 ; 2 8 : 2 4 ) . K.

G a l l i n g d i d not f i n d t h i s k i n d o f e x p l a n a t i o n s a t i s f a c t o r y

a n d i n s i s t e d that B ab yl on i s meant s o l e l y . M i t c h e l l ' s3 9 5

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , more s p e c i f i c a l l y, r e f e r r e d t o th e p re p ar a -

t i o n o f d i v i n e f o rc e s t o f r e e the l a n d (whi le the Jews were

being freed from Babylon 's control) . This complex statement

goes beyond the evi den ce of the passag e a n d I , l i k e G a l l in g ,

am h e s i t a n t t o i n c l u d e t h e s m a l l e r J u d e a n peop les with t he

Babylonian world-power.

I t i s acknowledged t h a t this scene was not d e s c r i p t i v e

o f an ac tua l even t b u t o n l y t he p r e l i m i n a r i e s t o an i n t e n -

ded ac t ion . G o von Rad's conten t ion that t he th rus t o f the

v i s i o n was t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f t he e x i s t e n c e o f heavenly

powers m isse d t he r e a l p o i n t ( L e . that Yahweh has pre-396

pared to ac t ) . The m a n n e r o f His i n t e r v e n t i o n d i d n o t oc-

cupy Zecha r fah . Hi s foc us was upon the i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f

3 9 5 . KO G a l l i n g , - r t . c i t . , p . 2 3 .3 9 6 . G , von Rad, op. c T , p.286.



138

d iv ine judgment , n o t u p o n the inhabi tants /symbols of the

heaven ly wor ld .

One can argue that Zechar iah cons idered the ange l s ther e a l e x e c u t o r s o f Yahweh 's wi l l a n d n o t , fo r example, the

P e r s i an s ( a l t h o u g h Zech a r i ah d i d not make a n y s p e c i f i c

r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p ) . I t remains an impor tant

q u e s t i o n i n t h e dev elo pmen t of c e r t a i n ap o ca l y p t i c b e l i e f s

as t o whether Zechar iah in tended h i s r e a d e r s t o i d e n t i f y

t h e a n g e l i c - f o r c e s with the Per s ians ( o r s o me o th e r h i s t o r i -

c a l m i l i t a r y p o w e r ) . As M i t c h e l l s a i d i n summary:397

The workmen d o n o t r e p r e s e n t P e r s i a a l o n eo r with any number o f ot he r pow ers . The o nl ys a t i s f a c t o r y e x pl a na t io n f o r them i s i n d i c a -ted i n 6 S f f . T here i s e v i d e n t r e f e r e n c e t othe conquest o f B a b yl o ni a . I n a l l u d i n g t o i t ,however, Yahweh ignored human instrumentalities.

. If we a re t o i n t e r p r e t Zecha r iah on t h i s p o in t from t h e per-

s p e c t i v e o f t h e p r e - e x i 7 i c a n d e x i 7 t c p r o p h e t s , we h a v e t o

s t a t e t h a t M i t c h e l l w a s in e r r o r. Z e c h a r i a h h a d i n mind the

P e r s i a n s or another, unnamed, human ag en t . He viewed

Yahweh ' s con t ro l o f h i s to ry a s man i f e s t ed t h r o u g h ea r th ly

e n t i t i e s and f o r c e s .

T h e r e were thr ee ways in which the w r i t e r s o f the O l d

Tes tament descr ibed the outworking o f h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s . I f ,

f o r ex amp le , we an a ly ze th e r e f e r en ce s t o B ab y lo n ' s co n qu est

o f Jerusalem in 5 8 7 B . C . , we f i n d : 1 ) Je remiah p red ic ted the

f a l l o f Jerusalem as the work o f Yahweh through the agency o f

397 . H O G .M i t c h e l l , OJ. -.i t , pp.134f .



139

Babylon (c f . 3er. 2 5 : 9 ) , 2 ) Ezek ie l a t t r i b u t ed t h e d e s -

t ruct ion d i rec t ly to the hand of Yahweh (Ezek. 5 : 8 ) a n d

3 ) t he C h r o n i c l e r ' s h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i b ed B ab yl on 'sm i l i t a r y campaign a g a i n s t a r e c a l c i t r a n t v a s s a l ( I 1 Chron.

3 6 : 6 f f . ) . Each type o f r e p o r t was v a l i d w i t h in i t s c on te xt .

However, i n t h e l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n ,

the assumpt ion behind the second category ( i . e . t h a t Yahweh

a c t u a l l y had u s e d p o l i t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s i n His g u i d i n g o f

' h i s to r y ) b eg an t o be d i sca rded i n favor o f a m o r e l i t e r a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( i . e . that Yah w eh c o u l d i n t e r v e n e d i r e c t l y in

h i s t o r y w i t h o u t r e s o r t t o human a g e n c i e s ) .

Zechar iah , moving wi th in the e x i l e / r e s t o r a t i o n e r a and

aware o f the w id e- sp re ad p o l i t i c a l i n s u r r e c t i o n , e n v i s i o n e d

h ea ve nl y a c t i v i t y wh ich , i n h i s m i n d , w o u l d b e f u l f i l l e dt h r o u g h p o l i t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s . His i n t e n t i o n w a s to ' s p i r i t u -

a l i z e ' t he p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n s he f o r es a w i n t o a c t s o f

Yahweh. This k i n d o f thought seldom occurred in the pro-

phet ic movement pr ior to Deutero- Isa iah .

P.D. Hanson contended that t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw een ac t s

o f G o d perpe t ra ted th rough human ag en t s and t h e d i r e c t i n t e r -

ven t ion by God i n t o his tory cons t i tu ted th .e balance upon

which prophecy swung i n t o a p o c a l y p t i c . B u t w h a t has Zecha-

r i ah d o n e , i n Hanson's system? He d i d no t t ake the opportu-

n i t y t o in teg ra te h i s knowledge o f the i n te nt io n s of Yahweh

i n t o h i s t o r l c a l t e r m s and i t i s n o t ap p a r en t t h a t h e saw



140

Yahweh ac t ing ou t s ide the agenc ies o f h i s to ry. O n t h e s e

grounds , then , Zec har iah cannot be ca te go r i ze d .398

I f Zechar iah based h i s v i s i o n s upon h is tor ica l en-t i t i e s a n d categor ies , he has remained a ' p rophe t ' i n Han-

so n's system and has on ly made e x p l i c i t a long-accepted

v i ew of t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e h i s t o r l c a l realm and

the ' w o rl d a bo v e' ( L e . t h a t h ea ve nl y a c t i v i t y pr od uce d

e f f e c t s I n h i s t o r y ) . A k i n d o f l imited symmetry l inked

th e s e tw o r ea lms , a l t h o u g h Zech a r i ah r e f u s ed t o e l ab o r a t e

on i t . In s o doing, he took a long s tep toward opening a

breach between the execu t ion o f the d i v i ne w l l l and the con-

t i n u i t y o f h i s t o r y, a f o r m o f ex p r e s s io n o f t en f o u n d i n the

a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

I t a pp ea rs t h a t th i s v i s ion ough t to be r educed to andi n t e r p r e t e d a s p r ep a r a t i o n fo r a l i m i t e d a c t o f r e t r i b u t i o n

a g a i n s t B ab yl on , r a t h e r t h a n a s cen e o f ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l '

judgment . The r e s t r i c t i o n s o f vv.18 ,21 seem to pr ec lu de399

a u n i v e r s a l a c t i o n . I t would t h e n be c o n s is t e n t f o r

Zechar iah to s ee Per s ia exc luded f rom the judgment aga ins t

3 9 8 . Hanson r e je c t ed Zechar iah as an a po ca ly p t i s t ont h e grounds that he moved i n a s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t p r o -tected by the community leaders (=. i t . , p .251) . However,Hanson d i d n o t co n s id e r t he l a r g e r p i c tu r e o f t h e J ew s' con-d i t i o n of p o w er l e s s n es s , d i s en f r an ch i r emen t and f r u s t r a t i o nunder Babylonian a n d Pers lan domination which, i n a n e a r l i e rs e t t i n g ( L e . E ze k ie l ' s ) , H a n s o n admitted a cer ta in apoca-ly p t i c t en d en cy 0 c i t . , p p . 2 3 3 f . ) .

Cp. b l . - k h ~ h , OJ c i t . , p.83, who s ta ted tha tZech a r i ah w a s breaking new g r o u n d i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o ft h e future.

3 9 9 .



141

400t he h o s t i l e f o r c e s . A l s o , t h e v e rb m h , which has the

meaning t o rou t ' , ' t o d r i v e away ' i n th e H i p h i l , does401

no t have the fu l l impac t o f des t ruc t ton w h i c h could b e a n t t -

c i p a t e d with a scene o f judgment c f . J u d g . 8:12, Ezek. 30:9,

1 1 Sam. 1 k 2 .4 0 2

I t has been a cc ep te d w i th o u t comment that t h e r e w a s no

o r a c u l a r m at e ri a l f o l l o w i n g this vis ion-scene. Such

m a t e r i a l wi th in the o th er v is i on-fo rms (e .g . 1 :14-17,

2 6 - 1 3 , 3:8-10, 4:6b- lOa) appear t o have been related thema-

t i c a l l y t o t he v i s i o n - s ce n e . T h i s v i s i o n a n d t h e f o l l o w in g

one may have been intended to b e r e a d t o g e t h e r , with the403

o r a c u l a r m a t e r i a l ( 2 6 - 1 3 ) appended to b o t h .

I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t Zechar iah in tended t o comfor t the

s t ruggl ing communi ty through th is v ls ion . I t i s n o t ex-

p r e s s l y s t a t e d that Babylon or any other people was to be

punished f o r i t s h u m b l i n g o f J u d a h . However, the promise o f

such judgment, on b e h a l f o f a powerless group such a s t h e

Jewish c o m m u n i t y, would h a v e b e e n a source o f c o n s o l a t i o n .

The turning o f Yahweh t o the Jews s i gn al ed His det erm ina tio n

t o r e s to r e H i s p eo p l e t o t h e i r l a n d ( a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e

f i r s t v i s i on ) . The second v i s i on expounded the theme o f

4 0 0 . C . Jeremfas , op. c i t . , p . 1 5 4 .401. F. Brown, S.R. Driver, C . A . B r i g g s , E. -.i t 9

4 0 2 . Cf. t h e t e x t u a l a l t e r a t i o n s s u g g e s t e d by s c h o l a r sp.189.

i n L.G. R i g n e l l ,e f t . , p.82, s t a t e t h a t the ' ho rn ' was s y m b o l i c o f the' p aw er ' o f a nation and was n o t t h e n a t i o n i t s e l f .

p.69 ; o t h e r s , l i k e W. R u d o l p h , op.P4 0 3 . R. North, - r t . c i t . , p . 4 8 .



142

Yahweh's r e ad i n e s s t o s t r i k e )Ifs enemtes. The v i s i o n h a s no

p o i n t u n le s s i t h a d to do with f r e e i n g the Jews with the ac-

h i e v i n g o f God's purpose fo r t h e f u tu r e . In e i t h e r d e s c r i p -t ion , Baby lon p layed a r o l e .

3. Zech. k 1 - 1 3 , The Third Vi s i o n

In t h i s third v i s i o n , Z e ch a ri a h d e s c r i b e d a man w i t h a

meas u r in g l i n e , g o f n g f o r th t o measure the boundaries o f the

re s t o r ed Je rusa lem. The in te rp re t i ng an ge l , however, or-

dered ano ther ange l to in te rcep t h i m a n d to in fo rm h i m that

Je rusa lem would no t be r ebu i l t with wal l s because the re would

be too many p e o p l e d w e l l i n g i n i t and because Yahweh would

p r o v id e s u p e r n a tu r a l p r o t ec t i o n i n t he f or m o f a 'w a l l o f

f i r e ' .The image of a ' w a l l o f f i r e ' c o n si s t ed of t he j o i n i n g

o f two symbols quite common i n the Old Testament. The w a ll

r e f e r r e d n a t u r a l l y to the f o r t i f f c a t i o n s h a b i t u a l l y sur-

r ou nd in g s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n s a n d p o p u la t i o n cen t e r s ag a in s t

a t t a ck , w h l l e t he f i r e ex pr e s sed t h e s u p e r n a tu r a l manner o f

the de fense ,

While the image o f l i g h t / f i r e h a d a h i s t o r y of c u l t i c

and semi-magical con nect ion s both i n I s r a e l a n d t h e a n c i e n t

Near E a s t , i t would be wrong to force an in terpre ta t ion on

t h i s v i s l o n which would be escha to log ica l . W. Rudolph, fo r

e x a m p l e , s a w t h e f t g u r e o f f i r e as a u t o m a t ic a l l y an i n d i c a t o r



143

404o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t :

D a s s wir h i e r B e r e i c h e s c h a t o l o g l s c h e nDenkens s t ehen , l i eg t a u f d e r H a n d . Dabeik l ingen mytho log i sche Vors t e l lungen aus de rU r z e i t (Gen. 3 2 4 ) wie aus den Anfangen derG e s c h i c h t e I s r a e l s (Ex. 3:2, 13:21, v g l .J e s . 4 : 5 ) a n , u n d I s r a e l s K a b o d i s t h i e rn i c h t a u f den Tempel beschrankt ( H a g . 2 : 9 ) ,sondern e r f u l l t d i e ganz e S t a d t ( v g l . J e s .60:lf.). Wie die Volkerwel t gegen Jahwen i c h t s a u s r i c h t e n k a n n ( 2 , Vi s i o n ) , s o l i e g tauch der Schu tz se ine r S t a d t g a n z i n s e i n e rH a n d u n d n i c h t i n Menschlichen Verkehrungen.

Tied c lo se ly to the Image o f f i r e w a s the p i c t u r e o f ' g l o r yi n t he mids t o f the c i t y ' ( v . 5 ) , i n whlch Zechariah has

u t i l i z e d t h e t h e m e o f Ezek. 4 k 1 - 5 , combining the Kabod-

concept with an element o f the Zion-Jerusalem theol ogy o f

De u t e ro - I s a i a h a n d the d eu te ro no mis tic c i r c l e s . I t i s a l s o

noteworthy t h a t t h e v i s i o n o f the Temple in Ezek. 4 0 - 4 8 em-

p l o y e d t h e f i g u r e o f a man with a measuring instrument.

W. Rudolph ' s op in ion t h a t t h i s scene was a n i n d i c a t i o n

o f eschato log ica l thought was worthy o f f u r t h e r r em ar ks , f o r

t h e r e h a s been a cons i s t en t a t t empt t o t race the development

o f apoca lyp t i c t hough t a n d doc t r ine th rough a c o u p l i n g o f

myth a n d es ch at ol og y. One need n o t b e t o o l e e r y o f r e -4 0 5

c o g n i z i n g a p e rv a s i v e u s e o f mythic theme i n t h e p ro p h e t i c

l i t e r a t u r e al th o ug h th e p ro p h e t s , by a n d l a rge , e schewed the

l a rg e r c on ce pt s o f mythic thought.

4 0 4 ,W.

R U d O l p h , p0

C i t p.8604 0 5 . C f . the B i b 1 ography f o r the works o f H. Gunkel,S. Mowinckel , H . Gressmann; a more re ce nt adv oca te o f t h i stheo ry was SO B. F r o s t , O l d Tes tamen t Apoca lyp t i c .



144

Myth, which cen te red on the cy c l i c a l concep tion o f t he

y e a r l y r e b i r t h o f l i f e , and p r o p h e ti c th ou gh t, which g re w

i n t o a l i n e a r p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y a s a s u c c e s s i o n o f h i s t o -r i c a l e v e n t s , were e s s e n t i a l l y i n c o m p a ti b l e. The u s e o f

406

mythic mo t i f s by the p rophe ts p r io r t o t he p os t - e x i l i c p ro-

phe t s d id no t demons tra te e sc ha to l og i ca l o r i e n t a t io n any more

t h a n d i d t h e i r use i n t he G en es is c r e a t i o n s t o r i e s , f o r

mythic elements were common in the popular world-perception

o f t hose e r a s . Zecha r i ah was ac t i ve a t a j u n c t u re in4 0 7

Jewish history when a r e t u r n t o m ythic i d e a s i n t r o j e c t e d a

new v i t a l i t y i n t o t h e J ewis h t ho u gh t-proc e ss ( c f . Tr i t o -

I s a i a h a n d Deutero -Zecha r iah) . Al though the imagery of

Zecha r i ah was b i z a r r e , i t was d e s c r i p t i v e o f h ea ve nl y e v en t s

a n d not o f events beyond h i s t or y ( i . e . myth ic ) . We cannot

d et er mi ne Z e c h a r i a h 's m o t i va t i on f o r u t i l i z i n g h i s i m ag er y,

much less know whether he intended a m y t h i c a l l y - i n f l u e n c e d

p i c t u r e o f t h e fu t u re (o f t e n t i m e s t h e a u t h o r ' s p u rpo s e I S he

s o l e c r i t e r i o n f o r a r r iv ing a t such a p i c t u r e ) .

T h is v i s i o n p i c t u r e d two r e s u l t s o f Yahweh's r e t u rn t ot he J ews: e x t e rn a l p ro t e c t i o n a n d in te rna l abundance . With-

o u t t h e d i v i n e d e c i s i o n t o dwel l in Zion , th er e co uld be hope

o f n e i t h e r d e f e n s e or growth; t h e i n i t i a t i v e , a s Z e c h a r i a h

r e p e a t e d l y a s s e r t e d , r e s t e d with Yahweh. Th is v t s i o n must b e

406. G o von Rad, 9p -.i t , p p . 9 9 -1 2 5 , e s p e c i a l l y p p .

407 . 3 . L i n d b l o m , x c l t . , p . 4 2 2 .100f. and 110-112.



145

i n t e r p r e t e d with in t h e c o n t e x t o f H i s d e c i s i o n t o a c t a n d the

g o a l of f u t u r e b l e s s e d n e s s .

Sch olar s have, a t t imes , a ttempted t o r e l a t e th e ' a n ge l

with t h e m ea su ri ng l i n e ' t o a par t icu lar h i s t o r i c a l b a s e .

Some have i n t e r p re t e d t h e f i g u r e as r e p re s e n t a t i v e o f a

c a u t i o u s d e f e n s i v e J ew is h p a r t y which a l l o w ed i t s e l f t o b e

l i m i t e d by t he ' d ay o f s ma ll t h i n g s ' m e n t a l i t y . O t h e rs408

assumed that Z e r u b b a b e l , i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e h i s a u t h o r i t y in

t he a r e a , t r i e d u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t o f o r t i f y Je ru sa le m.4 0 9

O t h e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t he peop le h a d been prepar ing t o r e b e l

a g a i n s t t h e P e r s i a n s . S u c h recons t ruc t ions have missed410

the central theme o f t he v i s i on : hav ing tu rned to the Jews

with renewed mercy (1:16), G o d h a d g iven Hi s gua ran tee t h a t

t h e p e o p le wou ld l i v e a p ro t e c t e d a n d s a t i s f i e d f u t u r e e x i s -

tenc e . The def ense o f l i o n , o n e o f t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t s o f411

t he J er us al em c u l t t h e o l o g y, was f o r c e f u l l y s t a t e d h e r e ,

Th i s v i s ion worked to p rov ide a ssu rance to the p e o p l e

t h a t Jerusalem h a d been r e s t o r e d t o i t s p o s i t i o n a s t h e one

ea r t h l y p l ac e where Yahweh 's g l o r y wou ld dw e l l . Ag a i ns t

412

the memory o f 587 B . C . , Zechar i ah made c l e a r t he fu tu re p ro -

v i s i o n o f d i v i n e p r o t e c t i o n . The prom ise o f a g r i c u l t u r a l

408. C f . G o von Rad , x -.t t ' p.287.4 0 9 . D.W. Thomas, a r t . c i t . , p .1064 .4 1 0 . P O H a u p t , ' T h e i s ; f s o f Z e c h a r i a h ' , J B L 3 2

411. C O Je remias , o p . c i t . , pp.174f.4 1 2 . There was no s e n s e i n which . . . f u r S a c h a r j a

w i e d e r h o l t s i c h d i e v o rg a n g e n e Z e i t d e r Grosse i n der neuenZ e i t ' : LA . R i g n e l l , E i t . , p . 7 8 .

(1913), pp.109-111.'



146

f e r t i l i t y , a common prophet ic image prior to the exi le , was

i n t e n s i f i e d ( a s i t h a d been by Deutero-Isa iah an d , t o a more

modest de gr ee , by E t e k i e l ) . The message o f De u t e ro - I s a i a h ,

which promised mater ia l b less ing apart from human obedience

a n d exa l t ed the g race o f God a t the expense of h u m a n respon-

s i b i l i t y, f i g u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y i n the message of t h i s v i s i o n

o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s .

K . G a l l i n g a rgued tha t t he se t t i ng o f t h i s v i s i o n c o u l d

n o t have been Jerusalem b e c a u s e t h e f i g u r e with the measuring

l i n e wa s g o i n g f o r t h t o t h a t c i t y . He noted th at the413

-c a l l t o the e x i l e s t o leave Babylon was recorded i n 2 6 - 7 .

He reached the conclusion that Z e c h a r i a h a c t u a l l y m i n i s t e r e d

i n both Babylon and Jerusalem. While I a g r e e with the major-

i t y o f s c h ol a rs t h a t Zechar i ah min i s t e red on ly i n Jerusa lem,

I f i n d that Gal l ing has seen t h a t the end o f t h e e x i l e must

form a part of Zecha r i ah ' s unde rs t and ing o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n

a n d must s tand behind the scene of th i s v i s ion .

P e r c e i v i n g t h i s v i s i o n w i t h i n i t s s o c i a l c o n t e x t o f

5 2 0 B.C. a l lows the unde rs t and ing that Zechar i ah has s t a t edYahweh's in tent ion fo r J eru sa lem 's f u t u r e e x i s te n c e ( L e .

the form of the community after the restoration has been com-

p l e t e d ) : the 'm a n ' went for th to see how long and wide the

c i t y would be , on ly to be to ld that t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f the414

413. K OG a l l i n g , a r t . -.i t 9 . p . 3 3 .4 1 4 . H O G . Mitehell,=. c i t . , p . 1 3 7 ; GI Rudolph, a p

-*c i t D p . 8 4 ; S . R . Driver, o p . -. r p . 1 9 0 .



147

c i t y a n d i t s spac i ousness wou l d no t pe r m i t t h e l i m i t a t i o n s

o f w a l l s . This message would have been v a l i d a t any p o i n t

from 5 3 8 B.C. onwards.I t does n o t seem convincing to argue t h a t Z echa r i ah h a d

t h o u g h t s of a heavenly c i t y on the or de r o f E ze ki e l ' s Temple

v i s i on (Ezek . 40-48) o r o f some c i t y d i s t i n c t in thought

from t he r e b u i l t ce n t er o f the r e s t o r a t i o n . T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y

cann o t, however, be t o t a l l y d i sm i ssed b ecau se i t w a s d u r i n g

t h e p o s t - e x i l i c era t h a t t h e b e l i e f d e v e l o p e d t h a t e a r t h l y

e n t i t i e s were based upon e te rn a l p ro t o ty pes , such as the ex-

ample f o u n d i n Wisdom o f Solomon ( 9 : 8 ) . T h i s d o c t r i n e415

p r o b a b l y had not deve loped in Zechar iah ' s day to the po in t

where i t would have been meaningful to the people.

The s ec t i o n 2:6-13 has been ge n er al l y regard ed as a

g r ou p o f o r ac l e s g l eaned from t h e pub l i c m i n f s t r y o f Z echa -

r i a h , a l t h o u g h Y. K a u f m a n n saw them a s messages from the416

i n t e r p r e t i n g a n g e l ( a n d , t h e r e f o r e , as 1 i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t s

w i t h i n t h e v i s i o n ) . As i n the f i r s t v i s i o n , t h er e has417

been a s k i l l f u l s p l i c i n g o f the m at e r i a l t o t he scen e . How-e v e r , t h e s e o r a c u l a r v e r s e s a r e not a s c e n t r a l t o the v i s i o n

a s a whol e as 1:13-17 was t o the f i r s t vl sf on . However, the

415. Cf, t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f 60 von Rad, o p . c i t . ,' t h e a r c h et y p a l e x i s t e n c e o f t h e f i n a l

16. G.A. S m i t h , o . c i t . , p p o 2 5 9 f . , and K OG a l l i n g ,

4 1 7 . Y . K a u f m a n n , op. c i t . , p . 2 7 5 .

t h i n g s i n c f . E x o d . 2 5 : 9 , 4 0 on the p a t t e r n o f thep p . 2 8 7 f 0 ,

t a b e r n a c l e o f M o s e s ) .

-or t o the ot he r o r ac le s o f t h i s passag e .a r t . c i t . , p . 2 0 , r e g a r d P g m 7 as perhaps twenty years



148

a bs en ce o f 2:6-13 f ro m t h e v i s i o n wo ul d s e r i o u s l y i n t e r r u p t

the course o f t h e n a r r a t i v e .

While I am i n concurrence with L O G . R i g n e l l ' s i n s i s t e n c e

t h a t Z e ch a ri a h was i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d with t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f

t he ' o r a c u l a r s e c t i o n s ' and their appending to the body of

t h e N i g h t - Vi s i o n s , I r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s be-418

yond p roof . I b e l i e v e t h a t Z e c h ar i a h 's c r e a t i v i t y ( p er ha ps

i n tandem with the use o f pa s t p roc lamat ions concern ing the

r e s t o r a t i o n e r a ) g av e r i s e t o 2:6-13 and t h e o t h e r n on - v is f o n

s e c t i o n s o f t h e N i g h t-Vi s i o ns .

I found i t v e r y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t few s ch o l a r s h av e g iv en

s u p p o r t f o r the MT i n t h i s p a s s ag e . T he re i s a d i f f i c u l t419

thread of l o g i c th ro ugh t h es e v e r s e s : 1 ) th e c a l l o f t he

e x i l e s i n B ab y lo n i a t o r e tu r n t o Z io n ( v v. 6- 7 a ) ; 2 ) the com-

mis s io n in g o f one to s i gn al judgment u p o n Babylon (vv.7b-9) ;

3 ) t h e c a l l o f G o d t o t h e e x i l e s t o r e j o i c e o v er t h e news o f

Hi s coming (vv.1 0-11); and 4 ) the announcement of God's plan

f o r t he f u t u r e , with an admoni t ion to r everence befo re H i m

(vv.12-13). The majo r ques t ion s concern ing t h i s pas sage a r e :1 ) what mot ivates the change f rom th i rd-person t o f i r s t - a n d

b ack t o t h i r d - p e r s o n ; 2 ) who i s s p e a k i n g the f i r s t - p e r s o n

r o l e i n vv.8-9; and 3 ) who i s ad d r e s s ed i n t h e s e verses.

I have no t fo l l o w ed the path o f modern scho la r sh ip i n

making textual emendations i n t h e s e v e r s e s t o p r o d u ce a com-

p r e h e n l i b l e v e r s i o n w h i c h d i s t o r t s the m i n i s t r y o f Z e c h a r i a h ,

. C f t . , p.93.Y18. L O G . R i g n e l l ,419. Cf. t h e ' p r e - c r t i c a T n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f C.F.

K e i l , O c i t . , p p . 2 4 7 f .



149

p laces the p rophe t ' s au tho r i ty in ques t ion and smoothes over

the changes in speakers .

'angel' ), who c a l l s the e x i l e s to re t urn , i s commissioned t o

s i g n a l the beginning o f judgment upon Babylon, repeats the

words of Yahweh i n vv.10-11 a n d cal ls the Jews t o r e v e r e n t

a t t e n t i o n t o w h a t Yahweh w a s about t o do. The pas sa ge was

meant t o b e the words o f the angel f o r the peop le; the pro-

The agent o f G o d (which would be the

phet was only the vehic le o f the message.The ' au t hen t ica t io n of mi n is t ry ' s ta tement took se ve ra l

d i f f e r e n t forms i n Zechariah 1-8, occu r r ing i n 2:9,11; 4 : 9 ;

6:15. The ba si c phrase w a s ... hat you w i l l know th e L o r d

of hosts h a s s e n t me'. I t w a s used in re fe rences t o the de-

f e a t o f Babylonta ( 2 : 9 ) , t he bu i ld ing o f the Temple ( 4 : 9 a n d

6:15) a n d Yahweh's dwelling with His people ( 2 1 1 ) . E zek ie l

used a s i m i l a r phrase, from which Zechariah w a s m o s t l i k e l y

motivated t o use h i s own. W . Zimmerli l a b e l l ed the phrase i n

E z e k i e l a ' s e l f - r e c o g n i t i o n ' word or a ' w o r d o f demonstra t ion '

which derived from the l ega l language involved in the p rocess

o f p rov ing a po in t . E zek ie l used t h i s p h r a s e p r i o r t o a4 2 0

d i v i n e a c t i n which Yahweh r e v e al ed Him sel f. Zec har iah f o l -

lowed h i m c l o s e l y i n t h i s r e g a r d .

The ca l l t o f l e e B a b y l o n ( 2 : 6 - 7 ) h a s been in te rpre ted

a s p e r t a i n i n g to t he ex i l e s r ema in ing the re i n Z echa r i ah ' s

4 2 0 . W. Zimmerli , 'The Message of the Prophet E z e k l e l ' ,I n t e r p x x l l t (1969), pp.147f.



150

4 2 1day. However, th ere a r e grounds f o r KO G a l l i n g ' s i n t e r -

p r e t a t io n o f t he ve rses a s a c a l l r e f e r r i n g t o the r e l e a s e

o f 5 3 8 B.C. In th i s conte x t , the Jews ad dressed by422

Zechar i ah cou ld see themse lves a s pa r t i c ipan t s in t h e d i v i n e

p l a n which spanned the end o f t he ex i l e , t he re s to ra t ion

y e a r s a n d t he fu t u re fu l f i l l m e n t o f Yahweh's p ro mis e t o

d we l l with H i s peop le .

P O D . Hanson argued t h a t Z e c h a r i a h fo l l o we d E re k i e l

c l o s e l y i n form a n d t heo logy i n t he N i g h t -Vi s i o n s , b a s i n g h i s

c o n t e n t i o n p a r t i a l l y on Zechar i ah ' s u se o f the verb )m, t o

d w e l l ' , a n d the n o u n ? x n ' g l o r y ' , c on ce pt s c e n t r a l t o t he

b o o k of Ez ek ie l . The concept o f Yahweh's glory employed423

by Zechariah w a s ce r t a in ly in fo rmed by E r e k i e l ' s u s a g e ; i t

would have been uncharac ter i s t ic o f Zechariah to have bor-

rowed i t d i r e c t l y from t he J erus al em c u l t m i l i e u . Z e c h a r i ah

d i d n o t a p p e a r In t e r e s t e d i n t h e c u l t beyond the Temple re-

b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t ; his message d i d n o t contain the same a d -

herence t o p r i e s t l y m a te r ia l as d i d E z c k i e l ' s .

In the sec t ion 2:lO-13 Zecharlah's commitment to thei n c o r p o r a t i o n o f the na t ions in to the covenant with Yahweh,

w h i c h I s r a e l t h e r e t o f o r e h a d e x c l u s i v e l y e n jo y ed . T h i s

421, W . Rudolph, op. c i t . , p . 8 9 .4 2 2 . K OG a l l i n g , - r t . T t., pp.19-21; a l s o L O G . Rig-

4 T D . H a n s o n , OJ c i t . , p.94; C O Jeremias, 9p -.i t

n e l l , o C i t . , p.94.

p . 1 7 5 .



151

fea tu re showed ano the r face t o f his harmony with Deutero-

I s a i a h a n d h i s d i v e rg e n c e from the message o f H ag g a i and

E z e k i e l . G. Fohrer c la imed t h a t Zechar iah sa w Yahweh's i n -

t e n t i o n o f extending the punishment of Babylon to the

n a t i o ns ( c f . h i s f n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t he second v i s ion ) ;4 2 4

however, I would a sse r t t h a t Zechariah saw Yahweh b r i n g i n g

the n a t i o n s i n t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b l e s s i n g with Himself on

t h e b a s i s o f these ve rs es . Zechar iah remained a p a r t i c u l a -

r i s t by r e t a i n i n g Z i o n a s t he ' c en te r o f t he wor ld ' and the

Jews a s God's own people, b u t he moved beyond the parochial

concept ion o f Yahweh's Kingship extending only t o the bor-

d e r s o f I s r a e l .

4 . Zech. 3:l-10, The Fourth Vtsion

In th e fo u r t h v i s i o n , J o s h u a ben-Jehozadak, the h i g h

p r i e s t , s t o o d b e f o r e t h e a n g e l o f Yahweh, accused by a n i n -

d i v i d u a l i d e n t i f i e d a s ' t h e a c c u s e r ' 7130n) and dressed4 2 5

i n d i r t y rob es . Zechar iah wi tnes sed the angel o f Yahweh's

d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t Joshua had b e e n d e l i v e re d ( a p p a re n t l y426

from t h e e x i l e ) by the work o f G o d . Subsequent ly, Joshua 's

robes were exchanged for c lean ones to enab le h i m to resume

h i s p l a c e a s t h e c u l t i c h e a d o f t h e J e w i s h community. He

was charged by the ang el t o keep God's ways. He was t h e n i n -

vested w t t h t o t a l a u t h o r f t y over the Temple a n d with r i g h t o f

a c c e s s t o the heavenly assembly.

4 2 4 . G o Fohrer, Die Propheten d e s A 1ten Testaments, UOl. 5 9

p.54.



152

The r e c o rd o f t he i n v e s t i t u r e o f t h e p r i e s t o f Yahweh

w a s f o u n d i n the Pente teuchal narra t ives of Exod. 2 9 : 4 f f .

a n d Lev. 8:lff., whi le the change o f raiment was s i m i l a r

4 2 7

t o t h e s i t u a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d by K i n g Jeho iach in ( I1 K i n g s

2 7 - 3 0 ) . Some scholars have d iscerned the in f luence o f the

Babylonian A d a p a myth on t h e i n s p i r a t i o n o f t h i s s c e n e ,4 2 8

al though the resemblances are s l i g h t . The f igu re o f ' t h e

accuser' made h i s so le appea rance i n t h e p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e

h e re , p re ce di ng t he l a t e r f i g u r e o f S a t a n , where the w o r d

3bw w a s t r a n s l i t e r a t e d i n t o a proper name ( I C h ro n . 2 1 : l ; c f .4 2 9

J o b 1-2).

The v is ion took the c leans ing o f t he h igh p r i e s t and

p l a c e d i t i n the wo rl d above. The prese nce o f t he accuse r

e l i m i n a t e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t he sc en e b e in g a r e l i g i o u sceremony in t he t r a d i t i o n a l s e ns e . J os hu a' s f i l t h y r o b e s

are v a r i o u s l y e x p l a i n e d a s symbolic o f persona l s in , t he co r-4 3 0

p or at e g u i l t o f t he p e o p l e , Pe r s i a n o b j e c t i o n s t o J o sh u a' s

l e a d e r s h i p , t he p r e se n c e o f a r lv a l to Joshua fo r h i s431

4 2 5 . T h i s f i g u r e d i d n o t have a moral dimension; theconcept of a n e v i l be ing opposed to Yahweh developed l a t e r .

4 2 6 . Note t h a t t h e Sy r i a c Pe s h i t t a i n c l u d e d \ ~ 5 a t 1 e-f o r e i n a 7 i n v . 2 and i s t o be favo red ove r t he MT on con-t e x tu a l g r o u n d s .

4 2 7 . H O G .May, A Key t o t h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Zecha-r i a h ' s Vi s i o n s ' , J B L 5 7 (1938), p.175, saw the BabylonianNew Year r i t u a l a s c e n t r a l t o the imagery o f t he scenes .

4 2 8 . P.R. Ackroyd , 'Zecha r i sh ' , - C B ( r e v. e d . ) , p.648;L B . P r f t c h a r d , Ancient Near Eastern Texts , pp.101-103.

4 2 9 . H. Ringgren, Word and Hi sdom, pp.168ff.

431.430. L O G . Rignel7 , 0 c i t . , pp,105,109.

H. E w a l d , ' D i eY ngsten Propheten der Alten Bundes ' ,D i e Propheten des Alten Bundes, v o l . 3 , p.196.



153

432o f f i c e , a n o b j e c t i o n o f Joshua lodged by the people of

the land or t he e f f e c t o f t he e x i l e ex p e ri en ce. The433 434

p o i n t o f the scene was the cleansing of Joshua and the gran-t i n g o f authority over the Temple to him (3 :7) .

J o s h u a appeared to r epresen t the p r i es thood ra ther than

the community as a whole . Joshua 's re c l o t h i ng and charge

a f f e c t h i s p l a c e a s the head of the pr iesthood a n d as the

mediator f o r the pe op le. He was t o have access to the

heavenly assembly, authori ty over the Temple a n d a r o l e a n =

t ic ipat ing the coming ' b r a n c h ' . The b less ings o f the fu tu re

w e r e l i n k e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f p r i e s t l y a c t i v i t y4 3 5

(3:8-10).

Al t hough t h i s v i s i on was of ten dropped from the sequence436

o f the Nigh t -Vis ions on var ious grounds, I f i n d that i t s

p la ce i s l o g i c a l a n d f u l l y j u s t i f i a b l e . The v i si o n f o l l o we d

i n the pattern o f t he f i r s t t hr e e v i s i o n s (which d e s c r i b e t he

provisions Yahweh made fo r His pe o pl e) . The main problem,

which centered on the v i s i o n ' s a n t i c i p a t io n o f t he f u t u r e

p r i e s t l y l e ad e rs h ip o f the community, was one o f a u t h o r i t y.

T h e f i g u r e o f the h i g h p r i e s t w a s no t presented i n a benevo-

4 3 2buch: i t

4 3 3

c i t p .4 3 5-. ,

0

i0

e

5

0

A . JePse/ 4 ' , Z A b 1

DWhohetenbuch,

P. R . Ack

0 ; H O G .MiT h i s I s

n, 'Kx i (1lmas ,

p . 4 9royd ,

t che la s s u m

l e i n e B e i t r

- r t . -0 i t9 4 5 0 4 8 ) ~ .

5 0ar t . c i t . ,

i n g t h a t h1,i.Tt.

age z106.p.106

p . 6 4

s P.1e v i s

um Zwolfpropheten-

1 7 ; E. S e l l i n , - i e

8; R . Mason, op.

5 0 .I o n was not a l a t e ra d d i t l o n t o the vision-sequence; t h e p o l n t t o remember i st h a t t h e Ml gh t - V l s i ons c i r cu l a t ed in their f i n a l ( p r e s e n t )form.

4 3 6 . C f C O Jeremias, op. -.i t , p p . 2 0 l f f .



154

l e n t l i g h t , an argument which stands against a d a t e o f author-

s h i p a f t e r Z e c h a r i a h' s t im e.

T h e f a c t that Joshua, a contemporary of Zechariah 's ,

p la ye d the c e n tr a l ( a l b e i t p a s si v e ) r o l e i n t h i s v i s i o n -

s c e n e r e q u i r e d a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betwe en t h e s c en e a nd

Z e c h a r i a h ' s d a y. The n a tu r e o f t he c l e a n s i ng r i t u a l c a l l e d

f o r a n o n- h i st o ri c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( i . e . an e ve nt s e t i n

t h e w o r l d a b o ve ) , T hi s a c t , w h i l e wi thou t h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a -t f o n , was n e v e r t h e l e s s r e a l and v a l i d f o r Z ec ha ri ah a nd t h e

community. T h e author o f t h i s p a s s a g e w a s d e a l i n g with the

. i s s u e o f Joshua ' s worth iness a n d l e g i t i m a c y a s t h e s p i r i t u a l

l e a d e r o f t he re s t o r a t io n community. The ide a th a t t h e re

a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d a p e r i od o f t i m e a f t e r 5 3 8 B . C . when the

h i g h p r i e s t was unwor thy to f i l l h i s o f f i c e does not make

s e n s e ( i n terms o f a l a t e r a u t h o r ) .

The a u t h o r i z a t i o n g ra n te d by 3 : 7 a l l o we d t h e a p p ro p r i -

a t i o n b y the p r i e s t h o o d o f p r i v i l e g e s o nce be l on g in g t o the437

monarchy. A k i n g had b u i l t the Temple and had appointed

a p r i e s t t o s er v e h i m a s ' r o y a l c h a p l a i n ' . T h e Temple h a d

been b u i l t a d j a c en t t o the pa l ace . The c u l t had cen te red ,

t o a deg ree , on the f l g u r e o f Yahweh, the heavenly K i n g , and

H i s e a r t h l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , an adopted son. In marking438

t h i s t r a n s i t i o n , Z e ch a ri ah d i d a n t i c i p a t e th e f u t u r e p r e-

4 3 7 . G. Fohrer, A H f s t o o f I s r a e l i t e Religion4. ~341.4 3 8 . C f , A.R. J o h n s o n , e R o l e o f the K i n g i n the

Jerusa lem C u l t u s ' , The Labyr in th , ed. SOH. Hooke, pp.73ff.



1 5 5

dominance o f the h i g h p r i e s t l y f a m i l i e s . Z e ru b ba b el , a s a n

o f f i c i a l r e p r e s en t a t i v e o f the Pe r si an author1 ty, co u l d n o t

have been granted control o f the Temple wlthout renouncing

t h a t a l l e g i a n c e ; t h e re was no ind ica t ion tha t he d i d such a

t h i n g .

60 Zech. 1 : 8 - 3 : 1 0 ( C o n s o l i d a t i o n )

However scholars have viewed the nature and o r i g i n o fthe Night -Visions , most have acknowledged the c lose-kni t

s t r u c t u r e a n d ca re fu l cons t ru c t ion . There have been se ve ra l

t e n t a t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t he

v a r i o u s v i s i o n s a n d t h e r e s u l t s h a v e w i d e l y d i f f e r e d . MY4 3 9

purpose here t s not t o r e i t e r a t e the arguments o ff e r ed by

o t h e r s c h o l a r s b u t t o p r e s e n t a d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e ba s i c pa t t e r n s with in the Nigh t -Vis ions .

As many scholars have observed, Yahweh's turning back to

the Jews (however t h a t a c t i o n b e unders tood) was the thrust

o f the f i r s t v i s i o n . Within t he l a rg e r c o n t e x t o f t he r e -

s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d , i t assumed a g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e in thef u t u r e - o r i e n t e d f a i t h o f t h e Jewish communfty. As i t was

understood, the change i n Yahweh's at t i tude determined the

end o f t h e e x i l e a n d m ade p o ss i b l e t h e r e s t o r a t i o n .

The re s to r at io n o f the community, acco rd ing t o Zech.

1:14-17, cons i s t ed o f Yahweh's a c t i v e anger a g a i n s t the

na t i ons * a t e a s e ' (1 :15) , His de te rmlna t ion t h a t the Temple

4 3 9 . C f . H. Gese, a r t . c i t . , pp.ZOff., a n d many OldTes tament in t roduc t ions .



156

s h o u l d b e r e b u i l t ( 1 : 1 6 ) a n d His mot ivat ion of the recon-

s t ru c t io n of Jerusalem (1 : 16) . In the sense that these en-

t i t i e s ex i s t ed p r i o r t o t he e x i l e , Z ec ha ri ah hi nt ed a t a r e -

turn t o that s i tu at io n . However, the tenor of the age w a s

a different one; Yahwism h a d been given a wor l d - pe r spec t i ve

d u r i n g t h e e x i l e , w h i c h w a s s e e n r e f l e c t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y in

t h e m i n i s t r y o f Deut ero- Isa ia h . Yahweh's fa vo r toward His

p e o p l e a n d t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f Zion-Jerusalem a n d the Templea r e v iewed a s havi ng un i ve r sa l s i g n i f i c a nc e , n ot i n t h e o l d

mythic vfew b u t i n the awareness that the peoples of the

wor ld were to have a re la t ionship wi th Yahweh.

Scholars have l o n g ment ioned the re la t ionship between

the second vis ion a n d 1 : 15 : t he d i s f a v o r o f Yahweh against

the .nat ions was manffest ed in the p i c t ur e o f Hi s r ead i n ess

. t o d e f e a t them, I would suggest t h a t t h e r e a r e a d d i t i o n a l

t ies between the mention of the Temple a n d Jerusalem i n k 1 6

a n d t h e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h v i s i o n s : t he r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e c i t y

would n o t l e a v e it v u l n e r a b l e t o internal weakness or a t t a c k

f rom outs ide ( 2 : l - 5 ) , while the new Temple would pass out of

pol Wcally-influenced hands to the renewed pr iesthood.4 4 0

T h e overarching theme o f these f i r s t f ou r v i s i o n s wo u l d

b e , i n my v i ew, Yahweh's p r o v i s i on s f o r t he p eo p le f o l l o w i n g441

H i s d e c i s i o n t o turn back to them with mercy, T h h cou l d

440. PbR. Ackroyd, c f t . , p.187.441. I b i d , , p p . 1 7 7 , % ; x M o w i n c k e l , I)P. -c i t 8 p.120.



157

be comprehended chronological ly (even though the author may

n o t h a v e thought I n such a s t ru c t ur e d way). I n i t i a l l y t h e re

was Yahweh's d e c is io n to end the t ime o f His anger a g a i n s t

the Jews (1 :14-17) . Pr ep ar a t io ns could then be made f o r a n

imminent a t t a c k upon Hi s enemies (1:1 8-21 ), Then c o u ld com-

mence the phys i ca l r e s to ra t i on of t he peop le , t h e i r l a n d and

t h e i r c i t i e s : the p e op l e c ou ld d we ll s a f e l y a n d en joy the

p r o s p e r i t y o f G o d (2:l-5). T h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e d i v i n ep l a n , a c c o r d i n g t o Zechar i ah , wou ld inc lude : 1 ) t h e r e -

b u i l d i n g o f Jerusa lem, i t s Temple a n d the c i t i e s o f J u d a h

(1 :16 -17 ) ; 2 ) the g l o r y of Yahweh a m 7 7 1 3 3 ) d w e l l i n g w i t h -

in Jerusalem 2 5 ) ; 3 ) t h e d w e l l i n g o f Yahweh in t he mids t o f

the p e o p l e with t he na t ions d r a w n t o Him (2 :l O- 11 ); and th e

bes towal o f i n d i v i d u a l p r o s p e r i t y ( 3 : l O ) .

We can thereby see that these v is ions were concerned

w i th communlca t ing the rea l i ty o f Yahweh's sp e c i f i c ac t s of

p r o v i s i o n for t he peop le wi th in His p u rp o s e fo r t h e p e o p l e a s

a wh o l e, Taken i n d i v i d u a l l y o r t o g e t h e r, t he y r e v e a l

Zecha r i ah ' s unde rs t and fng o f the process by which Yahwehwould e s ta b l i s h the new community f i r m ly , as wel l as h i s dec-

l a r a t i o n o f the na ture o f i t s e x i s t e n c e beyond t h e s t r u g g l e

o f i t s f o r m a t i v e s t a g e s .

In l i g h t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s

d a y, t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s s t tmula ted i n t h e p a s t a n d the i n n e r

s t r u c t u r e o f the f o u r v i s i o n s , i t appears that Zechar iah has

p laced pr imary Importance u p o n t he turning back o f Yahweh to



158

the people . I t c a r r i e d i n embryo the elements of the

fol lowing vis ions; Zechar iah ' s emphasis was upon the change

i n Yahweh's a t t i t u d e , s p e c i f i c a l l y t he a t te n da n t r e s u l t s .S peak ing o f t he r e l a t i o nsh i p between t he f i r s t t h r e e

v i s i o n s , H . G . M i t c h e l l s t a t e d t h a t they ' . . . form a s e r i e s ,

t he ob j e c t o f which was . . . t o p r ep ar e t he r eade r f o r i nc r ea -

s e d f a i t h i n God f o r t he f u t u r e ' . The f o u r t h v i s i o n cou l d4 4 2

also be included because i t pointed beyond i t se l f to the day

when the Temple w o u l d be f u n c t i o n i n g and hardships w o u l d be

a t h i n g o f the pas t (3 :7 -10) .

C O The Second Vision Cycle

1. Zech. 4: l- 14 , The Fif th Vi s i o n

I n the f i f t h v i s i o n , Z echaria h was ' reawakened' t o s e e

a seven-branched can dlest ick/ la mp f la nk ed by t w o o l i v e t r ee s .

There was no movement in t h e scene , ye t i t posed the most

d i f f i c u l t y f o r i n t e r p r e t a t io n . The s e c t io n 4 : 6 b - l 0 a was a n

acc red i te d message o f the angel (perhaps through Zechar i ah)

to Zerubbab e l , which in te r p r e te d the p rogress ion o f the d i a -

logue between the angel a n d the prophet ( th is sect ion can be

cons i der ed i ndependen t ly of t he r e s t o f t he v i s i o n ) .

4 4 2 . H O G . M i t c h e l l , o p . c i t . , p.139. T h i s statementre f l ec ted the judgment t h a t t h e i r s t th ree v i s ions were a

' r e v i e w o f the past ' which Zechar iah wished to pass on t o t h epeople .



1 5 9

The menorah was a common image i n the Old Testament and

h a d a r o l e i n t he I s r a e l i t e c u l t u s , p er hap s d a t i n g back to

t h e w i l d e r n e s s t a b e r n a c l e ( c f , E x o d . 25:31-37). I t was used

i n S o l o m o n ' s Temple, the second Temple a n d Herod's Temple.

One may attempt to d r a w some s i g n i f i c a n c e from the use of the

menorah in t h e s e d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s , b u t the summarization

i s i n ad eq u a t e an d i n co n c lu s iv e , T h e v i s i o n r e m a i n s i t s own

4

b e s t I t e r p r e t e r .

The i m a g e o f t h e o l i v e t r e e s w a s even less comprehen-

s i b l e . In Jer, 11:16 a n d Hos. 14 :7 , f o r example , the peop le

are compared with o l tve t r ees which were r egarded a s h a v i n g

g r e a t be aut y, The Temple ar ea had bo as ted many s u c h t r e e s .

Ol ive branches were used in the observance o f the F e a s t o f

Tab e r n ac l e s in Nehemiah'sday

(Neh.8:15) . A g a i n ,

t h i s l i n eo,f i n v e s t i g a t i o n a d d s l i t t l e t o the unders tanding of the

v i s i o n .

I n t h e an a ly s i s o f the menorah , one i s qu ic kl y d r a w n t o

i t s r o l e a s t he c u l t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e pr es en ce of God.

The theophany o f God was s ymb ol ized by l i g h t : ' d e r k u l t i s c h e

L e uc h te r i s t d as z e i c h e n h a f t e S ei n d e r g o t t l i c h e n E p i-

p h an i e ' , However, this judgment d o e s n o t endure sc ru t iny4 4 3

a g a i n s t the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r o v i d e d by the v i s io n I t s e l f be-

cause i t leads away from the po in t : Yahweh sees ever yth ing

t h a t goes on i n the w o r ld (4:lOb). The phrase w f t h i n t h i s

443. H. Gese, - r t , e f t . , p . 2 9 .



160

v e r s e , y l ~ i t 3s bWm1arnS was reminiscent o f the t a sk o f the

f i g u r e s o f the f i r s t v i s i on : Y N ~ 3 Y 7 m (1:ll). The pur-

pose o f t h i s v i s i o n was s i m i l a r t o that o f t h e f i r s t ,i n

t h a tYahweh's omniscience was f e a t u r e d .

As i n th e p r e vi o u s v i s i o n , an e a r t h l y s e t t i n g f o r t h i s

v i s i o n d i d n o t a p p e a r p o s s i b l e . I f , for example, i t were

assumed that the menorah a n d t h e o l i v e t r e e s w e r e s y mb o l i c

o f the Jerusalem c u l t watched o ver b y Yahweh, th er e ar e no

connections between the f i g u r e s in t h e s cen e t o t h e s u p p l i ed

e x p l a n a t l o o s . We must see that the scene was p laced i n the

heavenly realm a n d t h a t t h e im agery r e l a t e d c o n s i s t e n t l y t o

t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( c f . 4:10b, l4) .

The k e y to the second h a l f o f t h e v i s i o n was v.14 with

i t s en lg ma t ic r e f e r en c e t o ' t h e two son s o f o i l ' . T h i sv e r s e w a s a l m o s t unanimous ly in terpre ted i n r e f e r e n c e t o

Joshua a n d Zerubbabe l , the two leader s o f the Jewish commu-

n i t y . N a t u r a l l y , t h ey w ere t h e o n ly i n d iv id u a l s w h o h a d4 4 4

an o f f i c i a l a s s o ci a t i o n with o i l ( w h ich h a d been used to

an o in t t h e k i n g s o f I s r a e l , c f . I S a m . 10:1, a n d which w o u l d

be used t o co n s ec r a t e t h e h i g h p r i e s t s a f t e r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n

p e r i o d ) .4 4 5

From t h i s passage and the symbol ic ac t ion of 6:9-14,

many' scholars h a v e determined t h a t the government o f the Jews

4 4 4 . Cf, P. R . Ackroyd, - r t . c i t . , p.648; H O G . M i t c h e l l ,op. c i t . , p . 165 ; W Rudolph, o . c r , p.108.

uber das a , t . Hohepr ies ter tum, p . 7 .T 5 . W. Rudolph, -o c o - 0 9f i o T a b r i e l , Untersuchungen

H



161

i n Zec har iah 's t ime was a dy archy ( i . e . r u l e by two i n d i v i -

du a l s ) . Wh i l e i t was true that the monarchy only existed

i n the imaginat ion of the people a n d t h a t the p r i es thood was

emerging as a rea l p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n the community, there

was no r ea l ev idence t o sug g es t i n w h a t manner and f o r w h a t

reasons Joshua a n d Zerubbabel would have ruled in tandem.

The t w o men were addr essed to get her i n Hagg ai , b u t i t would

be naive t o assume t h e y w o r k e d in harmony. This unique junc -

t u r e i n Jewish history would b e a p r e c a r i o u s p o i n t u p o n w h i c h

t o b u i l d a hypothesis t h a t t h e he i r o f David and the high

p r i e s t he ld equa l author4 t y.

I would asse r t t h a t the phrase ' the sons of oil ' was not

intended t o r e f e r t o Joshua a n d Zerubbabel b u t t o two a n g e l i c

attendants of Yahweh: 1 ) i n c o n t r a s t t o H a g g a i , Zechar iah

446

d i d not mention Zerubbabel a n d Joshua toge the r else wher e;

2 ) the same phrase y ~ i l 3 1 1 7 ~ y (v.14) w a s found i n 6:5,

where i t r e f e r r e d t o the ange l i c execu tor s o f t h e d i v i n e w i l l ;

3 ) the word f o r ' o i l ' ( 7 h ~ 7 ) n v.14 was r e l a t i v e l y r a r e a n d

was not used elsewhere i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e o i l o f a n o i n t i n g

( the word 7bW was used exclusively f o r t h a t ) a n d , the re -4 4 7

fore, the argument t h a t the phra se meant ' t he two anoin ted

ones ' wa s considerably weakened; 4 ) while Joshua h a d osten-

4 4 6 . F . Haeusermann, Wortempfang u n d Symbol i n dera , t , l i chen P r ophe t i e , p.99; P O Haupt , a r t , c i t . , p .115 .

i s t l s che Wor t g r uppe ' , ZAW x l v i (1928), p.219; L O G , R f g n e l l ,op. c f t . , p J 7 1 , n o t i c e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e I n u s a g e between

447. C p . L . Kohler , ' A r c h a o l o g i s c h e s . ~ . E ine a rcha-

1b0 and Ta Y 7 .



162

s i b l y been g ran ted ac cess to the heaven ly assembly a n d t o

the presence of Yahweh i n 3:7, a n g e l i c b e i n g s a l s o en joyed

t h a t p r i v i l e g e . J o sh u a' s s t an d i n g was n o t i n te n de d t o bet a k e n l i t e r a l l y b u t e f f e c t i v e l y (and Z e ru b ba b el was c e r -

t a i n l y n ot g ra n te d t h a t s t a t u s ) , s o i t w o u l d b e d i f f i c u l t t o

u n d e r s t a n d t h e o l i v e t r e e i m a g e r y in terms o f human b e i n g s .

The t ranscendence o f Yahweh, which was s o e v i d e n t e l s e wh e r e

i n Z e c h a r i a h , d i d n o t a l l o w h u m a n b e i n g s i n His p re sence ;4 4 8

His c h o s e n a n g e l s m i n i s t e r t o Him e x c l u s i v e l y ; a n d 5 ) t h e r e

was no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t e i t h e r J o s h u a or Zerubbabe l were

ano in ted : Ze rubbabe l p roba b ly was neve r ano in ted a s k i n g o f

the Jews a n d Joshua poss ib ly w a s never ano in ted ( i f t h a t

p r i v i l e g e was a c c o r d e d o n l y t o l a t e r h i g h p r i e s t s ) . T h i s

verse demanded a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n whi ch a c c o rd e d n ot a p i c t u r eo f t he r e s t o r a t i o n c u l t p r o v i d e n t i a l l y k ep t by Yahweh, b u t

o f a h ol y God who was aware o f t h e c u r r e n t e v e n t s i n the

world .

I f Zerubba bel was no t in t imated i n v.14 , the re must have

been some r a t i o n a l e f o r the inc lu s i on o f the messages ad-

d r e s s e d t o h i m i n 4:6b07,8-10a. The most l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n

w o u l d be that the Temple w a s a l s o f i g u r e d i n t o t h e v i s i o n a s

the dw el l i ng -p la ce o f Yahweh (which Zerub babel had been com-

448. The interpret ing a n g e l mediated the pr op he t i c mes-s a g e t o Z e c h a r i a h i n t h e f i r s t vision (Yahweh d i d n o t speak

t o t h e p r o p h e t i c d i r e c t l y ) and p ro c la i me d t h e d i v i n e messagei n 2 : 7 - 9 , Yahweh used ang e l i c fo rc es t o ach i eve His w i l l one a r t h ( c f . 6 : l - 8 ) .



163

m i ssi oned t o bu i l d ) , which was t he ea r t h l y co r r e l a t i on o f

the heavenly abode o f God from which He would be aware of

a l l e a r t h l y a c t l v i t y.449

There were many scholars w h o s ta ted that the message t o

Zerubbabel i n v v . 6 b - 7 was a w a r n i n g t o h i m not to u s e f o r c e

i n ga in tng the des i r e d p o l i t i c a l f reedom f o r the Jews. The

message w a s in tended (per t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) t o persuade

the Jews that Yahweh was able to achieve w h a t human instru-

m e n t a l i t i e s c o u l d not . Another understanding o f such a n

in te rp re ta t i on would be G o v o n Rad 's observ a t ion tha t v . 6 b

conta ined an echo o f I s r a e l ' s c r y i n her hol y wars. Under4 5 0

t h i s d i r ec t i ve , Z e r ubbabe l wo u l d h a v e been empowered, as

m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s o f o l d e r a n d l a t e r times ( c f , t he d e s c r i p -

. t i o n s i n I Maccabees of the Jewish c a m p a i g n s ag a i n s t t heSeleucid power in the second century B . C . ) , to make the neces-

s a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r war, relying upon the S p i r i t o f Yahweh

f o r v i c t o r y.

I t seems more appropriate to s e e Zerubbabel as the m o v i n g

f o r ce beh i nd t he r ebu i l d i ng o f the Temple than as a m i l i t a r y

l e a d e r. In t h a t capaci ty he h a d been confronted by many ob=

s t a c l e s t o the work. Zechar iah assured h i m t h a t Yahweh's

S p i r i t would b r i n g the w o r k t o complet ion: the h indranc es ,

f o r m i d a b l e a s they m i g h t have appeared, would vanish, and

4 4 9 . C f , S O H . Hooke, 'The Myth and R i t u a l P a t t e r n inJewish and Chr i s t i an Apoca lyp t l e ' , The Labyrinth, ed. SOH.H o o k e , p.219.

4 5 0 . G o von R a d , Der h e i l i g e K ri eg im A l t e n I s r a e l , p . 6 6 .



164

Z e ru bb a b el would f i n i s h h i s t a s k .

The second message (vv .8 -l 0 a) gave the same promise i n

a s l i g h t l y more e x p l i c i t f orm : t ho se u na b le t o p e r c e i v e th e

hand of God i n ' the day o f small t h i n g s ' ( i . e . 5 3 8 - 5 2 0 B . C . )

w o u l d r e j o i c e a t Z e r u b b a b e l ' s s u c c e s s f u l d i r e c t i o n o f the

p ro je c t . The message was d i re c t ed t o Zerubbabel i n h i s

c a p a c i t y a s the b u i ld e r o f the Temple. Those who argu ed

t h a t 'the new age comes with Z e ru b b a b e l ' a s he b u i l t t he

Temple d i d not g ra sp Ze cha r ia h ' s unders tanding of Zerub-451

b a b e l ' s r o l e in the community.

2 . Zech. 5:l-4, The Six th Vis ion

The s i x t h vision showed Zechariah a scene with move-

ment, a f l y i n g s c r o l l w h i c h t r a v e l l e d through t he a i r o v e rt h e l a n d . Z e ch a ri ah was a b l e t o i d e n t i fy i t a n d t o g i v e

4 5 2

i t s measurements ( a d e p a r t u r e f ro m h i s ro l e i n o t h e r v i s i o n -

s c e n e s ) , a l t h o u g h i t s function was unknown t o him unti l the

i n t e r p r e t i n g a n g e l prov ided t he e x p l a n a t i o n : t he s c ro l l was

the oa th ( 3 1 ) of the covenant , the curse upon d isobedi -

ence which would des t roy the s in ner s in the l a n d . M O4 5 3

We i n f e l d a s s e r t e d t h a t f o u r m o t i f s a r e fo un d in t r e a t i e s

and documents of the a n c i e n t Near Eas t : 1 ) a s ta tement4 5 4

c i t . , p . 1 6 4 ,Y51. L A i g n e 7 1 ,4 5 2 .

4 5 3 , C f . Deut, 2 8 : 1 5 f f . , 2 9 : 1 9 f f . ; W. R u d o l p h , o p . c i t . ,

4 5 4 , M OWeinfe ld , a . 0 i t ' p . 1 0 9 .

S c h ol a rs ge ne ra l y h a v e a gr e ed that Y L I N ~ e f e r r e dt o t h e l a n d o f J u d a h a n d n ot t o t h e ' wo r l d ' o f t h e n a t i o n s .p.117.



165

o f d i v i n e wrath, 2 ) a de sc r ip t io n o f a cu rse which was to

s e t t l e u p o n t he b reake r o f the agreement, 3 ) a n oath i n -

s c r i b e d i n a document and 4 ) t h e t h r e a t o f t h e o b l i t e r a t A o n

o f the co ve na nt- bre ak er' s name and memory. These were

e a s i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e elements i n th e v is io n -s c en e a n d may p r o -

v i d e a n in tended covenant contex t fo r the scene .

The image of a s c r o l l was no t a n u n fa m i l i a r one t o t h e

p r o p h e t i c wr i t i n g s , being found in J e r. 3 6 : l f f . and Ezek.

2 : 9 , 3 : l - 3 . T h e s e t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , t h e s c ro l l p l a y e d a ro l e

in judgment na r ra t i ve s : Je remiah ' s s -c ro l l con tained h i s pa s t

messages o f judgment against the monarchy of J u d a h and

E t e k i e l ' s s c r o l l , g iv en h i m a t his commissioning as a pro-

p h e t , w a s symbol ic o f his message of doom concerning Jeru-

salem.T h i s v i s i o n c o n fo rm e d c l o s e l y t o t h e p a t t e rn d i s c e rn e d

i n the Ni ght -Vi s io ns . The s c r o l l was symbol ic o f Yahweh 's

judgment against those of the Jewish community w h o h a d t r a n s -

g r e s s e d the d iv in e s tandard . The images o f the th ie f and the

f a l s e swearer may in tend have been taken as re pr es en ta t i ve of

s i n s a g a i n s t man and G o d which were prohibi ted by the two

t a b l e t s o f the commandments g iven to Moses ( c f . Exod.

3 1 : 18 ) . Another view made t h e s e f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of4 5 5

the major so c i a l p roblems o f the e a r l y po s t -e x i l ic commu-

n i t y. I t was' unfortunate that f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e was n o t456

4 5 5 . L.G. R i g n e l l , op. -0c i t ' pp.186f.456. D . R . Jones, 9 .i t ' p.81.



166

p r ov i ded , f o r t he v i s i on ' s c r y p t i c st at em en ts canno t be i n -

t e r p r e t e d w e l l i n terms o f so c i o l og ic a l se t t in g which was

r e l a t i v e l y u n k n o w n t o u s .The act o f judgment descr ibed i n the v is ion -sce ne has

g i ven scho l a r s much d i f f i c u l t y . By r e l a t i n g t he mention o f

the house o f t h e s i nne r t o t h e a s se r t i o n o f Ezekte l tha t

future r e t r i b u t i o n w o u l d be car r ied out on a n I n d i v i d u a l

b a s i s (Ezek. 1 8 : l f f . ) , WOE. Barnes and H O G .Mitchel l have

conc luded tha t th i s v i s ion con ta ined a promise that Yahweh

would never again p u n i s h t h e na t ion a s a whole, b u t would

take vengeance on s i n a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l l eve l . T hese4 5 8

s c h o l a r s saw t he de t e ronom i s t ic t heo r y o f r e t r i b u t i o n r e -

4 5 7

j e c t e d , a s i t had been e a r l i e r by Jeremiah a n d E z e k i e l . T h i s

i n t e r p r e t a t i on r educed t he v i s i on t o no more t h a n a statemento f p o l i c y.

A . v a n Hoonacker, who i n t e r p r e t e d a l l e i g h t v i s i o ns a s

r e f e r r i n g t o th e pa s t e x i l i c h i st o ry o f I s r a e l , i n t e r p r e t e d

t h i s v i s i o n as d e s c r i p t i v e o f t he e x i l e , when t he s i n s o f

the people under the monarchy were punished. E . S e l l i n4 5 9

r egarded i t a s a p i c t u r e o f judgment upon the Jews who h a d

remained in J u d a h d u r i n g t h e e x i l e . M OB i E , s e t t i n g t h e460

v i s i o n with in the con tex t o f the escha to log ica l Day o f Yah w eh ,

E, Barne

Wei nfe lv a n HooSe1 1 i n ,

0

s, a p c i t . , pp.25f . ; H O G

d , fE. c i t o , p o 3 0 7 f fn a c e r , P e t i t s Prophe tes ,

9p c i t . , pp.460ff.

. M i t c h e l l , OJ

p.621.



167

r e l a t e d i t t o t h e b i b l i c a l m a x i m : ' judgment begins i n t h e461

house of the Lord ' ( I Pe te r 4 :17 ; c f . Ezek. 9 : 6 ) . 6 i F

c h a r a c t e r i z e d t ht s v i s i o n a s a d e s c r l p t i o n of t he c l e a n s i n gof the l and i n p re p a ra t i o n f o r t h e coming e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a g e

( c f . I s . 2 : l f f . , Ezek. 40-48, Zech. 14). L . G . R i g n e l l

ge ne ra l i ze d on the theme of the v i s i o n : ' e s handel t s i c h

d a r u m , J a h we e i n h e i l i g e s Vo l k zu sc ha ff en , indem d i e Sunder

a u s I s r a e l a u s g e r o t t e t w er d en ' .462

Va n Hoonacker 's op in ion th a t t he v i s io n desc r i bed the

judgment of 5 8 7 B . C . must b e re j e c t e d on the g rounds t ha t

t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e v i s i o n a r e n o t a l i g n e d with h i s t o r i c a l

events nor with the themes o f t h e o t h e r v i s i o n s .

I f there were any sou rce fo r t h e c o n t e n t o f t h i s v i s i o n ,463

i t would seem to b e the b o o k o f E z e k i e l . T he re was , f o rexample, th e judgments of Ezek. 9:1-11, 11 :l -1 3 and 2 0 : 3 3 f f . ,

which were c a r r i e d o ut s t r i c t l y on a mora l bas i s ( t he repen -

tant and r i g h t e o u s were s p are d wh i l e t h e r e b e l l i o u s and i d o l a -

t r ou s were consumed) . In Zec har iah ' s v i s i o n the re was a

focus on purl t y a n d g u i l t l e s s n e s s ( w h i c h E z e k i e l s t r e s s e d )

a s i t a p p l i e d t o t h e r es to r a t io n community a n d i t s i n s t i t u -

461.4 6 2 . L O G . R i g n e l l , OJ c f t . , p . 1 8 6 .4 6 3 . C f . D. B a l t z e r , Ezechiel u n d D e u t e r o j e s a j a ,

pp.98f. , where he summar ized Ezek ie l ' s s t re ss upon the pu r i f i -c a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e a n d c o n t r a s t e d i t with De u t e ro - I s a i a h ' semphasis upon their redemption. I t was Ezek ie l ' s r equ i remen tw h i c h was picked u p here by Zechar iah ,

M e ME, Das Buch Sacharja , p .65.



168

464t i o ns . The f o r c e s a t work i n Z ech a r i ah ' s s cene , s e l ec t i v e

d e s t r u c t i o n a n d u l t i m a t e p u r i f i c a t i o n , w e r e a l s o o p e r a t i v e i n

E z e k i e l .

I would suggest that Zechar iah looked a t the harsh con-

d i t i o n s i n the land which threatened t o destroy the community

d u r i n g t h e yea r s 5 3 8 - 5 2 0 B.C. as the beginning (and end) o f

Yahweh's p u ri fy in g judgment. The esse nce o f the community

w a s r e ta ined whi le making sense o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s encoun-

t e r ed . Z echa r i ah saw h i m se l f l i v i n g i n t h e pe r i o d o f p u r i f i -

c a t i o n p r i o r t o t h e a g e o f f u l l b l e s s i n g .

3. Zech. 5:5-11, The Seventh Vision

The seventh v is ion presented Zechar iah with a m y s t e r i -

ous scene o f movement. The pro phet saw a v e s s e l ' g o i n gfor th ' (under some sor t o f impe tus) . The in te rp re t i ng angel

e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e v e s s e l , a n ephah, contained the i n i q u t t y

of the whole l and . Zechar iah was permi t ted a l o o k f n s i d e

the ephah a n d he saw the f igure o f a woman, i d e n t i f i e d a s

'w ickedness ' ( i ~ y w ? ) , at te mp ti ng t o es ca pe . Two women with

stork 's w i n gs , o s t e n s i b l y c e l e s t i a l b e i n g s , b o re t h e ephah

and i t s contents toward Babylon.

The image of the ephah w a s a common one t o . every-day

J e w i s h l i f e , a vessel which could contain a dry measure of

4 6 4 . 3 . M u i l e n b e rg , ' E z e k i e l ' 9 P C B ( r e v. e d . ) , e d. M.Black , pp.569-571.



169

4 6 5a pp ro xi ma te ly t h i r t y - e i g h t l i t e r s . I t would be, however,

m o r e l i k e l y that the ephah was here representa t ive of a

ve ss e l o f inde te rmina te s i ze . The con jec tu re that the

466

f i g u r e in the ephah was a n i d o l (on the grounds that the con-

t a i n e r was o f i n su f f i c i e n t volume for a human form) must be

r e j e c t e d ; o n e cannot assess a vis ion- scene by r e c o u r s e t o

ph ys i ca l d a t a . The imagery o f the winged women has no

p a r a l l e l i n the Old Testament; exegetes o f e a r l i e r y e a r s ,

m a r k i n g t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n with an unclean b i r d , l abe l l ed them

messengers o f S a t a n ,467

The woman i n the ephah , t h e cen t r a l f i gu r e i f the

scene, provoked many ques t ions which scho la r s have dea l t

with. The candidates for the source of the image have i n -

cl u de d: Eve, the Queen of Heaven ( c f . Je r. 7:18), the. E g y p t i a n go dd es s I s i s , A s ht o ro t h o f Canaan and the s t range

468The fac t that the Hebrew word fo r

4 6 9woman ' o f ~ r o v . r5ff.

' w i ckedness ' i s f em in i ne ( a y w ~ )may h av e been i n f l uen t i a l ,

a l though the e f f e c t would pr oba bly have been the r e v e r s e .

The m o s t l ike ly a rguments fo r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s

f i g u r e have been those which connect the woman to I s r a e l ' s

4 6 5 . R . B . Y. Scott , 'Weights, Measures, Money and Time',

4 6 6 . I t would be unl ikely that the ephah represented a- C B ( r e v . ed . ) , ed . M O Black, p .38.

temple; cp. S. Mare nof, 'No te Concernin g the Meaning o f t h eword, E p h a h , Zechar iah 5 : 5 - 11 ' , - hL x l v i i i (1931-32) ,PP. 2 0 4 f f. . 4 6 7 . A . Jeremias , Das A l t e Testament im L i c h t e desa l t e n Or i en t , p.684.

ture %cer: ing these i n t e r p r e t a n n s .f . C O Jeremias, 2. c k , ppm196f . , for l i t e r a -

4 6 9 . H, Gese, - r t . c i t . , p.31.



170

tendency t o i d o l a t r y o r I s r a e l ' s u n f a i t h f u ln e s s t o Yahweh,

her Husband.

The emphasis o f the v i s i o n d i d n o t l i e in t h e i d e n t i f i -c a t i o n o f the image a s much as i n t h e e f f e c t ( L e . the re-

moval o f the wickedness of the peo ple . There w a s i n s i g h t

here in to Zec ha r ia h ' s unders tanding of Yahweh' s de terminat ion

t o e l i m i n a t e s i n i n Hi s peop le : t he ro o t cause (o r e ssence )

o f t he J ews' r e b e l l i o u s n e s s a g a i n s t th e w i l l o f Ya h w e h would

be f u l l y removed. The community w a s t o b e purged from i n -

t e r na l de fe c t s . Zecha r iah su rpassed the though t o f t h e fo r-

mer prophets by a t t r ibu t ing the wickedness i n man t o some-

t h i n g d i s t i n c t l y ' o t h e r ' , a p e r s o n i f i e d s o u r c e ( o r a person i -

f i c a t i o n ) o f e v i l ( c f . Gen. 3 : l f f . a n d I K i n g s 2 2 : 1 9 f f . ) .

The supe r f i c i a l r e semblance o f t h i s scene to the des-c r i p t i o n o f t h e d e p a r t i n g g l o ry i n Ezek. 1 and 10-11 i n v i t e d

a deep er examinat ion. There w as correspondence between the

t h ro n e (Ez e k. 1 0 : l ) a n d the ephah, the f ly ing che rub im

(10:3) a n d the women with w i n g s , t h e ' g l o r y ' (10:4) a n d the

'wickedness ' a n d e a c h m a k i n g room for the o t h e r in Babylon

and Jerusa lem. There were many s i m i l a r i t i e s , sugges t in g

t h a t Zechar i ah an t i c ip a t e d the removal o f s i n from the com-

muni ty p r io r t o t he man i fe s t a t ion o f Ya h w e h ' s g l o r y a t the

Temp1 e .

L . G . Rigne l l obse rved t h a t '...man k a n n zwar sagen,

d a s s d i e B i l d e r s p ra c h e e i n e " a p o k a l y p t i s c h e " F a r b u n g habe,da keine Wirk l ichkei t im Hintergrund stehe. Jedoch finden



171

4 7 0s i ch inne rha lb des A T g e wi s s e Pa ra l l e l e n ' . The p rop h e t

may have conceived of the removal o f s i n (which was a n ab-

s t ra c t concept ) wi thou t m a k i n g a n h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e , b u tt he l a c k o f h i s t o r i c a l g ro un di ng c ann ot be t he s o l e c r i t e r i a

i n j udg ing a passage a p o c a l y p t k . The woman-f igure a s a per-

son i f i ed an t i t hes i s t o Yahweh ( o r His g l o r y ) c o n t r i b u t e d

s o m e t h i n g s l g n i f i c a n t i n t h f s d i r e c t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t would be

s u r p a s s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o d eterm in e Z ec h ar i ah ' s i n t e n t i on i n

a passage wh o s e i n t e rp re t a t i o n must be g i v e n wid e l a t i t u d e .

I t i s an i n t e r e s t f n g n o te t h a t th e p o s t - e x i l i c t h e o cra c y

developed the menta l l ty w h i c h t r u s t e d c u l t i c r i t u a l f o r the

removal o f t he peop le ' s g u i l t . The concep t o f t h e commu-471

n i t y a s t h e congrega t ion o f Yahweh ( m w S h 3 ) grew out o f the

b e l i e f i n Yahweh's e s s e n t i a l l y b en e v ol e nt a t t i t u d e to wa rd t hep e o p l e . I am not a r g u i n g that t h e r e w a s no o t h e r way or no

other t ime in w h i c h t h e Jews could have b e e n c o n s i d e re d ' s i n -

l e s s ' . I am st re ss in g Ze ch ar ia h' s understanding t ha t commu-

n i t y p u r i t y w a s inc lude d in Yahweh 's purpose f o r the people

a n d that his view may have influenced (or have been i n f l u -

enced by) t he d e v e l op i n g o f f i c i a l t h eo l og y o f t he th e o c ra c y.

The removal o f 'w ic ke dne ss ' from th e community made

p o s s i b l e t h e c o n t i n u i n g p l a n o f Yahweh t o ach ieve His pur-

poses for the Temple and community ( i . e . t h e i r p u r i t y ) . I t

was thIs view Zechariah held up f o r t h e peop le .

4 7 0 . L O G . B i g n e l l , 0 -.i t a p.194.471. 0 P l o g e r, 99 c i t . , p . 4 3 ; W. Fo e r s t e r, o p . c i t . ,

p.7.



1 7 2

40 Z e c h . 6 : l - 1 5 , T h e E i g h t h V i s i o n

T h e l a s t v i s i o n r e v e a l e d t o Z e c h a r i a h four c h a r i o t s

p u l l e d b y d i f f e r e n t - c o l o r e d h o r s e s , p r o c e e d i n g f ro m b e t w e e n

t wo c o p p e r m o u n t a i n s a n d g o i n g for th t o w a r d the f o u r4 7 2

p o i n t s o f t h e c om p as s . T h e c h a r i o t s d i d n o t f o l l o w a n y p a t -

tern i n the i r m o ve m e n t, a l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s a d e f f n l t e em pha-

s i s on the n o r t h c o u n t r y , B a b y l o n .

T h e i m a g e o f t h e c h a r i o t w as s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h eh o r s e m e n o f the f i r s t v i s i o n , i n that t h e y s y m b o l i z e d m i l i -

t a r y p o w e r . Z e c h a r i a h h a s s hu n n ed the s u p e r n a t u r a l v e h i c l e

o f f i r e ( c f . I 1 K i n g s 2:11, 6:17) f o r a m o re m undane f i g u r e .

As i n t h e f i r s t v i s i o n , t h e c o l o r s o f t h e h o r s e s d i f f e r e n -

t i a t e the c h a r i o t s a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e i r m i s s i o n s ;

h o w e v e r , t h e r e w as n o i m m e d i a t e b a c k g r o u n d f r o m w h i c h t h i s

i n f o r m a t i o n may h a v e b e en t a k e n . T he c o p p e r m o u n t a i n s , e v e n

i f they d e r i v e f r o m som e m y t h ic c o n t e x t , d o n o t a p p e a r t o4 7 3

h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d with a n y p a r t i c u l a r t h o u g h t i n m i n d .

The p o i n t o f t h e v i s i o n w a s s t a t e d i n v . 8 : ' t h e s e t h a t

g o t o w a r d t h e n o r t h c o u n t r y . . . V ~ ~ ? u 9t173t1'. T h e m e a n i n g o f

the l a s t p h r a s e h a s b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d d i f f e r e n t l y by s c h o l a r s .

A m a j o r i t y o f s c h o l a r s , r e l y i n g o n the t r a d i t i o n a l u n d er -

s t a n d i n g o f the c h a r i o t - i m a g e as a w a r i n s t r u m e n t , h a v e t r a n s -

l a t e d the p h r a s e with the s e n s e o f r e l e a s e my ( G o d ' s )

a n g e r '.

O t h e r s , n a m e ly G. v o n - R a d a n d R M as o n , p r e f e r r e d4 7 4

4 7 2 . C f , C O J e r e m i a s , op. -.i t s p p . l l l f f .4 7 3 . C f . L O G .R i g n e l l , OJ -.i t , p p . 1 9 8 f f 0 , r e g a r d i n g

4 7 4 . H O G . M j t c h e l l , 1 ) p . c i t . , p p . l 8 l f , .the v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e a t i o n s .



173

4 7 5t h e t r a n s l a t i o n ' . mgive r e s t t o my ( Go d 's ) S p i r i t ' .

However, I do no t f e e l u rgency t o hold one v i ew ove r t he

o t h e r. The i n t e n t i o n o f the au thor may have inc luded bothi n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w t t h i n t h e s i n g l e s t a t e m e n t .

4 7 6

There appears to be a d e s c r i p t i o n w i t h i n t h i s v i s i o n -

scene of a l i m i t e d a c t i v i t y . Rm Mason, f o r example, s t a t ed

that he saw i n t h i s p i c t u r e a f u r t h e r s t a g e i n t h e f r e e i n g

o f t he e x i l e s f rom Baby lon . He conc luded that t h e e v e n t

desc r ibed was b u t a f o r e t a s t e o f ' t h e f u t u r e co mp le te v i c -

t o r y ' o f Yahweh. L O G . R i g n e l l s u p p o r t e d t h i s view by4 7 7

p o f n t i n g o u t that Babylon ( a n d n o t t he n a t i on s a t l a r g e ) was

t he s o l e i n t e r e s t o f t he p rophe t . I t w o u l d b e d i f f i c u l t478

t o s e e h e r e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a f i n a l , u n i v e r s a l (o r e s c h a -

t o l o g i c a l ) j u d g m e n t .479

There was no sense here o f a r e p e t i t i o n of t h e t h ou gh t

o f Ha g . 2:20-23, which d i d f o r e s e e the g r e a t sh ak in g o f t h e

n a t i o n s pr ior t o t h e e s t a b l f s h m e n t o f the Jewish kingdom

under Ze rub bab el , There was b u t a l im t t ed ac t i on wh ich

s e r v e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e u n f o l d i n g o f t h e d i v i n e p l a n .480

4 7 5 . G o von R a d , Old Testament Theology 11, p.287;

p e l t e n A s pe c kt : G e r i c h t u b er e Hefden u n d H e i l fur das

R. Mason, OJ C i t m , pp.60f .t i t . p.216: 'ommein dop-76, f m L m G .R i g n e l l ,

Vol k G o t t e s '4 7 7 . R. Mason, l o c o -.i t , P. R . Ackroyd, - r t . c i t pm6490478. L o G m R f g n e r OJ c i t p.216.

4 7 9 .W.

Rudolph, o . c i t . , p.125, f o l l o w e d t h i s d e f e a twith t he n a t i o n s ' r e c e p t + n b y Yahweh.4 8 0 . Z e c h a r i a h o p e r a t e d - w i thin a g e n e r a l c o n t e x t with-

o u t f u l l y i n c l u d i n g t h e n a t i o n s i n s p e c i f i c s ce ne s.



174

The p a s s a g e 6 :9 -1 4 c o n t a i n e d the n a r r a t i v e o f God's481

command t o Z e c h a r i a h t o p e r f o r m a s y m b o l i c a c t i o n , simi-

l a r t o those o f E z e k i e l ( i . e . t o f o rm a c r o w n a n d p l a c e i t

o n the h e a d o f J o s h u a ) . The r o l e s o f J o s h u a , Z e r u b b a b e l

( w h o w a s i d e n t i f i e d a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the ' b r a n c h ' ) ,

a n d the ' b r a n c h ' were q u i t e in te r tw ined b y Z e c h a r i a h in t h i s

p a s s a g e : J o s h u a ( v v . 1 1 , 1 2 a a , 1 3 b ) , Z e r u b b a b e l ( v v . l 2 b b , l 3 a a )

and the ' b r a n c h ' (vv.12ab,12ba,13ab, l3b) .

The r o l e s were n o t d i s t f n g u i s h e d very w e l l , o w l n g t o the

c o n f u s i o n inheren t in J o s h u a ' s t a n d i n g i n ' for the ' b r a n c h '

a n d Z e r u b b a b e l v i e w e d a s the ( f o r e r u n n e r o f t h e ) ' b r a n c h ' by

som e s c h o l a r s . J o s h u a was c r o w n ed a n d a d d r e s s e d a s the

' b r a n c h ' ; Z e r u b b a b e l w a s a d d r e s s e d a s the one who s h o u l d r e -

b u i l d the Te m p l e ; a n d the ' b r a n c h ' w as the o n e who w o u l d g r o w

i n h i s p l a c e , b e a r r o y a l h o n o r an d s i t a n d r u l e u po n h i s

t h r o n e .

T h e common r e f e r ence t o emending the t e x t t o r e p l a c e

J o s h u a ' s n a m e with Z e r u b b a b e l ' s i n v . 1 1 ( a s the s u b j e c t o f

the c r o w n i n g ) i s l o g i c a l t o a d eg r ee , b u t the c h a n g e w a s

s u p p o r t e d by n o m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e . I t w as c l e a r , o n4 8 2

the o n e h a nd , t h a t o n l y a D a v i d i d e c o u l d o c c u p y t h e t h r o n e

o f I s r a e l ; o n the o t h e r , Z e r u b b a b e l w o u l d h a v e b e e n d l s q u a l i -

481. C f . G o Fohrer, Die s y m b o l l s c h e n H a n d lu n g e n d e rPro heten

the MT; Y . K a u f m a n n ,

e x e g e s i s ' .

p.224, r i g h t l y d e f e n d e dc a l l e d the e m e n d a t i o n

( t o Z e r u b b a b e l ' s name e x a m p l e o f p r e p o s t e r o u s

L O G . R i g n e l l ,



175

f i e d a s a r u l e r a s lo n g a s he remained a P e r s ia n o f f i c i a l .

I t would b e c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e p r i e s t h o o d was b r o u g ht i n

a s Yahw eh's ' c a r e t a k e r ' l e a d e r s h i p u n t i l t h e D a v i d i c h e i rw i t h d r e w f r o m f o r e i g n a l l e g i a n c e , i n Z e c h a r i a h ' s v i e w.

I t w a s i n t e r e s t f n g t o n ot e t h a t t he ' b r a n c h ' , a s a

t i t l e used by t he p r op h e ts i n r e f e r e n c e t o a ru l i n g f i g u r e ,

o c c u r r e d i n passages marked by a merging o f r o y a l a n d s a c e r -483

do ta l e l emen t s . 3 . B al dw in a s s e r t e d t h a t th e t i t l e had

' m e s s i a n i c ' s i g n i f i c a n c e in Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 (3:8, 0:lZ) be-

cause i t concerned no t s imply Zerubbabel b u t a f u t u r e i d e a l

k i n g o f the Jews ( c f . I s . 4 : 2 , J e r . 23:5,33:15).

T h e crown which Zechar iah was to have made was cal led

a memorial i l ? ~ ) , r e m i n d e r e l t h e r f o r Yahneh to keep His

promise conce rn ing the coming ru le r or f o r the p e o p le t o r e -

member the f a c t that Yahweh would keep f a i t h with them. I t

seems be t t e r to h o l d t o t he l a t t e r o p ti o n , s e e in g t h a t t h e

c.ommand to place the crown i n the Temple came a s a w o r d o f

Yahweh .Whateve r one conc luded abou t Ze r ubba be l ' s p os i t io n i n

the community, the fact remained that he was not t o wear t h e

crown. As i t s t a n d s , Z e r u b b a b e l ' s r o l e i n Z e c h a r i a h ' s e y e s

w a s demeaned: he was t o b u i l d the Temple, b u t he could not4 8 4

r u l e o ve r i t or t h e communtty ( a t l e a s t f o r t h e p r e s e n t ) .

4 8 3 . 3. B a l d w i n , 'Semah a s a Technical Term in t h eP r o p h e t s ' , VT x i v (1964), p.97.

4 8 4 . Mason, o c i t . , p.55; B. Halpern , ' T h e R i t u a lBackground o f Z e c h a r d ' s T m p l e Song' , C B Q x l (1978) , p. 184.



176

Zechariah may be implying t h a t the Jews could do without

Zerubbabel as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t he D a v i d ic l i n e w h i l e n o t

rejecting the promise to David; Zechariah may have been

t h i n k i n g about Zerubbabel ' s son or g r a n d s o n as the 'b ranch ' ,

One must t h a t Zechariah d i d n o t i n t e n t i o n a l l y l a y

the foundat ion f o r the ascendancy o f the p r ies thood a s i t

has been descr ibed d u r i n g t he po s t - ex i l i c pe r iod . T here

was n o t r a c e o f the p r ies t - k in g ; he p resen ted a scene with

a p r i e s t s i t t l n g on the throne o f ano the r. The symbo lic

ac t ion (whether or not i t w a s c a r r i e d o u t ) was d i s t i n c t l y

re levan t to the ea r ly pos t -ex i l ic age because the monarch i -

c a l r u l e was uncommitted, The pro ph et seemed t o a l l o w a

- temporary f i g u r e t o rep lace the David ic ru le , someone n o t

po l i t i c a l ly compromised by P e rs ia n l o y a l t i e s , u n t i l t h a t k i n g

w o u l d come, whose r i g h t i t was to ru le (Ezek. 21:27),

D . Zech. 4:l-6:15 ( C o n s o l i d a t i o n )

I a r r i v e d a t a d i f f e r e n t c o n cl u si o n r e g a r di n g t he inter-

nal arrangement o f the Nigh t -Vis ions p r im ar i ly because I

c o u l d n ' t accept the judgment of scholars w h o suggested the

c e n t r a l i t y o f the f i f t h v i s i o n (4:l-14) w i t h i n t he v t s ion

c o n s t r u c t f o n , I n my eva lua t ton o f that v i s i o n , I o u t l i n e d

the arguments which precl uded , f o r me, the p o s s i b i l i t y o f

a p r i n c i p a l r o l e i n the Might-Visions .

Th e turning p o l n t o f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the v i s i o n -

scene rested upon t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f ' t h e s o n s o f o i l ' ,



177

I argued that the phrase d i d not refer to Joshua and Zerub-

babe1 a n d t h a t i t would have been more consistent t o i n t e r -

pret i t a s r e f e r r i n g t o c e l e s t i a l b e i n g s w h i c h m i n i s t e r e d t o

Yahweh.

The vision contained two complementary thrusts: the

f a c t o f Yahweh's wa tchfu lness over the wor ld and the r e a l i t y

o f H i s ho l in ess which sep ara ted H i m from tha t wor ld . Th i s

under s tand ing o f the v i s ion p resen ted a b a s e upon which the

f o l l o w i n g v i s i o n s c o u l d b u i l d .

The l a s t t h r e e v i s i o n s c ou ld b e i n t e r p r e t e d a l o n g two

l i n e s : t h e es t ab l i shm en t o f a p u r i f i e d community i n Judah

a n d the ac t iv i ty invo lv ing Yahweh ' s judgment o f s in ( i n a l l

i t s forms). The ambigu i ty o f t he l a s t v i s i o n s u g g es t s t h a t

t h e se t w o s t r ands o f thought ough t to be cons idered oppos i t es i d e s o f the same coin a n d n o t a s m u t ua l l y ex c l u s i ve o p t i ons .

The thread o f connec t i on i s t he r ea l i z a t i o n t ha t e ach scen e

de pi ct ed an a c t which grew out o f Yahweh's hol y na tu re , a

pe rs pec t iv e which lends a t r u e u n i f y i n g f o r c e t o t h e l a s t

v i s i ons .In c o n t ra s t to t he f i r s t f o u r v is i o n s w h i c h d e s c r i b e d

t h e p o s i t i v e a c t s o f Yahweh to provide for the s t r u g g l i n g

community, the l a s t f o u r v i s i o n s i d e n t i f y the d i v i n e h o l i n e s s

which ac t s aga ins t a l l m an i f e s t a t i ons o f sin. Yahweh's

g r a c e dominated t he f i r s t v i s i o n s in a way s imi la r t o i t s

r o l e in Deu tero - Isa iah ' s messages; His demand f o r p ur i t y i n

the l a s t v i s i o n s was as i n s i s t e n t a s i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e book



178

o f E z e k i e l .

I t was, i n f a c t , Z e c h a r i a h ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o E z e k i e l

which s tood ou t s t rong ly i n th ese v i s i o n s . The theme o f a

p u r i f i e d p e o p l e f i t fo r Yahweh 's serv ice ( w h i c h cou ld be

understood with in the Jews' an t i c i pa t i on o f the comple ted

Temple funct ioning under Joshua 's leadersh ip ) was found485

i n e x p l i c i t form i n the s i x t h a n d seventh vision, and was ex-

p r es se d l e s s d i r e c t l y i n t h e f i f t h a n d e ig h th . The in f lu e n c e

o f E z ek ie l was f e l t most f o r c e f u l l y i n t h e s e v i s i o n s ; t h e

*

concept o f a p u r i f i e d p e op le f o r a ho ly God w a s a n impor tan t

message o f th i s p rophe t .

I V . Zech, 7:4-8:23, T h e 'Fast ing ' Sermon

1-0

The l a s t two chap te rs of Zechar iah , ,cons isted o f a da tedh i s t o r i c a l e v e nt ( a r e q u e s t f o r a r e l i g io u s j u d g m e n t a d d re s -

sed to the Jerusalem Temple personnel , 7 : l - 3 ) a n d a c o l l e c -

t i o n o f statements o f the prophet ( 7 : 4 - 8 : 2 3 ) . I t was u n -

l i k e l y t h a t Ze c h a r i a h w a s p e r s o n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the

v e r s e s o f i n t r o d u c t i o n ( 7 : l - 3 ) , s in c e th ey we re p a r t o f the

e d i to r i a l f r a m e w o rk o b s e rv e d e l s e w h e re (1 :1 , 1 :7 ) , 0 .

P l 6 g e r ' s c on te nt io n t h a t th e p r i e s t l y l e a d e r s o f the Baby-

lonian re turnees were concerned to make the new Temple the

cen te r o f the Pa les t in ian communi ty a n d t o r e g a i n t h e i r p o s i -

t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y with in t h e g o v e rn in g a d m in i s t r a t i o n o f

4 8 5 , C f , 0. Pl8ger ' s a rguments : OJ c i t . , p p . 4 3 f .



179

the Jewish homeland may r e v e al i n t e r e s t i n g i n s ig h t s i n t o the

i n c l u s i o n o f t h i s r a t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t i n t he p rophe t ' s

r e c o r d .

Twenty-two months h a d p a s s e d s i n c e t h e d a t e a s s o c i a t e d

with the appearance o f the Nigh t -V is io ns (cp . 7:l with 1:7).

G.A. S m i t h noted that dramatic changes had occurred i n the

l a n d during t h i s time:486

In Jan. 5 1 9 Temple and c i t y a r e s t i l l t obe b u i l t . Z erubbabe l ha s l a id the founda t ion ;the complet ion i s y e t future (1:7-17). Thep r o p h e t ' s duty s i t o q u i e t t he p e o p l e ' s ap pre-hens ions abou t the s t a t e o f t h e w o r l d , t o p ro -voke th e i r z e a l , g i ve them con f idence i n t h e i rg r e a t men, and, above a l l , a s s u r e them thatG o d i s r e t u r n e d t o them and t h e i r s i n i s p a r -doned. B u t i n Dec. 518 the Temple i s so f a rb u i l t t h at the p r i e s t s a r e s a i d t o be long toi t ; t h e r e i s no o c ca s i o n f o r cont inu ing the

f a s t o f t he e x i l e , t he f u t u r e has opened a n dt he ho r i zon i s b r i g h t with Mess ian ic hopes .Most o f a l l , i t i s f e l t that t h e h a r d s t r u g g l ewith t he f o r c e s o f n a tu r e i s o v e r , and t hep e o p l e a r e e xh or te d t o t h e v i r t u e s o f t hec i v i c l l f e . They have time t o l i f t t h e i r ey esfrom t h e i r work and t o see the nations comingf r o m a f a r o f f to Je rusa lem.

T h u s , when Zechar iah spoke o f the changes In l i f e fo r the

b e t t e r ( c f . 8 : l O f f . ) , he may h av e been p o i n t i n g t o o b s e r v a b l e

growth in t he l and .

The me ss ag e d f v i d e d e a s i l y i n t o a r e v i e w o f the pas t

(7:4-14), t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t (8:1=3aa) and a

s u r v e y o f t h e f u t u r e (8:3ab-23). There a r e p a r a l l e l s in

t h e s e s e c t i o n s with Zech. 1:2-6 and the ' o r a c u l a r ' port ions

4 8 6 . G.A. S m i t h , op. c i t . , p p . 2 5 8 f .



180

of the Nigh t -Vis ions , which w o u l d be in dl ca t i ve of a con-

s i s t e n t pr ea ch in g s t y l e ( o r, a l t e r n a t e l y, a w i d e - r a n g f n g

f i n a l r e d a c t i o n ) ,The h d s t o r i c a l o c c a si o n f o r t h e p r e se n t a t l o n o f t h i s

m a t e r i a l w a s t h e r ecep t i o n on Temple grounds o f a d e l e g a t i o n

sen t t o i n q u i r e o f the p r i e s t s and prop het s . There was487

no consensus among s c h o l a r s wheth er t h i s group came from

Beth e l , Bab y lo n , S a m a r i a , a se t t l emen t i n Judah away from

Jerusalem or some other l o c a t i o n . S in ce t h e r e can be l i t t l e

more t h a n speculat ion made a t t h i s p o in t , t he ma tt e r sh o u ld

b e l e f t open. The purpose o f the inquiry, however, was

c l e a r l y s t a t e d : wh ether t he f a s t commemorating the destruc-

t i o n o f the Temple should be continued.

Zech ar i ah ' s ' r e sp o n se ' t o t h i s q u es t i o n ap pears t o be488

a l i t t l e d i s j o i n t e d , p o s s i b l y owing t o an e d i t o r ' s heavy

hand i n assembl ing a s e r l e s o f the prophe t ' s remarks.4 8 9

W.A.M. Beuken treated 7:4-14 a s a Lev i t i ca l sermon ,

u t i l i z i n g G o von Rad's category; b u t the elements o f the

form ( d o c t r i n e , a p p l i c a t i o n a n d e x h o r t a t i o n ) were miss ing .4 9 0

Ze ch ari ah 's s t y l e may have become a proto typ e from w h i c h

4 8 7 . M O B i E , o . c i t . , p . 9 0 , argued unconvincinglyth a t t h e p r esen ce oP he prophets demanded an eschatologicaltnterpretat ion.

488. P. R . Ackroyd, OJ c i t . , p.208.

4 8 9 . W,A.M. Beuken, l a p . T t . , p p . l l 8 f f .4 9 0 . G o von Rad, 'The t e n i c a l Sermon i n I and I 1Ch ro n i c l es ' , The Problem of the Hexateuch a nd Other Essays ,p . 2 7 1 .

c





182

(not the achievements o f the people) was held u p by Zecha-

r i a h a s the means whereby the community would be revitalized.

The new era was conceived by Zechariah a s a per iod o ftime marked by d i v i n e presence and bl es s i ng (8:3ab-8, c f .

2:10-11). The concept appears t o be a n amalgamation o f

themes taken from Ezekiel a n d D eu t er o -I s ai ah . I t r e v e a l e d

Zechariah 's assumption t h a t Yahweh ' s re la t ionsh ip t o the

p e o p l e w o u l d p a r a l l e l t he p r e - e x i l i c s t a t e , a lt ho ug h i n a

heightened sense . I t i s f n te r es t in g t o note t h a t the par-

t i c u l a r b l e s s i n g s mentioned by Zechar iah a re n o t s o charac-

t e r i s t i c o f t h e p r l e s t l y l E z e k i e 1 f a n t radi t fons a s the Tri to-

I s a i a n i c a n d d e ut er o no m is t ic : l on g l i f e , many ch i ld ren and

p r o s p e r i t y i n t h e l a n d ( c f . I s . 65:18-23).4 9 3

The return o f the people f r o m the ends o f t he ea r th and

the renewal of the covenant ( 8 : 7 - 8 ) a r e r e p e t i t i v e o f the

phraseo logy o f E rek ie l (11:20, e t c . ) a n d I n d i c a t i v e o f the

cen t r a l r o l e the covenant p layed i n these prophets ' t h i n k i n g .

However, P.R. Ackroyd 's content ion that the covenant o f v.8

was contras ted with a former covenant went beyond the ex-p r e s s e d i n t e n t i o n o f the t e x t . Zecharlah i n s i s t e d t h a t

4 9 4

the ' o l d e r ' covenant had been renewed; the whole sense of

Zecharfah 1-8 supported the view o f Yahweh's contfnufng

r e l a t l o n s k l p with the people ( i n s p i t e o f t he peop le ' s d i s -

4 9 3 . ld. Weinfe ld , op. c i t . , p . 311 .4 9 4 , P. R . Ackroyd, s 7 t . p.213.



183

o b e d i e n c e w h ic h p ro m pte d t h e e x i l e , c f . k12). T h e c o n t e x t

o f t h e s e ve rs es i n d i c a t e d t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e c ov en an t ; t h e

p h r a s e nptrl nam was d e s c r i p t i v e n o t o f t h e p erm anence b u t

o f t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

The pa s sa ge 8:9-15 p a r a l l e l e d p o r t i o n s of t h e b o o k of

H ag g a i, c o n t a i n i n g Z e c h a r i a h ' s m os t e x p l i c i t s ta t e m e n t s c on -

c e r n i n g t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e Tem ple. He u r g e d t h e p e o p l e

t o w or k a t t h e same t i m e t h a t h e a nn ou nce d t h e dawn o f t h e

e r a of b l e s s i n g . The u se o f t h e t e r m ' r e m n a n t ' ( n m m )

stemmed f ro m I s a i a h ' s i d e n t i f y i n g a s u r v i v i n g se gm en t o f t h e

p e o p l e a f t e r n a t i o n a l c a t a s t r o p h e . I n t h a t se nse t h e ' r e m -

n a n t ' t i t l e a c c o r d e d a c e r t a i n d i g n i t y t o t h e c om mun ity as

w e l l a s a ck no wle dg ed t h e r e a l i z a t f o n o f hope: t h e p e o p le

w e r e t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r s p i r i t u a l h e r i t a g e i n t h e w r i t i n g s

of t h e f o rm e r p r o p h e t s a nd t h e i r p l a c e i n G od 's p l a n . Yahweh

ha d t u r n e d t o t hem t o d o good, n o t be ca u se o f t h e i r c o l -

l e c t i v e r e t u r n t o H i m ( c p . 1:3 and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h

r e q u i r e d i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c r e sp o n se ) b u t be c a u s e He ha d

g r a c i o u s l y c h ose n t o d o so (l:l6).

Z e c h a r i a h i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e f u t u r e c ha n ge w h i c h t h e

p e o p l e w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e was mor e t h a n a s i m p l e r e c o v e r y o f

t h e i r way o f l i f e p r i o r t o t h e e x i l e , b u t l e s s t h a n t h e

d r e a ms for s o m e k i n d o f a ' g o l d e n a ge '. P r o s p e r i t y was

p r o m i s e d , so t h a t t h e c om mu nity w o u ld d w e l l on a h i g h e r p l a n e

a f t e r t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e T emple.

t h e t o p o l o g i c a l c ha nge s w h ic h we re f o u n d i n Is. 2, Ezek.

No m e n t i o n was made o f



184

4 0 -4 8 and Zech. 1 4 ; Z echa r i ah env i s ioned s imp le ex i s t ence

centered around the Temple and blessed by Yahweh.4 9 5

Zech ariah b r i e f l y mentioned some ba si c et hi ca l demands

within t h i s framework. These demands were too co nc is e and

l imf ted to be a f u l l p i c t u r e o f t h e w i l l o f God f o r t he com-

munity, nor w ere they the so le de m a nds of the covenant . T h e

et hi ca l emphasis o f p re -e x i l i c prophecy was reproduced here

in cons ide rab le d iminu t ion , b u t i t would be w r o n g t o l a b e l

t h i s simply a ' c a r ry -ove r ' o f prophe t i c t h o u g h t . I t s d i s -

j o i n t e d n e s s within t h e n a r r a t i v e l e n t i t some emphasis ( a t

l e a s t within t he thought o f the co l l ec to r ) ; t he se thought s

were important enough t o i n c l u d e , i n someone's ey es . Zecha-

r iah 's ' f a i l u r e ' t o mention the basic o b l i g a t i o n s o f the

covenant must speak against P. R . Ackroyd 's unders tanding o f

t h i s passage a s expre s s ing the ' con t ingen t na tu re ' o f the

coming o f t he fu tu re age .

Many s c h o l a r s h a v e i d e n t i f i e d 8:18-19 a s Z e c h a r i a h ' s496

immedlate response to the question posed i n 7 : l -3 . HOW-

ever, he could n o t have advoca ted the adopt ion of the feas ts ,fo r the change was ye t i n the fu tu re . Rather he was as se r-

t i n g t h a t the matrix o f j oy and b le s s ing ( o f which t h e f e a s t s

were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ) w o u l d d r a w the na t ions t o Jerusalem t o

w o r s h i p a t the Temple, seeking the Jews t o assts t them in

4 9 5 . P.R. Ackroyd, o . c i t . , p.217n.155.4 9 6 . Cf, H.6. Mitchee op, c f t . , p.215.



185

f i n d i n g Yahweh's b l es s i ng (8:20-23). This s t ro ng ly echoed

the sentiments o f I s . 61:6 a n d was wholly a n t i p a t h e t i c t o

the Zadoki te s t r a t e g y o f r e s t r i c t i n g t h e p r i es t h o od and t h eo f f i c e s w hich med ia ted the d i v i ne b l e s s ing t o the common

people .

Zech. 7:4-8:23 e x i s t s in a form o f the covenant renewal

form recognized e lsewhere i n the O l d Testament (e.g. the

S i n a i experience, Exod. 3 4 , and the Maccabean revolt , D a n . 9 ) .

The form's f e a t u r e s w er e: 1 ) a n account of the p a s t behav io r

o f t h e p a r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e v i o l a t i o n s o f the covenant

ag reemen t ( a l so ca l l ed the an teceden t h i s to ry ) ; 2 ) the new

i n i t i a t i v e t o r e i n s t i t u t e t h e c o v e n a n t ; 3 ) t h e b l e s s i n g s

which were sa id to accrue t o a f a i t h f u l a d h e r e n c e t o the

c o n d i t i o n s of the covenant ; 4 ) t he c r u c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f

the covenant; a n d 5 ) t h e s e r i e s o f commandsls t ipula t ions o f

the covenant . This pass age can be di vi de d a l o n g these4 9 7

l i n e s a s f o l l o w s : 1 ) 7:4-14; 2 ) 8:1-3aa; 3 ) 8:3ab-7,10-15,

2 0 - 2 3 ; 4 ) 8:8 ; and 5 ) 7:8-10, 8:9,16-17,19b.

The covenant form seems to have enjoyed much use in thepost-exil ic community, with l a t e r o c c u r r e n c e s a l s o f o u n d a t

11. Chron . 2 9 , Ezra 9 a n d Neh. 9 . These forms were f o u n d ,

however, i n p as sa ge s o f h i s t o r i c a l n ar ra ti ve s- a d f s t i n c t l y

d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t t h a n the p r o p h e t i c wri t ings .

4 9 7 . K O B a l t z e r , The Covenant Formula ry, p . 6 2 ; forthe sect ion on t h e renewal o f a c o v e n a n t , c f . p p . 3 9 f f .

.



186

V . Zechar iah 1 - 8 (Conc lus ion)

The message of the prophet Zechariah was directed to

the Jewish community o f h i s day and that message w a s deep l y

in f luen ced by the p rophe t s o f the e x i l e : Jeremiah ( t o a

l e s s e r d eg r e e ), E ze ki el a n d Deu t e r o -I sa i ah. S cho l a rs a r e

almost of a m i n d t h a t Zechariah saw himself in the mold o f

t h e p r ophe t i c f i gu r e s o f t he pa s t , r a t he r t han a s an innova.

tor of r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s ; t h er e was l i t t l e i n these

chapters which w a s not foreshadowed in t h e w r i t i n g s o f thee a r l i e r p ro ph et s. In that Zechar iah encouraged the rebui l -

d i n g of the Temple a n d r ecogn i zed t h e au t ho r i t y o f J o s h u a

an d Z e r ubbabe l , he a f f i r m ed t h e o f f i c i a l t h eo l o g y o f the

p r e - e x i l i c s t a t e .498

Zechar iah analyzed the causes o f t h e e x i l e ( c f . 19- 6,

7:4-14) with t h e conv i c t i on t ha t i t occupied a s i g n i f i c a n t

p l a c e in the h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l , b o t h a s c o n t i n u i t y with the

p a s t a n d as a water-shed event pre par ato ry t o a new act of

God.

According to G . v o n R a d , Zechar iah d iscounted the re-

turn o f t h e e x i l e s a n d dep r i ved i t o f any d i g n i t y a s a

s a v i n g event . Von R ad's a n a l y s i s f a i l e d t o t ak e i n t o4 9 9

account that Zechar iah was spea king t o a people who had a l -

r eady r e tu rned to the l and a n d was speaking with the assump-

4 9 8 . 3. Bright, o . c f t . , pp.353f.4 9 9 . 6 . von Rad, d-stament Theol og y I f , p.286.



t ion tha t Yahweh had led them. True, th e re fe ren ce to th e

exiles (cf . 2:6-7) i n Zechar iah ' s message d i d n ot h a v e t h e

s a m e i n t e ns i t y o f Deute ro- I sa iah , but i t wa s a r e m i n d e r t h a t

th e former prophe t' s min is t r y had a pe r va s ive e f f e c t u p o n t h ewhole communi ty ( inc lud ing Zechar iah) . I t s e e m s m o r e c o n-

s i s t e n t t o v ie w the pa uc i ty o f r e f e r e nc e s to the r e tu r n a s

a r e su l t o f Zechar iah ' s o r ien ta t ion to God's new beg inn ing

and o f h i s pos i t ion chr ono logi ca l ly subseque nt to it.

F o r Ze c ha r i a h , t he r e s to r a t ion me a n t t he a r riva l o f

t h e t i m e o f blessing. I n von Rad's phrase ology, th i s mea nt

' the new escha to log ic a l ac t o f Yahweh ' h a d f r ee d the Je w s

a n d t he y we r e l i v i n g on the th reshold of Deute ro- I sa iah ' s

fu tur e age. Th is ' new age ' o f Deute ro- I sa iah , wi th i t s

v is ib le s igns ( I s . 4 4 9 6 - 2 8 ) , was in f luen t ia l upon Zecha-

5 00

.

r iah's message.T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f . th e Night -Vis ions to h is to r ica l

r e a l i t y i s impor t a n t t o unde r s ta nd. I t a ppe a r s t ha t t he

v i s i o n s w e r e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e a p a rt f r o m t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e

i mag e ry

to th e th r us t s o f t he v i s ions; i nva r i ab ly the in t e r p r e t a -

501a nd tha t t he s c e n e s we r e no t pa r t i c u la r ly v i t al

5 0 2

t i on supp l i e d by t he in t e r p r e t ing a nge l wa s a l l - impor t a n t

( w h e r e a s t h e i m a g e s a l o n e w e r e c a p a b le o f i n n u m e r a b l e i n t er -

p r et a t ions) , w i t hou t a ny subs t a n t i a l c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e s c e n e

500. 6 . von Rad, OJ ctt., pp.118,243ff.501. Cf. B. Halpern, art. cit., w h o a na ly r e d the N igh t -

Vi s i o n s a s a ' c o m b a t - c y c l e ' T t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i ma ge ry.502 . W.A.M. Beuken , op. cit., p.237; D.R. Jones, op.- i t p.32.



188

i t s e l f . One i s j u s t i f i e d i n looking upon the vision-scene

as 'window-dressing ' f o r the key thought o f the v i s i o n . I

have f o u n d no s ign i f i cance in t h e de t a i l s of t he v i s i o n -

scenes, such a s the c o l o r s o f the horses in the f i r s t a n dl a s t v i s io n s, a n d I b e l i e v e that no importance was attached

to these de t a i l s which modern sc ho l a r s h ip can de te c t in

t h e i r presen t form. The images,seem to have been se l ec te d

to complement themes already present in Z echa r i ah ' s m i n d .

There i s a que st i on on the chrono log ica l sequence to

503the Nig ht - Vis ion s . Whi le each scene d i d r e f e r t o t h e

g ene r a l pe r i od o f t he r e s t o r a t i o n , some o f t he v i s i o n s s l i p

t h e r e s t r a i n t s o f time and space a n d a r e s e t i n the wor ld

above. Whi le Zechar iah has ob vi ou sl y subordinated chronology

and h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n , t h e r e

does appear t o have been a logical sequence of t h o u g h t

( e s p e c i a l l y with in the two sub-cycles, 1:8-3:lO and 4: l -

6:15) in the Nigh t -Vis ions .

At many poin t s Zechar iah qu ie t ly c i r cumvented the cu l t

a n d the p r i es thood to draw a more ' s e cu l a r ' p i c t u r e o f

Yahweh's w i l l f o r the r es t o r at io n community. He was f a r more

prophe t t h a n p r i e s t ; he never couched his messages in the504

form o f p r i e s t l y i n s t r u c t i o n a s d l d Ezekiel . He w a s , of

c o u r s e , a w a r e o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f the Temple and the p l a c e

of the p r i es t hood , b u t he h a s no t emphasized them nearly a s

c i t p . 2 4 5 , and W. Rudolph,9 O S

5 0 3 . C f . L O G . R l g n e l l ,OJ c i t . , p.134, w h o argued d f e r e n t s i d e s o f t h i s i s s u e .

.



189

much as other post-exil ic prophets (or as much as he could

ha ve ). There were no commands to uphold the p u r i t y o r5 0 5

s a n c t i t y o f t h e c u l t .

One cannot press Zechar iah 1-8 i n t o a m o l d formed by

the wri t ings o f other prophets ; the uniqueness o f the pro-

phe t ' s message canno t be sa ' c r i f i ce d to genera l t r ends a n d

s ta tements about prophecy. Zech ar iah 's thought h a s more i n

common with Tr i t o - I s a i a h t h a n with H a g g a i , w h i l e h i s p r a g -

matic emphasis rested upon the Temple ( a g a i n s t which Tr i to-

I s a i a h r a i l e d , I s . 66:1-4). He minis tered during a p e r i o d

o f t r a n s i t i o n / p r e p a r a t i o n / e x p e c t a t i o n , a n era un ique in i t s

f o r m u l a t i v e f o r c e s .

The tens ion between the rea l condi t ions o f l i f e a n d the

idea l d imens ions o f Yahweh's p l an f o r I s r ae l i n h i s t o r y p r e -

s en t ed p ro blems f o r i n t e r p r e t e r s . Zech a ri ah s po ke o f theb eg in ni ng o f t he b le s s ed . er a ( 8 : l l f f . ) , w h i l e m a k i n g an ex-

p l i c i t d i s t i n c t i o n between t he p r es e nt a n d fu tu re t ime. The

two per iod were not r e g a r d e d a s a n t i t h e t i c a l b u t a s p a r t s o f

a c o n t i n u i t y f e a t u r i n g a s e r i e s o f e ve nt s w he re in the f u t u r e

promised would g radua l ly supp lan t the p resen t . The culmina-

t i n g e ve nt o f t h i s s e r i e s would i n v o l v e t he g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f

Yahweh by the na t ions . I t was within t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t

Zechar iah spoke o f the ' day o f small t h i n g s ' ( 4 : l O ) and the

5 0 4 . W. Zimmerli , 'The Sp ec ia l Form- and Tr a d i t i o -

5 0 5 . 3. Lindblom, op, c i t . , p . 4 2 1 ,

h i s t o r t c a l C h a r a c t e r o f Ezek ie l ' s P r o p h ecy ' ,

-T x v (1965),

p . 5 2 3 .



190

begi-nning of the new era (8:ll).

Cl ea r l y Z echa r i ah s a w the fo r tunes o f the peop le sud-

den ly a n d i r revocably a l tered by Yahweh 's turning t o them

with compassion a n d mercy (l:l6). This central theme i l l u -m inat ed eve r y t hi ng e l s e , f o r Zecha ri ah be l i ev ed t h a t o n l y

Yahweh ' s ac t ion cou ld b r ing abou t the b lessed cond i t ions

which had been s o an t i c i pa t ed . F o r h i m , t h o s e b l e s s i n g s

were t o be t he f u l f i l l m e n t o f p a s t prophecies and the means

where-by th e na t ions w o u l d j o i n the Jews as God's p e o p l e

(2: 11 ) .

G o v o n R a d , i n h i s expos i t i on on the r i s e o f e scha t o-

l o g y , dec l a r ed t ha t t he p r o p h e t s o f I s r ae l d i d n o t posse s sv

tha t sense o f t ime whereby they cou ld d i ff e ren t i a t e be tween

events i n his to ry and even t s a t t h e end o f h i s t o r y ( o r a t

the end of the a g e ) . Vo n Rad asse r t ed t h a t t h e ch i e f506

r e a s o n f o r the r i s e o f e s ch a to l o gi c al t h o u g h t was the m a n i -

f e s t a t i on o f j udgm en t in 5 8 7 B . C . which swept away the basis

fo r conf idence i n Yahweh 's wi l l ingness t o a c t . Z e c h a r i a h ,

however, p u t s t r e s s on h i s c o n t i n u i t y with the former pro-

phets and on t he f a c t t ha t Yahweh's r e l a t i on sh i p with the5 0 7

peop l e was a n unbroken one.

I have discussed P O D . Hanson's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e

apoca l yp t i c b r and o f e s c h a to lo g y emerged when the p r o p h e t i c

5 0 6 . G o von Rad, op. ci t . , pp.112-125.

507. Zech. 1:12 c o u l d b e i nt er pr et ed a s r ev ea l f ng an -g e l i c impatience with Ya h w e h t o d o what they k n o w He ustdo .





192

H. Gese l a b e l l e d the Nigh t -Vi s ions a s t h e o l d e s t ' a p o c a l y p s e '

i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s , m y s t e r i o u s s y m -

bol ism and the appearance o f t h e i n t e r p r e t i n g a n g e l .510

G.A. S m i t h d i s c e rn e d w h a t he descr ibed a s Z e c h a r i a h ' si n a b i l i t y t o p r o j e c t God's v i c t o r y i n h i s t o r i c a l t e rm s a s

t h e p o i n t where Zechar iah depar ted f rom the o lder p rophets

and p receded the l a t e r apoc a lyp t i c wr i t e r s . For Zecha r i ah ,

th er e were no p o l i t i c a l means whereby the expected overthrow

o f the n a t i o n s could be accornplished. He d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e

' smi ths and c h a r i o t s ' were n ot r e p re s e n t a t i v e o f h i s t o r i c a l511

r e a l i t y b u t div ine powers ready t o in vad e h i s t o r y. I t

was p r e c i s e l y t h i s k i n d o f judgment which S. Mowinckel re-

j e c t e d in h i s a n a l y s i s o f Zechariah 1-8. He a rgued tha t t he

message of Zechariah had nothing to do with events o f a n

end-time. Within the r e s t o r a t i o n e r a , Z e c h a r i a h a wa i t e d h i s -

t o r ' i c a l r e v o l u t i o n , w h e r e i n I s r a e l m i g h t remain unscathed to

r e a p t he b e n e f i t s . The f i g u r e s o f the Night -Vis ions were

those which worked behind a n d t h rough na tu ra l agenc ie s ; their

p l a c e in t h e Ni g h t -Vi s i o n s was d i c t a t e d by the p rophe t ' s

r e l i g i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the world .5 1 2

C, Jeremias , i n h i s study o f the Night -Vis ion s as they

r e l a t e d t o the other v i s f o n texts o f the O l d Testament, con-

c l u d e d that Zechariah stood between prophecy and the apoca-

510. H. Gese, ar t . c f t . , p . 2 4 .511. G.A. Smith,'. c f t . , p.281.512. S. Mowinckel, o p c i t . , pp.12l f .



193

l y p t i c movement. He based t h i s conc lus io n on l i t e r a r y

g ro un ds : 1 ) t h e r e w er e p r o p h e t i c ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n Zecha-

r I ah n o t f o u n d i n Danie l a n d 2 ) the re were f ea t u re s shared

by Zechar iah and Daniel which were absent i n prophe t ic5 1 3w r i t i n g s p r i o r t o Zecha r i ah . He r e j ec t ed H . Gese 's a r g u -

ment on the grounds that Gese h a d not been sharp enough in

d e f in in g h i s t e r ms . W. Rudolph supported Jeremias a g a i n s t514

Gese.

POD. Hanson's work h a s been q u i t e h e lp f u l i n i d e n t i f y i n g

t h e dynamics Involved in p lac in g Zech a r i ah 2-8 with in the

prophet ic-apocalypt ic cont inuum. He argued that Zechar iah

r e a f f i r m e d t h e f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d / e s c h a t o l o g i c a l element which

h a d been in t roduced by Eze k ie l . Zechar iah t i ed i t to the

Temp le r eb u i l d in g p r o j ec t a n d t o t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o g r a m o f the5 1 5

Jewish community 's l ea de r s . Zechar iah s id ed wi th th i s

l e a d e r s h i p i n such a way that h i s p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e g av e sup-

port t o t h e i r des i gns on to ta l community co nt ro l , a p o s i t i o n

which accorded l i t t l e sympathy t o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m s516

o f o th er, l e s s powe r fu l , g roups . Hanson con t ras ted

Zechariah 1-8 with Deutero-Zechar iah by s ta t ing t h a t t h e f o r -

mer supported the communi ty le ad er sh ip ag ai n s t i t s opponents

a n d t h e l a t t e r embodied a mo v emen t o f i n c r ea s in g h o s t i l i t y

toward exis t ing community leaders and i n s t i t u t i o n s .

5 1 3 , C . Jeremias , op. c i t . , p p . 2 2 6 - 2 3 0 .514. W. Rudolph, OJ. c r , p.134.515. POD. Hanson, o . T t . , p p . 2 4 6 f .516. P. D . Hanson, 4 o o n f Zech a r i ah ' , X D B S u p , ed. K O

Crim, p.983.



194

I t was t h i s mental a t t i tu de toward the pre sen t , re -

presented by i t s s t r uc t u re s , tha t Hanson id en t i f i ed as the

source o f t h e apoca l yp t i c m en t a l i t y a n d used to d i s ce r n the

p a t h o f the development of apo ca ly pt ic . The unfo rtun ate

t h i n g was t h a t he d i d n ot c o n s i de r the r o l e o f I s r a e l v i s- a -

v i s the nat ions a s a n e c e s s a r y c o r o l l a r y t o h i s h y p o t h e s i s ;

the same mental a t t i t u d e may be di sc er ne d in other prophets

f a v o r a b l e t o the theocracy (cf . Haggai a n d Jo e l ; Z echa r f ah ' s

po s i t io n concern ing the f a t e o f the na t ions w as unique, b u t

t h a t d i d n o t a l t e r the f a c t th a t he viewed them as enemies

of God t o be overcome by H i m ) .

R . J . Bauckham was correct in s t a t i n g (contra Hanson)

t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e a s p e c t o f Zechariah 1-8 w as the focus

o f ' apo ca l y p t i c hopes ' on t he ea r l y po s t - ex i l i c e r a . For517

Bauckham, Zechariah was a prophet w h o r e l i e d u p o n his p re -

decesso r s f o r t he t ypo l ogy o f h i s co n s t r uc t i o n s o f t h e f u t u r e .

When h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t i e s p ro ve d i n c ap a b l e o f measuring u p t o

his hopes, some adjustments h a d to be made ( b u t we have

l i t t l e c lu e as t o w h a t adjustments Zechariah made or when h e

made them).KO Koch examined the apocalyptic wri t ings i n o r d e r t o

i s o l a t e ce r t a i n fo rm -cr i t i ca l e lements un ique to the apoca-

l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e . He w a s not deaf to the k i n d of argument

5 1 7 . R .3. Bauckham, a r t . c i t . , p . 1 2 .



195

that Hanson used t o r e j e c t l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s a s t h e b a s i s

o f d e f i n i n g a p o c a l y p t i c , b u t h e a s s e r t e d :518

. . . t h e r e a r e f e a t u r e s of t h e t e x t w hl ch. . .convey the impress ion that t h e r e r e a l l y

w a s s ome thi ng l i k e an a p o c a l y p t i c t y p e o fwri t ing .

He d i s c e r n e d : d i s c o u r s e c y c l e s , r em ar ks o f s p i r i t u a l tur-

m o i l , p a r a e n e t i c d i s c o u r s e s / i n t r o d u c t o r y l e g e n d s , p se ud o-

mity, myth ica l images r ich i n symbo li sm, compos it e l i t e r a r y

c h a r a c t e r , a s l i t e r a r y f e at u re s . A l s o , he found urgen t5 1 9

e x p e c t a t i o n , c o s m i c c a t a s t r o p h e , d e t e r m i n i s m / h i s t o r i c a lp e r i o d i z a t i o n , a n g e l s and demons, s a l v a t i o n beyond c a t a s -

t r o ph e , t r a n s i t i o n or d er e d by G o d , a roya l med ia to r, a f l n a l

s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , a s indicative o f a his to r ica l movement .5 2 0

S i n c e i t i s c l e a r that Zecha r i ah 1-8 d i d n o t c o n t a i n a l l

t h e f e a t u r e s i d e n t i f i e d by Koch a n d o t h e r s s c h o l a r s , i t

a p p e a r s t h a t t h o se w h o v ie w t h e s e c h ap t er s a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

o f a n i n t e r m e d i a t e , l i t e r a r y s t a g e be tw ee n pr op he cy and

a p o c a l y p t i c a r e c o r r e c t . C on ce rn in g t h e c o n t i n u i t y b a se d on

menta l a t t i tude , Hanson w a s c o r r e c t i n l i m i t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e

o f Zechar iah on the l a t e r p ro ph et i c movement a n d a p o c a l y p t i c

t o the a r ea s o f mo t i f s and the gen re o f a p o c a l y p s e ;5 2 1

Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 d i d not c onv ey an i n t e n s i t y o f e x p r e s s i o n t h a t

Hanson r equ i r ed .

5 1 8 . K O Koch, The Red iscove ry o f A p o c a l y p t i c , p . 2 4 .

521. P.D Hanson, - r t . c i t . , p.983.

519. Ib id . , pp .24 -28 .520. Ibid. , pp.28-33.







198

r a t i o n o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t he peop le in t he l and ( i . e .

the Temple a n d i t s p r ie s th o od ) .

Zechar iah assumed a ro le o f some importance i n t h e r e -

b u i l d i n g of th e Temple. T h i s al on e would have proved s u f f i -c i e n t reas on f o r t he c i r c l e s within t he Temple l eade r sh ip to

c o l l e c t h i s ut te rances and to p reserve them in w r i t t e n form

( i f only as a memorial of h i s mi n i s t ry ) . There would have

been no impetus f o r t h e s e c i r c l e s t o h ol d t o Z e c h a r i a h ' s

p e cu l i a r v i ews r eg a r d in g the community, t he nat ions and the

fu tu re ; he cou ld be remembered, th rough the c o l l e c t i o n o f

h i s messages, a s a prophe t who mot iva ted h i s f e l l o w Jews to

complete a w o r t h y p r o j e c t .5 2 6

W. A . M . Beuken has po in ted ou t tha t the passages Zech .

1:Z-6 a n d 7:4-14 b e a r a s i m i l a r i t y t o t he L e v i t i c a l sermon-

form found i n t he Chr on i c le s , i n a way whfch ove r s t a t e d the

i n f l u e n c e o f L e v i t i c a l c i r c l e s on the Z ec ha ri an m a t e r i a l . I t

remains beyond dou bt t h a t th er e was a connect ion between the

two (c f . Zech . 1:3-4 a n d I 1 Chron. 30:6-9; a l s o t h e q u o t e o f

Zech. 4 : l O b in I 1 Chron. 1 6 :9 ) , b u t that argument does no t

l e a d t o t he c o n c l us i o n t h a t l a t e r L e v i t i c a l a u th or s w er e r e-

s p o n s i b l e f o r p a s s a g e s in Zecha r i ah 1 -8 . The re i s no e v b

5 2 6 . T h e name o f Z e c h a r f a h , with that o f Hagga i , w a smentioned by the au tho r o f Ezra in two p laces ( k l , 6:14).T h i s f a c t was r e m a r k ab l e o n l y in tha t the messages o f the pro-phe ts were n o t reproduced ; the p rophets themselves an d theirm i n i s t r i e s , w hic h w e r e c on ne ct ed t o th e Temple r e b u i l d i n g

p r o j e c t , w e r e remembered p r e c i s e l y b e ca u se o f t h a t c o n n e c t i o nwith the Temple. Th ei r messages , a s i t were , appeared t o besecondary ( i f c o n s i d e r e d a t a l l ) .



199

d en ce c o n t r a i n d i c a t i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Z ec h a ri a h 1-8 was

i n c l u d e d i n a body o f ma te r i a l f rom which sermon te xt s were

ex t r a c te d and tha t the sermon-fo rm o f Zec ha r i ah was inc lu ded

among the pa t te rns upon which the Lev i t ica l Temple speakersc o ns t ru c te d t h e i r h o m f le t i c a l s t y l e .

These a rgumen t s r e su l t i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n that , a l though

Zecha r i ah may have been in f luenced by D e u t e r o - I s a i a h a n d had

areas o f sympathy with t h e Tr i t o - I s a i a n i c a u t h o rs , he and h i s

m e s s a g e s w e r e c u t o f f f r o m t h i s l a t t e r c i r c l e because o f h i s

r o l e v i s - ; -v i s the Temple a n d h i s s u pp o rt of the o f f i c i a l

community l e a d e r s . The l a t e r p o s t - e x i l i c p r op h et s d i d not

f o l l o w Z e c h a r i a h ' s e xa mp le i n many a reas , c r ea t ing a s t rong

sense o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y a f t e r Z e c h a r i a h a n d t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f

h i s messages .

Z E C H A R I A HA N D THE L AT E R P R O P H E T I C M O V E M E N T;Z E C H A R I A H 1-8 A N D

THE A P O C A LY P T I CLITERATURE

I . I n t r o d u c t i o n

The a n a l y s i s o f t h e r o l e o f Z e ch a ri ah 1-8 i n t he deve lop -

ment o f ap oc a l yp t i c mus t t ake i n to account a two- fo ld i n f l u -

ence : Zecha r i ah 1-8 s u r v i v e d a s a ref lect ion o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s

m f n i s t r y a n d a l s o a s t he r e c o r d o f t h a t m i n i s t r y. I t con-

t a i n e d t h o s e m es sa ge s d e l i v e r e d by the p rophet a n d p r e s e r v e d

by t h e p e o p l e o f h i s day (however t h i s process may have oc-

c u r r e d ) . The t a s k s a s s i g n e d t o s c h o l a r s h i p a r e 1 ) coming to



2 0 0

terms with the m e a n i n g Zechariah intended to convey i n h i s

messages a n d 2 ) a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b i n g th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

pl ac ed upon those messages by subse quent ge ne ra ti on s.

Zecha r i ah 1-8 re f l ec t e d , t o some deg r ee , Zech a r i ah ' sthought a n d h i s i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l , s o c i a l a n d

t h e o l o g i c a l c u r r e n t s within the community o f his day. I n so

s t a t i n g t h i s , I am a l s o c o n s c i o u s t h a t a n e d i t o r o r r e d a c t o r

h a d a h a n d i n se l ec t ing the ma te r i a l and b r i n g i n g i t t o g e t h e r,

b u t I have re j ec t ed the no t ion tha t a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f

i t proceeded from m i n d s other t h a n Z e c h a r i a h ' s ( a l t h o u g h t h i s

a rgumen t i s a c t ua l l y secondary t o my e s s e n t ia l l i n e of

r e a s o n i n g ) .

In th e l a rg e r c o n t e x t, i n Zechar i ah 1-8 w a s f o u n d the

c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f one segment o f one st rand o f t h e p ro p h e t i c

movement. The re was th e acknowledgement o f d e b t s t o e a r l i e r

p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l o f in f luence upon the

l a t e r s ta ge s o f the movement. T h i s unders t anding was b u i l t

upon the evidence of a development with in t he p rophe t i c

o f f i c e and a connectedness between the canonical representa-

t i v e s o f the prophetic movement ( a n d between each prophet and

h i s r e s p e c t i v e h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n ) .5 2 7

The p rophe t i c he r i t age assumed by Zechariah was

p a r t i a l l y r e f l ec t ed i n t h e messages o f Zecharfah 1-8 ( the

c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s prese rved messages ) . Only a po r t ion o f

5 2 7 . T h i s i s not intended a s a formal construct b u t a sa n i n d i c a t i o n o f Zechar i ah ' s awareness o f h i s p re d e c e s s o r s .





2 0 2

a smal l por t ion o f the Book o f the Twelve, perce ived through

l a t e r b e l ie f -s y s te m s and i n t e r p r e t e d by the unique methods

o f l a t e r gene r a t i ons . T he o r e t i ca l l y , Z echa r iah 1-8 could

have h a d a cont inuing inf luence upon the v a r i o u s s t ag es o fJudai sm s i m i l a r t o Z echa r iah ' s i n f l ue nce on the community o f

5 2 0 B . C . In r ea l i ty, however, t h i s d f d not happen.

T he re was l i t t l e evi d en ce t o sugg es t t h a t Zechariah 1-8

was read by l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s a s an individual composi t ion

dese r v i ng a spec i a l hea r i ng . I t w a s regarded a s b u t one

par t o f the p rophe t i c Book of the Twelve. Moreover, t h i s

comprehens ive p rophe t i c vo ic e was l a rg e ly f i 1 t e r ed t h r o u g h

t h e i nd i v i dua l ' s / g r oup ' s p r eco n cep t i ons conce rn ing S c r i p t u r e

and t he p r ophe t s ' m essage ( e . g . Ben S i r a ' s po r t r a i t o f a l l

p rophe t s a s proc la imers o f hope a n d comfort , 48:10, a n d h i s

d e s c r t p t i o n o f the prophets ' hope for the end-t ime,

36:1-17). Insofa r as ind iv idua l s v iewed the p rophe t s a s531

a n homogeneous g r o u p a n d assumed them to proclaim a common

message, they were not open to receive a n accurate under-

s t and ing o f the i n d i v t d u a l pro phe t ic message.

In chapter two I reached the conclusion t h a t Zechar iah

was himself a s a f i g u r e s t and ing by the conc lud ing a c t o f

Yahweh 's res tora t ion , no t a s a member o f a new generation o f

5 3 1 . C f . B A . C h i l d s , I n t r o d uc t i o n t o the O l d Testamenta s Scri ture, pp.77-79. Childs s p o k e o f the c a n o n i c a

- ind tv idua l compos i t ions a s l a t e r g e n e r l t l o n ss o u g h t t o p l a c e the o r i g i n a l messages with ln the message ofthe en t j r e canon. I have r e f e r r ed he r e t o t he ' cond i t ionedr e c e p t i v i t y ' o f t h e s e l a t e r r e a d e r s .



203

prophe t s . He consc ious l y a l ig ned h imse l f with the ' former

p r o p h e ts ' , p r e s e n ti n g t he f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e i r p ro m is es ,

see ing h imse l f as 1 4 v i n g a t t h e end o f t he i r p r ed i c t ed e r a

a n d b r i n g i n g forth no new message in t h e e x e r c i s i n g o f h i s

o f f i c e . Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 w a s made understandable by references

t o the wr i t ten messages o f h i s predecessors; he cannot be

gauged by hi s succe ssor s . There w a s , as we s h a l l s e e, l i t t l e

connect ing Zechar iah 1-8 to subsequen t p rophe t i c wr i t ings .

Zechariah cannot b e viewed a s a n innovator. He d i d n o t

c o n t r i b u t e t o the development o f the prophetic movement sig-

n i f i c a n t l y in the manner o f a Jeremiah or a n Ez ek ie l . He di d

n o t r e c a s t the o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s o f I s r a e l t o b e a r new i n s i g h t s

i n t o Yahweh's purposes as h a d t he e a r l i e r p r oph e t s. Ra th er,

he accepted a n d merged f ea t u r e s o f t he ea r l i e r p ro p he t s a n d

awaited the consummation o f t h e i r promises . He was supremely

a prophet o f an ' a l r e a d y - p r e d i c t e d ' r e s t o r a t i o n .

We canno t e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t th e ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

Zecharfah 1-8 a s i n i t i a t o r y o f new trends in the p rophe t i c

movement fo r t w o r e a so n s . F i r s t , t he s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ere

f o u n d i n e a r l i e r w ri t in g s ( e s p ec i a l ly the e x i l f c p ro ph et s)a n d re ce nt sch o la rs hi p on Zechariah 1-8 has demonstrated a

g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y wi th t he e a r l f e r p r o ph e ti c w r i t i n g s t h a n532

with t he l a t e r p r o ph e ti c a n d a p o c a l y p t i c w o r k s . Second,

t h e c e n t u ri e s a f t e r Z e ch a ri a h' s e r a y i e l d e d e xt re me ly l i t t l e

5 3 2 . C f , C. Je remias , Die Nach tges ich te des Sac har ja ,pp.107f.,226-230.



204

d a t a with which t o b u i l d a c on cep tio n o f . l a t e r p ro p h et i c

development. The p rophe t i c s t age was not revamped by

Zechar i ah . G o von Rad sugges t ed t h a t the ex i le had subs tan-

t i a l l y c l ea re d that s t a g e . Wh i l e I do no t e n t i r e l y a g r e e533

with v o n R a d on t h i s p o i n t , I d o r e c o g n i z e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e

o f the message o f hope o f t h e e x i l i c p r o p h e t s a n d t he im-

por tance p l aced upon the e x i l i c p rophet s by l a t e r gene ra t ions

o f Jews.

These e x i l i c p rop h et s (n o t th e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p ro -

p h e t s ) we re s t ro n g i n f l u e n c e s u p o n l a t e r Judaism. This was

seen i n the in te rdependence between the e x i l i c p rophets and

the t he ol og ic al s t reams which emerged from the e x i l e and

which determined much in po s t -e x i l i c Judaism. Whi l e Zecha r i ah

belonged to the p ro p he ti c movement, Zec haria h 1-8 a c h i e v e d i t s

f i n a l form under the aeg i s o f the p r i e s tl y - th e o c r a ti c c i r c l e s .

His messages were ne i the r c rea to r no r sus t a ine r o f t h i s theo-

l o g i c a l s t ream; they were cont ro . l le d by i t .

The evide nc e we have in di ca te d that t h e p ro p h e t s a f t e r

Zechar iah were less commlt ted t o the use of the immediate

h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g a s t h e a r e n a o f God's a c t i v i t y. T h e

march o f i n t e rn a t i o n a l e v e n t s , wh i c h h a d s o e f f e c t i v e l y

s e r v e d e a r l i e r p r o p h e t s a s t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e i r m e s s a g e s o f

judgment a n d d e l i v e r a n c e , d i d n o t impinge s o immediately u p o n

the Jews in the p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ( fo r they no longer con-

533. 6 . v o n Rad, O l d Testament Theology 11, pp.270-272.



205

s t i t u t e d a n i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i t i c a l n a t i o n ) . The res to ra t ion

was v iewed as ach ieved o r , a l t e rn a t e l y, i t s hopes were pos t -

poned or fo rg ot te n . However, re s t or a t io n hopes were super-

ceded i n the m i n d s o f many Jews by the concept of Yahweh'sKingship mani feste d ove r the whole wo rld . This Kingship was

presented i n des c r i p t i o ns of e scha t o l og i ca l event s ( i n which

l i t t l e e ne rg y was e x e rt e d t o connect the present to t h a t

f u t u r e ) o r was r e p r es e n te d by s o l i t a r y h i s t o r i c a l i n s ta n ce s

o f d i v i ne power.

Zechar iah appeared as the l a s t prophe t t o t h i n k as the

p r e - e x i l i c a n d e x i l i c p ro phet s h a d done, envis ioning events

occurr ing imminently, caused by God, thro ugh which He would

ach ieve His p ur po se s f o r I s r a e l . The i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s r u p -

t i o n s o f 5 2 0 B . C . seemed to echo the great moments of change

i n I s r a e l ' s p a s t : t he i n cu r s io n s o f A s s y r i a a n d Babylon a n d

t he l i b e r a t i o n from t he l a t t e r by t h e P e r s i a n s .

Z e c h a r ia h ' s N i g h t - Vis i o n s a pp ea re d t o b e l i e h i s i n t e r e s t

i n h i s t o r y a s Yahweh's medium f o r pur su ing His w i l l . They

seem t o g i v e e v i d e n c e o f I ) d i r ec t h eaven l y i n t e r ven t i on a n d

2 ) t h e a b s e n c e o f p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y i n any way re la t ing toth e Jews. Taken a t f a c e v a l u e , t h i s impress ion would t i e

5 3 4

Zechariah to his successors, who viewed Yahweh intervening

5 3 4 . In ch ap te r two, I showed th at Zec har iah d i d notin tend t o d e p i c t d i r e c t h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r v en t i o n and t h a t heassum ed t he po l i t i c a l f o r ce s ' we r e t h e r e ' ( i n terms o f the

events o f t h e p a s t a n d 'would b e t h e r e ' ( I n t h e f i n a l e v e n t so f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n , i f necessa ry.



206

fo r I s r a e l ' i n person' a n d not through h i s t o r k a l e v e n t s .

C e r t a i n l y, the events through which Yahweh m i g h t have mani-

fe s te d Himsel f were not a s i m m ed i a t e l y ava i l ab l e a s they had

been p r io r t o t h a t era. However, I have shown i t t o b e i l l -adv i sed to in te rp re t Zechar iah 1 -8 i n t h i s manner.

In r ecen t yea r s , the accep ted sc ho la r ly v iew, which

summari ly ca tegor ized Zechar iah 1-8 a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a

s t a g e in the development o f prophecy toward apocalyptic, has

come under a t t a c k . 0 , E i s s f e l d t , f o r example, s t a t e d tha t

the developmental p a t h of a poc a ly p t i c was to b e t raced f rom

Eze kie l through Zecha riah. The reason f o r such an opi nio n5 3 5

i s c l ea r : Z echa ri ah 1-8 sha red w i t h t he apoca l yp t i c l i t e r a -

ture more features t h a n any ot he r pr op he tic book. These

p e c u l i a r i t i e s w ere i n d i c a t i v e , t o many s c h o l a r s , o f a d e f i -

n i t e depar tu re from the s t andards o f t h e p r e - ex i l i c p r op h et s

and a p o s i t f v e s t e p t o w a r d t h e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

1 i t e r a t u r e ,

The chal lenge t o th i s p os i t to n has been l e v e l l ed f rom

two d i f f e r en t d i r ec t i o ns , r ep r e sen t ed by the works o f S. MO-

winckel and P.D. Hanson. Mowinckel argu ed th at Zec har lah 1-8

had t o be in te rp re te d i n l i g h t o f i t s p r ed ec es so rs and n o t

the p r ophe t i c wrftings which came a f t e r , In e f f e c t , he536

s t a t e d t h a t t h e c r u c i a l ' p o l n t o f depar ture ' toward apoca-

5 3 5 . 0 E i S S f d d t , The O l d Testament: an Introduct ion,pp .433f .5 3 6 . S. Mowinckel, He T h a t Cometh, pp.120-122.



2 0 7

l y p t i c o c c u r r e d i n the prophet ic movement a f te r Zechar iah ,

Hanson, n o t i n g t h a t Zechariah 1-8 d i d n o t r e f l e c t t h e

agg r t eve d men ta l i t y he judged s o e s s e n t i a l i n the development

o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c p e r s p e c t i v e ,537

argued t h a t the develop-mental path toward ap oc al yp t i c bypassed Zechariah a n d i s t o

b e d i s c e rn e d e l s e wh e re .

I have accepted , i n essence, the arguments o f both Mo-

winckel a n d Nanson ( t h o u g h I would no t e l im ina te Zechar iah

from the developmenta l p rocess as comple te ly a s Ha nson a p -

pea rs to ) . These a rguments have p la ced se r i ou s ques t ion s be-

f o r e the t r ad i t i o na l unde rs tand ing o f Zecha r iah 1-8. The

e a r l i e r works o f 0. P l 8 g e r a n d O.H. Steck , toge ther with Han-

son's work a n d t h e r e c e n t s u p p o r t i v e s c h o l a r s h i p , h a v e

brough t f r e s h l i g h t t o t he s tu dy of Z e c h a ri a h 's r o l e i n the

development o f apocalyptic; Hanson's works demand the inves-

t i g a t i o n o f 1 ) the soc io log ica l dynamics o f t h e p o s t - e x i l i c

p e r i o d a n d 2 ) t he na tu re o f t he mu l t ip l e - s t rand p rophe t i c

movemen t o

I h a v e p o l n t e d o u t t h a t t h e l a t t e r part of the s i x t h

cen tu ry B . C . , t h e e r a o f Z e c h a r i a h , f e a t u r e d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

o f new concepts with o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s in a t o t a l ly new

s i t u a t i o n . I am not a s concerned with the r e s u l t a n t e q u i -

librium a s much a s I am with the context of Jewish thought

5 3 7 , P O D , Hanson, The D a w n of Apoca lyp t i c , pp .251f . ;c f . t h e B i b l i o g r a p h y for Hanson 's publ ished works.



208

i n t h i s pe r iod ( i . e . t he Jews' a tt empts t o unders tand the

e x i l i c e xp e r i en c e and t o p e r c e i v e th e p a t h of Yahweh's

f a v o r ) .

The return from exi le , which saw prophet ic hopes dashed

on the r o c k y r e a l i t i e s o f hardsh ip a n d disappoin tment , never-

t h e l e s s d i d v a l i d a t e t h e f a i t h of many. Future ge ne ra ti on s

wer e to r e l a t e how Yahweh h a d revea led Himse l f in t h e r e l e a s e

f r o m e x i l e a n d the restoration of the community i n J u d a h

(Ezra 1:103). Thi s u n d e r s t a n d h g was hammered ou t in the

e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c y e ar s within t he con tex t o f community l i f e ,

I t may n o t have been the ove r - r id ing in t e re s t o f eve ry Jew;.

h ow ev er, c e r t a i n p r o p h e t i c c i r c l e s a n d p o l i t i c a l g r o u p s , .

which h a d v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s i n t h e e v e n t s o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n ,

d i d t h i n k on these mat te rs , each seek ing to demonst ra te

Yahweh's involvement with t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e p e o p l e a n d t o

j u s t i f y i t s r o l e a s t he med ia tor o f God 's p resence t o the

community,

The following may be taken as a simplif ied summary of

the Jews' unde rstand ing o f p o s t - e x i l i c r e a l i t i e s (which i n -

c luded the inhe r i t ed covenan t with Yahweh, His 'absence' andthe i n h o s p i t a b l e c o n d it i on s i n the land, and His purpose in

t h e f u t u r e ) : a part o f th e community assumed t h a t , c o n t r a r y

t o appearanc es , Yahweh was fa vo ra b ly in c l in ed toward the

Jews. Some o f t h e s e g ro u p s b e l i e v e d i t only a mat te r o f t ime

b e f o r e t h e promises inheren t in the covenant would come t o

f r u i t i o n , w h i l e o t h e rs p ro cl ai me d t he n e c e s s i t y o f a fur-538



209

5 3 9t h e r a c t o f Yahweh to complete the re st o ra t i on . Another

segment o f the people opposed this assumption, t a k i n g the

posit ion that Yahweh remained unappeased and t h a t He required

reform prior t o g r a n t i n g H i s b l e s s i n g s . Some be l ieved tha t5 4 0

He demanded a proper ly-ordered Temple and c u l t u s ; o t h e r s

a s s e r t e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l r e p e n t a n c e a n d obedience to Yahweh's

Torah were re q u ir e d . These eleme nts , extend ing throughout541

t he p o s t - e x i l i c c e n t u r i e s , p r ov i de d t he matrix in which the

i n c re d i b l e d i v e r s i t y o f Judaism was t o f l o u r i s h .

As we have seen, the methodology a p p l i ed t o the in-

v e s t i g a t i o n of t he r o l e o f Zechar iah 1-8 in the development

o f a po ca ly p t ic i s c r i t i c a l , f o r a reconst ruc t ion must b e

j udged on how i t a d d re ss e d t he p e r t i n e n t i s s u e s : 1 ) th e

e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a p o ca l y pt i c , 2 ) i t s o r i g i n s a n dfo rm a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s a n d 3 ) i t s s o c i a l s e t t i n g . Z ec ha ri a h

5 4 2

1-8, though i t can b e s t u d i e d a c c o rd i n g t o t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s ,

must b e looked a t i n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r w r i t i n g s , in

538. Those who per ce iv ed the re s t o ra t i on as a n a c t o f

God we re t he a d he ren t s t o th e t h e o c r a t i c i d e a l , t h o s e w h o a l -s o tended to eschew es ch a t o l og ic a l t hough t; c f . W . Eich rod t ,Theology of the Old Tes tament , vo l . 2 , p.456.

5 3 9 . A f t e r t h e f a i l u r e ' o f r e s t o r a t i o n , t he e s ch a to lo -g ic a l g roups looked to Yahweh t o br in g about an ' i d e a l s t a t e ' .

540 , T h i s pos i t i on wou ld b e occupied by t h e t h e o c ra t i cp r i e s t h o o d ; c f . P.R. Ackroyd , Ex i l e a n d R e s t o r a t i o n , p p . 2 5 4 f .

I 541. The deu tero nom ist ic movement a ss e rt ed t h i s viewt hr ou gh ou t t h e p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d ; c f , 3. Bright , A Hi s t o ryo f I s r a e l , pp.432f.

5 4 2 . DoE. Gowan, Bridge Between the Testaments,p p , 4 4 6 - 4 5 l 0





2 11

11. Zechar iah a n d t h e Later Prophetic Movement

In ch ap te r one, I presumed a connection between prophecy

a n d a p o c a l y p t i c . I showed that t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r emanifes ted a development o f p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n s that em-

phas ized the K i n g s h i p o f Yahweh. I ob se rv ed th at within the

di v is io n s o f the prop het ic movement, d i f f e r e n t emphases could

be made upon t h i s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y. I pointed out a

few places where i t co ul d be ob se rv ed . Mor eov er, I demon-

s t r a t e d t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n s ( m o t i f s )

later t ranscended the prophetic movements a n d were adopted

by non-prophet ic g roups , wh i le o r i g i n a l l y non-prophet lc

themes were adopte d by some pro ph ets . The ur ge , found in

l a t e r p ro ph ec y, t o b r i d g e t he g a p between the real world a n d

t h e i d e a l s t a t e o f Yahweh's r u l e a l s o ex i s t ed i n c i r c l e sa p a r t from the prophetic movement.

-

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h , i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f

continuity, between the prophetic movement a n d the p rophe t ic

t r a d i t i o n a n d to investigate how each impinged upon the

a p o c a l y p t i c c i r c l e s a n d l i t e r a t u r e . The pro ph et i c movement

may be defined a s that ag g r eg a t e o f indiv iduals who acted a s

(or were v iewed as ac t ing as ) p rophe t s , inc lud ing the p re -

cursors and s u c c e s s o r s o f the can oni cal prop het s . The pro-

p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n w a s t h a t accumulated body o f concepts pro-

mulgated, adopted a n d developed by these prophets a n d

tradi t i o n i s t s ( t h e s u cce s s o r s t o t h e w r i t t e n p r o ph et s whose



212

main a c t i v i t y was t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t i c

w r i t i n g s ) .

Both the prophetfc movement a n d t h e p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n

were viewed b y segments of the scholar ly community as having

i n f l u e n c e u p o n t he a p oc a ly p ti c l i t e r a t u r e . As t he e a r l i e r ,

f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d f a i t h o f I s r a e l c o n t r i b u t e d n o t a l i t t l e t o

t h e c on t en t o f c l a s s i c a l I s r a e l i t e p ro ph ec y, s o the prophets

a n d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n i s t s le n t many concepts t o the common

m i l i e u o f l a t e r J u d a i s m. I t would be unwise t o cons id er

5 4 3

t h e p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n apart f rom the o ther majo r s t r ands

of pos t-e xi 7 i c J ewish r e1 i g i o n ,

On t h e b a s i s o f my in v es t i g a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t i c move-

ments I concluded t h a t cer ta in common features and a t t i tudes

e x h i b i t e d i n t he e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c w r i t i n g s c ou ld be u t i l i z e d

i n d e t e r m i n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t c a t e g o r i e s . I found that the mos t

t e l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e : 1 ) a t t i t u d e t o w ar d t h e f u n c -

t i o n i n g c u l t , 2 ) p o s i t i o n w i th i n th e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f

the community a n d 3 ) the nature o f the expres sed fu tu re hope

a n d judgment. The two co ns te l l a t io n s o f thought formed b y

t h e s e a t t i t u d e s a n d motifs became sources o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o rt h e l a t e r p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s , who d i d n o t h av e t o co nt en d

with t he community d i v i s i o n o f t h e e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c y e a r s .

As I s a i a h and Micah h a d u t i l i z e d themes a t t ached t o the Jeru-

salem Temple and Amos and Hosea ( b o t h prophets to the Nor-

~ ~~

5 4 3 . 3 , Blenkinsopp, Prophecy and Canon, pp.128-138.



213

thern Kingdom of Is rae l ) had not , s o t he p o s t - e x i l i c p ro -

p h et s and t r a d i t i o n i s t s c o ul d u t i l i z e co nc ep ts from th e e a r -

l i e r , more r i g i d t h e o c r a t i c a n d c o n v e n t i c l e p e r s p e c t i v e s .

I In tend t o ex am in e Z e c h a r i a h ' s r o l e i n t he l a t e r pr o-

p h e t i c movement and t o i n v e s t i g a t e h i s p o s s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s

t o t h e p r o p h e t f c and a p o c a l y p t i c t r a d i t i o n s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

s e c t i o n s .

In chap te r two , I emphas ized the fac t o f Z e c h a r i a h ' s

indebt edness t o Jeremiah , Ezek ie l and Deutero -Isa iah i n the

f raming o f h i s messages . The p a r a l l e l s between Zechar i ah 1-8

a n d the books o f these prophets , t aken wlth Z e c h a r i a h ' s

r e f e r n e c e s t o t h e ' f o r m e r p r o p h e t s' , a l l o w th e c o n c lu s i on s

that Z e ch a ri a h f e l t h f ms e lf a part of the movement which i n -

c luded these p rophe t s a n d t h e i n h e r i t o r o f t h e p r o p h e t i c

t r a d i t i o n i n which they h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d . T he ir w r i t i n g s

determined his t h e o l o g i c a l l i m i t s , p r o v i d e d h i m with h i s

t he ma ti c m o t if s and l a r g e l y i n f l u e nc e d h i s l i t e r a r y s t y l e .

I n determ ining Z ech ar iah ' s p l ac e among his p r o p h e t i c

con tempora r i es , I c h o s e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e c u l t a n d p o l i -

t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s a s most i n d i c a t i v e . Z e ch a ri a h c ho se t o

p l a c e h i s w e i g h t b eh in d t he l e a d e r s h i p o f the community inso-

f a r a s i t - p a r t i c f p a t e d i n t h e Te m p l e r e b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t . B u t

d i d h e , a t t h e same t i me , r e j e c t t h e c u r r e n t a l t e r n a t e p o s i -

t i o n s ( e . g . t h a t o f t h e a u t h o r s o f Tr i t o - I s a i a h ) on t h i s sub-

j e c t ? As I have shown , Tr i t o - I sa i ah a n d Z e c h a r i a h e x h i b i t e d



214

many common themes a n d s h a r e d i n s p i r a t i o n in the messages o f

De ut er o- Is ai ah . However, they came down on op po si te s id e s o f

a n i mp or ta nt f e n c e: Tr i t o - I s a i a h became i n c re a s i n g l y c r i t i -

c a l of t he community le a d e rs a n d r e je c t ed t h e i r e f f o r t s t o

r e b u i l d Ya h w e h l s Temple a s immoral; Zechariah supported both.

T h i s i s s u e i n e v i t a b l y c o l o r e d t h e i r vie ws o f t he f u t u r e , t he

d e s ti n y of the community a n d Yahweh's re l a t i on sh ip to the

p e o p l e .

While I do not f i n d evidence to suppor t the v iew t h a t

Z e c h a r i a h r e j e c t e d Tr i t o - I s a i a h a n d his v iews on many secon-

d a ry s u b j e c t s , Z e c h a ri a h d i d a s s e r t t h e r eq ui re m en t o f t h e5 4 4

rebuilding of the Templ-e ( c p . I s . 66:l and Zech. 8:9-11).

T h e re fo re , Z e c h a r i a h may b e l a b e l l e d a t h e o c ra t i c p ro p h e t a n d

Tr i t o - I s a i a h a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e e s c h a t o -

l o g i c a l c o n v e n t i c l e . Z e ch a ri a h d i d not condi t ion Yahweh's

w i l l i n g n e s s t o b l e s s t he Jews upon t h e i r beh avior . Wi th in

the con tex t o f p romised b l e ss ing , he u rged e th i ca l ac t ions

a n d general moral improvement (e.g. 7:9-10, 8:16-17; c p . I s .

56:9-12, 57:1-10, 58:l-7, 59:l-8, e t c . ) . He c a l l e d t h e

p e op l e not t o r e p e a t th e f o l l i e s o f th e p a s t a n d to work to-ward communal we l l -b e i ng . Zechar iah as se r te d the b less edn ess

o f the community i n i t s p r e s e n t form and condition: Yahweh

had determined to bless the Jews (1:16) and there was n o t h i n g

5 4 4 . Zechar i ah d S d n o t i d e n t i f y with t h e r e s t r i c t i o n so f t he theoc racy, t he re w a s no invec t ive aga ins t t he con -v e n t i c l e a n d he d i d no t equa te the ' b r a n c h ' a b s o l u t e l y withthe community leaders ( e i t h e r Z e ru b b a b e l or J o s h u a ) .



2 1 5

t o s t a y H i m from that course o f act ion , not even the presence

o f wickedness within the community (cf. 5:1-11).

Those prophets cons idere d Zecha r iah 's succe ssor s i n the

prophetic movement were those w h o f o l l o w e d h i s l e a d i n sup-

p o r t i n g a n d working with in the theo cracy . This d id not mean

t h a t t h ey w e r e t o t a l l y s u p p o r t i v e o f i t s i n s t i t u t i on s a n d i n

s u b s e r v i e n c e t o i t ; t he p r op he ts were f r e e t o c r i t i c i z e a s

w e l l a s t o commend. These pr op he ts would ho ld t o t h e f o l -

l ow i ng e s s e n t i a l t e n e t s : 1 ) t h e b e n e f i t s o f the covenant

were ascendant to the moral demands o f t h a t covenant , 2 ) the

sa lv a t io n / de l iv e r an ce o f Yahweh na tu ra l ly inc luded the whole

community a n d 3 ) the punishment meted out to the community

w a s b as i ca l l y t emp o r a r y.

On the b a s i s o f th es e s tatemen ts , I found that Zecha-

r i a h ' s succe sso r s in the p rophe t ic movement were the Le v i t i -

cal prophets o f t h e C h r o n i c l e r a n d t h e cu l t i c p r o p h e t s o f

w h o m Joel was r e p r e s e n t a t t v e . P o s t - e x i l i c p ro p he t ic c i r -

5 4 5

546

c l e s r e p r e s e n t e d by Tr i t o - I s a i a h , D e u t e r o - I s a i a h a n d Malachi5 4 7

have b e e n excluded from t h f s movement.

I t i s ap p a r ent t h a t t h e Lev i t i c a l p r op h et s w er e su pp or-

5 4 5 . 60 von R a d , 'The Levitical Sermon in I a n d I1Chronfc les ' , The Pro b l em o f the Hexateuch and Other Essays,pp.267-280; CP. D. L . P e te r s en , l a t e I s r a e l I e Prophecy,

5 4 6 . E . Sel l in - G . Fohre r, In t roduc t ion to the OldTestament, pp.429f.

547 . Although I have noted tha t the c i r c l e s b e h i n d

t h e s e works w er e o r t g i n a l l y sup o r t i v e o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o np r o j e c t ( c f . Zech. 9 , I s , 60-62 n d Temple cult , I have ex-eluded them because t h e i r suppor t was t ra ns i t or y.

p p . 5 5 - 9 6 .





217

t e a c h e r s c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d with t h e d i d a c t i c e n t e r p r i s e o f

Temple c i r c l es ( e x h o r ta t i o n s p r a c t i c a l a pp l i c a t i o n , d o c t r i n e

a n d i n s t r u c t i o n ) a n d would, i n th is regard, approach some o f

t he a c t i v i t i e s o f s c r i b a l g ro up s. W hi le t he r e i s a5 4 9

q u e s t i o n a s t o how the Levit ical sermon-forms may be separa-

t ed from the Chro n i s t i c au tho rs , t hey were ce r t a i n l y rep re -

s e n t a t i v e o f a l a t e r p o s t - e x i l i c g r o u p which assumed a con-

n e c t i o n with t he ea r l i e r segmen t s o f the prophetic move-5 5 0

ment.J o el r e p re s e n t e d th e Temple l i t u r g i s t s which c a l l e d t h e

p e o p l e t o a u th e n ti c dependence upon God through His chosen

i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e b a c k g r o u n d o f the Temple's mythic5 5 1

t r a d i t i o n s p r o v i d e d h i m p i c t u r es o f Yahweh's ac t s o f d e l i v e -

ranc e . Joe l v iewed the su rv iv a l o f the lo cu s t p l ague a s t he

r e s u l t o f God's work ( 2 : 1 8 f f . ) , a t y p e o f H i s f i n a l d e l i v e -

r a n c e ( 2 9 8 - 3 2 , 3:9-21).

Whi le Joe l a n d the L e v i t i c a l prophets may be con side red

s u c c e s s o r s t o Z ec ha ri ah c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y, t h e re was l i t t l e

ev idence sugges t ing the na ture of the connect ion be tween

them a n d Zec haria h. Evidence po int ed toward a r e l a t i o n s h i p

between Zechariah 1-8 and the Levit ical sermon-form: 1 )

Zech. 4 : l O b w a s quoted i n I 1 C h r o n . 16:9 a n d 2 ) t h e r e a r e

fo rm -c r i t i c a l s im i l a r i t i e s between Zech . 1 :Z-6, 7 :4-14 a n d

549. 3 . Btenkinsopp, op. c i t . , pp .132-138 .5 5 0 . I b i d . , p . 1 3 5 .5 5 1 . H.W. Wo l ff , J o e l a n d Amos, p p . l l f .



218

5 5 28:1-23.and the l a t e r sermon-form. W.A.M. Beuken's theory

o f Lev i t i c a l r ew o r k in g o f most o f t h i s Zechar ian mater ia l has

g ai ne d ve ry l i t t l e s c h o l a r l y s u pp or t, f o r he has overs tated

h is cas e. However, I do accept his premise o f a connection

between Zechariah 1-8 a n d t h e c i r c l e s b eh in d t h e Lev i t i c a l

prophets .

Zechariah 1-8 i s not t o be in te rp re ted i n l i g h t o f the

theology o f t h e C h r o n i c l e r ; t h e r e must b e r eco g n i t i o n o f a

d i s t i n c t i o n between Zech a r i ah ' s f u tu r e o r i e n t a t i o n a n d themore pract ica l a n d non-future or ie nt ed concern i n the Lev i -

t i c a l prophets . There was a sense i n the Chronic les , perhaps

echoed in the Le v i t i c a l sermons, that the re s t or ed community

was eternal, a tendency n o t e x p l i c i t l y s ta te d i n Zechariah

1 8 . Z e c h a r i a h d i d n o t m a n i f e s t l i t u rg i c a l or d i d a c t i c

c h a r a c t e r ~ s t ~ c s . However, looking a t Zechar iah a s a proto-

type o f t h e L e v i t i c a l p r o p h e t s y i e l d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1 ) the

manner i n which Ze cha ria h s tood a s a spokesman f o r Yahweh a t

a c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e o f I s r a e l ' s h i s t o ry was s i m i l a r t o t h e

l a t e r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f L e v i t i c a l p r o p h e t i c a c t i v i t y and 2 ) the

ind iv idua l messages o f Zechariah approximated, i n a verygenera7 way, the Le v t t f c a ? sermon-form c f . Zech. 8:l-8, d o c -

t r i n e ; 8 : 9 a , e x h o r t a t i o n ; 8:9b, a p p l i c a t i o n ) .5 5 3

The point o f connection between Zechariah a n d the l a t e r

552 . W.A.M. Beuken, a p -.i t 8 pp.84-102,138-135,156-

5 5 3 . G o von Rad, - r t . c l t . , p . 2 7 1 .173.

.



219

L e v i t i c a l p rop h et s a p p ea r s t o have been t h e l a t e r i n t e rp re -

t a t i o n of Z e c h a r i a h ' s m i n i s t r y a n d message.

generat ions could have honored h i m as a f a i t h f u l prophet who

helped the na t ion and i t s l e a d e r s t h ro u g h a d i f f i c u l t pe rio d

o f t ime, Their a p p r a i s a l o f h i m would have inev i t ab ly been

f a v o r a b l e : 1 ) he had been instrumental i n t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f

the Temple, 2 ) he h a d been faithful to Yahweh a n d the commu-

n i t y a n d 3 ) he had been r e p re s e n t a t i v e o f v a l u e s c h e r i s h e d

by the later community,

Subsequent

I n p r e c i s e l y t h i s way the Lev i t i ca l f i gu res s tood ou t

among th e i r po s t -e x i l i c con tempora ri e s : 1 ) s t and ing firm

f o r Yahweh a n d 2 ) p o i n t i n g t he way th ro ug h h i s t o r i c a l c r i s e s ,

Z e c h a r i a h c a n , t h e r e fo re , b e s e e n a s i n f l u e n t i a l i n the

development o f t h e p r o p h e t i c a c t i v l t y r e f l e c t e d in t he Lev i -

t i c a l p r o p h e t s o f th e C h r o n i c le r , a l b e i t i n d i r e c t l y. H is

m in is t r y may have been a p r o t o t y p e f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e d e v e l o p -

ment o f t h i s l a t e r ph as e o f p r o p he t ic a c t i v i t y .

A connection between Zechariah a n d Joe l was more d i f f i -

c u l t t o i n v e s t i g a t e b e ca us e t h e r e was l i t t l e t o work with be-

y o n d t h e l i t e r a r y works a s s o c i a t e d wlth them, The evidence

was c i rcumstan t i a l r ega rd ing a m o re e x t e n s i v e p o s t - e x i l i c

prophetic movement (wi th J oe l i t s s o l e s u r v i v i n g re p r e se n t a-

t i v e ) . However, some evid enc e d o e s e x i s t : 1 ) t h e c i r c u l a -

t i o n o f c e r t a i n k i n d s o f psa lmic mat er ia l re qu i re d a prophe-

t i c - s t y l e e x pr e ss io n ( c f . P s . 9 5 ) i n t he po s t -e x i f i c Temple



2 2 0

5 5 4c u l t ; 2 ) the mythic descript ions employed in Tr i t o - I s a i a h ,

Deutero-Zechariah a n d Malach i ind ica ted t h a t such concepts

were i n use a n d re le va nt a f t e r the e x i l e . They were means

whereby authors could make statements about Yahweh a n d H i s

purpose f o r , t h e community a n d the na t ions ; a n d 3 ) w h i l e the

f i g u r e o f Jonah may have been a lampoon o f ( p r e - e x i l i c ? )

prophecy, i t n ev e r th e l e s s d i d s u b s t an t i a t e t h e c l a im t h a t

t h e r e e x i s t e d a pos t -exi l lc not ion about prophecy which t h e

a u t h o r used. There were, however, no s p e c i f i c ff gu re s which

would prove the exis tence o f other prophets whose message a n d

r n f n i s t r y p a r a l l e l ed t h o s e o f J o e l .

I f we assume t h a t the re were o th er p rophe ts l i k e Joe l

in t he p o s t - e x f l i c p e r i o d a tt ac h ed t o th e t h e o c r a t i c c i r c l e s

around the derusalem Temple, there can be a t e n t a t i v e

f l e s h i n g - o u t o f t h e i r r o l e . To a d eg r ee , a burden was p laced

upon the theocracy ( a n d c u l t ) to exp res s the community's

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e n a t i o n s : 1 ) t o explain the supremacy o f

f o r e i g n n a t i o n s a n d the r e la t ive weakness o f t h e Jews a n d

2 ) t o g i v e witness to the un iver sa l K ingsh ip o f Yahweh ( a s

p as t g en e r a t i o n s h a d d o n e w i t h i n t h e i r 1 irni ted p o l I i c a lawa ren ess ) . The Psalms prov ided m ul t i pl e examples t o i l l u s -

t r a t e th i s a c t i v i t y : 9:20, 22:27-28, 4 7 : 3 , 67:4, 72, 8 2 8 ,5 5 5

86:9, 96:10-13.

5 5 4 . G.W. Anderson, 'Psalms ' , PCB ( r e v. e d . ) , e d. M O

B l a c k , p . 4 3 4 , s t a t e d t h a t t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f mater ia l sucha s Ps. 9 5 and 9 6 required someone w t t h i n the cu7t to expressi t . I s u g g e s t t h a t J o e l would have some connection with thecult personnel who d f d t h i s .



221

The fur ther Zechar iah a n d Joel a r e compared, th e

g r e a t e r t h e d i f f i c u l t y in placing them i n the same prophetic

cat eg o ry . Whi le they sha red the common ground o f t h e c u l t

mi l ieu , Joel was uniformly a Temple l i t u r g i s t ( e i t h e r by

b a c k g r o u n d o r p r e d i l e c t i o n ) a n d Z e ch a ri ah was h a l f l i t e r a r y

v i s i o n a r y, h a l f a prophet with a pu b l ic min i s t ry . Both

shared a common inspiration i n the prophet Ezekiel ; however,

Joel p icked u p the language a n d motif o f Ezek. 3 8 - 3 9 , w h i l e

Zech a r i ah f o l l o w ed Ezek l e l ' s u s e o f the crypt ic e lements ofsymbolism a n d v i s i o n ( c f . Ezek. 1-3,8-11,17).

The major conclusions I have d r a w n concerning the pos-

s i b i l i t y o f cont inui ty between Zechar iah , Joel a n d the Lev i -

t ica l prophets are . : 1 ) a l l th re e shared the same concern

f o r t he community, i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d i t s l e a d e r s ( i . e .

that t h e y b e f a i t h f u l t o Yahweh a s a n ex p r e s s io n o f t h e i r

awareness that Yahweh w a s I s r ae l ' s K in g ) . The p ro ph et s a l l

m in i s t e r ed with in the co re o f the theocracy a n d d i d not sepa-

rate themselves from i t in their demands f o r community

r ig h t eo u s n es s .

upon the community as a whole, with l t t t l e r eg ar d f o r thep u r i f i c a t i o n of that community; 2 ) t h e r e w a s no evidence of

a d i r e c t , s u b s t a n t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between any two o f these

T h e s a lv a t i o n t h ey en v i s io n ed w a s bestowed

c i t p p . 2 8 5 - 2 9 3 , s t a t e dF =,5 5 5 . E. S e l l i n - G . F o h r e r,

tha t a h i g h precentage o f thesec u l t f c ( d e r i v e d f r o m c u l t i c u s a g e ) .

s a lms were pos t - ex i l i c a n d



2 2 2

p r o p h e t s / p r o p h e t i c g r o u p .

l a n g u a g e , l i t e r a r y s t y l e a n d f o r m o f m i n i s t r y ; a n d 3 )

Z e c h a r i a h s t o o d a s a f i g u r e a p a r t . There was n o i n d i c a t i o n

t h a t he i n s p i r e d o t h e r s t o com e a f t e r h i m a n d t o a ss u m e h i s

k i n d o f m i n i s t r y . This e v i d e n c e m u s t l e a d t o the c o n c l u s i o n

t h a t i t would b e i l l - a d v i s e d t o p o s t u l a t e an i m m ed ia t e o r

o n g o i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the p r o p h e t i c m ov em en t by Z e c h a r i a h

t h r o u g h h i s m in i s t ry.

They were d i s t i n c t r e g a r d f n g

111. Z e c h a r i a h a nd the ' P r o p h e t i c W o r l d - V i e w '

O . H . S t e c k , i n h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f a ' t h e o l o g i c a l s t r e a m

o f t r a d i t i o n , s t a t e d t h a t s u c h a m o v em en t r e q u i r e d : 1 ) an

o n g o i n g g r o u p with a r e g u l a r meeting p l a c e , 2 ) a n e x t e n s i v e

i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y co m b i n ed wi th a v i a b l e an d c o m p r eh en -

s i v e c o n c e p t o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 3 ) an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f time

f o r r e f l e c t i o n , d i s c u s s i o n a n d i n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s s t a t e -556

ment r a i s e d t he q u e s t i o n i m p o r t a n t f o r the s t u d y o f the p r o -

p h e t i c m ov em en t a nd t r a d i t i o n : Was t h e r e a t rue p r o p h e t i c

t h e o l o g i c a l s t r e a m o f t r a d i t i o n ?

I t h a s b e e n n o t e d t h a t 016 T e s ta m en t s c h o l a r s h i p h a s

b e e n u n a b l e t o p r o d u c e a s a t i s f a c t o r y d e f i n i t i o n o f the term

' p r o p h e t ' o r a n a c c e p t a b l e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h o s e f a c t o r s

w h i c h l i n k e d the d i v e r s e p r o p h e t i c f i g u r e s . S t e c k a l l o w e d

55C. O.H. S t e c k , ' T h e o l o g i c a l S t r e a m s o f T r a d i t i o n ' ,T r a d i t i o n a n d T h e o l o g y .fn the O l d T e s t a m e n t , ed . D . A . K n i g h t ,p p . 1 9 4 - 1 9 6 .



223

t h a t t h e p r o p h e t i c ' t h e o l o g i c a l s tr ea m' o r i g i n a t e d n o t i n

t h e p r o d u c t i o n b u t t h e r ecep t i o n o f the messages o f the pro-

p h e t s . I t was af ter the prophets h a d spoken, when pro-

p h e t i c t radi t ion i s t s began to r epea t the p rophe t ic messages

and t o e l a b o r a t e on them through exposit ion a n d i n s t r u c t i o n ,

t h a t t h e v a r io u s e lement s of S t eck ' s d e f i n i t i o n b egan t o

come in to foc us . However, th i s a l s o happened a f t e r the

w r i t i n g s o f severa l p rophe t s h a d become associated with n o n -

p r o p h e t i c t h e o lo g i c a l s tr eams ( c f . Jer emiah a n d the deutero-

nomis t ic s t ream and Ezekie l a n d t h e p r i e s t l y - t h e o c r a t i c

t r a d i t i o n ) , d u ri n g the e r a when t h e f o r c e o f the p rophe t ic

movement began t o b e a f f e c t e d by e x t e r n a l , p o l i t i c a l p re s-

s u r e a n d began t o d i s s i p a t e .

557

The dimensions o f t h i s l i n e o f i n v es t i g a t i o n can be r e -

cogn ized as t h e f o l l o w i n g : I ) the na tu re o f the 'on-going

g r o u p ' a n d t h e l o c a t i o n o f t he ' r e g u l a r meetin g p l a c e ' . In

t h e ca s e o f th e pr op he ti c movement, these s ub je ct s remain

unexp lo red due to l ack o f ev idence ; a n d 2 ) t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

o f a n ' e x t e n s i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y ' a n d a ' v i a b l e a n d

comprehens ive concep t o f ex i s tence ' within the prophetic move-

ment.

G . Von R a d argued that the Jews were not capable o f a

w o rl d -v i ew s i n c e , f o r them, e x i s t e n c e w a s n o t ' b e in g ' s o m u c h

a s i t was ' e v e n t ' , ( i . e . t he y d i d n o t n a t u r a l l y c o n c e i v e o f a

5 5 7 . I b i d ' pp.20lf .



2 2 4

f ramework i n t o which events coul d be p la ced i n o r d e r t o g i v e

them s i g n i f i c a n c e ) . There were no Hebrew words fo r the

Greek c o 8 m o s a n d t i m e . He stated t h a t the Jews developed a

l i n e a r concept o f e v e n t- h i s t o ry which f i t t e d w e l l t he p r o -

p he ts ' a b i l i t y to s p e a k to change as i t occurred i n the

so c i e ty . T h e p r o p h e t i c l i t e r a t u r e o f the O l d Testament5 5 8

gave l i t t l e i n d i c at i on o f a p o s s i b l e ' p r o p h e t i c w o r l d - v i e w '

( a n a r t i f i c i a l s y n t h e s i s o f the p rophe t ic mate r ia l would no t

y i e l d r e s u l t s o f any v a l ue ) ; i t y i e l d e d f a r more evidence t osuppor t the v i e w that the ind iv idua l p rophe t s appropr ia ted

current not ions and concepts a s v e h i c l e s f o r t h e i r t ho ug ht s.

I n t h i s t h e p r o p h e t s w e r e d ep en dent upon t h e i r s o c i o l o g i c a l

s e t t i n g ; t h e i r use o f th e a v a i l a b l e c on ce pt s i n d i c a t e d t h e i r

independence.

I t appears tha t , g iven the l tmi ta t ions p laced upon them

by t h e c ir cu ms t an c es o f t h e i r m i n i s t r i e s , t he p r op he ts e f -

f e c t i v e l y c r i t i c i z e d t h e i r s o c i e t y ' s s ho rt- co min gs , b u t

c a l l e d that s o c i e t y b a c k t o i t s own i d e a l s a n d not toward a

new form o f community. These I d e a l s were those o f I s r a e l ' s

c o v e n a n t f a i t h .

3 . M u i l en b e rg , i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e n a t u r e o f the f a i t h o f

the prophets , gave p lace to the covenants made by Yahweh

with Moses and David. These covenants contai ned elements5 5 9

5 5 8 . G o von Rad, Old Testament Theology 1 1 , pp.99-112.5 5 9 . 3 . Muilenberg , ' O l d 7estament Prophecy' , - C B

( r e v. e d . ) , e d. M. Black, p .482.



2 2 5

560which could only be held in tens ion : the Mosaic Covenant

promised Yahweh's b l es s i n g upon I s r a e l , con di t io ned upon her

obe dien ce t o His Torah. The Da vi di c Covenant promi sed, u n -

c o n d i t i o n a l l y, t he s u r v i v a l o f the D a v i di c d yn as ty f o r a l l

t ime . Each p r op h et u t i l i z e d f ea tu r e s o f these covenan ts to

s u b s t an t i a t e t h e p r o c l ama t io n o f Yahweh's w i l l f o r a p a r t i -

c u l a r s i t u a t io n .

I t i s n e c e s s ar y t o r e c o g n i ze that the concept of a cove-

nan t wou ld no t be ex tens ive enough to qua l i fy as a wor ld -v i ew. I t w a s a n ' e v e n t ' , around which o t h e r l i f e e x p e r i -

ences could be o r d e r ed . The m u 1t i p l e c o v e n a n t s o f I s r a e l ' s561

p a s t enabled her t o comprehend her re la t ionship with Yahweh,

b u t n o t h e r ex i s t en ce p e r s e . Although the out look o f an

i n d i v i d u a l p r o p h e t was a p a r t i a l r e f l e c t i o n and r e o r i e n t a t i o n

o f t he s o c i e t y ' s c u r r e n t i d e a s , the e a r l i e r c ov en an ts we re

only echoed i n t h e p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s .

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g i v e credence t o the p o s s i b i l i t y o f

a wor ld -v iew ( i n a fu l ly -deve loped fo rm) i n t h e e a r l y p o s t -

e x i l i c pr op he ts f o r s e v e ra l r ea so ns : 1 ) any at tempt to con-

s t r u c t a common outlook based upon the prophetic l i terature

c o u l d o n l y p r o d u c e a n a r t i f i c i a l s y n t h e s i s , a un i t y ach ieved

a t the expense o f t he p ro ph et s ' i n d i v i d u a l i t y ; 2 ) a r e l a t e d

mat te r invo lved the concep ts a n d mo t i f s a ccep t ed by the i n -

560. 3. Brfght, o

.c l t . , pp.221-223.

5 6 1 . G. v a n R a d , -6I d Ts t a m e n t Theology I , p.152.



226

d i v i d u a l prophe t s i n the development o f t h e i r messages . The

d i f f e r en t m i l i eu s o f t h e n o r th e r n k in g d o m a n d the southern

Jerusalem Temple c u l t f ramed, t o some de gr ee , the though t of

the prophets t hr ou gh t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s ph er es o f i n f l u e n c e ;

3 ) t h e l i t e r a r y a n d i d ea t i o n a l co n n ec t ed n es s o f t h e p r o p h e t i c

w r i t i n g s was subord ina ted to the impor tance o f the i n d i v l d u a l

prophet 's immediate message ( b u t l e s s t r u e i n t h e p o s t - e x i l i c

pe r i od ) to the community. The l i t e r a r y connectedness i s then

r eco g n ized a s r e s t i n g u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e v a r io u s

th eo lo g i ca l s t r e ams o f t r a d i t i o n ; 4 ) I s r a e l d i d n o t a s p i r e t o

a comprehens ive wor ld-v iew un t i l she was subjected to the

H e l l e n i s t i c i n v a s i on which s t a r t e d i n the four th cen tu ry

B . C . The sense o f 'mys tery ' i n e x i s t e n c e h a d been accep-562

t ed by e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n s( C f B

the uncer ta in ty of 'know-* l e d g e ' v i s - h i s the a c t i v e n a tu re o f Yahweh which many o f

the p rophe t s h a d embraced) .

The r o l e o f Zech a r i ah i n t h e p e r p etu a t i o n o f t h e p r o-

phetic movement was profoundly inf lunced by t h e h i s t o r i c a l

s i t u a t i o n i n which he l ived a n d by the p r o ph e t ic ' h e r i t a g e '

assumed by h i m . T h e e x i l e h a d occas ioned a r e v i t a l i z a t i o n

o f th e p r o p h e t i c movement. The 'pro ph et s o f doom' had been

exonera ted ; bu t they h a d a l s o g i v en l e g i t i m a t i o n t o t h e

' pr o ph e ts o f s a l v a t i o n ' through t h e i r p r e d i c t i o n s ' o f t h e r e -

5 6 2 . C f . G . von R a d , Wi s d o m i n I s rae l , pp .13-14 ,73 ,113,198-199.



2 2 7

s t o r a t i o n o f the community,

The t h r e e ma j o r p r o ph e t s o f t he e x i l e w er e a s s o c i a t e d ,

t h r o u g h t h e i r c o l l e c t e d m e s s a g e s , with independent theo lo-

g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s . The w r i t i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h J eremiah

had been cas t i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r m o f the deuterono-

m i s t i c t r a d i t i o n i s t s , E ze ki el and h i s d i s c i p l e s h a d prophe-

t i c a l l y a c t i v a t e d the Jerusalem p r i e s t l y t r a d i t i o n s .

Deu t e ro - I sa i ah had adap ted the un i ve r sa l e l ement s o f the c u l t

t r a d i t i o n o f i m m i n e n t s a l v a t i o n t o t h e r e l e a s e f r o m e x i l e .Z e c h a r i a h ' s u t j l i t a t i o n o f each o f these p rophet ic works i n

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h i s messages was ind ica t ive o f a p rocess

o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n w i t h i n the pr op he ti c movement. The s t a t e -

ment t h a t Zecha r i ah 1-13 may be ta ke n a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f

much o f J u d a i sm was not too wide o f the mark. That i t5 6 3

r e p r e s e n t e d a n at tempt t o summarize the theology o f the p ro-

p h e t i c movement app ear s as a n a t t r a c t i v e way t o i n t e r p r e t

the p rophe t ' s messages .

P r i o r t o Z e c ha r ia h 's e r a , s c r i b a l i s m h a d been supple-

menting a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y s u p p l a n t i n g p r o p h e t f s m a s a f o r c e

in t he community, g en e r a l i z in g the d i s t i n c t i v e themes o f the

e a r l i e r p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s a n d a d o p t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

f e a t u r e s o f t h e p r o p h e ti c o f f i c e f o r i t s own u se . The p o si -

t i o n o f M a l a c h i , f o r e xa mp le , c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d a s ' p r o -

563, W O E oBarnes , Haggai and Zechar iah , p . x x i i i .



2 2 8

564phecy w i t h i n t h e l a w ' . Ben S i r a appeared as the culmina-

t i o n of the merging o f t h e p r o p h e t i c o f f i c e i n t o t h e f i g u r e

o f t h e s c r i b e ; many fo rms once assoc ia ted w i t h the p rophe ts

appeared i n h i s w r i t i n g s a n d he reduced the hope of t h e p r o -

phe ts t o a s i n g l e s c e n e o f God's redemption (36:l-17).565

Th e co a l e scen ceof d i v e r g e n t t r a d i t i o n s i n w r i t t e n form was

i l l u s t r a t i v e o f c e r t a i n p e r i o d s o f l a t e r p o s t - e x i l i c J u d a -

ism. The a u t h o r i t y o f t h e w r i t t e n word i n c r e a s e d i n J u d a -566

i sm, b u t t h a t a u t h o r i t y d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e x e r c i s e a b s o lu t esway over Jewish t h o u g h t . I t remained open t o the encroach-

ments o f ex te rn a l i n f lu en ces su ch a s t h o sefrom P e r s i a a n d

Greece.Zech ar iah s unders tanding o f h i s e r a was wholly d e t e r -

mined by his apprehension o the messages o f t h e fo rmer.p rophe ts ( 1 :4 , 7:7,12). The covenant re la t ionship between

Yahweh a n d I s r a e l d i d n o t appear w i t h t h e s a m e v i t a l i t y a s

i n t h e se p red eces so r s ; t h e re were o n l y echoes ( c f . Zech. 8 : 8 b

a s a refrain borrowed from E z e k i e l ) w h i c h l a c k e d i n t e n s i t y,

while conveying a comple te ly s incere message .Zechar iah 1-13 represented Yahweh a s t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t God

o f t h e whole w o r l d (1:13, 4:1-14), moreso t h a n e l sewhere i n

t h e O l d Testament. Zechar iah p ic t ure d i m as independent o f

564. G.A. S m i t h , The B o o k o f the Twelve Prophets , v o l .

2 , pp.348-372, used t h i s phrase as th e t i t l e o f t h e c h a p t e ron M a l a c h i ; c f . a l so , A . Lods, The Prophets a n d t h e R i s e o fJudaism, p . 2 7 9 .5 6 5 . 3 . Hengel , Hellenism a n d Judaism, v o l . 1 , pp.134-136 O G



2 2 9

I s r a e l , f r e e l y c h o o s i n g t o i n v o l v e Himself i n the continued

e x i s t e n c e o f His people (l:l6).

Zechariah a ss er te d Yahweh s tn ten tfo n t o p u n i s h s i n .

He spoke o f punishment o f p a s t s i n s (1:6, 7:12), as well a s

t h e p re sen t co n d i t i o n o f the community (5:l-4) a n d the per-

s o n i f i c a t i o n o f evil which h a d made I s rae l unc lean k 5 - 1 1 ) .

Yahweh w a s viewed by Zechariah, however, as a God o f

s a l v a t i o n ( I A 6 - 1 7 , 2:4-5,10-13). He was seen as f a f t h f u l

t o perform His promises o f the pas t (8:l-8,15). The s a l -

v a t i o n o f which Zechariah spoke was imminent, a d i r e c t r e s u l t

o f Yahweh s d e c is io n t o r e l e a s e t h e Jews from e x i l e , a n d i t

was t o be t h e f i n a l a c t o f r e s t o r a t i o n (8:11-13). I t w o u l d

bestow p r o s p e r i t y, s e c u r i t y a n d happiness u p o n t h e people

( 8 : 4 - 5 ) a n d , subsequen t ly, u p o n the na t ions (2:11, 8:20-23).

I s r a e l s l o n g h i s t o r y o f d isobed ience t o Yahweh s T o r a h

h a d r e s u l t e d i n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f Je rusa lem, t h e p a r a d i g m

o f Yahweh s j u d g m e n t o f I s r a e l s r e b e l li o u s n e s s (7:ll-14).

Zechariah foresaw, however, the t i m e when t h e people w o u l d

ex p e r i en ce t h e b l e s s e d n e s s o f Yahweh, w h i c h would inc lude the

reb u f ld in g o f Jerusalem a n d t h e v i l l a g e s o f J u d a h (1:16-17),a n d w o u l d con du ct t hemse lv es n a tu ra l l y a s b e f i t t i n gt h e i r

s p e c i a l s t a n d i n g (3:lo).

Yahweh h a d appointed h u m a n agenc ies i n t h e p a s t t h r o u g h

. c i t . , p.273; O . H . S t e c k , - r t .

F66. C f . P O D . Hanson,

c i t . p p . 2 0 9 f . ; O . H . S t e c k ,W c h S c k d e r P r o p h e t e n , pp.205f. s r a r u n d das gewaltsame



230

which I s r a e l was gu ided : p roph e t , p r i e s t a n d k i n g . Zecha-

r i a h , a s a p r o p h e t , s a w h i m s e l f as a r e c i p i e n t o f t h e word

o f Yahweh a n d t h e p r o p h e t s g e n e r a l l y a s t h e communicators o f

t h a t word t o I s r a e l (1:5-6, 7:7,12). The prophet was, o f

t h e th r e e o f f i c e s , l e a s t t i ed t o t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f s o c i e t y

a l t h o u g h t h i s b o n d v a r i e d from prophet t o prophe t ) .

c a l l e d t h e peop le from s i n (1:Z-6) a n d directed them t o Yati-

weh a n d His Torah ( k 3 , 7:12). The p r i e s t was given respon-

s i b i l i t y for the Temple o f Yahweh (3 :7 ) arid f o r t h e s p i r i t u a lw e l l - b e i n g o f t h e people ( 3 : 9 ) . The k i n g w a s r a t h e r v a g u e l y

r e p r e s e n t e d by Zerubbabel 4:G-7) a n d by t h e f ig u r e o f t h e

b r a n c h 3 : E , 6:12). Zerubbabe l s r o l e i n t h e f u t u r e o f

t h e community was n o t w e l l - d e f i n e d , t h e only s p e c i f i c f u n c -

t i o n g iven h i m w a s t o b u i l d the Temple ; th e ' b r anch ' wa s

i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e one t o r u l e o v e r t h e p e o p l e o f Yah weh ( c f .

6 3 2 , 4 : C , 9 ) .

He

I t w as through t h e p r o p h e t s , a cco r d in g t o Z e c h a r i a h ,

t h a t Yahweh s p o k e t o His people . He referrcu s p e c i f i c a l l y

t o Yahweh s s p i r i t , H i s words a n d To ra h (1:2-6, 7:8-12).

The w o r d s a n d To ra h o f Yahweh appeared a s t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e

p r o p h e t i c m e s s a g e , w h i l e th e s p i r i t (7:12) w a s a n a c t i v e

f o r c e i n the p rophe t who d e l i v e r e d t h e message. Acceptance

o f t h i s message induced repen tanc e i n the people ( 1 : 2 - 4 ) o r

i f i t w e r e r e j e c t e d , w o u l d i n c u r j u d g m e n t (7:11-14). Z e c h a -

r i a h ment ioned ange ls as t h e med ia to r s o f t h e d iv in e messag e(1:9,13-14), a s t was e n t r u s t e d t o h i m s e l f I f t h e f i g u r e s



231

o f t h e v i s i o n s a r e t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d as a n g e l s , t h e y a l s o

were viewed as c a r r y i n g Yahweh s message a n d performing His

purposes i n t h e w o r l d (2:1,9; 6:l-8).

The e x i l i c p r o p h e t s h a d been concerned w i t h the arena

o f h i s t o r y a s i t h a d impinged u p o n I s r a e l a n d the manner i n

which Yahweh w o u l d a c t t o a c h i e v e H i s o b j e c t i v e sw i t h i n t h i s

continuum. Ze ch ar ia h follo we d them in t h i s p u r su i t. A f t e r

Zechar iah s e r a , however, th ere appeareda tendency t o move

away from an emphasis u p o n Yahweh s a c t i v i t y w i t h i n t he im-

m e d i a t e h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l c o n t i n u u m toward a g r e a t e r con-

s i d e r a t i o n o f the Kingship o f Yahweh over Israel a n d t he

n at io n s. The continuum o f h i s to ry was , i ndeed , t o be t h e

g r o u n d i n which t h i s f u tu r e id e a l s t a t e e x i s t e d , b u t t he c o -

hes iveness o f t h a t continuum d i d n o t r e t a i n t h e same levelo f s i g n i f i c a n c e a s f or me rl y. J o e l ,for example, spoke o f the

coming i n t e r v e n t i o n o f Yahweh, b u t he was n o t b o u n d t o n o r

l i m i t e d by t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f the continuum o f his tory. Such

d e s c r i p t i o n s w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p o s t - e x i l i c p r o p h e c y,

b u t t h e y a r e a l s o f o u n d i n passages which may be dated e a r -

l i e r , s uch a s Ezek. 38-39 a n d Is. 2 : 2 - 5 .567

There appears t o have been a break regarding the p r o -

phets commitment t o t he h i s to r i ca l con t inuum a t a p o i n t i n

t h e h i s t o r y o f th e p ro p h et ic movement. Th is breakwas n o t

5 6 7 . There has been, however, no consensus on t h e d a t eo f t h e c o m p o s t i o n o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s ,



232

e v i d e n t i n Zechar iah 1-8. O n the con t ra ry, Zechar iah was

q u i t e commit ted to the h i s t o r i c a l cont inuum and t o the po l i -

t i c a l - s o c i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s ' c o nt in ui ng e x i s te n c e in t h e i r

known forms.

Th e Lev i t i c a l p r o p h e t s o f t h e C h r o n i c l e r a n d the pro-

phe t Joe l handled the con t in u i ty between p res en t and fu tu re

i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s . Th ey ch o s e t o emp h as i ze d i f f e r en t i d ea l s

of the fai th of the community: J o e l d es c r ib ed t h e m a n i -

f e s t e d , a b s o l u t e f u t u r e K i n g s h i p o f Yahweh; the L ev i t i c a l

prophets used pas t events , when t h a t Kingsh ip was r evea led ,

a s paradigms of e th ica l and s p i r i t u a l b eh av i o r . We cann ot

aff i rm a p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f Z ec h ar i ah upon t h es e l a t e r

f i g u r e s .

We ar e l e f t with t he s u gg e s t i on t h a t t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t s

o f development w i t h i n t h e p r o p h e t i c m o v e m e n t o c c u r r e d a f t e r

t h e e r a o f Zech a r i ah , t h e s e p o in t s o ccu r r ed co n cu r r en t w i th

Z e c h a r i a h ' s m i n i s t r y b u t i n d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s o f the prophe-

t i c movement or t h ey o ccu r r ed p r io r t o Zech a r i ah a n d he d i d

n o t f o l l o w u p on the ' innova t ions ' : t h a t Zechar iah d i d not

v l t a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e in the development o f t h e p r o p h e t i c

movement as i t moved toward the e ra o f the apoca lyp t i s t s .

Also , an examinat ion o f t h e e v i d e n c e f a i l e d t o prove the

e x i s t e n c e o f a p r o p h e t i c ' w or l d- v i ew ' p e r s e . O n the con-

t r a r y , t h e r e seemed to be l i t t l e d ev elop ment o f a Jewish

w o r l d - v i e w p r i o r t o t h e i n c u r s i o n o f H e l l e n i s t i c i n f l u e n c ed u r i n g and a f t e r the f o u r th cen tu r y B.C. Although t h e r e w a s



233

an attempt a t co nso l i da t i on o f the messages o f t h e e a r l i e r

p rophe t s i n Zechar iah 1-8, i t would be imprope r to l abe l the

r e s u l t of s u c h a c t i v i t y a r e f l e c t i o n o f a ' w o r l d - v i e w ' .

Based upon the ev idence ava i l ab le , i t appea r s tha t

Z e c h a r i a h ' s minis t ry made l i t t l e c on tinu ing d i f f e r e n c e i n

the prophetic movement i n t he e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d . The

n e x t s e c t i o n , ' Z e ch a r ia h 1-8 a n d t h e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Scr ip -

t u r e i n t he A p o ca l y pt i c L i t e r a t u r e ' , w i l l examine t he i n -

f l u e n c e o f Zecha r i ah 1-8 on l a t e r t h ou g ht . F S r s t , h ow ev er,

i t w i l l be he l p fu l t o unde rs t and how some f e a t u r e s o f Zecha-

r i a h 1-8, which recur i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , w e r e

u t i l i z e d beyond the p ro phe t i c movement. These f e a t u r e s were

i d e a s w h i c h l en t themse lves t o development within Jewish

l i t e r a t u r e o f t he p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d. I h a v e s e l e c t e d t h r e e

m o t i f s u t i l i z e d by the a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s : 1 ) t h e p e r s o n i -

f i c a t i o n o f e v i l , 2 ) t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t he roya l a n d

p r i e s t l y f i g u r e s o f the community a n d 3 ) the emphasis p laced

upon ce les t ia l be ings as media to rs be tween Yahweh a n d His

c r e a t i o n .568

1 ) the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f e v i l

T h e t h r e e r e f e r e n c e s t o a ' p e r s o n i f i e d ' e v i l b e i ng i n

t h e O l d Testament e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e

5 6 8 . T he se themes w e r e n e i t h e r c r i t i c a l t o an under-s t a n d i n g o f t he a p o c a l yp t i c l i t e r a t u r e n or c e n tr a l i n t h ep r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s . The p at h o f development, which was re-f l e c t e d o n l y a t p o i n t s by t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e , i s b e y o n dt he p re s en t c a p ac i ty o f s c h o l a r s h ~ p .



234

569l a t e r J e w i s h c o n c e p t i o n o f S a t a n . R.S. K l u g e r d e a l t with

t h i s c o n c e p t within a f r a m e w o r k o f a n emerging e n t i t y r e s p o n -

s i b l e f o r t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s a nd e v e n t s w h i c h a p p e a r e d t o o p -

p o s e G o d : 5 7 0 S a t a n a s o n e o f t he ' s o n s o f G o d ' ( J o b b Z ) ,

w h o a f f l i c t s God's f a i t h f u l o n e ; S a t a n a s a n o p p o n e n t o f the

' a n g e l o f G o d ' ( Z e c h . 3 : l - 2 ) ; a n d S a t a n a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t

d emo n ( I C h r o n . 21:l). In t h e m s e l v e s , t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s were

r a t h e r i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l , a s they w e r e r e l a t e d t o the m o t i f o f

Ya h w e h ' s d i v f n e c o u n c i l , m o s t g r a p h i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d in t h e

J a b p a s s a g e . The H e b r e w i n e a c h r e f e r e n c e u s e d the w o r d ' a c -

c u s e r ' low) w i t h o u t the a r t i c l e . Any s e n s e o f ' o r g a n i z e d '

o p p o s i t i o n t o Yah w eh or i n d e p e n d e n t a c t i v i t y w a s a b s e n t ; the

' a c c u s e r ' c a r r i e d o u t c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s a s o n e o f Ya h w e h ' s

r n f n i o n s .T h e o b s c u r i t y o f r e l i g i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t i n the c e n t u r i e s

b e t w e e n Z e c h a r i a h ' s e r a a n d the a p p e a r a n c e o f the a p o c a l y p t i c

1 i t e r a t u r e m e a n s t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p p o s s e s s e s 11 t l e e v i d e n c e

r e g a r d i n g how the i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p t s ch a n g e d . A s t r i k i n g

f a c t i s t h a t the a p o c a l y p t i c l l t e r a t u r e p r e s e n t e d m any d i f -

fe ren t p i c t u r e s o f a n e v i l b e i n g . T he S a t a n - c o n c e p t o f5 7 1

the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . p r e s e n t e d s e v e r a l , a p p a r e n t l y w e l l -

d e v e l o p e d p i c t u r e s of t h a t b e i n g a nd w as the s o u r c e o f the

569. E. L a n g t o n , E s s e n t i a l s o f D em on o lo q y _; T. H . G a s t e r ,' S a t a n ' I D B , v o l . 4 , pp.224-228; W. F o e r s t e r a n d K OS c h a f e r -

5 7 0 . R . S . Kluger, S a t a n i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t .571. T .H . G a s t e r , - r t . c i t . , p p . 2 2 4 -2 2 8 .

2 -i c k , Q o C T ( I I V S ~ -D N T, VOI V i i, P p . 1 5 1 - 1 6 4 .



235

va r i a t io n s on the theme o f pe r s on i f i e d e v i l . The names

a t ta c he d t o t he S a ta n -f i gu r e a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f t h i s v a r i e t y :

Satan , Bel ia l /Bel iar, Mas tema, Gadr ie l , Sammael , Asmodeus ,

Beet zebul .The Satan-concept developed par ik as su with other sub-

j e c t s o f i n t e r e s t w i t h i n the d i f f e r e n t J ewish g roups . J ews,

f a c e d with the problem o f e v i l i n t h e w o r ld a n d d i r e c t e d

agains t them as a community of fai th , sought t o e x p l a i n t h e

n a t u r e o f t h a t e v i l a n d i t s source . Aware o f the incongu-i t i e s of e v i l i n a world God made 'good' and o f the oppres-

s i o n o f God's own pe op le , Jewish t h in ker s sought ways t o re-

c o n c i l e e x p e r i e n c e and o b s e r v a t i o n with t h e i r b e l i e f s r e -

g a r d i n g t h e i r G o d a n d His ways .

The opening cha pte rs o f Genes is [e .g. the temptat ion of

Adam and Eve ( ch . 3 ) , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f Enoch ( c h . 5 ) a n d

the in te rcourse be tween the 'sons of God' and the daughters

o f men (ch. 6 1 provided the means whereby the more specula-

t i v e J ews found points of access from the mundane world to

the supern a tu ra l r ea lm. Within t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t r a d i t i o n a l

J ud ai sm, t h e s e i n d iv id u a l s w er e n o t p r o h i b i t ed f rom d o in g a

g r e a t d e a l o f f a n t a s i z i n g a b o u t t h e r e a l m o f G o d .

Jewish authors who employed the concept of S a t a n d i d s o572

w i t h i n a framework o f a modi f ied dua l i sm. The so ve re i gn ty

o f God was never que s t i one d. The r e b e l l i o u s an gel s may have

5 7 2 . C f . 3.6. Gammie, 'Spatial a n d Eth ica l Dua l i sm I nt h e A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e ' , J E L s 93 (1974), p.357,

. ..



236

been given a l e a d e r a n d they may b a t t l e with t h ose ange l s

lo y al to Yahweh ( c f . D a n . 10:13,20), b u t no i nd ic at io n was

g iven that t h e f o r ce s o f ev i l would u l t i m a t e l y p r ev a l t . In

p o pu l ar s t o r i e s l i k e t h a t of the b o o k o f To b i t , t h e happy

outcome o f the s t or y was p re di c t ab le ; the S a t a n f i g u r e and

the angel of G o d were named as much fo r convenience i n the

t e l l i n g o f t he s to r y t h a n as a mark o f dependence upon past

t r a d i t i o n .

The conclusion to these remarks must include the fac tt h a t Zechar iah presented a n innocent , undeveloped form of

the S a t a n concept . I t cannot be determined whether Zechariah

drew h i s image o f the ' ac cus er ' from popula r b e l i e f o r some

o t h e r s ou rc e; t he ' a c c u s e r ' p l ay e d an e n t i r e l y p a s s i v e r o l e

i n the v is i on-s cene of Zech. 3:1-10. Z e c h a r i a h ' s d e s c r i p -

t ion d id not compare with the f u l l e r development seen in the

apoc a l yp t i c l i t e r a t u r e ( o r i n t he non- apo cal ypt i c works o f

the same e r a ) ; thes e authors d id d r a w upon p o p u la r b e l i e f s

a n d . for eign conc epts . I t would be presumptuous to say t h a t

t he se l a t e r a ut ho rs b u i l t u p o n t h e l eg i t i m a t i o n p r ov i d ed by

the th ree Scr ip tu re r e fe re nc es mentioned above ; these ver ses

canno t accoun t f o r t he va r i e t y o f d e sc r i p t i on con t a i n ed i n

th e l a t e r w r i t i n g s .

2 ) t he s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t he r o y al a n d p r i e s t l y f i g u r e s

Within t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h e r e s t o r a t i on com-

muni ty, the ro les o f the roya l sc ion a n d the head of the



237

p r i e s t l y o r d e r s w e r e i n a s t a t e o f t r a n s i t i o n . Z ec ha ri ah

c e r t a i n l y g a v e l e g i t i m a t i o n t o Zerubbabel a n d Joshua as the

cu rr e nt le ad er s of the community. Joshua, the h i g h p r i e s t ,

was accorded a g r e a t e r s t a t u r e t h a n h i s p r e - e x i l i c p re de ce s-

sors (this may have been a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e p r e s t i g e g a i n e d

d u r i n g the e x i l e when, in the absence o f the k ingsh ip ,

p r i e s t l y l e a de r sh i p moved t o t he f o r e ) . Z e r u bbabe l, a des-

cendant of D a v i d , was a c i v i l r u l e r ap po int ed by t h e P e r s i a n s .

I t a p pea rs t h a t , i n Zechariah 's eyes, he measured u p n e i t h e r

to the s ta ture nor the promise o f e a r l i e r k ings o f J u d a h

(yet he may have been viewed a s a t ype o f o r a ' connec t ion '

t o th e 'branch', which would come t o r u l e ) .

Z e r u b b a b e l , in p a r t i c u l a r , has been dec la re d by some

s c h o l a r s t o be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a s t a g e i n the growth of

t he Mess i ah be l i e f ' i n l a t e r J u d a i s m . The Messianic con-

sc io usne ss o f the Jews ( the expec ta t ion o f a God-sent del i -

v e r e r who would r ou t t he i r enemi es ) g a i ned pa r t i c u l a r

s t r e n g t h d u r i n g the e ra o f the apocalyp t i c l i t e r a tu re ' s popu-

l a r i t y ; i t i n c l uded a number o f f i gu r e s , p r i m a r i l y p a t te r ned

on the royal person, which gave form a n d substance t o the

n a t i o n a l i s t i c J ewish f u t u r e h ope.

The doct r ine o f the Messiah w a s not found uni formly

t h roughout t he apoca l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , b e in g absent from

s e v e r a l major works,573

a n d was present i n non-apocalypt ic

5 7 3 . C f . P O Vi e l haue r, ' I n t r oduc t i o n : Apoca l ypses a n dRe la te d S ub je ct s ' , New Testament Apocrypha, v o l . 2 , ed. R.Mct. Wilson (or ig. German ed. , E. Hennecke), p . 5 9 4 .



238

w ri t in gs of t he same pe r i od . The Mess iah f i g u r e was not

d e s c r i b e d c o n s i s t e n t l y ; t h i s pe rs on ag e took s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t

forms. S. Mowinckel surveyed the ex pec tat ion s of and th e be-

l i e f s c o n c e r n i n g t h e M e s s i a h f i g u r e i n J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e . 5 7 4

He posited a g ra d u a l g ro w th o f t h e b e l i e f i n a Messiah from

th e e x p e c t a t i o n o f a n i d e a l k i n g (which was itself embedded

i n t h e s o i l o f the sa c r a l k ingsh i p o f a nc ien t Near Eas te rn

myth). He made a g r e a t d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n t h e h i s t o r i c a l e r a

o f the Old Tes tamen t Sc r ip tu res (excep t Dan ie l ) a n d thesecond century B.C. l i t e r a t u r e .

Z e c h a r i a h ' s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e r o y a l a n d p r i e s t l y

f igu res , when p laced in h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e with the

M e s si a ni c f i g u r e s o f t he a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e , a pp ea r t o

have been p i v o t a l . One may not be permit ted to speak o f a n

' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a u r a ' , f o r Z e c h a r ia h ' s d e s c r i p t i on s we re

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y r e s t r a i n e d ; b u t one may see in Zecha-5 7 5

r i a h 1-8 t h e s c r i p t u r a l I j u s t i f i c a t i o n ' f o r the development

o f t h e Mes si ah b e l i e f a n d f o r t he j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f two

' m e s s i a n i c ' f i g u r e s i n th e l a t e r c e n t ur i e s . The d i f f i c u l t y

o f d i s c e r n i n g a l i n e o f c o n t i n u i t y f rom t h e s i x t h c e nt ur y t o

the second century B . C . w a s w e l l -d e f in e d b y F . Hesse:5 7 6

I t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o r ec on st ru ct ah i s t o r y o f the Messianic movement i n I s r a e l

5 7 4 . S. Mowinckel, He That Cometh.575 . Cp. ib id . , p .119 .5 7 6 . F. Hesse i n W. Grundmann e t a l , ' xp ;o e t a l ' ,

D N T, v o l . i x , p.509.



239

a n d po s t - e x i l i c Judai sm.. .There undoubted lymust have been such a movement. I t may beconcluded from the fact that Messianism emergesi n t o the c l e a r l i g h t of h i s t o r y i n l a t e r c e n -t u r i e s . . . a s a movement with hundreds of years

of h i s t o r y beh ind i t . B u t many q ues t i ons r e -main: W h a t was t he co u rs e o f i t s h i s t o r y ? D i da Josiah help to promote Messianism i n thep r e - e x i l i c per iod ? I s Nehemiah to be under-s tood i n the l i g h t o f the movement a f t e r thee x i l e ? Does the movement a f f e c t a l l Jews o ri s i t r e s t r i c t e d t o a few? Does i t stand i no p p o s i t i o n t o o t h e r tr en ds o r was i t a b l e t otranscend them? D i d i t f i n d i t s adherents i nevery age or was i t m or e o r l e s s ex t i n g u i sh eda t t imes? T o these quest ions no assured a n -swers can as yet be g iven.

The roots o f t h e Mess i an i c be l i e f we r e deep l y i n t e r -

woven i n t h e e a r l i e s t s t r a t a o f t he O ld Testam ent: t h e

i d e o l o g y o f t h e d i v i n e k i n g and the ro ya l Psalms. Over the

c e n t u r i e s , t h i s c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f b e l i e f s was l i f t e d from the

c u l t a n d was g ra du a l ly t r ansformed a n d r e c a s t i n an eschato-

l o g i c a l f rame. This was accomplished throughout the577

p o s t - ex i 15 c per iod .

I f Mowincke l was cor re c t , the ' e qu a l i t y ' g ran ted to the

h i g h p r i e s t by Z ech a r iah a n d the post -exi l ic communi ty d id

not remain a t e n et o f p o p ul a r b e l i e f . The h igh p r i e s t578

w a s inc reas ing ly r egarded as the l eader o f the communi ty ;

5 7 7 . S. Mowinckel , Psalmenstudien 1 1 , pp.297-311; I .E n g n e l l , ' T h e Messiah in the Old Te s t a m e n t ' , C r i t i c a l Ession t h e O l d Testament, p.221; H . Ringgren, The Messi l- - - . dO l d T estament, p.38; A . Bentzen, K i n g a n d h e s s i a k . - .- 1s t-0 i'he statement assumes t h a t t h e r u l e 01 t n e pce x i l k cornmunfty was a dyarchy ( ru le by two co-equal persons) ,noted by such scholars a s 6 . v o n R a d , O l d Testament Theology1 1 , p.287. Such a n assumpt ion does not enjoy universa laccep tance .





241

an ge ls (c f . Gen. 19:1 ) , ar e found t h r o u g h o u t the Old Testa-

ment; references to them were made in the Pentateuch and the

h i s t o r i og r ap h i c works, t he w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e and t he p r o -

phe t i c wr i t in gs . Refe rences to the ang e l s were minimal5 8 2

i n t he p r e - ex i l i c p e r i o d , s i nce the r e was a strong impetus

to asser t Yahweh as the sole supernatura l b e i n g . However,

p o p u l a r b e l f e f s w e r e n o t e a s i l y c o n t r o l le d . Leading c i r c l e s

s e v e r e l y di s c o un t e d a b e l i e f i n ange l s , b u t t h a t b e l f e f583

d i d f i n d representa t ion in the Old Testament record (cf .1 K i n g s 22:19-23).

D u r i n g t h e e x i l e a n d l a t e r, t he con cept o f angels be-

came an i n c r ea s i ng l y i m po r t an t ap p en d age t o t he be l i e f

system o f Judai sm. The u t i l i z a t i o n o f a n g e l i c f i g u r e s h a s

been traced i n the pr op he ti c movement through E ze ki el a n d

Zechar iah a l though , a s no t ed above , t he o t he r l i t e r a r y

group ings o f the O l d Testament were not lacking references

to ang el s . Amon-g the reasons f o r the inc rea sed use o f an -

g e l i c f i g u r e s w ere : 1 ) the emphasis upon the transcendent

na tu re o f Yahweh, which r eq ui re d the exi st en ce of mediat ors

between H i m and H i s c r e a t i o n , a n d 2 ) t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f

the source o f e v i l , w h i c h h a d t r a c e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e v i l

to the superna tu ra l r ea lm, cou ld n o t b e l a i d t o Yahweh's ac-

count .5 8 4

582 . G . E . Wright, The Old Testament Against I ts E n v i -ronment, p p . 3 0 - 3 4 , a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e c i t e d .5 8 3 . W . Eichrod t , Theo logy o f the O l d Testament , vol .1 1 , p.198.

A p o c a l y p t i c , p p . 2 3 7 f .

I

5 8 4 . D o S . Russell , The Method a n d Message of Jewish



2 4 2

G. von R a d c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n

a n g e lo l o g y o f t he e a r l i e r y e ar s o f t he p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d

because he cou ld d i sc er n no sys temat ic usage of the angel

concept i n the su rv iv in g works . He de c l a r ed th a t the deve-

lopment o f an g e lo lo g y was n o t uniform a t any time and t h a t

t h e c e l e s t i a l b e i n g s o f Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 were unique and bore5 8 5

a s t r o n g l y i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c imprint. A l s o , t h e s u b j e c t

o f an g e l s p e cu l a t i o n was s u p p re s sed by t h e l a t e r S ad du cees

a n d by H e l l e n i s t i c r at i o n a li s m , w h i l e R a bb i ni c J u d a i s m , many

a p o c al y p t ic w r i t e r s a n d the E ssenes f e l t f r e e t o i n c o r p o r a t e

a n angel motif in t h e i r co mp o si t io n s. The f a c t o f d ev e lo p -

ment i s unques t ioned a n d von R a d w i s e l y ru l ed out the pos-

s i b i l i t y o f t r a c i n g i t a c c u r a t e l y. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s ee

th e co n n ec t i o n , i f i t i s a d i r e c t on e, between t h e c e l e s t i a lf i g u r e s o f Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 a n d t h e v a r i e t y o f a n g e l s m e n t i o n e d

l a t e r : ' s p i r i t s of phenomena' I Enoch), heav enly bod ies

a n d w ea t he r a n g e l s ( J u b i l e e s ) , a n g e l s o f t h e n a t i o n s and t h e

s ea s o n s ( l Q H ) , t h e h i e r a r c h y o f a n g e ls ( T o b i t ) , t h e a ng el

a rmies a n d t h e a r ch an g e l s I Enoch).586

These b r i e f s t at emen ts co n ce r nin g t h r e e f ea tu r e s wh ich

Zechar iah 1-8 shared with t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ( a n d

5 8 5 .

586.T.H. G a s t e r , ' A n g e l '

8 -

DB, v o l . 1 , p.32.

G . von Rad i n W. Grundmann e t a l , I a g t g X o 4/ e t -a l l , TDNT, v o l . i , pp.76-80.



243

o t h e r , n on -a po ca ly pt ic t r a d i t i o n s ) b r i n g o n e i n e s cap ab l e

f a c t t o l i g h t :

s t a g e s of t h e p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d makes any i n v e s t i g a t i o n

teeuous a n d c e r t a i n t y v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e .

o f t h e v a r i o u s m o t i f s in a compos i t ion cannot be t raced e x -

c e p t in t h e b r o a d e s t t e r m s p o s s i b l e .

t h e co n cep t s a r e f o u n d o u t s i d e t h e pr o p h e t ic l i t e r a t u r e and

th e a p o c a ly p t i c w r i t i n g s , one can n ot con nect Zech a r i ah 1-8

t o t h e ap o c a ly p t i c c i r c l e s s o l e l y on the b a s f s o f u t i l i z a t i o n

of the same themes.

the l ack o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e l a t e r

The development

Al s o , s i nc e many of

IV. Zech a r i ah 1-8 and t he I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e i nt h e A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e

Th i s s ec t i o n was w r i t t en with the as sumpt ion tha t the re

was d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e of Zechar iah 1 -8 on the theo log ica l

m i l i e u a n d / o r t h e w r i t e r s of l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s o f t h e J ew is h

p eo p le . The au th o r i t y o f S c r ip t u r e i n t h i s e r a n a t u r a l l y

sur pas sed any personal in f lu en ce Zech ar i ah h imself may have

e x e r c i s e d . T h i s Sc r i p t u r e formed the accep ted founda t ion587

upon which t h e a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s b u i l t t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n sof heaven a n d the fu tu re . The body o f p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s ,

c o n s i d e r e d s a c r e d by the mainstream of the Jewish community,

had achieved a ce r t a i n co n ten t and s t r u c tu r e . Th i s c an on588

in c lu d ed Zech a r i ah 1-8.

5 8 7 . Z e c h a ri a h ' s ' p e r s o na l i n f l u e n c e m i g h t have been

588. C f . G.W. Anderson, 'Canonical a n d Non-Canonical ' ,made known through a group o f d i s c i p l e s ( i f he had one).

The Cambr idge His to ry of the B i b l e , v o l . 1 , pp.113-159.

. ..



244

Ben S i r a , wri t ing in the ea r l y p a r t o f the second cen-

tury B . C . , r e f l e c t ed t h e co n s en s u s o f t h e co n t en t s o f t h e

pr oph et i c canon: he mentioned Is a i ah , Jeremiah, Eze kie l and

the Twelve i n t h e i r modern can oni cal sequence ( 4 8 : 2 2 ,

49:6-10). Th is f a c t has l ed modern sch o la r s to accep t with-

o u t s e r i o u s q u es t i o n t h e v i ew t h a t the prophetic canon was

c l o s e d p r i o r t o t h i s t im e. T hi s f a c t a l s o 'd et erm in ed th e

a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s ' v iew o f t he p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s . The

arguments of S.Z. Leiman and 3 . Blenk insopp , f o r examples ,

r e g a r d i n g e a r l y o r l a t e c l o s u r e o f t he p r o p h e t i c canon we re

concerned with t h e y ea r s ' p r i o r t o t h e co mp o s i t i o n o f Ben

S i r a ' s t e ach in g s . The ap o c a ly p t i c w r i t e r s , w h i l e t hey may589

have he ld d i f f e r i n g v iews on the canon ica l s t and ing o f any

g iv en con temp or ar y w r i t i n g , l i k e l y accep t ed t h e o l d e r books( a t l eas t the Books o f Moses a n d the p rophe t ic works ) as i n -

s p i r e d a n d d i v i n e l y s e t a p a r t .

3 . Blenk insopp , i n descr ib ing the development o f the

prophetic canon which emerged i n t he l a t e r c en tu r i e s , made

r e f e r e n c e t o a reworking o f t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s i n t h e s i x t h

cen tu ry E . C . G.M. Tuc ke r, i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e s u p e r s c r l p -5 9 0

t i o n s o f the var ious prophet ic books , concluded t h a t t h e r e

h a d been a mid-s ix th cen tu ry deu te ronomis t i c r eda c t lo n o f

t h es e w r i t i n g s . B le n ki n so pp u nd er st oo d t h es e a c t i v i t i e s591

5 8 9 . S . Z . Leiman, The Canonization of the Hebrew Scrip-

590. 3. Blenkinsopp, 1)p. c i t . , p . 1 0 2 .591. G.M. Tucker , ' P r o p h e n S u pe r sc r ip t io n s and th e

tures , pp .27-29; 3 . Blenkinsopp, o p . ci t . , pp .96-123.

Growth o f the Canon', Canon and A ut h o r it y , ed. G.W. Coatsa n d B . O . Long, p . 6 9 .



2 4 5

a s i n d i c a t o r s o f a popu la r concep t ion o f prophecy as a pas t

phenomenon a n d o f a p r i m i t i v e s e n s e o f canon. He suggested

that the many references to the ' former prophets ' and the

f r e qu e n t a l l u s i o n s t o e a r l i e r p ro ph et i c w r i t in g s by t h e

e a r l y p o s t - e x i l i c p ro ph et s c om pr is ed a f i r s t ' r e c y c l i n g ' o f

c i t a t i o n s o f an e a r l y c anon within the prophetic movement.5 9 2

I cannot g i v e suppor t to the s ta tements o f 0 . P l d g e r

and those who suppor t h i s v i ew s t h a t t h e e s ch a to lo g i ca l con-

v en t i c l e s , w h ich s ep a r a t ed f r o m th e t h eo c r acy i n t h e e a r l y

p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i o d , were the d i r e c t f o r e b e a r e r s o f the apo-

c a l y p t l c a u t h o r s o f the second century B.C. The consol ida-

t i o n o f t he w r i t i n g s of t h e se c o n v e n t i c l e s ( I s . 5 6 - 6 6 , Zech.

9 - 1 4 , M a l a c h i ) with t he a cc ep te d p r op h e t i c w r i t i n g s ( i . e .

those accep ted by t h e t h eo c r acy ) r eq u i r e d t he ce s s a t i o n o fh o s t i l i t i e s between t he g ro up s a n d that p r i o r t o t he tim e o f

Ben S i r a . P. D . Hanson acknowledged such a p e r i o d ,5 9 3

p o i n t i n g t o t h e r e l a x i n g o f t en s io n s d u r i n g t h e e r a o f the

C h ron i c 1er-.5 9 4

Such a j o i n i n g o f l i t e r a t u r e d i d occur : the

wrl t i n g s o f t h e Tr i t o - I s a i a n i c g ro up s w er e n a t u r a l l y ap-

p e n d e d t o t h e I s a i a n i c c o r p u s , w h i l e t h e o t h e r c o n v e n t i c l e

5 9 2 . 3 . Blenkinsopp, x i t . , p.102.593. Ben S i r a r e f e r r e d t o t h e ' t w e l v e p r o p h et s ' , o f

which Malachi was a s s u r e d l y one . The author o f Malachi hadbeen a co nv en t i c le f i g u r e . The re f o re we can conclude th a tt h e co n v en t i c l e p r o p h e t i c w o r k s h a d been appended to theo ther canon ica l works e a r l y enough fo r the t i t l e ' t h e tw el vep r o p h e t s ' t o ga in accep tance a n d cur rency.

5 9 4 . P.D. Hanson, OJ c j t . , pp.269-279.



246

w r i t i n g s w e r e p l a c e d a t t he end o f t he book o f t he sma l l e r

p rophe t i c books .5 9 5

I t was this body o f Sc r i p t u r e which was in he r i t e d by

the Jewish communities o f the second century B . C . I t co-

e x i s t e d with a p l e t h o r a o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f l i t e r a t u r e ,

each of which had drawn insp l ra t ion a n d form from th is

S c r i p t u r e . L E . Gowan has grouped these wri t ings , c a l l e d t h e

apocryphal a n d p s e u d e p i g ra p h i c a l books, wi t h i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

c a t e g o r i e s : 596

Rev i s ion a n d Completion o f S c r i p t u r eThe Bible Rewrftten and ExpandedE d i f y i n g S t o r i e sTestamentsA p o c a l y p t i cP o s t - B t b l f c a l H i s t o r yWisdomPsalms a n d P r a y e r s

T h e i n t e rp re t a t i o n a n d rework ing o f S c r i p t u r e i n t he

a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e h a s been analyzed by s c h o l a r s s u c h a s

1. Hartman and D. Pa t t e . Pa t t e ' s work was o f s p e c i a l597

i n t e r e s t s i n c e h i s p r im a ry t o p i c was h e rme n eu ti c s, t h e in ter-

p r e t a t i o n o f S c r i p t u r e in c l a s s i c a l and s e c t a r i a n Judaism o f

t h i s p e r i o d .

My immediate focus w i l l be upon port ions of the apoca-

l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e . I mean to a n a l y z e t h e s e w r i t i n g s a c c o r di n g

t o t h e two l i n e s o f t e n s i o n wh i c h Pa t t e r e c o g n i z e d with in

595. 3. Blenkinsopp ,s

-.i t p .1 08 .596. D o E . Gowan, B ri d ge Between the Testaments, pp.3 39f.5 9 7 . L . Hartman, Prophecy I n te rp re t ed , and D. P a t t e ,

Early Jewish Hermeneut ic i n P a l e s t i n e .- -Ige Between the Testaments,

iphecy I n te rp re t ed , and D . PEarly Jewish Hermeneut ic i n P a l e s t i n e .

pp. 3 3 9 f 0

a t t e ,



247

t h f s l i t e r a t u r e : 1 ) th e t e n s io n between t h e a u t h o r i t y o f

S c r i p t u r e and t he t r a d i t i o n s o f the worshipping community598

and 2 ) the tens ion be tween the p a t h o f c u r r e n t h i s t o r y a n d

the p a t t e r n s u g g e s t e d i n S c r i p t u r e . 5 9 9

The congrega t ion , a s t h e embodiment o f a l l t h a t Sc r i p t u r e

t a u g h t r e g a r d i n g t h i s l i f e a s p l e a s in g to G o d , ac tua l ly came

t o a p l a c e wh e re i t r e l e g a t e d S c r i p t u r e t o a secondary pos i -6 0 0

t i o n a n d became in i t s e l f a s e p a r a t e l o c u s o f r e v e l a t i o n .

T h e a u t h o r i t y o f S c r i p t u r e was s e t a s i d e , i n much the sameway t h a t t h e P h a r i s e e s o f J e s u s ' day d e ni ed by t h e i r l i v e s

the we igh ty ma t t e r s o f Torah (Matt. 23:23-24).

The a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s a l s o w er e keen t o d i s c o v e r t h e

pa th o f h i s t o r y from t h e i r day t o t h e f u t u r e , t h e u n f o l d i n g

o f God 's d es t i ny f o r the community. Pa t t e po i n te d ou t how

s o m e a p o c a l y p t i s t s j o i n e d c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s t o6 0 1

t he br oa d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n d e r i v e d from S c r i p t u r e .

There was a d r a m a t i c c o n j o i n i n g o f p a s t and p resen t i n the

a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e which e n ab le d i t s a u t h o r s t o e x p l o r e

t h e f u t u r e a n d th e su p er na tu ra l re al m. The Qumran commentary

on Habakkuk was a v i v i d example o f how a g r o u p c o u l d r e a d i t s

598. D. P a t t e , E i t . , p . 2 0 6 .5 9 9 . I b i d . , p p . 8 5 f . P a t t e s u g g e s t e d that t h e p a t t e r n

f o r t he ' e n a m e s ' , which w a s i t s e l f d e d u c e d f r o m S c r i p t u r er e f e r e n c e s , was t he means by which coming events co ul d bep r e d i c t e d by t he a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t e r s .

6 0 0 . D. P a t t e , l o c . c S t .

601. I b i d 9 p p . V T- l T 5 .



248

exis tence back in to the words o f S c r i p t u r e .

The examples I have se lec ted f rom the apoca lyp t ic

l i t e r a t u r e a r e : D a n . 8-12, I Enoch 6 - 3 6 , I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 , the

b o o k o f Jubilees, Testamentum L e v i (from the Testaments of

t h e Tw e lv e P a t r i a r ch s ) a n d the War o f the Sons o f L i g h t

Agains t the Sons o f Darkness (1QM). They a r e n o t , perhaps ,

a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t he a p o c a l y pt i c l i t e r a t u r e a s they m i g h t

b e . Most were , however, i d e n t i f i e d as examples o f the genre .

They were f a i r l y e a r l y w r i t i n g s , w it h c l e a r l i n k s t o a com-munity o f f a i t h a n d t o th e e a r l i e r c an on ic al t r a d i t i o n s .

They ex h ib i te d, on the whole, a h i gh e r l e v e l of c r e a t i v i t y

t h a n that found i n t h e l a t e r a p o c a l y p t i c wri t ings .6 0 2

One o f the unfor tunate problems o f t h i s s tu dy i s t h e

l a c k o f a n ex p r e s s ed d o c t r i n e o f S cr ip tu r e . Th e r e w a s no

s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r the s tudy o f t h e u s e a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f S c r i p t u r e i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e . W h a t I am603

at tempt ing t o d o i s t o demons t ra te the ro le o f S c r i p t u r e i n

the community of fai th a n d the use o f S c r i p t u r e in t h a t com-

munity's coming to terms with the pressure caused by the

even ts o f con temporary h i s to ry. I intend to examine thesep a s s a g e s , i d e n t i f y i n g : 1 ) t h e u t i l f z a t i o n o f c u r r e n t e v e n t s ,

2 ) the employment of group t radl t ions a n d 3 ) t h e d i r e c t u s e

o f S c r i p t u r e . These c o nc e pt s , in t e n s i o n , pl a ye d d i f f e r e n t

602. D. P a t t e , o . ci t . , pp .197-199. A n au thor ' s

6 0 3 . I b i d , p.141.c r e a t i v i t y m u s t b e b a n c e d w i t h h i s employment o f t h e t rad i -t i o n s o f the community.



2 4 9

r o l e s in t he s t ruc tu re o f t he passages wh ich made u p t he

a p o c a l y p t i c w o r k s .

1. Da ni el 8-12

Da n i e l 8-12 was g e n e r a l l y r e g a rd e d a s t he l a s t p o r t i o n6 0 4

of th e book of Danie l t o be composed. The e d i f yi n g

s t o r i e s o f D a n . 1-6 and the v is ion of ch . 7 w e r e b e l i e v e d t o

stem from sources of a n e a r l i e r d a y, brought toge ther a round

167-163 B . C . , t h e p e r i o d i n which ch. 8-12 were wr i t t e n .6 0 5

A n a n a l y s i s o f D a n . 8-12 r e v e a l e d t h e fo l l o w i n g6 0 6

poi n t s : 1 ) t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w ( v a t i c i n i u m e x e v e n t u )

w a s u t i l i z e d a s t he backbone o f t he d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s .6 0 7

D a n . 8 was a n independent u n i t comprised o f v i s i o n - s c e n e a n d

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I t d e s c r i b e d t h e t r a n s f e r o f e m p i r e p o we r

f rom P e r s i a t o G re ec e ( 8 : 3- 7 ) , t he i n c r e a s e o f S e l e u c i d

power (8:9-10) a n d t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n

(8 : 11 -1 4) . The i n t e rp re t a t i o n o f t h e s c e n e d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e

e v i l s p e r p e t r a t e d by the Seleucids would come t o an end ( c f .

8 : 2 5 ) . The d e t a i l s o f t he v i s i o n - s c e n e and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

were embe l l i shed th rough the u se o f a d i a l og ue between the

6 0 4 . 0. E i s s f e l d t , o . c i t . , p p . 5 2 0 f .6 0 5 .

6 0 6 0 Cf. R . J . C l i f f o r d , ' H i s t o r y a n d M y t h i n Danie l

W . Zimmerl i , 03 estament Theology i n O u t l i n e ,p . 2 3 2 .

10-12 ' , BASOR 120 (1975), p p . 2 3 - 2 6 ; 3.6. Gamrnie, 'The Clas-s i f f c a t i o n , S t a g e s o f G r o w t h , a n d Changing In ten t ions i n t h eBook o f D a n i e l ' , J BL 9 5 (1976), pp.191-204; E . Osswald , 'ZurProblem d e r v a t i c i a ex e ve ntu ', ZAW l x x v (1963), pp.27-44.

607. 0. E i s s f e l d t , OJ. c i t . , p . 5 2 7 .





251

J ews (11:30-33). This was t o t r i g g e r t h e a u t h o r' s s p ec u la -

t i o n a s t o how the pe rs ec ut io n would end a n d how the tyrant

would be c u t o f f (11:40-45, 12:l).

The persons a n d e v e n t s o f h i s t o ry fo rm e d t h e matrix f o r

the se f i v e chap te rs . They were reco rded because the au tho r

be l ieved them t o p o i n t t o the c r i s i s o f th e current day and,

more importantly, through that day to the imminent t ime when

the in te n t io n s o f God were to be acco mpl ished . The momentous

times o f t he r e v o l t o f 167-163 B . C . in t h e h i s t o r y o f t h eJews a t t r a c t e d the f u l l a t te n t i o n o f the author; he was con-

cerned main ly with d e s c r i b i n g t h e e n d o f t h e t r o u b l e i n which

the Jewish community f o u n d i t s e l f .

2 ) t h e b e l i e f s a n d t rad i t ions of the Jewish communi ty were

s u b o rd i n a t e d t o the above -s ta te d purpose of the a u t h o r . T h i s

i s n o t t o i n f e r t h e i r i n s i g n i f i c a n c e i n h i s e y e s . O n t he

c o n t r a ry , he h e l d t o t h e i r v a l u e ; t he y were th e c a u s e o f t h e

r e v o l t a g a i n s t A nt io ch us IV. However, they formed only a

p a r t o f the background t o t h e s e c h a p t e r s : t h e r e we re r e -

f e r e n c e s t o t he Te mp le , t h e p r i e s t h o o d , t he J ewis h r e l i g i o n

( t h e ' c o v e n a n t ' ) a n d the ' w i s e ' ( the Jewish teachers o f

11:30-33). The author held t o a p e c u l i a r b e l i e f i n t h e r e -

s u r r e c t i o n (122-3) , i n that i t s e rv e d a s a means for punish-

ment of t h e wic k ed and f o r r e wa rd in g t h e r i g h t e o u s . W i t h i n

t h e framework o f t h e s e c h a p t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y c h. 9-10, p r a y e r

and re p en ta n ce , s a c r i f f c e and f a s t i n g , a n d the importance o f

Scc ip tu rc were acknowledged . More s t r e s s w a s n o t p l a c e d



2 5 2

upon these sub jec t s because they were no t cen t ra l t o t he

au thor ' s message .

On a more a b s t r a c t l e v e l , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s c e r n i n

t h e s e c h a p t e r s t h a t t he au tho r h a d g i ve n i m p l i c i t as s e n t t o

a b e l i e f i n God 's Kingsh ip , His s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e o f t h e f l o w

o f h i s t o r y a n d His determinat ion to recompense those who do

e v i l , e s p e c i a l l y t ho se who a c t a g a i n s t H is f a i t h f u l p e op l e.

The points rn-ust be made that the author d i d not ment ion these

d o c t r i n es e x p l i c i t l y and that t h e y e x i s t e d o n l y a s background

t o h i s wri t ing t a s k . He wa s p re s e n t i n g h i s v i e w o f t h e c u l -

m i na t io n o f a w ic ke d wo r l d ' s o p p re s s i o n o f God's p e o p l e i n

o r d e r t o r e a d y h i s p e o p l e fo r t h e o v e r t h ro w o f t h e w i c k e d

powers o f t h e wo r l d i n t h e i r day.

3 ) t he u s e o f S c r i p t u r e , i n l i g h t o f t he g r e a t w e i gh t g i v e n

t o h i s t o r i c a l l y - r e l a t e d a f f a i r s i n D a n . 8-12, would appear

t o be minimal . The re fe re nc es t o p r o p h e t i c a n d o t h e r

w r i t i n g s , which were recorded i n various studies and cornmen-

t a r i e s , a r e u s u a l l y l i t t l e more t h a n a l l u s i o n s , p h r a s e s or

word-usage more or less common to the language comprehensiono f Jews o f the second century B.C. There was no conscious

609

a t tempt on the par t o f th e au th or t o u t i l i z e S c r i p tu r e .

T h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t that S c r i p t u r e was t o t a l l y ex-

c luded f rom the au tho r ' s men ta l p rocesses ; i t was an Impor-

6 0 9 . G.W.E. Ni c k e l b u rg , R e s u r r e c t i o n , Im m o r t a l i t y, a n dE t e r n a l L i f e i n In t e r- t e s t amen ta l J udaism, p p . 1 9 - 2 2 .





2 5 4

The use o f Scr ip ture can be seen as having been minimal

i n D a n . 8-12. Even moreso wou ld be any dependence upon that

p o r t i o n o f Scripture, Zechar iah 1-8: 1 ) the v i s i o n s o f D a n .

8-12 were no t a s c r y p t i c a s t h o s e o f Zech a r i ah . The f o r mer

w e r e o b v i o u s h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y s a n d t h e l a t t e r are s e t

p i e c es meant t o i l l u s t r a t e c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c t r u t hs a bo ut

God' s purposes f o r the r es to ra t i on communfty; 2 ) the work

done by C O Je remias comparing the v i s i on s o f Ezek ie l , Zecha-

r i a h and D anie l i n d i ca t ed a c l o s e r co n nec ti o n between E r ek i e l

a n d Danie l i n many ar ea s . There were many s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s

which Zechar iah 1-8 d i d n o t s h a r e with Danie l ; and 3 ) the610

d i s t i n c t i v e 'h or n' r e f er e n c e D a n . 8:3) d i d n o t o r i g i n a t e

i n Zech. 1:13-21; they were pa r t o f th e 'wh ole -an im al' sym-

bol ism used by the author o f D a n . 80

2. I Enoch 6 - 3 6

I Enoch 6 - 3 6 w a s a majo r s ec t i o n o f t h e f i r s t segment

o f a compos i te work d e s c r i b i n g t h e e x p l o i t s o f t h e a n t i d e -

l u v i a n p a t r i a r c h E n o c h . I t was d at ed t o th e f i r s t h a l f o f

the second century B . C . , which means that i t w a s composed

s l i g h t l y b e f o re o r a f t e r t he f i n a l p o r t i on s o f th e book o f

D a n i e l .

E n o c h t r a d i t i o n , w h i c h embodied a g r e a t v a r i e t y a n d bread th

These chap te r s mad e up one unique par t o f the

unmatched i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .

610. C . J e r emia s, D ie N ach tg e s i ch t e d e s S ach a r j a ,pp. 107f .



2 5 5

A n a n a l y s i s o f I Enoch 8-36 r e g a rd i n g i t s u se o f h i s -

t o r y, t h e b e l i e f s and t r a d i t i o n s o f the author's community

a n d the use o f S c r i p t u r e r e v e a l e d t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1 ) the

framework of history, which played a m a j o r r o l e i n D a n . 8-12,

w a s e n t i r e l y omit ted . Enoch w a s d e s c r l b e d a s a n h i s t o r i c a l

pe rson , b u t h i s e a r t h l y l i f e w a s minimized, used merely a s a

s t a r t i n g p o i n t fo r t he a u th o r ' s im a g in a t iv e d e s c r i p t i o n o f

Enoch's journey through the heavens i n to the presence of God

a n d o f h i s i t i n e r a r y t hrou gh the cosmos. I t i s a p p a re n t ,

t h e r e f o r e , that the au thor o f t h i s p o r t i o n o f I Enoch did not

vCew history or contemporary events a s h a v i n g the same cri-

t i c a l impor tance (compare tbe ro l e o f h i s t o r y i n t h e b o o k of

D a n i e l ) a s the p res en t re a l i t y o f the heaven ly rea lm.

2 ) t h e b e l i e f s a n d t r a d i t i o n s of the community played a much

l a r g e r a n d m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d r o l e i n I Enoch 6 - 3 6 t h a n they

d i d in D a n . 8-12. T h i s s e c t i o n h a s been commonly divided

in to ch . 6 - 1 6 a n d ch. 1 7 - 3 6 . The former descr ibed the orga-

n i z a t i o n o f r e b e l l i o u s a ng e ls , t h e i r f a l l through corrupting

the human race a n d the pronouncement o f judgment upon them.The l a t t e r p o r t i o n i n c l ud e d a n a r r a t i v e o f Enoch's journeys

to t h e f a r r e a c h e s o f t h e e a r t h , h e l l a n d the heavens.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s a y a n y t h i n g d e f i n i t i v e l y a b o u t the

b e l l e f s o f the au thors o f these cha p te r s . The i r s tatemen ts

a b o u t t h e h e a v e n ly r e a lm w e re q u i t e d i s t i n c t i v e , with l i t t l e

c o n t i n u i t y with e a r l i e r wri t ings a n d l i t t l e ev id en t p ar a l l e -



256

l i s m with con temporary l i t e r a t u r e . There was ev ide nce o f a

heavy dependence upon non-Jewish id ea s by th e aut ho rs , s o

t h a t t n s i g h t s i n t o t h e i r S i t z im Leben have been d i f f i c u l t

t o work i n t o a mean ing fu l who le . The l a ck o f do c t r i na l611

c o n s i s t e n c y wi th in t h e r a n g e o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c 1i t e r a t u r e

makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o understand t he d i s t i n c t i v e l i f e - s t y l e

and be l i e f - s ys t em o f t he Enoch t raden t s i n p a r t i c u l a r .

3 ) t h e u s e o f S c r i p t u r e w a s , a s i n Dan. 8-12, m i n i m a l . I t

may be argued that the use of the motifs such a s ange l s and

the heaven ly rea lm a n d the u s e o f Enoch as the central

f i g u r e o f t he n a r r a t i v e were f i r s t found i n S c r i p t u r e a n d

t h a t Sc r i p t u re i n fo rm e d t h e a u t h o r in h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n .

Th ere i s , however, g r e a t e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n l o o k i n g a t t h e s e

i d e a s a s b or ro we d f ro m t h e p o p u l a r m i l i e u . Sc r i p t u r e s t o o d

behind much the symbolic universe f r o m which these concepts

were taken; however, Sc r i p t ur e was n o t used a s a d i r e c t i n -

f l u e n c e in t he framing o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s .

3 . I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0

I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 was p a tt e rn e d a f t e r t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w

u t i l i z e d i n D a n . 10-12 and was dated to within a f ew y e a r s o f

the appea rance o f t he book o f Dan ie l .612

A n a n a l y s i s o f

I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 r e v e a l e d t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s : 1 ) t h e h i s t o r i -

611. 0 . E i s s f e l d t , OJ c i t . , p . 6 2 0 .612. I b i d . p.619.





258

which had e x i s t e d s i n c e e a r l i e s t t im e. The s u f f e r i n g s en-

countered by th e Jews of the second centu ry B . C . were viewed

by t h i s a u t h o r a s y e t another chap te r (pe rhaps the l a s t one)

i n t he a g e- lo ng s a ga of t h e s t r u g g l e o f g o o d a g a i n s t e v i l .

The con tempora ry h i s to r i ca l even t s o f which the author

o f I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 t r e a t e d we re c e n t r a l t o h i s p u rpo s e and we re

an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t he h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w s t r e t c h i n g b ack t o

a n e a r l i e r t ime. In t h i s , t he au tho r c l e a r l y moved beyond

t h e e x a m p l e s e t by the author o f D a n . 8-12; t he h i s t o r i c a l

r e v i e w was a da pt ed t o t h e a n t i d e l u v i a n s e t t i n g o f t h e

a u t h o r ' s h e r o , w h i l e o m i t ti n g t he i n t r i c a t e d e t a i l - w o r k f ou nd

i n Dan. 10-12 . The cu r re n t even t s were g iven s ig n i f i c a n ce

because o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to the au th or 's c i r c l e ' s i n -

t e r e s t in th e f o r c e o f e v i l i n t h e wo r l d a n d G o d ' s f i n a l

v i c t o r y o v e r i t .

2 ) t h e a u t h o r o f I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 was q u i t e s i m i l a r t o the

a u t h o r o f Dan. 8-12 i n h i s c as ua l r e f e re n c e s t o t he b e l i e f s

and t r a d i t i o n s o f the community. The author d i d have a

great commitment to the Judaism o f h i s d a y ; i t would be er-roneous t o s u g g e st t h a t h i s r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e d i d not h a v e

a t remendous i n f l u e n c e upon h i m . However, h i s pu rpose fo r

writ ing d i d n ot c a l l f o r e mp ha si zi ng th e s e b e l i e f s ; th ey

were s e c o n d a r y t o h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t r i u m p h o f G o d o v e r

e v i l . Hen ce, wh et h er t h i s a u t h o r was a member of an early

s e c t a r i a n g r o u p o r a main l ine J e w i s h p a r t y w o u l d b e more



2 5 9

d i f f i c u l t t o a d d r e s s in terms o f t h e b e l i e f s d i sc e rn e d i n

t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e Enoch l i t e r a t u r e . I t i s c l e a r t h a t the

au tho r possessed a s o l i d f ou n da ti on o f p i e t y a n d b e l i e f a n d

t h a t he s u b o rd i n a t e d t h e s e v a l u e s t o a n o t h e r, more r e l e v a n t ,

purp ose. To ex pe ct some ot he r format, wi th in the circum-

s t a n c e s o f the Maccabean revol t , would have been a n i n v i t a -

t i o n t o d i s t o r t t he a u t h o r ' s b ac kg rou nd and i n t e r e s t s .

3 ) t he au tho r o f I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 u t i l i z e d S c r i p t u r e a s thes t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r h i s s p e c u l a t i o n s . The g e n e a l o g i c a l f ra me -

work and h i s t o r i c a l rev i ew o f t he work were based upon the

b i b l i c a l r e c o r d . The l an g ua g e o f I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 w a s s i m i l a r

t o that o f Sc r i p t u re , wh ic h p ro du ce d an o c c a s i o n a l a l l u s i o n .

Such Sc r i p t u r e u s a ge wou ld b e i n d i r e c t a n d of l i t t l e s i g -

n i f i c a n c e t o t h e c o mp o si ti on . The u se o f S c r i p t u r e , a s a

f o r c e whi ch i nfo rm e d t h e a u t h o r ' s p u rpo s e i n writing, was

m i s s i n g h e re ; that f o r c e came from a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n ,

i . e . t h e t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n wh i c h t h e a u t h o r l i v e d a n d wro te .

4 . The Book o f Ju b i l e es

The Book o f J u b i l e e s was e s s e n t i a l l y a r e w r i t i n g of t he

i n i t i a l p o r t io n o f S c r i p t u r e (Gen. 1 t o EX. lZ), in which the

message o f i n d i v i d u a l passages were reworked t o conform to a

l a t e r s ta nd ar d o f p i e t y. The au tho r was in t e n t , a s he re -

hea rsed the h i s t o r i e s o f the p a t r i a rc h s , t o p u r g e t h e i r

c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e e v i l s noted i n S c r i p t u r e . T he se f o r e -

b e a r e r s o f t h e J ew is h r e l i g i o n w er e p o r t ra y e d a s o b s e r v i n g



260

t h e d i c t a t e s o f To r a h in t h e i r l i v e s f r o m a n e a r l y a g e .

T h i s k i n d o f p o r t r a y a l s e r v e d a dual purp ose: showing the

e t e r n a l v a l i d ' i t y o f Torah as we l l as the supremacy o f the

a n c i e n t J e wi s h way o f l i f e in t he f a c e o f H e l l e n i s t i c in-

f l uence . Th i s book has no t been u n iv e r s a l l y he ld to be613

p a r t of t he a p oc a ly p t i c l i t e r a t u r e ; i t s m a r g i n a l na tu re m u s t

be kept i n m i n d : 1 ) t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w, w h i c h p l a y e d614

a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n D a n . 8-12 a n d I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 a n d l e n t

g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e t o e v e n t s c u r r e n t in t he au thors ' day,

d i d not enjoy the same prominence i n J u bi le e s . The book be-

gan with such a rev iew, pass ing qu ick ly th rough the major

p has es of I s r a e l ' s h i s t o r y t o t he p o s t - e x i l i c p e r i od ( p e r-

haps with a n a l l u s i o n t o t he p ost-Ma cc abe an e r a ) . In J u b ,

2 3 , a d i v e r g e n t k i n d o f h i s t o r i c a l r e vi e w r e l a t e d t he de-c l i n i n g l i f e s p a n o f mankind t o th e i n c r e a s e o f s i n , T h i s

t r e n d , a c c o r d in g t o t h e au th o r o f that sec t ion , had been re -

v e r s e d i n h i s day due to a renewed de terminat ion to s tudy

To r a h ,

Contemporary events created 1 i t t l e moment f o r t he au tho r

o f J u b i l e e s . God 's p u rp o se s we re b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t a s t h ey

had been e s t a b l i s he d long be f o re , The au tho r, however, h a d

613. Cf, 0 , E i s s f e l d t , op. c f t . , pp .606-608 ; S, Z e i t -l i n , ' Th e Book o f J u b i l e e s , i t s C h a ra c t e r and i t s S i g n i f i -c a n c e ' , J Q R x x x (1939-40), pp.1-31.

614, As with many o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c wr i t i n g s , t heBook o f J u b i l e e s c o n t a i n e d a por t ion (23 :18 -31 ) , w h i c h wasmuch more apocalypt ic than the res t o f the m a t e r t a l .



261

o t h e r m a t t er s w hich o c cu p ie d h i s a t t e n t i o n .

t o r i c a l r ev iew had been employed by o the r w r i t e r s t o g i v e

mean in g t o t h e i r p r e s en t d ay (by j o i n i n g i t t o a his tory

which had c l e a r d i r e c t i o n and an i n e v i t a b l e g o a l ) , t h e l a c k

o f s u c h i n t e r e s t by t h e au th o r o f J u b i l e e s p o in t ed t o o t h e r

i n t e r e s t s . For the most part , immedia te h i s to ry inc luded no

c r i t i c a l e v e n t s f o r t h e accom plis hm ent o f G od 's p l a n s , i n

the eyes o f t h e author.

S i n c e t h e h i s -

2 ) t h e au th o r o f Jubilees was much more concerned about

d emo n s t r a t i n g t h e au th o r i t y o f To r ah a n d the supremacy of

t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n a n d h i s v e r s i o n o f t h e f a f t h o f I s r a e l .

The c e n t r a l . f i g u r e s o f t he e a r l y c h ap te rs o f Genesis (Adam,

Enoch, Noah, A b r a h a m a n d J a c o b ) , a s w e l l a s t h e a n g e l s o f

heaven, were viewed a s h av in g e x t r a o r d i n a r y c on ce rn f o r

To rah . The ca l e n d a r f o l l o w ed by the author has been shown

to have been a t v a r i a n c e with other modes o f c a l e n d r a t i o n

a v a i l a b l e t o th e Jew is h community, and i t may be assumed615

t h a t some k i n d o f c on fr on ta t i on on t h i s mat ter may have oc-

c u r r e d .

3 ) s i nc e Ju b i le es was acknowledged as a r e w r i t i n g o f S c r i p -

t u r e , i t would be an easy mat ter to see how Scr ip ture had

been used, i n the broad sense , by the auth or. He had s t eep ed

6 1 5 . 0 . E f s s f e l d t , op. c l t . , p.607.



262

himsel f in t he w r i t i n g s h e ld s a c re d by h i s p e o p le , f o r t h e r e

were r e fe rences a n d a l l u s i o n s t o t h e S c r i p t u r e i n abundance.

A s t udy o f t he se r e f e r ence s d i d not d i s c l o s e a c o n s i s t e n t616

r e a l t i o nsh i p between h i s t o r y a n d t h e S c r i p t u r e . They were617

used i n t h e a n t h o l o g i c a l s t y l e , within the framework o f

t h e b i b l i c a l s t o r y, whe r eve r t h e au t ho r chose t o i n c l u d e

them.

I t ap pea rs t h a t t h e au t h o r o f Jub i l ee s ben t S c r i p t u r e

t o supp or t h i s own id ea s . He t ransformed the pa t r ia rc hs

in to paragons o f p i e t y a n d t he s a cr e d s t o r y o f I s r a e l i n t o

a n adver t i zement fo r obed ience to To r a h . T h f s ' d i s t o r t i o n '

was caused by h i s o v e r r i d i n g c o n c e r n t h a t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f t he i nhe r i t e d t r a d i t i on s o f h i s p eop l e be adop ted by t he

e n t i r e community. The h i s to r i ca l t ens ion o f D a n . 8-12 a n dI Enoch 8 5 - 9 0 , which focu sed on cur ren t events as s tep ping -

s tones to God 's fu tu re , was r ep la ced i n J u b i l e e s by a ten-

s i o n r e g a r d i n g th e Jew s' b e l i e f s a n d p r a c t i c e s , i . e . t he pro-

per o r d e r i n g o f the community to achieve the fulness o f G o d ' s

p l a n f o r Hi s p e o pl e .

5 . Testamentum Levi

The Testamentum Levi was o n e o f t he t we l ve r eco r d s o f

6 1 6 . W.S. McCullough, The Hi st or y and L i t e r a t u r e o fPa le s t in ia n Jews, pp.188-190: ' p re sen t s t r ad i t io na l J ewishi d e a s a n d p r a c t i c e s , b u t a l s o r e p r e s e n t s p a t r i a r c h s a s ob-servers o f the L a w ' .

6 1 7 . C f . D. P a t t e , a . c i t . , p . 1 8 4 .



2 6 3

t he ' l a s t wo rd s' o f the sons o f Jacob inc luded in t h e com-

pos i t i on the Tes t amen t s o f t h e Twe lv e Pa t r i a r c h s . Te s ta -

mentum Levi w a s the m o s t e l a b o r a t e a n d s t r u c t u r a l l y c o m p l e x ,

o wi ng t o t h e s t a t u r e a c c orde d L e v i a nd h i s p r i e s t l y d es ce n-

dan t s i n the second cen tury B . C . I t can be considered as

having much mater ia l which dea l t with h i s t o r i c a l c o n c e r n s ,

t h e b e l i e f s a n d t r a d l t i o n s o f the community a n d the impor-

t an ce o f S c r i p t u r e f o r t he a ut ho rs and t h e i r c i r c l e . The

analys i s o f Tes tamentum Levi i n t hese a reas p roduced the

f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s : 1 ) the author of Testamentum Levi placed

l i t t l e impor tance upon the even t s o f con temporary h i s t o r y.

H i s r e f e r e n c e s t o c on tem porary h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e s and even t s

were q u i t e vague . He was concerned about the be ha vio r o f

t h e p r i e s t h o o d ( c h , 17), connect ing h is day t o t e v i ' s b ymeans o f a n h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w, a sequence o f s e v e n j u b i l e e s

o f i n c r e a s i n g s o r r o w a n d w ic ke d ne ss . E xc ep t f o r t h i s , t h e

a u t h o r wa s c o n t e n t t o e m b e l l i s h t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f L e v i ,

work ing within the framework o f t h e r e c o rd o f S c r i p t u r e .

2 ) t h e b e l i e f s o f the community were given much more space,i n keeping with t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f the author. Testamentum

Lev i (and the o the r t es t amen ts ) was wr i t t e n to suppo r t a n d t o

e x a l t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e L e v i t i c a l f a m i l y with in the Jewish

community. Le vi was re ga rd ed a s an example o f p i e t y from

h i s e a r l i e s t days a nd, a s s uc h, w a s d e s e r v i n g o f h i s e l e c t i o n

by God f o r s p e c i a l k n a wl e d g e a n d s e rv i c e .



264

T h is a s s e r t i o n o f L e v i ' s p o s i t i o n r e v e a l e d t h e m ar ke dly

d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s o f wr i t i ng o f t h i s a u t h o r a n d o t h e r

w r i t e r s , s u c h a s t h o s e o f Dan. 8-12 and I Enoch 85-90. Th ese

l a t t e r a u th o rs s ou gh t t o comfort a n d t o r e a s s u r e t h e i r

countrymen that t h e r e i g n o f e v i l un de r which t h ey l i v e d

w o u l d be sh or t - l i ve d . The au thor o f Testamentum Lev i l l v e d

under no such enmity; his purpose in wri t ing d i d not focus on

oppress ion . He t a u g h t about such mat ters as the day of j u d g -

ment ( k l ) , the r anks o f ange l s (3:3-8), t h e p r i e s t h o o d

( 8 : 1 - 1 9 ) , t i t h e s ( 9 : 4 ) and Torah (9:6- 14). Le vi was des-

c r i b e d d e l i v e r i n g a wisdom-Torah speech (13:1 -9), which re -

c o g n i z e d th e n eed f o r p r o p e r e d u c a t io n , r i g h t e o u s l t v i n g and

r e l i a n c e u p o n wisdom.

The author a d v o c a t e d s t r o n g l y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e sa n d i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the community, seeing i n them the means

t o s u r v i v a l in l i f e . The o r d e r l i n e s s he c h e r i s h e d was

th r ea t ene d , f o r example , by the wickedness o f the ru l ing

p r i e s t s , b u t he env is ioned a new day when God would remove

that p r o b l em b y r a i s i n g u p a new p r l e s t who would r u l e f o r -

ever and make an end t o s i n a n d e v i l within the community

(18:1-14) .

3 ) t h e au th o r o f Testamentum Levi used Scripture f o r the

framework o f h i s m es sa ge . The b i b l i c a l a cc o un t o f J aco b ' s618

618, 0. E i s s f e l d t , o . c i t . , p .632; c f . W.S. McCul-l o u g h , 0 ~ . i t . pp.193-1 8 .



2 6 5

sons (Gen. 2 9 - 5 0 ) d i d not accord honor to Levi , bu t i t d i d

p r o v i d e t h e b a r e s t r u c t u r e h e u t i l i z e d t o g i v e L e v i p r i d e o f

p l a c e . The b i b l i c a l pr om is es r e g a r d i n g t h e t r i b e o f J u d a h

were genera l ly uphe ld wi th in the conte xt o f Judah's sub-

j e c t i o n o f t he a u t h o r i t y o f L e v i a s the one chosen by God

to de termine the community's l i f e o f f a i t h .

Beyond th i s s e l f - s e rv in g u se o f Sc r ip tu r e , t h e a u th o r

d i d not g o . T h e v i s i o n o f L e v i ' s i n v e s t i t u r e ( c h . 8 ) may

have been pa t t e rn ed on the anc ien t sa cr a l k i n g s h i p r i t u a l , 619

b u t i t would be more l ike ly that the author w a s f o l l o w i n g t h e

r i t u a l i n c u r r e n t u se . (w hich was i t s e l f r e l a t e d t o passages

such a s Lev. 8 : l - 1 3 ) . The language of the au thor was remin i-

scen t o f the vocabu la r y a n d p h r a s e o l o g y o f S c r i p t u r e , b u t

t h a t admits of nothing more t h a n c o n s c io u s im i t a t i o n o f theb i b l i c a l p a tt e rn o r the i na d ve r te n t use o f f a m i l i a r r e l i g i o u s

t e rm in o lo g y.

6 0 The War o f t h e Sons o f L i g h t A g a i n s t t h e S o n s o f Darkness

T h i s s c r o l l o f the Qumran sec tar ies was concerned with

t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l war i n w h i c h t h e fo r c e s o f the community

w o u ld j o in with the armies o f heaven t o d e f e a t t h e f o r c e s o f

e v i l . T h i s work was d ' i fferent from others produced by the

community ( a n d t h e l a rg e r s p e c t ru m o f J e w i s h w r i t i n g s ) in

619. H . L . Jansen, 'The Con secr atio n in the E i g h t h C h a p -t e r o f Testamentum Levi: the S a c r a l K i n g s h i p ' , Numen Sup i v(1959)s p p . 3 5 6 - 3 6 5 .



266

t h a t i t a t t r f b u t e d t h e f i n a l v i c t o r y t o the coopera t ion o f

men with God.620

The apparent war l ike nature o f the community621

w a s b o u n d t o i t s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , r e v e a l i n g

once a g a i n t h e r a d i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f

t h e a p o c a l y p t i c 1 i t e r a t u r e . The d es i gna t i o n o f the622

f i g h t i n g p a r t i e s i n d i c a t e d that this war was to have been of

a r e l i g i o u s na t u r e . I n t h i s v e i n , much o f t he m a t e r i a l6 2 3

w a s of a l i t u r g i c a l n at ur e. A n a n a l y s i s o f t h e s c r o l l ' s c o n -

t e n t s r e v e a l e d t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1 ) the au thor ' s concern fo r

h i s t o r y h a d t o be deduced from his statements rather t h a n

r e a d e x p l i c i t l y i n r e f e r e n c e s t o events a n d persons. The

ci rcumstances o f h i s w r i t i n g , h i s i d e n t i t y ( a pseudonym w a s

not used) a n d the use t o which the s c r o l l would be p u t were

not reco rde d. The author wrote a s i f he were rehashing wel l -known doct r ine ins tead o f immedia te r eve la t ion . T h i s accor-

ded with t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e a u t h o r i d e n t i f i e d h i s community

a s t h e d e p o s i t o r y o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e v e l a t i o n s .6 2 4

The Qumran community f e l t i t s e l f t o have been a n i n t e -

g r a l part o f the sac red h i s to ry o f God' s peop le , the remnant

6 2 0 . 0 E i s s f e l d t , op. c f t . , ~ ~ 6 5 3 .621. A . Dupont-Sommer, The Essene Wri t ings f rom Qumran,

p.165.6 2 2 . Cf. t h e p a c i f i s m o f the au thor o f Dan. 8-12 and

t he n ot ed ' c o n t r a d i c t i o n ' o f a p o c a l y p t i c a ut ho rs d e s p a i r i n go f human e f f o r t i n h i s t o r y, t hen t a k i n g u p arms a g a i n s t thee v i l s i n h i s t o r y ; t he a p o c a l y p t i s t s w er e n ot c o n s i s t e n t a tt h l s p o i n t .

6 2 3 . H. Ringgren, The F a i t h o f Qumran, p.19.6 2 4 . D. P a t t e , OJ c i t . , p.284.



267

o f G o d ' s f a i t h fu l o n e s a n d t h e s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e J er us al em

Temp1 e . They had separa ted themselves from w h a t they con-6 2 5

s ide red the co r rup ted fo rm o f the f a i t h o f I s r a e l a n d , a s a

r e s u l t , t h e y w e r e c u t o f f f r o m i n t e r a c t i o n with the events of

h i s t o r y a s they impinged upon the Jews. They i n te r pr e t ed

S c r i p t u r e i n l i g h t o f t h e i r own e x i s t e n c e , r e a s o n in g t h a t the

mighty acts of God in the pa st were promises f o r them i n t h e i r6 2 6

involvement in t he l a s t d ay s.

T h u s , because the Qumranis be1 ie ve d t h e i r community t o

h av e been ' e s c h a t o l o g ic a l ' , t he y h a d p re pa re d f o r t h e f i n a l

c o n f l i c t in ways which re f l e c t ed b i b l i c a l campa igns (e .g .627

Josh. 6 ) a n d Roman m i l i t a r y s t ra te gy . However, because

they were not engaged in a c tu a l w a r f a r e , t h e s c ro l l w a s d e -

tached from i t s contemporary m il ie u , This was not su rp r i s i ngc o n s fd e r in g th e r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n Qumran a n d Jerusalem.

As a r e s u l t , t h e Qumran community h a d a s t rong sense o f h i s -

to ry b o th p a s t a n d fu ture , which were informed by Scr ip ture

a n d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s b a s e d u p o n i t . The present remained the

c o n n e c t in g l i n k fo r the community, which sa w i t s e l f a s the

necessary br idge be tween the promises o f G o d a n d t h e i r f u l -

f i l l r n e n t i n h i s t o r y.

2 ) t h e l i t u rg i c a l n a t u r e o f t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n r e f l e c t e d t h e

6 2 5 . D. P a t t e , o

.c i t . , p p . 2 1 2 f .

6 2 6 . I b i d . , p . 2 &6 2 7 . TFIT. pp.PSife



2 6 8

n a t u r e o f th e community. S i n c e th e community viewed i t s e l f

a s e s c ha t o l o g i c a l , i t s l i f e a n d d i s c i p l i n e ten ded t o hav e

been i d e a l i s t i c . The r o l e o f t h e p r i e s t was c e n t r a l , a l on g

wi t h t h e r e g i m e n t a t i o n s r e g a rd i n g prayer, a l t a r s e r v i c e a n d628

p u r i t y. The m i l i t a r y b an ne rs c a r r i e d s ym bo li c and r e l i -

g i o u s m o t to e s; t h e s t ru g g l e was t o have been the forces of

good a g a i n s t th e f o r c e s o f e v i l , God's a n ge l s a g a i n s t f a l l e n

an ge l s and God ' s community ag a i n s t t he fo rc es o f e v i l f rom

o u t s i d e i t .629

A . Dupont-Sommer was of the opinion that t h i s s c r o l l w a s

one of the most valued works in the Qumran l i b r a r y a n d t h a t

i t c o n t ai n e d s i g n i f i c a n t st at e me n ts r e g a rd i n g t h e com munity's

b e l i e f s and p i e t y. The r an ge o f I n t e r e s t s o f t he au tho r630

d i d not , however, produce a ma rke dly d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e thanot he r works from Qumran.

3 ) t h e u s e o f Sc r i p t u re b y t h e a u t h o r o f t h i s work has been

examined by D . P a t t e , r e v e a l i n g t h e u s e of w ha t P a t t e631

c a l l e d t he a n t ho l o gi c a l s t y l e o f S c r i p t u r e u s a g e . T h i s

s t y l e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s e r i e s o f S c r i p t u r e qu o t a ti o n sp l a c e d t o g e t h e r ; i t a l t e rn a t e d t h ro u g h o u t t h e work: i n t e n s e

( c f . 1 : l -7 , 9 :17 -14 :15 , 15:7-12 ) with weak ( c f . 1:8-15, 2:15-

9 : 1 6 ) .

628, 0. E i s s f e l d t , o p . c i t . , p . 6 5 3 .6 2 9 . A . Dupont-Sommer, op. c i t . , p . 1 6 5 .6 3 0 . I b i d . , pp.167f.631. n a t t e , E i t . , pp .281-287 ; W.S. McCullough,

9p C f t . , p.219.



2 6 9

The motif of the holy war, w h ic h a d a p te d e a s i l y t o t h e

theme of the f ina l ba t t le , was found in s e v e r a l p l a c e s in

S c r i p t u r e ( c f . E x . 1 4 , J u d g . 5 and 7 ) . The author o f the

War S c r o l l e m b e ll i s he d h i s s u b j e c t s o thoroughly through the

u se of l i t u rg i c a l m a t er i al t h a t no Scr ip tu re t ex t cou ld be

d i s c e rn e d a s t he b a s i s f o r any p a s s a ge . T h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

war w a s a n a c c e p t e d b e l i e f a t Qumran a n d i t was open to the

s p e c u la t i v e t r e a tm e n t in the same way that t he n a tu r e o f e v i l

was handled i n I Enoch 6 - 3 6 .

This b r ie f examina t ion o f the use o f S c r i p t u r e a n d the

importance placed upon contemporary history ( o r D a l t e r n a t e l y,

the Jewish sacred h i s t o r y ) a n d the traditions of the commu-

n i t y b r i n g s two ten ta t ive conc lus ions forward for c l o s e r in-

v e s t i g a t i o n : 1 ) t he a p o c a l y pt i c a u th o rs ' d i r e c t u se o f

S c r i p t u r e w a s m i n i m a l a n d S c r i p t u r e was u t i l i z e d a s s up p or t

f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l a u t h o r ' s main purpose (which was ei ther

t he f l o w o f G od's p la n f o r d e l i v e r a n c e o r h i s c on ce rn f o r

the form o f the community) a n d 2 ) many o f t h e p a r t i e s a n d

groups o f Judaism (with Qumran w r i t i n g s e x h i b i t i n g a s l i g h t

d i v e rg e n c e ) t r e a t e d S c r i p t u r e i n much the same way, namely

a s s e c o n d a r y m a t e r i a l s u b j e c t t o t h e b e l i e f s a n d t r a d i t i o n s

o f th e communi t y .

D o S . Russell has characterized the entire Jewish commu-

n i t y as ' t h e p e o pl e o f b i b l i c a l e x e g e s i s ' a n d t h e a p o c a l y p t i c

w r i t e r s a s ' s tuden ts o f p rophecy '. However, t h i s s t a t e -6 3 2

632.. DoS. Ru s s e l l , p . -.i t pp.178,181.



2 7 0

ment must be reevalua ted i n l i g h t o f s c h o l a r l y r e s u l t s i n

such a reas a s exeges i s and hermeneutics . G . Vermes, for

example, noted tha t ' a p p l i e d ' e x e g e s i s ( a s d i s t h c t from' p u r e ' e x e g e s i s ) w a s a step removed from direct use of

Sc r i p t u r e . He s ta ted that the p o i n t o f d e p a r tu r e for the

i n d i v i d u a l a u t h o r w a s no l o n g e r To r a h ( o r t h e p r o p h e t i c

w r i t i n g s ) , a s i t h a d been, b u t i t became the b e l i e f s a n d c u s -

toms which the author wished to connect with S c r i p t u r e . T h i s

prac t ice accompan ied the r i se o f the r e l i g i o u s p a r t i e s in

J u d a i s m a n d w a s most ac t ive i n the e ra o f con t rove rsy be tween

these g roups .633

The apoca lyp t ic wr i t ings ana lyzed above p laced a h i g h

s ign i f icance upon ' the sac red h i s to ry o f the Jews. When

c r i t i c a l e v e n t s o c c u r r e d , t h e r e a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a s t ro n gtendency to re la te them a n d to g ive them s ta tus with in the

sac r ed h i s t o r y. The a u t h o r s o f D a n . 10-12 and I Enoch 8 5 - 9 0

were examples o f t h i s pr ac t i ce . To the author o f the War

S c r o l l , the p a s t h i s t o r y o f God's mighty acts foreshadowed

H i s deeds i n t h e f i n a l d e l i v e r a n c e . T h i s concern with con-

temporary events w a s r e l a t e d t o the community 's be1 i e f s re -

garding God, His world a n d His promises . Such sa lv at io n was

a n t i c ip a t e d b y th e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f the Jews in the second

6 3 3 . G . Vermes, ' B i b l e and Midrash ' , The Cambridge

His tory o f t h e B i b l e , v o l . 1 , pp.221-225.



271

cen tury B.C ., i f Ben S i r a may be ' t h o u g h t o f a s the most con-

s e r v a t i v e of t h i n k e rs ( c f . 36:6-16) and t h e a p o c a l y p t i s t s a s

h a r b or i n g t he more l i b e r a l .The nature o f the Jewish future hope d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d

was anything b u t cons i s t en t . Wh i l e i t always centered u p o n

t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the K i n g s h i p o f I s r a e l ' s G o d , t h e d i f -

f e rences were r emarkab le ( c f . the e a r t h l y a n d heavenly k i n g -

doms, i t s p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c a n d u n i v e r s a l i s t i c n a t u r e , i t s r u l e

by the Son of D a v i d a n d the Son o f Man, i t s i n t roduc t ion

th rough ca tas t rophe a n d gradual growth a n d i t s deve lopment by634

s t a g e s a n d t o t a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n ) .

The communi ty 's o th er b e l i e f s a n d t r a d i t i on s a l s o r e -

c e i v e d a major emphas i s wi th in the apoca lyp t i c wr i t i ngs ( a l -

t h o u g h the s t r e s s was o f t en minimized by a concen t r a t i o n u p o n

the events o f h i s t o r y ) b ec au se th e a u t h o r s ' b e l i e f s w er e

t h o s e o f t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s a n d b ecause t h ey be l i eved t he i r

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f that f a i t h was a n a cc ur at e r e f l e c t i o n o f

God'.s w i l l f o r the community. The ap oca ly p t i c wr i t in gs were

n o d i f f e r e n t t h a n the non-apocalyptic works i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e

supremacy o f Torah a n d the Jews over their enemies.

T h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the Jewish community took center

s t a g e t n works l i k e Testamentum Le v i , fo r example. The

a u t h o r o f J u b i l e e s p r e s s e d h i s c l a i m t h a t h i s c a l e n d a r was

t o have been au thor i t a t ive fo r a l l Jews. The War S c r o l l

634. Cf. DoS. Ru s s e l l , p . c i t . , pp.285-303.



2 7 2

presen ted the p i c t u r e o f the peop le of God as a worsh ip ing

community. These images , taken to ge t he r with the apocalyp-

t i c l i t e r a t u r e ' s v a r ie t y o f d es c r i p t io n s o f t h e a n g e l i c h o s t

a n d S a t a n a n d his minions, were p d i n t s of emphasis with in the

t r ad i t ions o f t h e i nd i v i dua l g r o u p s .

Excluding the Qumran l i t e r a t u r e , much o f the a p o c a l y p t i c

l i t e r a t u r e was w r i t t e n i n r e sp o n se t o s i t u a t i ons conce r n i n g

o p p r e s s i o n a n d con t r ove r sy. Inso fa r as S c r i p t u r e co u l d S U P -

p o r t the a i m s o f t h e p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e d i s p u t e o r s u p -

p o r t ed t he ex i s t ence o f t h e p eo p l e ( o r g r oup ) , i t was deemed

u s e f u l . S c r i p t u r e was b u t one f o r c e , a l b e i t a n enduring o n e ,

among many which m o l d e d the Jew ish community. The ad ve nt o f

He l l en i sm , a l ong with the i n p u t o f f o r e i g n i d e a s , c o n s t i t u -

ted another f o r c e . The defence gene rated by the Jewish

groups, which perforce became r i g i d i n i t s ways o f t h i n k i n g

a n d l i f e - s t y l e , became an o t he r, A deve lopi ng wor ld-vie w was

forced to come to terms with i n f i l t r a t i o n , c o n f r o n t a t i o n and

p e r s e c u t i o n . I t was here , in i t s d i f f e r e n t forms o f ex-

p r e s s i o n , t h a t a p o c a l y p t i c i s m a r o s e a n d f l o u r i s h e d , u s i n g

the raw mater ial of community expectat ion i n a l l i t s v a r i e ty

a n d v i t a l i t y.

I t i s impor tant t o r e c o g n i z e j u s t how unsystematic w e r e

the t each ings o f t h e apoca l yp t i c writers ( c o n t r a r y t o the635~ _

j u dgm en t o f s cho l a r s l i ke D o S . R u s s e l l ). T here was l t t t l e

. c i t . , p . 9 7 , spoke of the apoca-3 5 . D,S. R u s s e l l ,l y p t i s t s ' e f f o r t s t o ' r a t o n a m e a n d sys temat ize ' the p re -d i c t i v e s i d e o f prophecy.



273

c o n s i s t e n c y in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t he e s s e n t i a l c o n f l i c t i n

which th e group was enga ged, the means by which de li v e r a n c e

w a s to have been achieved or the form o f the env is foned

f u t u r e hope. B e l i e f s a r o s e i n d i f f e r e n t c i r c l e s i n re sponse

to d i f f e r i n g s ti inu l i , The community's g r o w i n g h e r i t a g e o f

b e l i e f s a n d t r a d i t i o n s , w h i c h h a d e a r l i e r c o ns t it u te d t he

mi l ieu f rom which the Sc r ip tu re w a s produced, was a l s o the

source of the ideas current in the Jewish community o f t h a t

e r a . S c r l p t u r e w as , i n f a c t , s e c o n d a r y t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d6 3 6

body o f b e l i e f s o f t h e Jews, a s i t h a d a l s o been i n t e g r a l

to the development o f t h e r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e o f the Jews,

W h a t , then, can be said in summary concerning the i n f l u -

ence o f Zechar iah 1-8 u p o n the a p o ca l yp t i c l i t e r a t u r e ? F i r s t ,

t h e r e was t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t he i n f lu e n c e o f Ze c h a r i a h t he

prophet d i d ' n o t extend f a r beyond h i s l i f e t ime because o f the

community 's ven era t ion of the wr i t in gs o f t h e e x i l i c p r o -

p h e t s , t h e u n iq u e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n p e r i o d a n d the

na tu re o f the communi ty ' s r e s to ra t ion h o p e s a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l

c o n s id e ra t i o n s w h ic h d i v i d e d the prophetic movement a n d

tu rned i t a g a i n s t i t s e l f .

Second, i t appears that t h e f i n a l form o f Zechar iah 1-8

was locked i n t o the the oc ra t i c c i r c l e s a round the Jerusa lem

6 3 6 . D, P a t t e , OJ c i t , , pp.276f., made this statementT h i s judgment cane g a r d i n g t h e use o f S c r i p t u r e a t Qumran,

be extended t o the o the r J e w i s h g r o u p s a n d p a r t i e s a s w e l l .



2 7 4

Temple, was l a t e r cons idered as on ly a pa r t o f the l a r g e r

body of prophet ic wri t ings known as the book o f ' the Twelve '

a n d t h a t p r o p h e t i c w r i t i n g s g e n e r a l l y w er e i n t e r p r e t e drather

l o o s e l y d epend ing upon t he i n d i v l d u a l ' s s p e c i f i c b e l i e f s a n d

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n ,

Th i rd , a l l o f Scr ip t u re was subord ina ted by the apoca-

l y p t i c a u t h o r s a t the time o f wr i t in g to o ther concerns (whose

importance took precedence ove r Sc r i p t ur e) : one was the 'end-

t ime ' , which was connected to the exper ience o f p r e sen t d i s -

t r e s s . The au thors ca l l e d f o r loy a l ty to God, His chosen way

o f l i f e a n d communi ty ins t i tu t ions , r a ther t h a n t o f a i t h f u l -

ness t o S c r i p t u r e ; a second was i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s pu t a t i on ,

where au thor s ca l l ed peop le t o choose one t radi t i o n / i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o v e r a n o t h e r ( n e i t h e r , , or b o t h , o f which weres p e c i f i e d in S c r i p t u r e ) ; a n d a third was specu la t ton , where

authors c l e a r l y went beyond the th in gs recorded i n S c r i p t u r e .

T h i s i s t o say t h a t , throughout the t r a d i t i o n h i s t o r y

o f Zechar iah 1-8 as a part o f S c r ip t u re , i t s i n f l u en c e on

l a t e r s ta ge s o f Judaism was watered down on s uc ce ss iv e occa-

s i o n s , u n t i l i t s i n h i d u a l i s t i c i n f l ue n c e became e x ce e di n gl y

min imal overa l l a n d , i n s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s , o n l y a c c i d e n t a l :

1 ) the Qumran l i t e ra tu re a n d the Testaments o f the Twelve

P a t r i a r chs appea r t o have incorpora ted be l i e f s concern ing

two Messiahs , one royal a n d t h e o t h e r p r i e s t l y. I have en-

deavored to show that this b e l i e f d i d not o r i g i n a t e with

Z echa r i ah , b u t that Zechar iah 1-8 w a s i n t e r p r e t e d ( s p e c i f i -



275

c a l l y Z e c h . 3:8, 4 : l - 14 , 6 : 9 - 1 4 ) m ess i an i ca l l y a n d was

thus brought i n as suppo'rt f o r the l a t e r b e l i e f ( i f the l a t e r

communities were concerned t o have such support a t h a n d ) .

2 ) the a u t h o r o f the b o o k of Jubilees made use o f seve r a l

v e r s e s o f Zech. 8 i n forming J u b . 1:15-17. The passage w a s

in tended as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n e r a , a n d t h e r e

was a l so t he i nd i c a t i on t h a t the passage was meant to des-

c r i b e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e a u t h o r ' s day. The author h a d r ead

Zechar iah 1-8 b o t h h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y, v l e w f n g

the promises of Zech. 8 a s h a v i n g been f u l f i l l e d in h i s day

(perhaps because these promises c losely approximated the

e x t an t s i t u a t i o n ) .3 ) Zechar iah 1-8 was a l s o r e f e r r e d t o t w i ce i n the Eighteen

Bened ic t ions , speak ing o f God as the 'Builder o f Jerusalem'i n the Four teenth Benedic t ion (Zech. 8:3) and as the one who

would cause the Messiah to ar i se i n t h e F i f t e en t h Bened i c t i on

(Zech. 3:8) . This mater ia l can hardly be considered6 3 7

a p o c a l y p t i c i n na ture , b u t i t r e v e a l e d how c l o s e l y a p o c a l y p -

t i c d o c tr i n es e x i s t ed t o t h e hea r t o f J u d a i s m .

4 ) Z e c h a r i a h 1-8 w a s a l s o u t i l i z e d by the a u t h o r o f the New

Testament b o o k o f Re ve la t fon . The passage Rev. 6:l-8 employed

t he m o t i f s o f t h e r i d e r s on d i f f e r e n t - c o l o r e d h o rs e s ( c f .

Zech. 1:8; 6:1-6) a n d t h e i r m i s s i o n o f dest ruct ion upon the

e a r t h ( c f . Z e c h , 6:1-8).

6 3 7 . D. P a t t e , OJ. c i t . , p.84.



B I B L I O G R A P H Y

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' T h e Book o f H a g g a i a n d Z e c h a r i a h I - V I I I ' ,- 3s i i i (1952)s pp.151-156

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Influence of Zechariah on Apocalipticism

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