i INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON GENDER DIVISION OF LABOUR IN HOUSEHOLDS: THE CASE STUDY OF WET COFFEE POST HARVEST HANDLING IN KASESE DISTRICT BY KULE ENOS KATYA BSC AGRICULTURAL LAND USE AND MANAGE MENT (MUK) A THESIS SUBMITED TO MAKERERE UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION/ EDUCATION SEPTEMBER 2010
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INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON GENDER DIVISION OF LABOUR IN HOUSEHOLDS
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i
INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON GENDER DIVISION OF LABOUR IN
HOUSEHOLDS: THE CASE STUDY OF WET COFFEE POST
HARVEST HANDLING IN KASESE DISTRICT
BY
KULE ENOS KATYA
BSC AGRICULTURAL LAND USE AND MANAGE MENT
(MUK)
A THESIS SUBMITED TO MAKERERE UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF MASTER OF
SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION/ EDUCATION
SEPTEMBER 2010
i
DECLARATION
I, KULE ENOS KATYA, declare that this thesis has not been submitted for a degree in this
University and any other University or institution of higher learning. All information contained
here-in is original unless stated otherwise.
Signed: ……………………………………Date…………………………………………
KULE ENOS KATYA
(STUDENT)
This thesis has been submitted with our approval as the University supervisors.
Signed: …………………………………… Date………………………………………
DR. FLORENCE .B. KYAZZE
( FIRST SUPERVISOR)
Signed: ………………………………… Date………………………………………
DR. ISUBIKALU PROSSY
(SECOND SUPERVISOR)
ii
DEDICATION
To my Dear parents Late Mother Kabugho Yoniah and Late father Masereka Zebedayo Katya
who brought me into being and shaped a career for me.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I acknowledge the contribution of my supervisors: Dr. Florence .B. Kyazze and Dr. Prossy
Isubikalu both of the Faculty of Agriculture whose criticisms, advice and encouragement have
led to the successful completion of this report. I also thank Dr. Margaret .N. Mangheni of the
same Faculty who kept encouraging me up to the completion of this report.
I wish to express sincere thanks and gratitude to Belgium Technical Co-operation and APEP who
financed the studies and the research respectively and enabled me to collect the necessary data.
I thank the Kasese District Agricultural Office that provided me with the necessary information.
I fully recognize the active participation of all the group leaders and respondents of the farming
groups I visited.
I thank all friends and colleagues I have been interacting with both at the University and outside
whose encouraging words were of much help to me.
However, the ideas and opinions expressed in this report remain my independent views and any
The extent to which a technology influences labor divisions depends on whether its technology
designers considered gender roles and responsibilities in households of an agro-ecological zone
in which the technology is intended to be implemented. Agrawal (1980) argues that the
introduction of agriculture modernization schemes has generally affected rural women in
developing countries through increasing their workloads with limited access and control of
resultant resources. Agrawal (1985) therefore emphasized the importance of taking into accounts
the implication of technological or innovation change on relative workloads, absolute and
relative access to and control over income for women, men and children.
1.2 Problem statement
Coffee farmers in Kasese District have in the recent past adopted the Wet Coffee Post harvest-
handling Technology in order to produce high quality coffee that generates high incomes
compared to the traditional Dry Coffee Post harvest handling Technology (DCPT). FAO (2004)
however noted that the WCPT is labor intensive compared to the DCPT. Studies carried out in
Equatorial Guinea on the use of WCPT also indicated that women workloads increased in
households using the technology (CRI, 2005). It is therefore likely that the WCPT increased the
workload among women farmers in Kasese District where it is currently being practiced (DAO,
2006). Though this may be the case, no investigations have been carried out to provide
evidence on how use of the WCPT influences gender division of labor with in households in
Kasese. The study therefore aimed at finding out how the WCPT influenced the labor patterns
and division in households so as to suggest strategies of ensuring technological use in a gender
equitable manner.
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1.3 Objectives of the study.
The general objective of this study was to find out how the WCPT has changed the way labor is
divided in coffee farming households of Kasese District with respect to gender.
Specifically, the study aimed at the following:
1. To describe the general characteristics of households using the WCPT and DCPT
2. To determine the advantages and disadvantages of DCPT and WCPT
3. To find out labor division pattern among households using the WCPT and DCPT,
4. To find out the relationship between gender, access and control over income among
WCPT and DCPT households.
1.4 Significance of the study
Many farmers in Kasese District are now using the WCPT as a replacement for the DCPT
because it generates quality coffee that fetches competitive prices (Ushs 3500 for wet processed
coffee compared to Ushs 2400 for dry processed coffee). However some farmers have not
adopted the WCPT because of its labor intensiveness and that it would increase their workloads
and yet they may not necessarily have access to and control over income generated from the
technology. Establishing how the WCPT has influenced gender division of labor as well as
access and control over income within households would help determine how females and males
accessed and controlled income got from using the WCPT so that strategies can be sought on
how to bridge the imbalances that may exist with regard to access and control of income.
The findings of the study would assist the Government agencies, Non Governmental
Organizations and policy makers promoting coffee in Kasese get insights that would be used to
effectively promote a technology that is appropriate to farmers’ socio- economic conditions. The
technology designers would be in position to redesign, modify or continue promoting the WCPT
the way it is so long as it fits into the household gender labor system of the area. The study
findings would also be useful to academicians who may need to review the work, replicate the
study in other areas or extend the topic further.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Coffee Development in Uganda: a historical perspective
There are two coffee varieties grown in Uganda; Robusta (coffea canephora) and Arabica (coffea
arabica). Before the coming of colonialists, Robusta coffee which is believed to be native to
Uganda’s natural forests was being grown in Buganda. A ritual significance was attached to
Robusta coffee in Buganda. It was used as an offering to gods and the spirits. In the ceremony of
brother hood the two beans were taken out of the berry; each man moistened it with blood and
gave it to the other to eat. When a visitor arrived at a house, he was given coffee beans to chew
before being offered food. Coffee was also used in ceremonial gifts. Only a few trees were
planted around the homes to supply berries for these purposes. It was a custom among the
Baganda that coffee was always planted by a visitor (Haarer, 1962).
However, the struggle to develop coffee into a commercial enterprise dates back from 1898
during the colonial era, when the colonial Government first introduced Robusta coffee at
Entebbe Botanical gardens for trial as a cash crop (Haarer, 1962). Arabica coffee originated from
Ethiopia (Abyssinia) transported to Southern Arabia through slavery activities around 600A.D. It
was later spread to Malawi (Nyasa Land) from where Uganda under the colonial Government
obtained the first Arabica coffee seed stock in 1900 (Purseglove, 1968). Both Robusta and
Arabica was later introduced at Kampala trial Gardens in 1900 and eventually at Kawanda
Research station in 1937 where the selection and breeding for improved seed stock has since
been done.
Robusta (coffea canephora) is a low altitude crop grown between1000-1500M above sea level; it
requires rich fertile soils and rainfall of over 700mm. This explains why Robusta coffee is
mainly grown in the lake crescent zone along the shores of Lake Victoria (Jameson, 1970).
Arabica coffee is grown at high altitudes of 1500-2500M above sea level in the coarse volcanic
loamy alluvial soil, light textured, and well drained with slightly acidity (Ph of 5.0-6.0). This
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explains why Arabica coffee is mainly grown in the high land areas of Uganda in the Rwenzori
Mountains, Elgon and Muhavura ranges (FAO, 2004; MAAIF, 1993)
2.2. The Coffee Industry in Uganda
Uganda’s economy largely depends on the agricultural sector. Agriculture contributes about 42%
of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of which 80% of the monetary value is from coffee.
Coffee is the leading export crop and leading foreign exchange earner. In 1997, coffee
contributed about 55% of the total export earnings. Coffee provides both direct and indirect
employment to over 5milliom Ugandans. This therefore calls for focusing of attention from
Government and development partners to coffee industry development in order to reap more
from this crop (UCTF, 2001). The quantity of coffee exported by Uganda has been fluctuating
since 1964. The highest export volume of up to about 4.2M sixty-kilogram bags of coffee was
registered in the 1996/97 financial year attracting up to US$ 355M.The lowest export volume
was registered in 1977/78 financial year of 1,7M sixty-kilogram bags attracting US$312M. The
causes for these fluctuations include political instability, poor coffee quality, unfavorable
weather conditions in some years (UCDA, 2001; MPED, 1997).
Uganda Coffee Development Authority (UCDA) is championing efforts to make coffee a vibrant
and strategic source of income with great emphasis on quality (Wetala, 1996). The process of
achieving optimum coffee quality begins from the way coffee is managed at the farm, especially
post harvest handling technology used by the farmers (Mukiibi, 2001).
2.3.0 Coffee Post harvest handling
Robusta and Arabic coffee are handled differently. Robusta coffee is only handled by the DCPT
while Arabica is processed using both the WCPT and the DCPT. The DCPT has been in use
since the colonial times (RFC, 2006) while the WCPT was introduced in Uganda in the early
1970s. However, WCPT was later abandoned in 1977 due to the political upheavals that
escalated during that time leading to fleeing of the country by WCPT promoters who were
mostly British to their home countries. The WCPT was reintroduced by RFC in 2004 in Kasese
and Mbale Districts where Arabica coffee is predominantly grown. Failure to subject Robusta
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coffee to WCPT (like the Arabic type) was linked more to lack of interest on the part of
investors. Apparently, no investor has shown interest, yet, in promoting the WCPT among the
Robusta farmers. WCPT may perhaps in future be applied even on Robusta coffee (UCDA,
2001).
2.3.1 The Dry Coffee Post harvest handling Technology
In the DCPT ripe, semi ripe, dry and berries already fallen on the ground are picked and dried
(Mukiibi, 2001). Harvested cherries are sun dried on coffee yards and tapelines for about 6-8
weeks and hulled by machines which are in most cases located far away from farms in urban
area (ITC, 1992). Like any other technology, the DCPT has advantages and disadvantages that
influence its usage.
The advantages of DCPT include less labor demanding as it only requires picking, drying and
marketing (UCTF, 1999). This creates time that allows farmers to engage in various farm and
off-farm activities to diversify their livelihoods. Owners of coffee huller often reap more from
accumulated seasonal coffee husks. The husks are often sold for mulch and manure generation.
The major disadvantage of the DCPT is reduced quality of coffee. The International Coffee
Council (ICC) has identified dry coffee processing as one of the key ways through which coffee
loses quality easily. ICC put a resolution to the effect of minimizing chances of reduced quality
of coffee. The ICC resolution No.407 on Quality Improvement Program which puts the
minimum export standard at 86 defects per 300g of Arabica and 150 defects per 300g of Robusta
was passed in 2002. If implemented, coffee producer countries would hold an estimated 5-10
million bags of coffee previously deemed exportable and divert it to other uses or destroy it all
together (UCTF, 2003).RFC (2006) describes coffee processed by the DCPT as poor quality, a
reason why its price is lower than that produced by the WCPT. According to FAO (2004),
Coffee produced by the DCPT is said to have a high mycotoxin content, which makes it less safe
for human consumption.
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2.3.2 The Wet Coffee Post harvest handling Technology
According to Rwenzori Finest Coffee Company, (RFC, 2004) the steps followed during coffee
post harvest handling include; red ripe coffee berries are selectively picked leaving the unripe
and semi ripe coffee berries. These berries are then poured into a basin/source pan or any
container half full of clean water. Quality coffee berries sink while the poor quality coffee berries
float together with other unwanted debris. Floating coffee is then removed together with other
floating materials. The sunken berries are then washed and pulped using a hand driven pulpier.
Coffee berries are put in the pulpier in rations that can be handled depending on the size of the
pulpier dish.
Pulpiers rub off the skin and some of the mesocarps by forcing the berries between a rubber strip
and a perforated rotating drum. The expelt fruit still have mucilaginous pulp adhering to the
endocarp around the seeds. Pulping must be done on the same day of coffee picking to prevent
loss of coffee quality. The pulp is heaped to decompose and then used as manure. The next stage
is fermentation. In the fermentation stage there is enzymatic degradation of pectinaceous
mucilage. Beans are placed in a pile/source pan/basin and clean water added until the beans are
fully covered. This process takes 24-36 hours depending on environmental temperatures. Some
beans float and the biggest percentage of the beans sink.
Floating beans are removed because they are of low value. Sunken beans are then washed 3-4
times after fermentation to prevent staining. Beans are then dumped from wash containers to
wire meshed drying tables in doors for three days while still inside the endocarp/parchment.
Plenty of clean water is needed for washing coffee. An estimated 22,750 liters of water have
been found ideal for washing coffee that generates up to 1000 Kgs of coffee ready for sale
(Mukiibi, 2001). Sun drying takes 7-14 days in dry weather on raised wire mesh drying tales.
Properly dried coffee can be stored for 3-4 years at room temperatures.
The main advantage of WCPT is production of high quality coffee. According to UCTF (2003)
the WCPT produces high quality coffee that meets the International Coffee Council (ICC)
resolution No.47 on Coffee Quality Improvement Program (CQIP) under which minimum
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standards for exportable coffee are set. The minimum export standard is 86 defects per 300grams
of Arabica and 150 defects per 300 grams of 0f Robusta coffee. The levels of mycotoxins in wet
processed coffee are low making it the most ideal coffee for human consumption. The benefits
of wet coffee processing are not only to producers who receive higher prices but also to coffee
roasters who will receive high quality beans for their customers. It is a win-win situation.
Wet processed coffee (using hand driven pulpier) generates pulp that is used as mulch by farmers
who generate it. This helps farmers who may not be in position to purchase and transport coffee
husks from hullers that are in most cases located far from farms in urban centers (FAO,
2004).Wet processed coffee takes a shorter period (about two weeks) to dry enabling farmers to
access cash in a short time so as to meet their basic needs. In areas where wet coffee processing
has been impressed like in Kenya, formation of coffee farmers savings and credit co-operative
societies has taken place enabling farmers to access low interest loans and also be able to save
money (FAO, 2004)
Disadvantages of WCPT include; Wet coffee Processing technology is more expensive than the
Dry Coffee Processing Technology. It calls for more attention or concentration and labor right
from harvesting to drying if quality coffee is to be achieved. This situation may lead to gender
exploitation considering the fact that men are controllers of labor in households (Upudhay, 2004)
2.4 Influence of WCPT on household gender division of labor
Any change from one technology to another or introduction of any new technology has
implications on household members’ labor demands (Everts, 1998). In the literature on
technological change; household division of labor, productivity and income distribution with
respect to gender could be seen as influential and important paradigms (White head, 1985).
Analyzing the effect of technological change using a household as a unit of analysis would be
misleading as it wrongly assumes that the needs and well-being of each family member
regardless of sex get equal consideration and that each member gets an equal share of the
household’s supply of goods and services (Agrawal 1985; Benerjee, 1985). Therefore when
9
analyzing the influence of technological change on house gender division of labor, the analysis
should target both men and women in that household.
Bryceson (1985) noted that there is a wide array of technological devices that could positively
influence household division of labor and therefore reduce labor-intensive activities for women.
However there are many other technologies that are a threat to women’s welfare particularly
their workloads (Kabeer, 1991). For example in Papua New Guinea, the introduction of the Wet
Coffee Post harvest handling Technology, to replace the Dry Coffee Post harvest handling
Technology, increased the work load of rural women. Besides the traditional or usual household
chores, women had to farm to produce food, and participated in wet coffee processing. The men,
only participated in wet coffee processing and left other domestic chores to women(Grossman
and Lawrence, 1984)
Studies carried out in Kenya and Rwanda have shown displacement of men’s labor from other
income generating activities to coffee as a result of introducing the WCPT (FAO, 2004). In
Kasese money generated from coffee has been used by men to hire laborers which has enabled
men to engage in less labor-intensive activities like retail business using the money from coffee
sales (RFFC, 2006)
2.5 Influence of WPCT on house hold gender access and control of income
Technological change has got either a positive or negative effect on the incomes of household
members (Whitehead, 1985). In Rwanda the introduction of the WCPT to replace the DCPT
greatly increased household incomes but severely reduced the incomes of wives and children
(FAO, 2004). Upudhay (2004), points out that an increase in individuals’ workload cannot
automatically be assumed to increase access and control over income by that individual. UNDP
(1994) observed that most labor intensive technologies that have been promoted in most rural
settings of Africa often have proved a thorn in the flesh of women’s socio-economic success.
Even where men are putting less effort they have remained in control of cash crop incomes and
yet have priorities that are less related to household food security (Haddad, 1992). In Rwanda,
households that have impressed the WCPT have had more cases of malnutrition since cash
income earned from coffee is taken by men who use it for non house hold related expenditure.
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Women in such households are poorer than those in the DCPT households. Therefore,
technology-promoting agencies should focus on income generation and nutritional security.
Any technology that compromises the food security of household members by taking away the
labor of women necessary for generating food and income to sustain the household should not be
recommended for adoption (Booth, 1998). In Africa, farming is one of the sources of income and
sometimes not the major one; Wage employment, selling labor and trading are common
additional sources of income for rural households. Therefore farming systems researchers in
technology generation should focus on technologies that are flexible and can be accommodated
in the household diverse production activities to maximize household utility (FAO, 2002).
Gender neutral technologies (technologies socially acceptable and easy to use by both men and
women) are being advocated for. Bhaduri (1985) argued that non-neutral technological change
occurs when the distribution of income alters as a consequence of technological change. He
defines technological change as neutral if it leaves the pattern of income distribution among
relevant groups or individuals unchanged and that technological change will be said to have a
bias in favor of a particular group/individual if the pattern of income distribution is shifted in
favor of that group/individual.
Overlooking the influence of technological change on incomes of individuals in a household by
technology intervening agency or development organization may further marginalize them
(Upadhay, 2004). Women and children do not always share in the benefits of income earned
from farm (cash crops) produce even though they may have done most of the work. For example
In Arua district (PEAP, 2004) women in the early 1990s were much less enthusiastic than men
about tobacco growing because of the men’s pronounced control over income use. In Papua
New Guinea, WCPT fetched higher income for the households than DCPT. Most households
concentrated on WCPT and had to fore go alternative activities from which they were earning
wages. Households that remained with DCPT whose labor requirements was low and used
excess labor to earn wages had there welfare better off than those who specialized in wet coffee
processing (FAO, 2002).
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When focusing on the household, it is important to involve both men and women in the process
of introducing a technology especially in rural communities. Feedback from the women and
men to agricultural engineers should be an important input in designing and redesigning
technology for appropriateness and gender sensitivity. Men and women have different interests
even from the same technology. Men prefer technologies that make them generate more income
while women prefer technologies that help them produce as much food for the family as possible
(Haddad, 1992).
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 The study area
This study was conducted in Kasese District (see appendix 1). Kasese is one of the leading
coffee growing Districts and also where wet coffee processing was predominantly being done in
Uganda (UCDA, 2005). Two parishes namely Kibandama of Kilembe Subcounty and Kitabona
of Kyarumba Sub County were purposively selected. Purposive sampling was considered
appropriate because according to RFC (2006), these areas were the leading producers of wet
processed coffee in the district. The same parishes were also the leading producers of dry
processed coffee in the district (UCDA- Kasese office, 2006) The District is located in the
Western region of Uganda and is bordered by the Districts of Bushenyi to the South, Kamwenge
to the East, Kabarole to the North East, Bundibugyo to the North and the Democratic Republic of
Congo to the West border the District. The total land area is 2,724sq.kms of which 1,647sq.kms
is available for farming activities and human settlement (NEMA, 1998). The population is
estimated at 534,000 (UBOS, 2003) giving an average density population of 324 persons per
square kilometer of settled areas. The major farming system is mixed farming systems of
banana-coffee-livestock with average farm holdings ranging from 0.4-1.2 hectares (NEMA,
1998). The food crop systems include intercropping beans or groundnuts with maize, banana,
cassava and potatoes. Cash crops include coffee, cotton, passion fruits and vanilla (DAO, 2004).
3.2 Research Design
The study was a descriptive survey. Data was collected from coffee farmers who were using the
WCPT and those who were using the DCPT. Farmers using the WCPT were asked to provide
information on its advantages, how labor is divided in their households with respect to gender
and the rate of access and control over income by different house hold members. The same
information above was collected from farmers using the DCPT in order to make comparison and
13
be able to ascertain how the WCPT has influenced gender division of labor, access and control of
income in this area.
3.3 Sampling
The target population consisted of coffee farmers using WCPT and DCPT in Kibandama Parish
of Kilembe Sub county and Kitabona Parish of Kyarumba Sub County. A list of all wet coffee
processing households in Kibandama and Kitabona parishes was obtained from Rwenzori Finest
Coffee Company while the list of dry coffee processors in the same parishes was made by the
researcher in collaboration with the local and opinion leaders in the area. Systematic sampling
was used to select households for the study. This procedure involved drawing the sample by
taking every Kth
case from the population of each of the coffee processing technology users. A
decision was taken on how many subjects one wanted in the sample (n) and since the total
population was known (N), the sampling interval was determined by dividing N by n (K=N/n).
The first respondents were randomly selected from the first Kth members on the list and then
every Kth
member of the population was selected for the sample. The area had 1203 wet coffee
processing households while dry coffee processing households were 1321. Every 20th
household
on the list was selected giving a total of 60 respondents among the wet coffee processors.
Selecting every 22nd case gave a total of 60 respondents among the dry coffee processors. The
60 respondents from the wet coffee processing cluster added to 60 respondents from dry coffee
processing cluster made the 120 respondents that were considered for the study. Systematic
sampling was preferred because of its ability to eliminate bias in selecting respondents which
reduces sampling error ( Saunders et al, 1997)
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Only 120 respondents were selected because of limited resources. The respondents were either
household heads or their spouses who had an equal chance of being interviewed depending on
whether one is participating in coffee post harvest handling and also whether one is available.
These were found more appropriate because they had a higher stake in coffee post harvest
handling.
3.4 Data collection Instrument
The main instrument for data collection was an Interview schedule (see appendix 2). This was
developed by the researcher with the help of supervisors in line with the objectives of the study.
The interview schedule was preferred to other types of instruments because a higher completion
rate was expected given that the researcher searches for respondents and interviews them face to
face. Open ended and closed ended questions were used. Open-ended questions were used
because the respondent was able to give his/her mind about the topic that the researcher could
not think about. They also made it possible for the interviewer to probe deeper. Closed ended
questions enable the researcher to gain information about predetermined answers (Kabali and
Mwesigye, 2003). An interval scale of 1-5 (where 1 represented the lowest and 5 represented the
highest proportion of work done by individual household members in particular activities) was
adapted.
The interview schedule was pre-tested on 20 farmers; 10 in Katoke Parish of Bugoye Sub
County and 10 in Kyanya parish of Maliba Sub County. Of the 20 farmers 10 used WCPT and
10 used DCPT. Maliba and Bugoye sub-counties have impressed both the WCPT and the DCPT
(DAO, 2006). Pre testing the interview schedule in a different area enables the researcher to fine
tune the instrument before applying the tool to the target population. It also prevents monotony
of interviewing the same respondents if they happen to be in the study sample (Howe and
Eisenhart, 1994)
Professionals in the Department of Agricultural extension/Education reviewed the interview
schedule for content validity. Their views were sought on the clarity of the questions, the general
15
layer out of the instrument and whether the questions adequately covered the objectives of the
study. These professionals gave their opinions and subsequent revisions were made deleting the
irrelevant questions and adding some on relevant areas of study.
The interview schedule was tested for its reliability during the pre-testing exercise. Twenty
farmers were selected from Katoke and Kyanya Parishes of Maliba and Bugoye Sub Counties
and interviewed twice by the researcher using the same interview schedule. The interval between
the interviews was two weeks. Two weeks were appropriate because the respondent would have
forgotten the previous response. This was meant to check for the consistency of the responses
given by the same respondents during the two interviews. When the results were correlated,
reliability coefficients ranging from0.57 to0.68 were obtained. Hence the interview schedule was
considered reliable for data collection, as the reliability coefficients were reasonably high.
3.5 Data collection
Data was collected in the months of August and September 2007 by the researcher. Both primary
and secondary data was collected. Primary data was collected through face-to-face interviews in
addition to observations made on who does what activity during coffee harvesting and post
harvest handling. The most popular language in the area (Lhukonzo) was used during interviews
while the responses were recorded in English. This was done because the researcher was well
versed in both languages and hence it saved time during interviews. The respondents who were
interviewed were either house hold heads or their spouses because they were considered to have
a bigger stake in coffee post harvest handling activities carried out on their farms more than
anybody else in their households. Respondents were interviewed by the researcher to generate
information about the advantages and disadvantages of using the WCPT and the DCPT, gender
division of labor as well as access and control of income in households using the WCPT and
DCPT. Secondary data was generated through review of Rwenzori Finest Coffee Company and
UCDA documents respectively about the database of wet coffee processing farmers and where
dry coffee processing is done most in the District.
3.6 Data Analysis
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After data collection, data was coded, entered and analyzed using SPSS computer soft ware.
SPSS was used because of its ability to handle diverse numbers of variables and test them
simultaneously (Schneider, 2005). Multiple response analysis was used to compute the
advantages and disadvantages of the WCPT and the DCPT. Percentages were computed to find
out the proportions of work done by female and male members of the household using the
WCPT and the DCPT while using the chi-square to determine whether there were significant
differences between work done by females and males. Chi square estimate enables the researcher
to know the degree of confidence to have in accepting or rejecting a hypothesis. Chi square also
tests whether or not two different groups of people are different enough in some aspects. This
made it possible to compare whether there were significant differences in workloads for males
and females participating in wet and dry coffee processing.
Pearson correlation was used to find the relationship between gender, access and control of
income among the wet and dry coffee processors. Data was then presented in tables for easy
interpretation. Pearson correlation can vary from -1 to +1. This is convenient because one can
distinguish between positive and negative correlation which helps the researcher to determine the
direction of correlations. Among both the Pearson correlation and chi square, two tailed tests
were carried out because the direction of the relationship was not known and therefore two tailed
tests would be able to handle variations in both positive and negative directions from the mean
(Howe and Eisenhart, 1994)
17
CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Characteristics of respondents
The general social parameters used to describe the characteristics of the respondents included
sex, marital status, age, family size and land size as shown in Table 1. The characteristics apply
to all 120 respondents of which 50% used WCPT and 50% used DCPT.
Table1. Sample Characteristics of Coffee farmers in Kasese District
Characteristic Freq (n=120) %
Sex of respondent
Males
Females
58
62
48.3
51.7
Marital Status
Married
Single
Divorced
93
19
77.5
15.8
06.7
Sex of Household head
Male
Female
109
11
90.8
09.2
Age of respondents
18-30
31-48
49-58
59+
40
50
23
07
33.3
41.7
19.2
05.8
18
Average family size (n=120)
Average land size (acres) among WCPT users(n=60)
Average land size (acres) among the DCPT users(n=60)
9
2.7
2.3
Results in table 1 above indicate that both females and males participated in coffee production
with bigger proportions of females (51.7%) than males (48.3%) participating. The estimated ratio
of females to males among the study participants was 1:1 which is similar to that estimated by
UBOS (2002) as the national average for Uganda. This means that coffee farming was an activity
for both men and women. The majority of the respondents (77.5%) were married with
only15.8% and 6.7% single and divorced respectively. This showed that labor was mostly being
provided by married men and women. Most households (90.8%) were male headed while 9.2%
households were female headed. The fact that most households were male headed meant that
men were likely to influence women to take up bigger tasks.
Majority of respondents (41.7%) were aged 31-48, followed by 33.3% aged 18-30, 19.2% aged
49-58 and those aged 59 and above were 5.8%. This was mainly a young population capable of
providing on farm labor needed for wet and dry coffee processing. Family sizes averaged nine
persons per household with a minimum of one person and a maximum of 20 persons. This is in
agreement with NEMA (1998) who found out the average family size in Uganda as nine persons.
This shows how it could be possible for the family to provide sufficient labor if well coordinated.
Since most families were depending on farming to earn a living, concerted efforts from all family
members were vital in improving the status quo of their farms to be able to generate meaningful
gains while sustaining food security
Land size also varied among the wet and dry coffee processors. The average land size for wet
coffee processors was 2.7 acres compared to 2.3 acres for dry coffee processors. This there
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indicates that the wet coffee processors were likely to do more on farm work than dry coffee
processors since they owned more land.
4.2 Farming status among the respondents
The study participants were much involved in farming with over 78% of females being full time
farmers and about 61% males being full time farmers among the wet and dry coffee processors
respectively. The fact that females were more involved in full time farm activities shows that
they were providing more on farm labor than males. Males (30%) were more part timers in
farming than females (10%) among both wet and dry coffee processors. In both the wet and dry
coffee processors males that were not involved in farming were about 6% while there was not a
single female not involved in farming (See table 2). The above trend is in line with the findings
of UBOS (2002) that females were more involved in farming at about 76% compared to men at
61%. This could have been due to the fact men who are in most cases the controllers of labor and
income could have engaged females more in coffee processing as they engage in other
businesses using income generated from the coffee.
Table2. Farming status of household members
Farming
status
Wet coffee processors Dry coffee processors
Females
(%)
Males
(%)
X2 Asymp.sig
2 tailed
Females Males X2 Asymp.sig
2 tailed
Full time 85.2 67.0 4.545 0.033* 78.3 61.5 5.828 0.016*
Part time 14.8 28.3 4.041 0.044* 21.7 30.3 5.330 0.026*
Not farming 0 4.7 2.321 0.000* 0 8.2 3.217 0.012*
KEY: *_Significant at 0.05
From table 2, the Chi-square value for females and males involvement in farming was
statistically significant at 0.05 level of significance among the wet and dry coffee processors.
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This means that there were significant differences between females’ and males’ participation in
farming among both the wet and dry processors with females being more full time farmers in
both the wet and dry coffee processors. This was in line with NPA (2008) which asserts that over
60% of the farm labor in Uganda is provided by women. This shows how women’s workloads
supersede that of men in this area. Thus the introduction of wet coffee processing a more labor
intensive technology was likely to have women doing more work which could increase their
workloads more. In order to productively grow both food and cash, land ownership was very
critical. In this farming system, the respondents owned land under various tenure systems.
4. 3 Land tenure systems in Kasese District
The land tenure systems ranged from customary, freehold, rented and borrowedland
(see Table 3).
Table 3: Land tenure
Land tenure WCPT n=60 (%) DCPT n=60 (%)
Customary 69.2 70.1
Freehold 51.5 46.8
Rented 40.7 50.4
Borrowed 37.6 42.9
Percentages add to more than 100 due to multiple responses
The farmers owned land under various tenure systems including, customary, free hold, rented
and borrowed. Land ownership systems were not mutually exclusive, one person/farmer could
own land under multiple tenure systems. Among the various tenure systems, customary land
ownership was the most common with 70% of the respondents under both the wet and dry coffee
processors. Other type of land tenure systems included free hold, rented and borrowed that were
common to almost equal proportion of wet and dry processors. The land tenure system
influenced the area of land under different crops. This could be the reason behind differences in
allocation of land to different enterprises (Table 4). Farmers having long term tenure systems
such as customary and free hold were more likely to engage in long term enterprises such as
21
coffee. On the contrary, farmers with temporary land tenure such as land borrowing and renting
were more engaged in annual crop enterprises.
4. 4 Farming systems in Kasese District
In Kasese, coffee is the main cash crop. Other major crops were cassava, beans, bananas (locally
called matooke), Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes (table 4). These crops were primarily grown
for home consumption though the excess was sold off to generate household income.
Table 4 Major crops grown in Kasese
Crop WCPT users n=60
(%)
DCPT users n=60
(%)
Coffee 100 100
Cassava 100 100
Beans 88.3 93.3
Bananas 73.3 71.7
Irish potatoes 45.0 61.7
Sweet potatoes 31.7 46.7
Percentages add to more than 100 due to multiple responses.
Coffee and Cassava were the major crops grown by all the participating households. Beans and
bananas were also among the common food crops as indicated by over 70% of the respondents.
Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes were least grown as indicated by 31.7% and 46.7% by the wet
and the dry coffee processors respectively. This shows how the dry coffee processors relatively
had more food than the wet coffee processors whose labor was more focused into coffee
production.
Since cassava and coffee were the competing crops for labor and land among both the wet and
dry coffee processors, it was imperative that detailed analysis of the study be based on these
enterprises.
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Table 5 Size of land allocated to coffee and cassava by the WCPT and DCPT users
Land size (acres) WCPT n=60
DCPT n=60
Coffee Cassava Coffee Cassava
Average land size
Minimum land size
Maximum land size
1.7
0.4
6.0
0.6
0.2
2.4
1.3
0.3
4.0
0.9
0.3
3.0
Arabica coffee was the major cash crop produced by farmers in Kasese District. Due to the
importance of the crop, each household cultivated coffee. From Table 5, the wet coffee
processors had allocated more land to coffee with an average of 1.7 acres while the dry coffee
processors had allocated 1.2 acres. The minimum land allocated to coffee was 0.4 and 0.3 acres
among the wet coffee processors and dry coffee processors respectively. The maximum land
allocated to coffee was 6 and 4 acres among the wet and dry coffee processors respectively. The
fact that wet coffee processors had allocated more land to coffee than the dry coffee processors
shows how the wet coffee processors were more interested in coffee due to higher prices they
were fetching from their coffee sales. This also means that women who are more involved in
coffee farming were likely to get much loaded with coffee work among the wet coffee processors
than the dry coffee processors.
On average wet coffee processors had allocated less (0.6 acres) of land to cassava growing
compared to (0.9 acres) for dry coffee processors. This could be due to the value attached to
cassava as an enterprise. The dry coffee processors could be attaching more value to cassava
production than the wet coffee processors because their dry processed coffee was bringing in
lesser income compared to wet processed coffee resulting into more land allocation to cassava
growing so as to strike a balance in income. The minimum amount of land allocated to cassava
growing by wet coffee processors was 0.2 acres while the maximum was 2.4 acres. The
minimum land allocated to cassava growing by dry coffee processors was 0.3 acres while the
maximum was 3 acres. This further explains the fact that dry coffee processors value cassava
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more than wet coffee processors. This stemmed from the fact that cassava production and sales
still makes economic sense to dry coffee processors who sell their coffee cheaply compared to
wet coffee processors (Ushs 3500 per Kg of wet processed coffee and Ushs 2400 per Kg of dry
processed coffee).
4.5 Coffee production in Kasese
Farmers engaged in wet and coffee processing were likely to harvest varying quantities of clean
coffee as the amount of care for coffee varied.
Table 6: Quantity of Coffee generated by coffee farmers in Kasese per acre
Quantity (Kgs) per season WCPT users n=60
DCPT users n=60
Average yield
Minimum yield
Maximum yield
490
209
632
403
130
556
Due to differences in commitment and care allocated to coffee production, the coffee yield also
varied among the wet and dry coffee producers (see Table 6). On average, Wet coffee processors
realized higher yields (490 Kgs per acre) as compared to the dry coffee processors (403Kgs) for
dry coffee processors. This was because wet coffee processors were applying better production
practices gained from the trainings by the WCPT promoting extension staff. Therefore women in
wet coffee processing households were likely to have more workloads than their counter parts
among the dry coffee processors due to the fact that women in this area do more work on the
farm than males. Farmers in this area have got different views about the advantages of the coffee
post harvest handling technologies which are mainly centered on price of coffee generated and
labor intensiveness of technologies.
4. 6 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Wet and dry coffee processing methods
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Choice between WCPT and DCPT depended largely on farmers’ understanding of the
advantages and disadvantages of the technology. Below are the advantages for which farmers
decided to take up either of the processing technologies;
4. 6.1 Advantages of wet and dry coffee processing
Higher price of the processed coffee was the main basis upon which farmers decided to take up
WCPT while access to credit was the least basis (Table 7). Being less expensive was the main
basis upon which farmers decided to take on DCPT while other advantages of dry coffee
processing included the technology being less labor intensive, less time consuming and
immediate payment for coffee on delivery to the market.
Table 7 Advantages of wet and dry coffee processing
Advantages WCPT (n=60)
%Response
DCPT (n=60)
%Response
Higher coffee price 100 -
Quick coffee drying 94.7 -
Clean coffee generated 86.0 -
Coffee management training 84.2 -
On farm coffee husks disposal 82.5 -
Access to credit 62.4 -
Not expensive - 71.7
Less labor intensive - 65.0
Less time consuming - 63.3
Immediate coffee payment - 63.2
The percentages add up to more than 100 due to multiple responses.
From table 7 above, all the farmers (100%) using the WCPT found it advantageous because the
coffee generated by the technology fetched higher prices of Ushs 3500 per kilogram compared to
coffee generated by the DCPT which was sold at Ushs 2400 per kilogram. Other advantages of
the WCPT included quick coffee drying (12-14 days) reported by 94.7%, clean coffee
25
generation (86%), through drying coffee on suspended wire mesh during the first four days of
drying and then on tapelines between 5-14 days of coffee drying. Access to coffee management
training by Rwenzori Finest Coffee extension staff was reported by 84.2% of the farmers while
(82.5%) reported that coffee husks generated on farm were used to make on-farm manure.
Among dry coffee processors, the DCPT being less expensive (71.7%) than the WCPT in terms
of buying wire mesh for coffee drying, tapelines, pulpier among other equipments was the main
advantage they found associated with the technology. Other advantages of dry coffee processing
included the technology being less labor intensive as reported by 65%, less time consuming
(63.3%) and immediate coffee payment on delivery to the market (63.2%).
4. 6.2 Disadvantages of wet and dry coffee processing
The wet and dry coffee processing methods had a range of disadvantages (Table 8)
Table 8 Disadvantages of wet and dry coffee processing
Disadvantages of WCPT
%Response(n=60) % Response(n=60)
Labor intensive 90.9 -
Expensive 84.1 -
Time consuming 81.8 -
Leads to food insecurity 77.3 -
Delayed coffee payment 29.5 -
Low coffee prices - 93.3
Coffee drying takes long - 75.0
Generated coffee less clean - 53.3
Off farm coffee husks disposal - 56.7
Summation of the percentages adds up to more than 100 due to multiple responses.
The main disadvantage of wet coffee processing was being labor intensive as reported by 90.9%
of the respondents due the fact that it has many activities. These activities include cherry
pulping, selective cherry picking, fetching water for coffee processing, cherry sorting and drying.
Other disadvantages of wet coffee included being expensive as it involved buying of pulpier,
tapelines, and drying wire mesh (84.1%) which poor farmers could not afford. The WCPT was
26
time consuming as it involved selective cherry picking. Pulping of coffee on the same day of
picking it which sometimes makes the farmer work up to 15hours a day (81.8%), complicated
the work more. This has led to food insecurity because it takes a way some labor needed in food
production and yet men who are the major controllers of income earned may be less willing to
spend money earned on food (77.3%) and delayed coffee payment (29.5%) where by it can take
one or two weeks for RFC to pay the farmers for coffee supplied.
This there shows that though farmers were motivated to use the WCPT due to its associated
advantages, selling coffee on credit was demoralizing as farmers need the money to meet the day
to needs.
The main disadvantage of dry coffee processing reported by 93.3% of the respondents was
generating coffee that fetches a lower price of Ushs 2400 compared to Ushs3500 per kilo offered
for wet processed coffee. Other disadvantages of dry coffee processing included; coffee drying
takes a long time about 4-6 weeks (75%) which prompts financially needy farmers to sell their
raw coffee at lower prices. Farmers (56.7%) pointed out that they were losing soil fertility
because of disposing coffee husks to owners of coffee hulling factories mostly located in Kasese
town. Farmers (53%) asserted that the coffee generated by the dry coffee processing method was
less clean as it involved drying coffee on the bare ground. This results into low quality coffee
that attracts lower prices.
4. 7 House Hold Gender Division of Labor among both the wet and dry coffee processors
Labor is one of the most constraining factors when a new innovation is introduced (Whitehead,
1985). This study therefore endeavored to find out the kind of labor changes that took place in
Kasese District when a new coffee processing method was introduced among the coffee farmers.
A farmer in Kitabona Parish Kyarumba Sub County was quoted saying “I will stop selling my coffee to Rwenzori Finest Coffee Company if they do not stop making us wait for a week before we can be paid. I do not know where the proprietors come from. Suppose they disappear, where can we go to ask for our money?”
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The wet coffee processing method, unlike the dry processing methods involved a range of
activities to enable the farmer produce the quality of coffee that was required to meet
international standards (see table 9). The activities ranged from coffee weeding, coffee picking,
carrying water for coffee processing, coffee pulping and carrying coffee to the market and these
were performed in varying proportions by both men and women.
Table 9: Gender division of Labor within coffee processing technologies
(83%) and (98%) marketing of cassava. A similar trend was observed among the DCPT
farmers: Over 70% of all the women were engaged in weeding, transportation, planting,
harvesting and marketing of the crop. Though men were also engaged in these activities as well,
their participation was very minimal with (20%) engaged in planting, (10%) weeding, (19%)
harvesting and (17%) transporting cassava to the market. Nonetheless, men’s participation in
cassava production was more pronounced during land clearing but this does not mean that
women did not participate in land clearing as well. Further scrutiny of the results indicates that
men’s participation in cassava land clearing, planting, weeding, harvesting and transportation to
the market has significantly reduced among the wet coffee processors (see table 12).
Table 12: Gender provision of cassava labor across the two coffee post harvest handling
technologies
31
Activity Gender WCPT DCPT X2 Asymp.Sig
Land clearing F 41 30 4.159 0.002*
M 59 70 24.353 0.002*
Planting F 80 75 6.753 0.723*
M 20 25 9.733 0.324*
Weeding F 90 70 8.241 0.000*
M 10 30 3.9167 0.000*
Harvesting F 81 75 9.333 0.423*
M 19 25 3.546 0.002*
Transportation F 83 70 8.689 0.000*
M 17 30 20.235 0.000*
Marketing F 98 89 8.539 0.000*
M 2 11 6.859 0.003*
Key: X2- Chi square, * -Significant at 0.05 (2 tailed)
The labor provided by men in cassava farming had significantly reduced due to adoption of the
WCPT. That meant that women’s work load increased significantly since men were doing less
work in cassava production. The reduction in males’ involvement in cassava activities was
because coffee production was more profitable with the introduction of the WCPT as compared
to cassava production which made men concentrate more on coffee leaving most cassava work to
women.
A coffee farmer in Kyarumba Sub-County had this to say about cassava and coffee production.
The above script signified that coffee production was first priority for this male farmer and
probably many more male farmers were thinking in the same way about coffee production.
“I can no longer waste time in cassava gardens because I have been poor for a long time while producing a lot of cassava. Now that wet processed coffee is gold, I must concentrate on my coffee with all my children and wife. Whoever does not want to work on my coffee must leave my home.”
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Women on the other hand though otherwise as verified by the lamentation of one female farmer
in Kilembe sub-county during the coffee harvesting season of April, 2008.
This shows that though women were providing labor in wet coffee processing, they were
benefiting less form the income generated from coffee sells. Since women have to work hard in
both cash and food crop enterprise, it is more likely that more labor is likely to be shifted from
food to coffee production, a situation that will make most households food insecure. The
situation was even aggravated by the fact that men were unwilling to invest in food purchase
after the sales of the coffee.
4. 9 Household Gender division of non- farm sources of income labor.
The different household members participated in other off farm income generating activities to
supplement the farm income. Table 13 shows that both men and women among the wet and dry
coffee processor participated in civil service, small business and labor sales.
Table 13: Gender division of non farm income labor within the coffee post harvest
Key: X2- Chi square, * -Significant at 0.05 (2 tailed), F -Females and M-Males
For both types of processors, more men than women were more involved in off farm income
generating activities. Men were significantly involved in civil service (64.4%) and (61.4%) for
DCPT and WCPT than females at 36.4% for WCPT and 38.6% respectively and all other non
“We are going to suffer from famine in this home because we have been captured here on coffee. Rats and weeds are destroying our cassava and yet this man is going to spend the coffee money in Kasese Town without buying for us food.”
33
farm sources of income. There was a general decline of women engagement in non farm sources
of income after adopting the WCPT an indication that their workloads had increased due to
participation in the WCPT as indicated in table 14.
Table 14 Gender Provision of non-farm income labor across the technologies
Activity Gender WCPT DCPT X2 Sig.(2tailed)
Civil service F 35 38 5.483 0.714
M 65 62 11.031 0.276
Business F 38 45 31.124 0.002*
M 62 55 29.700 0.300
Selling labor F 42 58 31.667 0.000*
M 58 43 3.965 0.000*
Key: X2- Chi square, * -Significant at 0.05 (2 tailed), F -Females and M-Males
The proportion of work done by females and males did not significantly change as a result of
using the WCPT in civil service and business activities. However, there was a significant decline
in females’ involvement in selling labor which can be attributed to their being busy on the farm
doing most of the cassava work and also participating in the WCPT. The rate at which males
were selling labor significantly increased among the wet coffee compared to females as they
could use any off coffee time to work on other farms while women would allocate this time to
cassava cultivation. Since the trend of gender participation in non- farm activities had changed
due to the adoption of the WCPT, this was likely to affect the way domestic activities were
being shared between males and females.
4. 10: Household Gender division of domestic activities.
In addition to production of food and cash crops, the various household members provided their
labor to meet the various reproductive roles. The reproductive roles included; fetching water for
home use, preparing food, collecting fire wood, child care and home cleaning (See table 15)
Table15: Gender division of domestic activities within the coffee post harvest handling