INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE GREAT EASTERN SUN: AN EXAMINATION OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF USE AND THE SHAMBHALA BUDDHIST TEACHINGS An Integrative Paper Submitted By Lisa Havelin To Adler Graduate School in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy This integrative paper has been accepted for the faculty of Adler Graduate School by: Herb Laube, Chair Dan Zenga, Reader
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INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE GREAT EASTERN SUN: AN EXAMINATION OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF USE AND THE SHAMBHALA
BUDDHIST TEACHINGS
An Integrative Paper
Submitted
By
Lisa Havelin
To
Adler Graduate School
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
degree of
MASTER OF ARTS in
Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy
This integrative paper has been accepted for the faculty of Adler Graduate School by:
Herb Laube, Chair
Dan Zenga, Reader
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM
ii
Abstract
The First Noble Truth is that the suffering of birth, old age, sickness and death is
unavoidable. Suffering includes both physical and psychological pain. The Individual
Psychology of Alfred Adler and the Shambhala Buddhist Teachings cultivated in the west
by Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche are similar in that they aspire to alleviate suffering, and
that fundamentally they seek to improve the situations of humankind.
This paper examines the beliefs and practices that form the foundation of both
Individual Psychology and the Tibetan Buddhist Teachings, and compares and contrasts
them with one another.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 1
Acknowledgements
I offer my deepest gratitude to my grandmother, Edith Rodenkirchen (1916-2004)
who was the embodiment of social interest and Buddha activity, to my greatest friend (a
cat), Ms. Moppet (1968-1991) who was the embodiment of compassion and the gentle
warrior in the face of suffering, old age, sickness and death, and to the venerable
Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche and Alfred Adler for their work in providing living
teachings to help people and all sentient beings be liberated from suffering.
Thank also to my husband Michael Havelin and my mother Karen Phelps for
providing the space, opportunity and friendship needed to do the work required for this
course of study, and to Herb Laube and Dan Zenga for their skillful counsel, humor,
insight, support and encouragement with manifesting my interests and ideas in the form
of this paper. And finally to my sweet friends Mary Ludington, Lisa Ringer, Kim Smisek
and Winnifred & Ida Havelin for being so nice to me and keeping me on track.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 2
CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
Oberst, U. E. & Stewart, Alan E. (2003). Adlerian Psychotherapy An Advanced Approach to
Individual Psychology. New York: Brunner-Routledge.
Rinpoche, Sakyong Mipham. (2004). Turning the Mind into an Ally. Boston: Shambhala
Publications, Inc.
Trungpa, Chogyam. (1980). Born in Tibet. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc.
Trungpa, Chogyam. (1984). Shambhala Sacred Path of the Warrior. Boston: Shambhala
Publications, Inc.
Waelde, L., Thompson, L., Gallagher-Thomson, D., (2004). A pilot study of a
yoga and meditation intervention for dementia caregiver stress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60(6), 677-678.
Effects of Meditation on Anxiety Related Disorders 31
Appendix
The Effects of Meditation on Anxiety Related Disorders
The Effects of Meditation on Anxiety Related Disorders
Lisa J. Havelin
Alfred Adler Graduate School
Effects of Meditation on Anxiety Related Disorders 32
Abstract
The essence of the Buddhist teachings presents some fundamental beliefs relevant to this
literature review. Buddhist belief states that all sentient beings experience suffering and that
there exists in every sentient being pure, manifested basic goodness which is often not
experienced because of thoughts which obscure it. Sitting meditation is a Buddhist practice by
which an individual can engage in taming the mind thereby removing these obscurations and
revealing inherent basic goodness. The practice helps to increase awareness of thinking patterns
as neutral rather than positive or negative, which is thought to have positive influence on
suffering. This literature review examines current research on the effects of meditation on
anxiety related disorders.
Abnormal behaviors examined include state anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression. Ten Studies are reviewed and all demonstrate degrees of positive correlation. In general terms
meditation has a positive effect on anxiety in varying degrees, but overall has not been found to
have a negative effect.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 33
Introduction
Buddhist belief teaches that all sentient beings experience suffering and that there exists
in every sentient being pure, fully manifested basic goodness, which is often not experienced as
accessible because of ways of thinking which obscure it. Sitting meditation is a Buddhist
practice by which an individual can engage in taming the mind thereby removing these
obscurations and revealing inherent basic goodness. The Buddha is said to have removed every
obscuration of mind thus achieving enlightenment. Having removed all obscurations, the
Buddha manifested pure compassion, which is the antidote to suffering. The Buddhist teachings
also reveal a belief in reincarnation or a repeating cycle of birth and death. This cycle is called
samsara, and is characterized by the first noble truth that is the experience of suffering. It is this
very suffering which teaches compassion, and embodying compassion is what liberates sentient
beings from samsara. Achieving enlightenment means being liberated from samsara.
The Buddha brought his teachings into the world 2,500 years ago. At that time these
teachings were studied and practiced largely as a monastic tradition and exclusively by men.
Large monasteries were built to house great numbers of Buddhist monks who studied and
debated the teachings of the Buddha. Monks were required to spend extended lengths of time,
often years, and in some cases the great majority of the span of an individual life, meditating.
This meditation practice would often take place in a cave. Monks who renounced material wealth
did not have families or contact with cultural centers. The monastic life was a solitary endeavor.
Buddhist teachings and practice originated in India, and traveled to Tibet and Asia.
Different forms of the teachings developed based on direct transmission of the original teachings
from the Buddha to other great teachers. The specific routes of these transmissions now define
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 34
specific lineages of Buddhism and the teachings are regarded as ‘the living teachings’ because
they have been preserved over these thousands of years by way of an oral tradition.
People have always sought ways to cope with and alleviate their own suffering and the
suffering of others. They have also sought comfort and a feeling of happiness and have largely
done this through engaging different forms of spiritual practice. In the 1960’s and 1970’s the
Buddhist teachings and meditation practice became popular and somewhat fashionable in
popular western culture. Famous Americans began seeking out high Buddhist teachers. This
connection helped to bring some of these teaching to the West and eventually also brought
teachers, for instance, Suzuki Roshi from Japan, Thic Nat Hahn from Vietnam, Maharishi
Mahesh from India, and Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche from Tibet. Eventually several of these
teachers founded their own spiritual centers that made the different lineages of Buddhist
teachings and meditation practices more readily available to westerners.
The underlying theme which connects the Buddhist teachings/meditation and anxiety
related disorders is the idea of suffering. Buddhism and meditation address suffering and anxiety
related disorders as a form of suffering. Anxiety and anxiety related disorders have an enormous
impact on the overall growth, health and function of individuals and organizations. It is reported
that in industry, losses due to stress related sick days, disability, and decreased productivity were
estimated at $200 billion annually in 1993 (Sheppard W., Staggers, John, 1997). The prevalence
of anxiety disorders in the United States is estimated at between 15% and 25%. Symptoms of
anxiety are linked to and/ or worsen many medical conditions. Current treatment options for
anxiety include psychopharmacology, cognitive therapy, cognitive/behavioral therapy, relaxation
training, self-hypnosis, biofeedback, meditation, and psychotherapy (Miller, Fletcher, Kabat-
Zinn, 1993).
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 35
The practice of sitting meditation creates a disciplined and structured way of sitting with
ones’ emotions, both positive and negative. This particular way of paying attention in a
nonjudgmental way creates awareness of how the mind works, and how thoughts are generated
continuously, moment-to-moment. The concept of a person’s inherent basic goodness and the
attempt through a sitting practice to reveal that, and connect with it generates compassion
towards oneself and is known as Mindfulness Meditation (Miller et al., 1995). One of the
instructions given in Mindfulness Meditation is to recognize any thought that comes up as
“thinking.” Another is to pay particular attention to the “out breath”. Any sensory experience is
regarded also as “thinking” and so the practice includes everything that is happening in a
person’s outer and inner environment. Meditation gives the practitioner experience in not
becoming wrapped up in the content of ones’ thoughts or experiences.
With continued training, a practitioner becomes aware of habitual ways of thinking and
also responding to thoughts in an objective or nonjudgmental way. This awareness leads to an
increased ability to view thought and feelings as temporary, passing phenomena which are not
necessarily true, or representative of reality. One possible outcome of the practice of meditation
is a more flexible relationship with the content of the mind. Meditation teaches individuals to
identify destructive thought patterns, and relate to this information in a nonjudgmental way that
allows for more options. This approach increases flexibility and allows for a possible reduction
of ruminating thoughts, overgeneralizations, and self-criticism. Patients with anxiety related
disorders who work with the practice of meditation might become less susceptible to mood and
feeling states which contribute to anxiety (Ramel, Golden, Carmona, McQuaid, 2004).
This paper represents a review of current research literature on the effects of meditation
on anxiety related disorders. It will include a summary of the evidence related to the general
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 36
relationship between meditation on anxiety related disorders, a discussion of methodologies,
possible confounding variables that influenced the research, knowledge gaps in current research,
and directions for further research.
The General Effect of Meditation on Anxiety Related Disorders
In general, all of the ten articles included in this literature review supported a hypothesis
which confirmed that meditation has a positive effect on anxiety related disorders. The power of
statistical support varied somewhat. Sheppard et al. (1997) in a study titled “The Effects of a
Stress Management Program in a High Security Government Agency” studied the effectiveness
of Transcendental Meditation (TM), and an educational “Corporate Stress Management” (CSM)
program on anxiety, depression, and negative self-concept. They found a significant reduction in
trait anxiety and depression over the three month treatment program in the group using TM
compared to the group who received the CSM training. This was measured using the State-Trait
Anxiety Inventory, the IPAT Depression Scale, and the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Self-
concept was unchanged during the intervention but showed significant between-group
differences after three years. It is reasoned that Self-Concept may be a more stable personality
trait, and that it may take a longer period of time for differences in this trait to appear. This study
also used a measure of blood pressure (Systolic/Diastolic), which showed to be unaffected by the
intervention.
Smith, Compton and West (1995) studied the impact of meditation on Fordyce’s (1977,
1983) Personal Happiness Enhancement Program (PHEP). They report that the study of
happiness and life satisfaction has increased over the last 25 years, and that this research has
determined that personality factors have greater impact than situational factors in predicting
happiness. These personality factors include: extraversion, internal locus of control, positive
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 37
self-esteem, optimism, and the ability to form close relationships. The PHEP program is directed
at supporting improvements in these personal traits. Research has found meditation to be
effective for stress management, increasing internal locus of control, decreasing anxiety, and
self-actualization and therefore, the authors contend, would be useful as an adjunct to PHEP.
This is called Meditation plus PHEP, or MEDP. Results of this study found that a program to
enhance happiness is significantly improved by the addition of meditation, provided that
participants practice meditation at least three times a week, which is the minimum amount of
time the study found to have significant improvements.
In another of the articles, Ramel et al. (2004) studied the effects of mindfulness
meditation on cognitive processes and affect in patients with past depression. They report that
negative attitudes and personal attributes such as rumination, repetitive thinking, worry, anxious
and depressive self-talk and thoughts of loss, incompetence, etc. contributed greatly to feelings
of anxiety and depression. Again, they cite previous research, which supports the use of
mindfulness meditation as a productive intervention in helping reduce anxiety. During the eight
week intervention in Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), results confirmed that
compared to the control group, patients reduced the number of general overall autobiographical
memories, a characteristic of thinking which leads to depression, and increased specificity of
their memories. Overall, their results suggest that and an eight week stress reduction program
which includes mindfulness meditation is effective in decreasing ruminative thinking, and that
this improvement in maladaptive thinking decreased episodes of depression and anxiety.
Methodologies
In general, studies on the effects of meditation on anxiety have become more
sophisticated over time. In the 1980’s and early to mid 1990’s studies used a form of meditation
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 38
call TM, Transcendental Meditation, which was popularized in western culture largely during the
1970’s. Transcendental Meditation originated in India, which was one of the first lineages of
Buddhism imported to the West.
The technique of TM focuses awareness on a specific object or mantra, and in that way is
much more specific, and less inclusive than mindfulness meditation which opens up eyes and
mind to encompass all perception. Because of the popularity of TM in earlier years, those early
studies looked only at TM without considering other forms of meditation. Studies have also
developed more sophisticated ways of measuring the effects of meditation on anxiety. Early
studies used physiological measures such as blood pressure testing, which was later revealed to
be a less accurate method, as blood pressure readings could be influenced by other health related
problems. Further, these early studies used non-standardized testing including self-report
measures of well being, and one did not have a control group.
Later studies all included a control. In general, the development of studies included more
specificity in hypothesis, which did include looking at the effects of different forms of
meditation on anxiety, including Mindfulness Meditation, and also, began to include
standardized measures including State-Trait, and DSM-IV. Due to these improvements in the
sophistication of ways of designing studies, and in testing measures, the validity of results has
improved dramatically over time. Of the studies which included measures of length of
intervention, they found that the effectiveness of the intervention increased with the length of
time. Interventions which took place over longer periods of time were more effective than
interventions which were briefer.
The earliest article included in this review is by Books and Scarano, (1985). This study
included a random sample of patients from the Denver Vietnam Veterans’ Outreach Program,
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 39
and tested the effectiveness of Transcendental Meditation compared with psychotherapy in the
treatment of Post-Vietnam Adjustment. A group of 18 male Vietnam veterans seeking treatment
at the Denver Vet Center were selected randomly to be included in one of the two groups. Odd
numbered participants were assigned to the TM group and even numbered clients were assigned
to the psychotherapy group. The TM program included a 4-day instruction period of 1½ hours
per day and weekly follow-up meetings over a 3-month period. TM instruction was given by
instructors trained and qualified by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Each client was instructed to
meditate 20 minutes per day. Clients assigned to the psychotherapy group participated in
weekly, individual psychotherapy sessions at the Vet Center.
Pretest and posttest measures used the same measures which were: a measure of
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) developed by Charles Figley after the DSM-III and
included a subscale measuring emotional numbness, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Beck
Depression Inventory, a questionnaire designed by Figley to measure post Vietnam adjustment,
and a physiological measurement using stimulus GSR. There was no control group and therefore
generalizability of this study is not supported. Results support a positive correlation for the
effectiveness of TM in the treatment of post-Vietnam adjustment. The TM group improved
significantly pretest to posttest on eight variables; the therapy group showed no significant
improvements on any measure.
An article titled: Effectiveness of a Meditation-Based Stress Reduction Program in the
Treatment of Anxiety Disorders, (Kabat-Zinn, Massion, Kristeller, Peterson, Fletcher, Pbert,
Lenderking, Satorelli, 1992), and Three-Year follow-up and Clinical Implications of a
Mindfulness Meditation-Based Stress reduction Intervention in the Treatment of Anxiety
Disorders, ( Miller et al, 1995) are of particular relevance to this review. The 1992 study was the
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 40
first of its kind in that previous to it, studies had only researched effect of Mindfulness
Meditation on non-psychiatric populations. This study measured the effectiveness of meditation
for patients with anxiety disorders as measured by DSM- III or DSM-III-R criteria. In addition it
was the first study of its kind to use standardized diagnostic procedures, and also was the first to
use structured clinical interview for diagnosis. This study was designed to determine the
effectiveness of a group stress reduction program using mindfulness meditation for patients with
anxiety disorders. The participants were screened with a clinical interview and found to meet
the DSM-III-R criteria for generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder. This study found that
meditation effectively reduced symptoms of anxiety and panic. The 1995 follow up study is the
only study which included a long-term follow-up. This three-year follow-up found that the
positive results of the earlier study were maintained on every outcome measure providing strong
evidence that a mindfulness based meditation program can provide a clinically effective
treatment. It suggests that people who experience chronic long-term anxiety can experience long
lasting positive effects by practicing mindfulness meditation.
These two aforementioned articles greatly influenced the studies, which came after them
and are cited extensively. One article in particular, “Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress
Reduction on Medical and Premedical Students,” (Shapiro, Schwartz, Bonner,1998) modeled
their intervention after the study developed by Kabat-Zinn.
Possible Confounding Variables Influencing Results
In general there is one confounding variable which influenced all of the studies
considered in this review, and that is that they all used very small sample sizes, which decreased
the reliability and generalizability. Another variable which influenced the studies was their lack
of a randomized control group (Miller et al., 1995). A Pilot Study of a Yoga and Meditation
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 41
Intervention for Dementia Caregiver Stress, (Wailde, Thompson, Gallagher-Thompson, 2004)
studied the effectiveness of meditation on caregiver stress and found that it reduced anxiety and
fatigue/burn-out. However, the study allows that this result could be influenced by the fact that,
in general, over time a caregiver might become better able to accommodate the demands and
stress created by care-giving by developing better skills, practice, and support.
In a study titled: Individual Trait Anxiety Levels Characterizing the Properties of
Zen Meditation, (Murata, Takahashi, Hamada, Omori, Kosaka, Yoshida, Wada, 2004) which
studied the changes in neurophysiology during Zen Meditation, and evaluated the results in
relation to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory found that lower trait anxiety more readily induces
meditation which emphasizes internalized attention, and that higher trait anxiety induces
meditation with an emphasis on relaxation. This study reports that individuals who participated
in the study and who were psychologically healthy and who therefore had a greater capacity for
relaxed attention appear to be better at meditation. It is not clear whether these participants
already had these characteristics or if the practice of meditation created them.
Knowledge Gaps in Current Research
Knowledge gaps in the current research reflect a need to continue to design studies which
evaluate the relationships between, and effect of meditation and anxiety. One of the ways in
which that might be accomplished is to design studies which measure the effects of the different
kinds of meditation. Meditation has many forms, for example: Transcendental Meditation,
Mindfulness meditation, of which there are several forms including forms which come from
Tibet, India, and Japan. Also, there are more body centered forms of meditation including Yoga,
and Tai Chi, (Tloczynski, Tantriella, 1998).
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SHAMBHALA BUDDHISM 42
Smith et al. (1995) report that in their study the initial teaching, and beginning a
meditation practice may be psychologically stressful for some people due to the increasing
awareness of internal states and that this may have an influence on results.
There are knowledge gaps in terms of generalizability. Because all of the sample sizes
were very small in all of the studies included in this review it is unclear whether or not the results
of these studies have any power in terms of their generalizability to larger populations of people
(Smith et al, 1995). In most of the studies reviewed for this paper the effects of meditation on
anxiety were looked at in non-psychiatric populations, and few used DSM-III criteria. In nine of
the ten studies there was no long term follow up, so it is unclear whether or not the effects of
meditation on anxiety related disorders has any long term effectiveness or it is strictly effective
as a short term intervention. In addition, many of the studies did not use standardized testing
methods.
Directions for Further Research
Many of the people who suffer from anxiety related disorders receive many different
forms of treatment to address their disorders. These include: psychopharmacology, cognitive