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The American Indian in the Philosophy of the English and French
EnlightenmentAuthor(s): Paul HonigsheimReviewed work(s):Source:
Osiris, Vol. 10 (1952), pp. 91-108Published by: The University of
Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science SocietyStable
URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/301809 .Accessed: 21/02/2012
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The American Indian in the Philosophy of the English and French
Enlightenment
The " Noble Savage," a representative figure in English and
French literature of the eighteenth century, was destined later to
become the object of careful scientific investigation (i). How the
" savage " fares at the hands of the English and French novelists
is certainly worthy of serious investigation. The purpose of this
paper, however, is to review the contributions of English and
French empiricists and enlighteners-from BACON to CONDORCET-to our
knowledge of American Indians. Charac- teristic of the thought
within this group was the belief in : ) the non-existence of a
providence, which exerts an influence upon man and the world: 2)
man's ethical and intellectual capacities, and 3) the natural right
of man.
The most important thinkers with whom we must deal are the
following: i) Lord BACON, the statesman for Queen ELIZABETH and
King JAMES as well as the admirer and exponent of experimental
sciences; 2) HOBBES, a supporter of absolutism as developed from
the theory of the original social contract; 3) LOCKE, a defender of
the supposedly inalienable rights of the individual based upon the
same theory but used differently than by HOBBES; 4) HUME, an
epistemologist, who dealt with the basis, methods, limits and
validity of knowledge; 5) MONTESQUIEU, an historically-minded,
moderate critic of French and admirer of English state and social
structure; 6) VOLTAIRE, a writer in many theoretical and practical
fields, but primarily a struggler for what he considered "
tolerance"
(I) Cf. CHAUNCEY BREWSTER TINKER, Nature's Simple Plan
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1922); BENJAMIN HEZEKIAH
BISSEL, The American Indian in English Literature of the I8th
Century (New Haven : Yale University Press, 1925); HOXIE NEALE
FAIRCHILD, The Noble Savage (New York: Columbia University Press,
1928); LOIS WHITNEY, Primitivism and the Idea of Progress
(Baltimore: The John Hopkin's Press, I934).
-
in religious life; 7) ROUssEAU, the advocate of the return to
nature and the social contract; 8) DIDEROT, the editor of the
Encyclopedie, and his collaborators known as the Encyclopedists
(treated here as a unit); 9) CONDORCET, follower of VOLTAIRE'S
historico- philosophical ideas. Before dealing with the concepts
concerning the American Indians themselves we must first
investigate the sources used, the eras studied, and the points of
view and ideas expresssed (2).
Variety of sources. Sources of at least seven types fall into
consideration. These include the following: i) Biblical reports; 2)
Greek and Roman writings; 3) Jesuit missionaries; 4) Non- Jesuit
missionaries; 5) Non-theological travellers; 6) Reports
(2) The writers under consideration have published countless
pamphlets, often anonymously and without indication of place and
date of publication. Such original editions often exist in a few
copies only in outstanding libraries of the Old World and are often
not obtainable in this country. There are standard editions
however. The citations in the following footnotes will refer to
them; they will only indicate the name of the author, the special
title of the particular publication of his under consideration, and
the number of the volume and pages within the standard edition
where the particular publication is printed. These standard
publications in the alphabetic sequence of the names of the authors
are as follows : FRANCIS BACON, The Works, collected and edited by
J. SPEDDING, R. L. ELLIS and D. D. HEALTH (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, and Co., N.D.), Vol. I-XV; JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS DE
CONDORCET, (Euvres, publi6s par A. CON- DORCET O'CONNOR et M. E.
ARRAGO (Paris: Firmin Didot Freres, 1847), Vol. I-XII; DENISE
DIDEROT, (Euvres Completes, publies par J. ASSEZAT (Paris : Garnier
Freres, 1875-1877), Vol. I-XX; THOMAS HOBBES, The English Works,
collected and edited by S. W. MOLESWORTH (London : J. Bohn,
I839-I845), Vol. I-VI; DAVID HUME, Philosophical Works (London:
Little, Brown and Co., 1854), Vol. I-IV; JOHN LOCKE, The Works, A
New Edition (London: T. Tegg, 1823), Vol. IX; CHARLES DE
MONTESQUIEU, (Euvres Completes, publiCs par E. LABOULAYE (Paris:
Garnier Freres, 1875-1879), Vol. I-VII; MONTESQUIEU, Collection
Borde- laisienne des inedits de Montesquieu (Vol. I-VII Bordeau: G.
Gounouilhou; Vol. VIII-IX Paris: Librairie Ancienne H. Champion,
1891-1914); JEAN JACQUES RoussEAu, (Euvres (Paris: Levevre,
1819-1820), Vol. I-XX; FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE VOLTAIRE, (Euvres
Completes, nouvelle edition (Paris: Garnier Freres, 1877-I885),
Vol. I-LII. The complete title of the Encyclopedie is as follows:
Encyclopedie ou Dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des arts et des
metiers par une societe de gens de lettres (Paris: Briasson,
1752-1772), Vol. I-XXVIII and Supple- ment, Vol. I-VII, ibid.,
1772-1780. The author has accepted some statements made by SACKMANN
concerning VOLTAIRE and has cited these publications. The
publications of BROCKDORF, CHURCH, FAGUET, FRASER, HENDEL, KNIGHT,
LANSON, MAHRENHOLZ, ROBERTSON, ROBINET and STRAUSS are of
importance for the under- standing of the philosophers under
consideration but are secondary to our purposes here.
P. HONIGSHEIM 92
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AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY
written by indigenous peoples and 7) Natives exhibited in
Europe.
Like Catholicism and Protestantism, the English enlightenment
faced the problem of bringing the peoples of newly-discovered
countries into relation with the Biblical concept of the world (3).
It may be said, however, that this problem diminished in importance
from the time of BACON to the period of the French enlighteners. In
discussing a flood which was supposed to have separated the Old and
New Worlds, BACON, for example, discussed the possibility that it
was identical with the deluge described in the Old Testa- ment.
Insofar as the latter is concerned, he accepted it as a reliable
source. Somewhat later, LOCKE ridiculed FILMER, who attempted to
derive the paternal and royal power from ADAM and NOAH, and who
asserted that natives of the New World obey their fathers and
kings, although they never heard about NOAH. As to the French
enlighteners, they lived in a Catholic environ- ment in which the
Bible never played a great role anyway. Accordingly, conflicts
between the reports of travelers and the Bible were at most used to
ridicule the latter. As to the classic Greek and Roman writings
(4), the enlighteners had to deal with the identity between the "
Atlantis" and the New World, or the identity between the " Amazones
" and socially powerful women
(3) BACON, " Essays or Councels, Civil and Moral," Vol. XII, p.
274; LOCKE, "Of Civil Government," Vol. V, p. 317; HUME, "The
Natural History of Religion," Vol. IV, p. 421; R. FILMER, Patriarca
(London : R. Chiswell, 1680). See also PAUL SACKMANN, Voltaire's
Geistesart und Gedankenwelt (Stuttgart: Frommann, 1910), pp.
200-203, 215-216. As to other attempts made in the Renaissance to
bring newly-discovered countries in relation to the Biblical
concept of the world, cf. ADOLF SCHILL, Gianfrancesco Pico della
Mirandola und die Ent- deckung Amerikas (Berlin : Breslauer, 1929),
pp. 19-24.
(4) BACON, "The New Organon," Vol. VIII, pp. 102-110, 154; IDEM,
"Essays...," Vol. XII, pp. 203, 206; IDEM, "An Advertisement
Touching an Holy War," Vol. XIII, p. 214; HOBBES, " Physical
Rudiment Concerning Govern- ment," Vol. II, p. 116; HUME, "A
Treatise of Human Nature," Vol. I, p. 274; IDEM, "An Inquiry
Concerning the Principles of Morale," Vol. IV, p. 389; VOLTAIRE, "
Essai sur les mceurs et l'esprit des nations," Vol. XI, pp. 24-25;
DIDEROT, " Lettres sur les Atlantides," Vol. IX, p. 231;
Encyclopedie..., Supplement, Vol. IX, p. 231. As to other attempts
to bring newly discovered peoples in relation to the classical
Greek and Roman concept of the world see EDUARD FUETER, Geschichte
der neueren Historiographie (Miinchen: Oldenburg, 191I), pp.
291-294.
93
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in South America. Such equalizations were still accepted by some
English but rejected by some French enlighteners. Since the middle
of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits (5) were at the same time
the most powerful and most widely hated group within Catholicism.
Especially as opposed to the Dominicans, the Jesuits insisted upon
the possibility of maintaining some non- Catholic customs after
conversion to Catholicism. Such debates were widely read and cited.
Even some enlighteners based their judgment on such reports. While
the English enlighteners scarcely referred to non-Jesuit
missionaries (6) as sources, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and the
Encyclopedists cited many of them. BACON, VOLTAIRE, and LOCKE cited
some written reports
(5) BACON, " The History of the Winds," Vol. IX, p. 339, 412;
LOCKE, " An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol. XII, pp.
203-206; MONTESQUIEU, " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes,
Vol. III, p. 330, Vol. V, p. 62, 218; IDEM, "Voyage en Italy,"
Collection Bordelaisienne...; Vol. IV, p. 198; IDEM, " Pens6es et
Fragments," ibid., Vol. V, pp. 128, 142, 148, 155-156, 178, Vol.
VI, p. 500; VOLTAIRE, "L'Orphelin-," Vol. V, p. 296; IDEM, "Pr6cis
du siecle de Louis XV," Vol. XV, p. 68; IDEM, " Fragments sur
l'histoire generale," Vol. XXIX, p. 109, footnote I; ROUSSEAU, "
Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inegalite," Vol. IV,
pp. 337, 358; DIDEROT, " Supplement au voyage de Bougain- ville,"
Vol. II, p. 2Io; IDEM, " Sur l'eloge de la ville de Mugden," Vol.
VI, p. 397; Encyclopedie..., Vol. II, pp. 338-347, Vol. XVII, pp.
240-242 and Supplement, Vol. I, PP. 346, 349, 353. See also GILBERT
CHINARD, L'Amerique et le reve exotique dans la littdrature
franfaise au XVIIe et XVIIIe siecle (Paris: Hachette, 1913), p.
347, and FAIRCHILD, The Noble Savage, op. cit., p. 129. As to The
Jesuitic missionary work, cf. JACQUES AUGUSTIN CRETINEAU-JOLY,
Histoire religieuse, poli- tique et litteraire de la Compagnie de
Jesus (Paris: Paul Mellier, 1845-I846), Vol. I, pp. 368-387, Vol.
II, pp. 104-130, 363-404, Vol. III, pp. I41-273, Vol. V, pp. I-1 3;
EBERHARD GOTHEIN, Ignatius von Loyola und die Gegenreformation
(Halle: Nie- meier, 1895), pp. 615-659; and JEAN DELANGLEZ, Some
Lassalle Journeys (Chicago: Institut of Jesuit History, i938)
passim. As to the conflicts of Jesuits with other Catholic groups
in general cf. IGNAZ DOLLINGER und FRANZ HEINRICH REUSCH,
Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der rdmisch-katholischen
Kirche (Nordlingen: C. H. Beck, I889-1890) passim; GERHARD
SCHNEEMANN, Die Entstehung der thomistisch-molinistischen
Controverse (Freiburg : Herder, 1879), pp. 104-113; IDEM, Weitere
Entwickelung der thomistisch-molinistischen Controverse, ibid.,
passim; and FRANZ HEINRICH REUSCH, Der Index der verbotenen Biicher
(Bonn: Cohen, 1883- 1885), Vol. II, pp. 280-319, 341-354, 382-394,
487-539, 804-827, 919-923. As to the struggles between Jesuits and
other Catholic groups concerning the atti- tude in missionary work
cf. IDEM, ibid., Vol. II, pp. 771-772.
(6) MONTESQUIEU, " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes,
Vol. IV, pp. I79, 231; IDEM, "Correspondance," Collection
Bordelaisienne..., Vol. VIII, p. 271; VOLTAIRE," Essai...," Vol.
XII, p. 395; Encyclopedie..., Vol. I, p. 318, and Supple- ment,
Vol. I, p. 352.
P. HONIGSHEIM 94
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AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY
of non-theological character (7) as reliable sources, while
BACON and VOLTAIRE sometimes even used oral reports. All of our
philosophers became increasingly critical, however, even of written
reports. Reports written by indigenous natives (8), especially
those of Garcilasso, the Hispano-Incayan, were quoted by BACON,
HUME, MONTESQUIEU, and the Encyclopedists. Representatives of
exotic peoples, exhibited in Europe (9), were described by
VOLTAIRE, ROUSSEAU and DIDEROT.
Eras, peoples, and cultures (io). At least five were considered
interesting subjects: Pre-historic Europe, but only by LOCKE,
MONTESQUIEU, CONDORCET, and VOLTAIRE (the latter nevertheless
maintained his doubts about the accuracy of the reconstruction of
early European society); non-Christian Orientals; especially after
Jesuit reports and old writings of these peoples became known; the
present-time Christians who had maintained their own folk cultures;
Jews, judged antagonistically by the enlighteners themselves;
simple cultures in non-European countries of that day, among them
the American Indians.
(7) BACON, "The History...," Vol. IX, p. 398; MONTESQUIEU,
"Pensees...," Collection Bordelaise..., Vol. V, p. 500; IDEM, "
Correspondence," ibid., Vol. IX, p. 356; VOLTAIRE, " Essai...,"
Vol. XI, pp. 25-26; IDEM, " ITlements de la Philo- sophie de
Newton," Vol. XXII, p. 420; IDEM, " Des singularitees de la
nature," Vol. XXXVII, pp. 184-185; ROUSSEAU, "Discours sur
l'origine...," Vol. IV, P. 337, 358, "l mile," Vol. IX, pp.
432-442; DIDEROT, "Voyage autour du monde," Vol. II, p. 260; IDEM,
" Salon de 1767," Vol. XI, pp. 219-220. Cf. also SACKMANN, " Ein
Beitrag zur Biographie Voltaire's," Historische Zeitschrift, 90,
273, and KARL ROSENKRANZ, Diderot's Leben und Werke (Leipzig:
Brockhaus, i866), Vol. II, pp. 266-272.
(8) BACON, " An Advertisement...," Vol. XIII, p. 215; HUME, "
Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary," Vol. III, p. 355;
MONTESQUIEU, " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. III,
p. 264, Vol. IV, p. i80, Vol. V, p. 132; VOLTAIRE, "Essai...," Vol.
XII, pp. 397-399; Encyclopedie..., Vol. VIII, pp. 641-642, Supple-
ment, Vol. I, pp. 344-346.
(9) VOLTAIRE, " Essai...," Vol. XII, p. 388; IDEM, " Relation
touchant un Maur blanc," Vol. XXIII, pp. I89-I9I; ROUSSEAU, "
Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV, PP. 369-370; DIDEROT, "
Supplement au voyage ...," Vol. II, pp. 211-212. Cf. also SACKMANN,
" Ein Beitrag...," op. cit., p. 274.
(Io) Since it is impossible to enumerate all peoples and
publications which fall into consideration cf. CHINARD, L'Amerique
et le reve exotique..., op. cit., passim; SACKMANN, "
Universalgeschichte in Voltaire's Beleuchtung," Zeitschrift fur
franzosische Sprache und Literatur, 30, I9-57; PAUL HONIGSHEIM,
"Voltaire as Anthropologist," American Anthropologist, 47, o04- 08.
The attitude of the English and French enlighteners toward Oriental
peoples will be the topic of a special article.
95
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P. HONIGSHEIM
Points of view represented. Three frames of reference were used
by the scholars under consideration in viewing the newly discovered
peoples. These may be listed as follows i) The
anthropo-geographical (I i). -BACON, HUME, and especially
iMIONTESQUIEU (the latter based on other English and French
forerunners) emphasized the climatic factor, the importance of
which was denied by others, as for example, VOLTAIRE. 2) The
physico-anthropological (12).-This viewpoint increased in im-
portance and was climaxed by VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists. 3)
The cultural-historical (I3).-Like the former viewpoint, this one
likewise increased in importance. Since the anthropo- geographical
view was scarcely ever used in connection with the American Indians
by the authors under consideration, we can omit it and limit our
discussion to the various aspects of the other two frames of
reference.
The physico-anthropological status of Indians (14). BACON (II)
BACON, "The New Organon," Vol. VIII, p. 182; IDEM, "The History
of the Winds," Vol. IX, pp. 408, 412; IDEM, " Essays or
Councils...," Vol. XII, p. 274; HUME, "Essays...," Vol. III, pp.
224, 229, 234, 480; MONTESQUIEU,
De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. III, p. 335, Vol.
IV, pp. 145-252; IDEM, "Pensees...," Collection Bordelaisienne...,
Vol. V, pp. 128, I46, 504; VOL- TAIRE, ( Dictionnaire
philosophique," Article " Gout," Vol. XIX, p. 278; IDEM, " Traite
de metaphysique," Vol. XXII, p. 224; IDEM, " Pensees sur le
Gouverne- ment," Vol. XXIII, p. 533; IDEM, " Commentaire sur
l'esprit des lois," Vol. XXX, pp. 442-445; ROUSSEAU, "Discours sur
l'origine...," Vol. IV, p. 280; IDEM, " Emile," Vol. VIII, pp.
55-56, 284; Encyclopedie.... Supplement, Vol. I, p. 354; CONDORCET,
" Esquisse d'un tableau historique," Vol. VI, passim. The reader
interested in MONTESQUIEU's originality and his dependency on
others will find valuable material in JOSEPH DEDIEU, Montesquieu et
la tradition politique Anglaise en France (Paris: J. Gabalda&
Cie, 1909), pp. 197, 204, 209-215; E. FOURNOL, Bodin, predecesseur
de Montesquieu (Paris: Arthur Rousseau, I896), pp. 1 6- 44;
LAWRENCE MEYER LEVIN, The Political Doctrine of Montesquieu's
Esprit des Lois (New York: Columbia University, 1936), pp.
26-40.
(12) BACON, " Silva Silvarum," Vol. IV, p. 352; LOCKE, " An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol. II, p. 222; VOLTAIRE, "
Essay...," Vol. XII, p. 385; IDEM, "Traite de Metaphysique," Vol.
XXII, p. 192; IDEM, " llements de la Philosophie de Newton," Vol.
XXII, p. 427; IDEM, " Relation touchant un Maur blanc," Vol. XXIII,
pp. I89-I9I, IDEM, " Articles extraits de la gazette litteraire,"
Vol. XXV, pp. 456-458; IDEM, " Des singularitees de la nature,"
Vol. XXVIII, pp. 145, I84; ROUSSEAU, " Discours sur l'origine...,"
Vol. IV, pp. 232-242; DIDEROT, " Entretien entre d'Alembert et
Diderot," Vol. II, p. 107.
(I3) It is indeed impossible to make special citations as to
this viewpoint since manv books of each of the philosophers under
discussion fall into consideration.
(14) BACON, "Silva Silvarum," Vol. IV, p. 352; IDEM, " New
Atlantis," Vol. V, P. 379; IDEM," The New Organon," Vol. VIII, p.
i62; IDEM, " Essays...," Vol. XII,
96
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AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY
was not interested to a great extent, and some French
philosophers only slightly, in the physico-anthropological status
of Indians. The " Albinos " in Darien, however, attracted VOLTAIRE
and the Encyclopedists. The latter scoffed at reports of travelers
about giants and dwarfs.
The origin of Indians (I5). This problem was considered almost
exclusively by VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists. Their theories
however, are strictly antagonistic. VOLTAIRE expoused a polygenetic
theory. For him the Indians originated in America independent of
the origin of other human beings. The Encyclo- pedists, on the
other hand, accepted a monogenetic theory. They felt that the
Indians and all other human beings have a common origin. The cause
for such divergent view is obvious. Since VOLTAIRE was a deist, he
was led to rely on the theory of simultaneous independent creation
and to place the varieties of men and animals in the various
continents by the creative act of an omnipotent God. The
Encyclopedists, on the other hand, were less deistically minded.
Accordingly, the act of divine creation was eliminated, and from
their materialist viewpoint, they could reaccept the Christian idea
of common origin of all men, including an Asiatic origin for the
Indians.
The number of Indians (i6). Both VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists
considered the number of Indians to have been very small, even
prior to their discovery. Among other reasons, the prevalence of
deserts and swamps was given as an explanation for the scarcity of
population. Moreover MONTESQUIEU insisted upon their decline in
number. The English writers dealt as little with this question as
with the one to follow.
Indian languages (I7). While already investigated by many
Jesuits, the question of Indian language did not greatly concern
the enlighteners. LOCKE declared that the Indian languages were
pp. 8, zo6, 416, 489, 519; VOLTAIRE, " Essai...," Vol. XI, pp.
7-9, 26, 386, 390; ROUSSEAU, " Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV,
p. 242; Encyclopedie..., Suppliment, Vol. I, pp. 345-350.
(15) VOLTAIRE, "Essai...," Vol. XI, pp. 33-34; Encyclopedie...,
Vol. I, pp. 343- 344, 347, 361.
(I6) VOLTAIRE, "Essai ...," Vol. XI, p. 25; Encyclopddie...,
Suppliment, Vol. I, p. 346.
(17) VOLTAIRE, "Essai ...," Vol. XII, p. 387; Encyclopedie...,
Suppliment, Vol. I, PP. 346, 349.
7
97
-
undeveloped, while VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists insisted upon
the large number of languages spoken by Indian tribes and explained
the fact by the remoteness and isolation of many small tribes. This
argument also played a role in an attempt to explain other aspects
of Indian culture.
Indian culture and religion (i8). Four phenomena were of special
interest to the enlighteners. First was the similarity of Indian
culture and religion with that of pre-historic Europe. Even prior
to the period of concern to us, Jesuits had already mentioned such
a possibility. LOCKE and MONTESQUIEU also made the same observation
but did not draw conclusions. Second was the supposedly
extraordinary savageness of Indians and cruelty of their religion.
LOCKE denied this charge and insisted that the Indians were
actually atheists. In contrast, BACON and HUME considered them as
polytheists, no better but also no worse than others. The reasons
for the relatively slight interest in Indian religion are obvious.
On the one hand, the four English writers lived in an epoch of the
waning Reformation and Counter- Reformation, during which the
problem of relating the religions of the New World to the whole
religio-philosophical concept only decreasingly had to be met. The
English deists were already too radical for this. On the other
hand, they were not yet suffi- ciently radical to behave as their
French followers. These were always inclined to consider religion
as cruel. In the special case under consideration, they combined
the problem of Indian religious
(18) BACON, "Silva Silvarum," Vol. IV, p. 172; IDEM,
"Essays...," Vol. XII, p. 133; LOCKE, "An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding," Vol. I, pp. 22, 6o, 128, Vol. II, p. 200; IDEM, "Of
Civil Government," Vol. V, pp. 346, 391, 401; HUME, "The Natural
History...," Vol. V, pp. 421; MONTESQUIEU, " Con- siderations sur
les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur decadence,"
(Euvres Completes, Vol. II, p. 230, Vol. IV, p. 256; IDEM, " De
l'esprit des lois," ibid., Vol. III, p. 76, Vol. IV, p. 265; IDEM,
" Pensees...," Collection Bordelaisienne, Vol. V, pp. 153, 490,
Vol. VI, pp. 171, 293; VOLTAIRE, " Essai..., " Vol. XII, pp. 381,
388, 406, 410; IDEM," i6lements de la Philosophie de Newton," Vol.
XXII, p. 420; IDEM, " Des conspirations contre les peuples," Vol.
XXVI, p. 7; ROUSSEAU, " Discours sur l'origine...," Vol. IV, p.
248; DIDEROT, " Supplement au voyage de Bougainville," Vol. II, p.
2Io; IDEM, " Observations sur les saisons," Vol. V, p. 258; IDEM,
"Fragments echappes au portefeuille d'un philosophe," Vol. VI, p.
453; IDEM, "Lettres," Vol. XIX, pp. 7, 8; Encyclopedie..., Vol. II,
p. 582, Vol. VIII, pp. 356, 396, Supplement, Vol. I, pp. 344,
350-352; CONDORCET, " Notes sur Voltaire," Vol. IV, p. 356. Cf.
also CHINARD, L'Exotisme Americain dans la litterature franfaise au
XVIe siecle (Paris : Hachette, 1911), pp. I6-I8.
98 P. HONIGSHEIM
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AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY
cruelty with that of anthropophagy. Third was the custom of
cannibalism. Some of the British as well as most of the French-
men, did not try to deny cannibalism among Indians, but rather
tried to excuse it. MONTESQUIEU, for example, asserted that hunters
who eat meat exclusively do not consider the consumption of human
flesh more cruel than the eating of any other flesh. VOLTAIRE said
that eating aged parents is an act of piety, suggested by religion.
The Encyclopedists and CONDORCET asserted that anthropophagy grew
out of the religious practice of human sacrifice. The latter exists
everywhere, they pointed out, and the burning of Protestants during
the Spanish inquisition is nothing but an example of a human
sacrifice and, accordingly, no less cruel than Indian cannibalism.
Thus the Indian religion provide's an opportunity to ridicule
Catholicism, even religion itself. For the latter enlighteners
insisted that because of the cruelty of the religion, people
themselves became cruel, while inherently it was good in itself.
The belief in man's natural goodness was also applied to other
aspects of Indian life.
Social, political, and economic aspects of primitive Indian life
(19). Some phenomena of sex and family life and
(19) HOBBES, (The Citizen," Vol. II, p. 12; IDEM, "Leviathan,"
Vol. III, p. 114; LOCKE, "Of Civil Government," Vol. V, pp. 320,
328, 346, 355, 362, 400, 402; HUME, "A Treatise of Human Nature,"
Vol. II, p. 323; MONTESQUIEU, " De l'esprit des lois," (Euvres
Completes, Vol. III, p. 98, Vol. IV, pp. 251, 275, 469, Vol. V, p.
62; IDEM, " Pensees...," Collection Bordelaisienne, Vol. V, pp.
153, 490, Vol. VI, pp. 171, 293; VOLTAIRE, "Essai," Vol. XI, p. 25,
Vol. XII, pp. 387- 406; ROUSSEAU, " Narcisse," Vol. XI, p. 257;
DIDEROT," Fragments echappes...," Vol. VI, p. 453; Encyclopedie...,
Vol. II, p. 684, Vol. VIII, pp. 356, 906, Supplement, Vol. I, pp.
349-353. CONDORCET, "Vie de Mr. Turgot," Vol. V, p. 179. The reader
interested in the development of the ideas of the social contract
and inter- national law will find further details and citations of
other books falling into consideration in PAUL HONIGSHEIM, " Neue
Hobbes Literatur," Kolner Viertel- jahrshefte fur Soziologie, 8,
1930, 325-328; IDEM, " Le Gallicanisme precurseur du i8e siecle,"
Archives de la Philosophie du droit, 5, 1935, 216-235; IDEM, " La
doctrine Allemande du droit naturel au 17e et x8e siecle," ibid.,
9, I939, 216-237; IDEM, " An der Wiege der Volkerbundidee," Die
Friedens-Warte, 38, 1938, pp. 209- 235; IDEM, " Voltaire und die
Probleme der Volkeranniherung," ibid., 39, 1939, 121-136; IDEM,
"Ernest Nys," ibid., 51, 1950, 315-322, where other publications
are cited; ERNEST NYS, Les origines de la diplomatie (Bruxelles:
Muguart, 1884); IDEM, Notes pour servir a l'histoire litteraire et
dogmatique du droit international en Angleterre, ibid., 1888; IDEM,
Le droit de la guerre et les precurseurs de Grotius,. ibid., 1895 ;
IDEM, Les thiories politiques et le droit international (Bruxelles:
Weissenbruch, 1891), pp. 108-123; IDEM, Les origines du droit
international (Paris - Fontemoing, 1894), pp. 127-133, I53-I62.
99
-
P. HONIGSHEIM
political rule among the Indians (except for those in Mexico and
Peru with which we deal later) were considered by the
englighteners. Insofar as sex and family life were concerned, there
were three particulars which were given attention. These were homo-
sexuality, endogamy, and totemism. In the French enlighten- ment,
the spiritualistic philosophical concept of the world lost ground,
while the materialistic philosophy gained, especially among and
through some of the Encyclopedists. In this connec- tion some of
the latter tolerated everything connected with body. These
Encyclopedists took note of the supposedly existing homo- sexuality
among Indians, but used it for comparison with ancient Greeks
rather than a base from which to criticize the Indians themselves.
Endogamy, or the obligation to marry within one's own tribe, is
merely mentioned in the Encyclopedia without further comment. The
subdivision of the society into families with animal names is also
mentioned there. Perhaps it points to Totemism, although the name
is not used.
As to the economic life, MONTESQUIEU and, mainly, the Ency-
clopedists take it into consideration. MONTESQUIEU made the casual
remark that Indians do not use gold for economic purpose. DIDEROT
and his collaborators observed that Indians were not exclusively
hunters and fishermen but rather, in part, maize planters, and that
they were without domesticated animals capable of drawing a plow,
and for this reason they found Indian economic development
different from that of the Old World. The reasons for such interest
in economic life are obvious. The Encyclopedists were enemies of
religion and metaphysics but were rather involved in the problems
concerning the changes supposed necessary in the structure of
economic life.
As to the political structure of the Indian world, the following
three questions found interest: First, are the Indians under
despotic rule? Our Frenchmen, who opposed government which they
considered despotic, were glad to feel able to deny such a govern-
ment among Indians, just as did LOCKE, HUME, and HOBBES. But only
HOBBES asserted that he had an explanation for this fact. This he
did by pointing to the role of the social contract. Second, what
role did the social contract play in the life of Indians ? Never
since the time of the Stoics and Epicureans, had the social
contract theory been forgotten, and once again it became important
in the
I00
-
AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY
social thinking of many empiricists and enlighteners. Among the
latter, HOBBES especially falls into consideration. He argued as
follows: The people had renounced the power supposed to be invested
in them, and had transferred it, via the social contract, to the
absolutistic ruler. The Indians, he argued, lived in a non-
absolutistic society because their society was still pre-social
contract. Through this line of reasoning, HOBBES was the only one
who established any relationship between the social contract and
Indian life. The cynic VOLTAIRE had always been skeptical as to the
existence of an original contract. While ROUSSEAU talked in general
about it, he had little interest in special peoples. DIDEROT and
the Encyclopedists had other basic interests. MONTESQUIEU was a
jurist with primarily an historical and geographical, i.e.
empirical base. Thus he was not primarily theoretically minded. On
the other hand, MONTESQUIEU brought Indians in relation to another
question which was much cherished by the enlighteners, i.e., third,
what was the role of international law? Based upon the impetus
given by HUGO GROTIUS, the enlighteners became increasingly
internationally minded. But only MONTESQUIEU viewed Indians with
regard to international law and he was satisfied in finding that it
was, at least to some extent, in force among some tribes.
The Aztecs and Incas (20). The discovery of the Aztecs and Incas
provoked the publication of numerous books. In spite of all these
publications only a few phenomena were of interest to a few among
our philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth century. These
were: I) cruelty, but considered by BACON as less horrible than
that of the Turks, and by VOLTAIRE as no more horrible than even
that of the Christians; 2) cannibalism, merely mentioned by LOCKE
and in the Encyclopedia; 3) despotism, mentioned by LOCKE and
indicated by MONTESQUIEU as one of the
(20) BACON, " An Advertisement...," Vol. XIII, pp. 197-199;
HOBBES, " Levia- than," Vol. III, p. ro3; IDEM, " Behemoth," Vol.
VI, p. 177; LOCKE, " An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol.
II, p. 40; IDEM, " Of Civil Govern- ment," Vol. V, pp. 254, 400;
IDEM, " The Whole History of Navigation," Vol. X, pp. 384, 419;
HUME, "The Natural History...," Vol. IV, p. 459; MONTESQUIEU; " De
l'esprit des lois," (Euvres Completes, Vol. III, p. 264, Vol. IV,
pp. 231, 25I, IDEM, " Discours sur les motifs qui doivent nous
engager aux sciences," ibid., Vol. VII, p. 77; VOLTAIRE, "
Alzaire," Vol. III, p. 379; Encyclopedie..., Vol. VIII, pp.
641-642, Supplement, Vol. I, p. 344.
IOI
-
P. HONIGSHEIM
causes of undevelopment and defeat; 4) claims of Aztec and Inca
kings to be representatives of divinities, which according to
HOBBES, was just as justifiable as the analogous claims of
Christian kings; 5) claims of Aztec and Inca kings of the right to
own land, sup- ported by HOBBES; 6) lack of domesticated animals in
Mexico, mentioned in the Encyclopedia. The reasons for these
attitudes are obvious. BACON disliked Catholicism and, therefore,
the 'I'urks who had been at times the allies of Catholic France.
Hence he used every opportunity to ridicule the Turks. This he did
by stressing the superiority of even the Aztecs and Incas. As we
know, HOBBES advocated establishing a secular absolutism, founded
on an original contract, transferring the power of the people to a
monarch and his descendants, rather than a religious kingdom based
primarily on divine right. Accordingly he says that the claims to
divine origin on the part of Indian kings are neither more nor less
justified than the corresponding claims of Christian kings.
Moreover he disliked the Pope, who opposed an absolutistic England,
which would contain her own state church, and therefore he objects
to the Pope's attempt to interfere in Peru as well as to his
efforts to encroach upon English affairs. LOCKE, on the contrary,
remains the struggler for individual rights against absolutism,
preferring even less complicated Indian societies to those of
Mexico and Peru, which he considers absolutistic states.
MONTESQUIEU'S anti-absolutistic status brings him to similar
conclusions. VOLTAIRE as usual uses the opportunity to belittle
Christianism, and DIDEROT and his friends use it to insist upon the
importance of the economic factor.
White man's attitude toward Indians (21). Dominicans
(21) BACON, " An Advertisement...," Vol. XIII, p. I98; HUME, "
The Natural History...," Vol. IV, p. 469; MONTESQUIEU, "
Considerations sur les causes...," CEuvres Completes, Vol. II, p.
320; IDEM, " De l'esprit des lois," ibid., Vol. III, pp. I55, 361,
Vol. IV, p. I80, Vol. V, p. 232; IDEM, "Pensees...," Collection
Bordelaisienne, Vol. V, p. 40; VOLTAIRE, "Alzaire," Vol. III, pp.
386-390; IDEM, (Essai...," Vol. XI, pp. 220-221, 227, 233-234, Vol.
XI, p. 424; IDEM, "Com- mentaire sur l'esprit des lois," Vol. XXX,
p. 419; DIDEROT, " Les Jesuites chasses d'Espagne," Vol. II, p.
460; IDEM, " Fragments echappes...," Vol. VI, p. 452;
Encyclopedie..., Vol. VIII, pp. 512-516, Vol. XI, pp. 900-903, Vol.
XIV, p. 729, Supplement, Vol. I, pp. 350-354; CONDORCET, " Esquisse
d'un Tableau...," Vol. VI, p. I45. As to the Jesuits in Paraguay
cf. CR,TINEAU-JOLY, Histoire religieuse, politique..., op. cit.,
Vol. V, pp. 68-70; IDEM, Clement XIV et les Jidsuites (Bruxel- les:
Societe des Bonnes Lectures, I847), pp. 5-io6; AUGUSTIN TiEINER,
Histoire
102
-
AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY
and Jesuits previously had criticized the white man's attitude
toward the Indians, and the men under consideration follow suite.
The discussion of the latter centers around four problems. First,
the white man's attitude toward Indians in general: actually, only
HUME made general charges. Second, the Spanish rule: while HOBBES,
LOCKE, HUME, and ROUSSEAU did not mention the question, BACON and
the remaining Frenchmen indicted the Spaniards. These differences
in attitude can easily be explained. BACON as well as the Frenchmen
were opposed to Catholicism, while the others did not really enter
this struggle; and ROUSSEAU largely did not cite specific examples.
Third, the rule of Jesuits in Paraguay: the Jesuits had built in
Paraguay, seemingly under Spanish overrule, a virtually independent
state of their own. The Indians themselves were completely
dependent upon the Fathers in their " redu- ciones." Then Spain and
Portugal agreed as to new boundary regulations, and accordingly
many Jesuitic " reduciones," came under the control of Portugal. At
that epoch Portugal was under the leadership of the " enlightened "
Prime Minister POMBAL. He accused the Jesuits of inciting the
Indians to revolt against the new rulers and subsequently expelled
them from the colonies, even from Portugal itself. A large
controversial literature grew out of these conditions. Also those
enlighteners who dealt with the problem were not completely
unanimous. MONTESQUIEU still admired the work accomplished by the
Jesuits; VOLTAIRE took a middle growed, and, in this case, found
the Jesuits relatively acceptable. Even the Encyclopedists were not
completely un- animous among themselves. Only to a very small
extent did they recognize that the Jesuits brought culture to the
Indians. Rather they believed that the Indians remained barbarians
under Jesuit guidance, and considered the attitude of the Jesuits
dangerous to du Pontificat de Clement XIV (Paris, 1852), Vol. I,
pp. 93, io6-iiI, 500-510; GOTHEIN, Der christlich-soziale
Jesuitenstaat in Paraguay (Leipzig: Duncker und Humblot, 1883),
passim; HONIGSHEIM, " Rural Collectivities," in C. P. LOOMIS and A.
BEEGLE, Rural Social Systems (New York : Prentice Hall, 1950). As
to the attitude of other political, religious, and philosophical
groups and individuals, see NYS, Les origines du droit
international, op. cit., pp. 127, 153- I54, 367-369, IDEM, Le droit
de la guerre..., op. cit., pp. 166-170; VAN DER KRDEF, " Francisco
Vitoria and the Nature of Colonial Policy," The Catholic Historical
Review, 35, I949, pp. 129-I62; FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON DER HEYDTE, "
Francisco de Vitoria und die Geschichte seines Ruhmes," Die
Friedens-Warte, 49, 1949, 192-196.
Io3
-
P. HONIGSHEIM
the state. These differences in attitude toward the Fathers in
Paraguay may be explained in the following way: BACON, HOBBES,
LOCKE, and MONTESQUIEU had died before the main conflict occurred
and before the essential literature appeared. HUME was outside the
struggle against Catholicism, and the conflict between the latter
and the state; ROUSSEAU and CONDORCET, as so often, were little
interested in specific examples. VOLTAIRE indeed struggled against
what he called " intolerance" and " fanaticism." But he considered
the Jesuits more open-minded than their adversaries, as for
example, the Dominicans and the Jansenists. Accordingly, in this
case, he was not an inexorable enemy of the Jesuits. The
Encyclopedists themselves were directly involved in the struggle,
which ends with the expulsion of the Jesuits from France and their
suppression by Pope CLEMENT XIV. This explains the fact that they
considered everything done by Jesuits bad, while they were willing
to tolerate the attitude of other Christian groups toward Indians.
Fourth, the attitude of William Penn and the Quakers toward Indians
was highly approved by VOLTAIRE and the Encyclopedists. The fact
that white men were supposed to have failed in educating the
Indians in Paraguay reintroduced the problem, " Are the Indians
educable? "
Adaptability of Indians to white man's culture (22). Only a few
of our philosophers dealt with this problem. Among them was
MONTESQUIEU who denied the adaptability of Indians to white man's
culture. BACON, the Encyclopedists, and especially LOCKE, on the
other hand, believed firmly in such possibilities. Thus they again
conformed to the usual optimistic pattern they so frequently
exhibited toward the Indians.
Conclusion : We may now summarize the results of our
investigation in the following outline: I. The variety of interest
found in the various topics and viewpoints was as follozos :
A. As to the kind of sources taken into consideration, reports
of Jesuits were used by the greatest number of writers; oral
reports made by travelers were used by the smallest number.
(22) BACON, " Essays...," Vol. XII, pp. 197-I99; LOCKE, " An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Vol. II, p. 68; MONTESQUIEU,
" Essai sur les causes...," Collection Bordelaisienne, Vol. II, p.
I30; DIDEROT, " Fragments echappes...," Vol. VI, p. 455;
Encyclopedie..., Vol. I, pp. 350-35I.
I04
-
AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY
B. As to eras dealt with, primitive peoples and present-day
non-Christian Orientals interested all our philosophers, while
pre-historic Europe and present-day Christian peoples having
maintained non-occidental cultural traits interested the smallest
number.
C. As to the viewpoints taken into consideration, the
historico-cultural approach was used by all the writers considered,
while the anthropo-geographical and the physico-anthropological
approaches, respectively, were used only by three of them.
D. As to the special topics concerning Indians themselves, the
problem of despotic rule and cannibalism interested the greatest
number of enlighteners. On the other hand, family life, economic
structure, social contract, claims of Indian kings and white man's
role generally were dealt with by only one of our writers.
II. The participation of the English and the French in these
discussions was as follows: A. The participation of the English
equals that of the French with regard
to the number of eras dealt with, the number of viewpoints taken
into consider- ation, culture and religion of primitive Indians,
and the Indian's adaptability to the white man's culture.
B, The participation of the English is smaller than that of the
French as to all other matters.
C. The participation of the English is in no case larger than
that of the French.
III. The degree to which the philosophers under discussion were
interested in the main subjects outlined appears in the
accompanying table.
In the final analysis, it must be said that the British writers
lived in an earlier epoch, had fewer sources at their disposal,
were less critically-minded of the Bible, writings of the classical
antiquity, and traveler's reports, and they dealt with fewer
problems, especially insofar as the social, political, and economic
aspects of Indian life were concerned. Among the English
enlighteners, BACON-and next to him LOCKE-were more interested in
special facts concerning American natives than were HOBBES and
HUME, whose writings were more abstract and general. The French
thinkers were somewhat later and their conceptions were partly
based on the British authors. Increasingly they shifted from the
Gallican Catholicism of MONTESQUIEU to the Deism of the young
VOLTAIRE, and from there to the mechanistic materialism of the
later DIDEROT and his collaborators. Thus they became more and more
interested in special peoples and single facts which they attempted
to fit into systems. This certainly is not true of ROUSSEAU who
neither knew nor was interested in particular peoples or single
facts. Rather, he constructed his system from general
Io5
-
Degree to which the Philosophers under discussion were
interested in the Main Subjects Outlined
Main Subjects Outlined BACON HOBBES LOCKE HUME MONTESQUIEU
VOLTAIRE ROUSSEAU Encyclopedists CONDORCET Variety of Sources large
small moderate small moderate large Ismall large small
Number of Eras, Peoples large large large large large large
moderate large large and Cultures
Scope of Viewpoints moderate small small moderate moderate large
small moderate small
Physico-Anthropological small none none none none small none
small none Status of Indians
Origin of Indians none none none none none large none large
none
Number of Indians none none none none small small none small
none
Languages of Indians none none small none none small none small
none
Culture and Religion of moderate ssmal largsmall large moderate
moderate moderate small Indians
Social, Politic., and Econ. none moderate small small moderate
small none large none Aspect of Indians
_
Aztecs and Incas small small small none small small none small
none
White Man's Attitude Toward Indians
small
Indian's Adaptability to F large White Man's Culture
none none small moderate large none large none
large none none
0 o',
z 0 C1 cn zC m
large none large none none
-
AMERICAN INDIAN AND PHILOSOPHY
basic assumptions. Accordingly he dealt with Indians in rather
meager fashion. Thus, the incorporation of countless facts,
including details about American Indians, was accomplished by two
other branches of the French enlightenment. These were the
Encyclopedists, on one hand, and VOLTAIRE, on the other. In editing
an encyclopedia the former were compelled to deal with almost
everything. This was done by gradually shifting to materialism and
by increasingly viewing the single phenomena, including the
Indians, from the standpoint of the natural scientist. VOLTAIRE, on
the other hand, increasingly tended to incorporate collected
special facts into a system of non-Christian-centered philosophy of
history. Accordingly, he looked at particular phenomena, including
American Indians, from the viewpoint of the historian. Thus from
two different angles, the Encyclopedists and VOLTAIRE, more so than
other British or French enlighteners, had their reasons for dealing
with many special aspects of Indian life. As to basic philosophy,
material and methods used, CONDORCET'S system was largely based on
VOLTAIRE. Even more so than his master, he attempted to build up a
system of progres- sionist philosophy of history. Therefore he was
more interested in the regularity and the automatic sequence of the
forms of life and social structures, but less in the descriptive
illustration of the general phenomena. Accordingly he dealt with
the details of Indian life, less than his master and the
Encyclopedists.
The Encyclopedists as well as VOLTAIRE and CONDORCET, both of
whom had incorporated into their system British elements, have
strongly influenced the thinking and feeling of various groups of
the nineteenth century. This is especially true with regard to
attempts to build up various systems of philosophy of history and
to include pre-literary cultures and peoples into them. More so
than others CONDORCET, the follower of VOLTAIRE, influenced CONTE
and from him such ideas have radiated into English, French, and
German anthropology and ethnology.
Perhaps every statement made by the English and French
enlighteners about American Indians will be proven wrong.
Nevertheless it certainly does not fall within the scope of this
paper to pass judgment upon the correctness of such concepts of the
enlighteners. But however this may be, it has been shown that
present day anthropology and ethnology stand in an
uninterrupted
Io7
-
Io8 P. HONIGSHEIM
flow of events, which can be traced through CONDORCET or the
Encyclopedists to VOLTAIRE or the English deists and back to Lord
BACON. If for no other reason, than this, these English and French
enlighteners deserve to be considered under the viewpoint of their
concepts of the American Indian.
(Lewis and Clark College Portland, Oregon). PAUL HONIGSHEIM.
Article Contentsp. [91]p. 92p. 93p. 94p. 95p. 96p. 97p. 98p.
99p. 100p. 101p. 102p. 103p. 104p. 105p. 106p. 107p. 108
Issue Table of ContentsOsiris, Vol. 10 (1952), pp. 1-630Front
Matter [pp. 1 - 1]Henri Berr [pp. 5 - 9]The Division of the Hour in
Hebrew Literature [pp. 10 - 34]Goethe and Evolution [pp. 35 -
42]Goethe's Interest in the History of British Physics [pp. 43 -
66]Hobbes and Descartes in the Light of Some Unpublished Letters of
the Correspondence between Sir Charles Cavendish and Dr. John Pell
[pp. 67 - 90]The American Indian in the Philosophy of the English
and French Enlightenment [pp. 91 - 108]Fact and Fiction in
Hippopotamology (Sampling the History of Scientific Error) [pp. 109
- 116]Arab Geography and the Circumnavigation of Africa [pp. 117 -
128]The Silkworm and Chinese Culture [pp. 129 - 194]Multiple
Explicits of a Medieval Dynamidia [pp. 195 - 205]Sir Thomas
Browne's Theories of Respiration and Combustion [pp. 206 -
223]Politics, Economics and Medicine: Charles Maclean and
Anticontagion in England [pp. 224 - 251]Tamil Astronomy: A Study in
the History of Astronomy in India [pp. 252 - 276]Pendulums of Wren
and Hooke [pp. 277 - 321]Lettres Inedites de Condorcet [pp. 322 -
327]Auguste Comte, Historian of Science: With a Short Digression on
Clotilde de Vaux and Harriet Taylor [pp. 328 - 357]Quelques
contributions moraves a la connaissance de la medecine
prehistorique et protohistorique [pp. 358 - 367]A Biographical
Sketch of Dr. William Gilbert of Colchester [pp. 368 -
384]Athanasius Kircher's: China Illustrata [pp. 385 - 411]The
Establishment of the Mechanical Philosophy [pp. 412 - 541]Abbott
Thayer and Natural History [pp. 542 - 555]The Planetary Theory of
Ibn Rushd [pp. 556 - 586]Archimedes in the Middle Ages: The De
mensura circuli [pp. 587 - 618]Back Matter [pp. 619 - 630]