Indian Polity - Unique ShikshaINDIAN POLITY 1-200 Contents 1.2 Fazl Ali Commission 17 2. The Concept of Union and its Territory 17 3. Name 17 4. Acquired Territories 18 5. Formation

Indian Polity

Topic-wise Strategy

1. Drafting of Constitution of India 1

1. Meaning of Constitution 12. Significance ofConstitution 13. Constitutional Developments:

Landmarks 13.1 Early History 1

3.2 East India Company (EIC), 1605 – 1765 1

3.3 1765 – Diwani Rights — Lead to Dyarchy 1

3.4 Regulating Act 1773 1

3.5 Pitt’s India Act 1784 2

3.6 Charter Act, 1793 2

3.7 Provisions of the Act 2

3.8 Charter Act 1813 2

3.9 Provisions of the Act 2



3.12 Government of India Act, 1858 2

3.13 Indian Council Act, 1861 2



3.16 Government of India Act, 1919 3

3.17 Government of India Act 1935 3

3.18 Indian Independence Act, 1947 3

4. Formation of the Constituent Assembly 44.1 Committees of the Constituent Assembly 5

5. Nature of Our Constitution: Federation or Not 55.1 Meaning of Federation 55.2 Federation in Indian Constitution 5

6. Salient Features of the Constitution 67. Basic Structure of theConstitution 8

7.1 According to the Kesavanada Verdict 88. Schedules of theConstitution 10 Self–Evaluation Test 11

2. The Preamble and the Philosophy of Indian Constitution 12

1. The Philosophical Base 122. Embodiment of the Philosophy

of the Constitution 123. Significance of theWords in the

Preamble 124. TheObjectives of the Preamble 14

4.1 Justice: Social, Economic and Political 144.2 Liberty of Thought, Expression,

Belief, Faith and Worship 144.3 Equality of Status, Opportunity 144.4 Fraternity 14

Self–Evaluation Test 15

3. The Union and its Territory (Part I) 16

1. States at the Beginning of the Constitution and their Reorganisation 161.1 Dhar Commission 16

INDIAN POLITY 1-200

Contents

1.2 Fazl Ali Commission 17

2. TheConcept ofUnion and its Territory 17

3. Name 174. Acquired Territories 185. Formation of New States and

Alteration of Boundaries 185.1 Formation of New States in

India after 1950 19


4. Citizenship and Indian Diaspora (Part II) 21

1. Constitutional Basis of Citizenship 212. Difference BetweenCitizens

and Aliens 212.1 Rights not Available to Aliens 21

2.2 Rights are available to the aliens in the articles 22

3. Acquisition of IndianCitizenship Act, 1955 223.1 Commonwealth Citizenship 22

4. Loss of Citizenship 224.1 Renunciation 22

4.2 Termination 22

4.3 Deprivation 22

5. OverseasCitizenship of India 225.1 Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) Card 23

5.2 Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas 23

5.3 MinistryofOverseasIndianAffairs(MOIA)has been merged with the Ministry of External Affairs(MEA) 23

6. Schemes forWelfare ofOverseasIndians 24

7. Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2016 248. National Register ofCitizens 24 Self–Evaluation Test 25

5. Fundamental Rights (Part III) 26

1. Meaning of Fundamental Rights 262. Nature of Fundamental Rights 263. Article 12 274. Article 13 275. Classification of Fundamental Rights 27

5.1 Art 14–18: Right to Equality 27

5.2 Art 23 and 24: Right Against Exploitation 32

5.3 Right to Freedom of Religion (Art. 25–28) 32

5.4 Art. 29–30: Cultural and

Educational Rights 33

6. Exceptions to Fundamental Rights 346.1 Saving of Certain Laws 34

6.2 Right to Constitutional Remedies (Art. 32) 35

7. Right to Education 367.1 Salient Features 36

8. Domestic ViolenceAct, 2005 388.1 Scope and Dimensions 38

9. Parliament’s Powers vis-a-vis theEnforcement of Fundamental Rights (Art. 33, 34, 35) 38

10.Criticism of Fundamental Rights 3811. Are Fundamental Rights

Unamendable? 3912.Human Rights 39

12.1 History 39

12.2 American Bill of Rights 39

12.3 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 39

12.4 Indian Constitution and Human Rights 40

12.5 National Human Rights Commission 40

12.6 Composition 40

12.7 Functions 40


6. Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV, Art. 36–51) 42

1. Nature of theDirectives 421.2 Considerations Governing the

Formulation of Directive Principles 42

2. Classification and Scope of theDirectives 422.1 Socialistic Principles 43

2.2 Gandhian Principles 43

2.3 Liberal–Intellectual Principles 43

3. Implementation ofDPSP 444. Features ofDirective Principles

of State Policy 455. Directives inOther Parts

(Not in Part IV) of theConstitution 455.1 Directive Principles added after 42nd

Amendment, 1976 45

6. Conflict Between Fundamental RightsandDirective Principles:Where Lies the Primacy? 466.1 Relation Between Fundamental Rights and

Directive Principles 46

6.2 Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights Compared 46

7. UniformCivil Code 47 Self–Evaluation Test 48

7. Fundamental Duties (Part IV) 49

1. The FundamentalDuties 491.1 Swaran Singh Committee and

Fundamental Duties 49

1.2 Fundamental Duties in other Countries 50

1.3 DifferencebetweenFundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties 50


8. The Union Executive (Part V) 52

1. TheUnion 522. The President 52

2.1 ElectionQualifications 52

2.2 Procedure of Election 52

2.3 Quota System 53

2.4 TermofOffice 53

2.5 OathoraffirmationbythePresident 53

2.6 Emoluments and Allowances 53

2.7 VacancyintheOfficeofPresident 53

2.8 Why President is Elected indirectly? 54

3. Powers of the President 543.1 Executive Powers 54

3.2 Legislative Powers 55

3.3 Financial Powers 56

3.4 Judicial Powers 57

3.5 Discretionary Powers of the President 57

3.6 Military Powers 57

3.7 Diplomatic Powers 58

4. Kinds of Emergency 584.1 Veto Powers 59

4.2 Disallowance of State Legislation 60

5. Ordinance-Making Power (Art 123) 606. Privileges of the President of

India Part XIX (Miscellaneous) 607. Office of ProfitAmendmentAct 61

7.1 Constitutional Aspects 61

8. TheVice-President 628.1 Functions of the Vice-President 62

9. The PrimeMinister 629.1 Role and Functions of the

Prime Minister (Article 78) 63

9.2 Relations with the President 63

9.3 In Relation to the Council of Ministers 64

9.4 In Relation to the Parliament 64

10.TheCouncil ofMinisters 6410.1 Other Provisions as to Ministers 64

11. Composition and Organisation of Council ofMinisters 65

12.Powers, Functions and Role of the Cabinet 6612.1 Policy-Determining Functions 66

12.2 Supreme Control of the Executive 66

12.3 The Cabinet as a Co-Ordinator Between Cabinet and Legislature 66

12.4 Control over Finance 66

12.5 Power of Making Appointments 67

13.AttorneyGeneral of India 6714.SolicitorGeneral of India 68

14.1 Duties 68

15.AdministrativeMachinery 6815.1 Central Secretariat 68

15.2 Cabinet Secretary 68

15.3 Main Functions of Cabinet Secretariat 68

15.4 PrimeMinister’sOffice 69


9. Emergency Provisions (Part XVIII, Articles 352–360) 70

1. Emergency Provisions 702. National Emergency (Article 352) 703. State Emergency (Article 356) 72

3.1 Article 356 and Judicial Review 72

3.2 Federalism—Article 356 and Its Misuse 72

4. Relation BetweenArticles 355,356 and 365 73

5. Financial Emergency (Article 360) 73 Self–Evaluation Test 74

10. The Union Legislature (Parliament) 75

1. Bicameral Legislature 751.1 Functions of the Parliament 75

2. The Rajya Sabha (TheCouncil of States) 762.1 Election and Term 76

3. Functions of the Rajya Sabha 773.1 Legislative Functions 77

3.2 Financial Functions 77

3.3 Administrative Functions 77

3.4 Constituent Functions 77

3.5 Miscellaneous Functions 78

4. Lok Sabha (House of The People) 795. Functions of the Lok Sabha 816. Conduct of Business 827. PresidingOfficers 82

7.1 Speaker of Lok Sabha 82

7.2 Powers of the Speaker 83

7.3 Special Powers of the Speaker 83

7.4 Deputy Speaker 83

7.5 Secretary General 83

7.6 Leader of the Opposition 83

8. Powers, Privileges and Immunities of theMembers of Parliament 84

9. Legislative Proceedings 8410.Motions 87

10.1 Point of Order 87

10.2 Important Motions in Parliament 87

11.Rajya SabhaVis-A-Vis Lok Sabha 8812. Questions in Parliament:

QuestionHour 8913.ParliamentaryCommittees 90

13.1 Public Accounts Committee 91

13.2 Estimates Committee 91

13.3 Committee on Public Undertakings 91

13.4 Department Related Standing Committees (DRSC) 91

13.5 Ad hoc Committees 92

14. Control of Parliament Over Financial System 9314.1 Votable and Non-Votable Expenditure 93

14.2 Vote on Account 93

14.3 Appropriation Bills 94

15.Anti-Defection Law 9415.1 Important Parliamentary Terms 95


11. The State Executive Part VI 97

1. General Structure of the State Executive 97

2. TheGovernor 972.1 ConditionsforGovernor’sOffice 97

3. Powers and Functions ofGovernor 983.1 Executive Powers 98

3.2 Legislative Powers 98

3.3 Financial Powers 98

3.4 Judicial Powers 99

3.5 Power to Propose State Emergency 99

3.6 Discretionary Powers of the Governor 99

3.7 Governor’s Ordinance-Making Power (Art. 213) 99

4. Recommendation ofCommittees 1004.1 Sarkaria Commission

Recommendations 100

4.2 Punchhi Commission 101

5. TheCouncil ofMinisters 1015.1 Real Executive Power 101

5.2 Responsibility of Ministers 101

5.3 Powers and Functions of the Council of Ministers 101

6. TheChiefMinister 1016.1 OathofOffice 102

6.2 Powers and Functions of the Chief Minister 102

7. TheAdvocate-General 1028. TheChief Secretary 102

8.1 Functions 102


12. The State Legislature 104

1. Composition of theHouses 1042. Legislative Assembly

(Vidhan Sabha) 1042.1 OfficersoftheLegislativeAssembly 104

3. LegislativeCouncil (Vidhan Parishad) 105

4. Duration of theHouses 1075. Qualifications andDisqualifications

for Membership of the State Legislature 107

6. Sessions of State Legislature 1077. Legislative Procedure 1088. Limitations on the Powers of

AState Legislature 1099. Legislative Privileges 109 Self–Evaluation Test 110

13. The Special Provisions for Jammu and Kashmir and Other States 111

1. Why the Special Position of Jammu & Kashmir 111

2. Special Relationship of J&K With the IndianUnion 1122.1 Present Position of J & K 113

2.2 Other Jurisdictions 114

3. Special Provisions Related to Other States 114


14. The Union Territories (Part VIII) 116

1. Introduction 1162. Administration 1163. Creation of Local Legislatures 1164. Legislative Powers 1165. High Courts 1166. Acquired Territories 117

7. Special Provisionswith Respect toDelhi (Article 239AA) 1177.1 On which subjects the Delhi State

legislature make laws? 117

7.2 Implication of this Provision 117

7.3 President’s Rule on Delhi 117

7.4 Ordinance making Power of Administrator (Article 239) 117

7.5 Power of President to regulate peace, progress and good government (Article 240) 117


15. The Scheduled and Tribal Areas (Part X) 119

1. Introduction 1192. Special Provisions 1193. Formation of an Autonomous

State Comprising Certain Tribal Areas in Assam and Creation of Local Legislature orCouncil of Ministers or Both Therefore 120


16. Judiciary in India 122

1. Single Judicial System 1222. The Supreme Court 122

2.1 Independence of Judges 122

2.2 QualificationsfortheAppointment as a Judge of the Supreme Court 123

2.3 Rules of Procedure 123

2.4 Ad hoc Judges 124

2.5 Jurisdiction of The Supreme Court 124

3. Judicial Review 1263.1 Judicial Activism 126

3.2 Need for Restraint on Judicial Activism 126

4. TheHighCourt 1284.1 Appointment of the Judges 128

4.2 QualificationsforAppointmentasa Judge of a High Court 128

4.3 Provision for Independence of the Judges of the High Court 128

4.4 Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to another 128

4.5 Jurisdiction of the High Court 128

4.6 Administrative Functions of the High Courts 128

5. Subordinate Judiciary 1296. Lokpal 130

6.1 The Need 130

6.2 IndependenceoftheOffice 130

6.3 Lokayukta 131

7. Administrative Tribunals 1318. Specialized Judicial Bodies 131

8.1 A. Law Commission of India 131

8.2 B. National Human Rights Commission 131

8.3 C. National Legal Services Authority 132

8.4 D. Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) 132

9. National LokAdalat 13210.GramNyayalayas 132

10.1 Recent Initiatives for Judicial Reforms 133


17. Federalism in India 135

1. Nature of Indian Federal System 1352. Federal Features of The Indian

Constitution 1363. Unitary Features of the Indian

Constitution 1364. Position of the States 1375. Distribution of Powers—Legislative,

Administrative and Financial 1385.1 Legislative Relations (Articles 245–255) 138

5.2 Three Lists 138

5.3 Residuary Powers 139

5.4 Expansion of the Legislative Powers

oftheUnionunderdifferent Circumstances 139

5.5 In Emergency 139

5.6 In Normal Course 139

6. Centre-StateAdministrative Relations 140

7. Financial Relations related to theDistribution of Revenues (Article 264–291) 1407.1 Consolidated Funds and Public

Accounts of India and of the States 141

7.2 Contingency Fund 141

7.3 Distribution of Taxes Between Union and The States 141

7.4 Grants and Loans 142

7.5 Borrowing Powers 142

8. ReformingCentre-State Relations 1429. Agencies forCooperative

Federalism 1439.1 Prevention and Settlement of Disputes: Extra-

Judicial Settlement of Disputes 143

9. 2 Inter-State Councils 143

9.3 Zonal Council 144

9.4 NITI Aayog 144

9.5 Finance Commission 144

9.6 National Integration Council 145


18. Elections, Electoral Process and Electoral Reforms 146

1. Electoral System 1461.1 Main Features 146

1.2 Single Member Constituency System 146

2. ElectionCommission 1472.1 Roles and Functions 147

2.2 Tenure and Allowances 147

3. The Electoral Roll 1473.1 When Do Elections Take Place? 147

4. Judicial Reviewof ElectionDisputes 1485. ModelCode ofConduct 148

5.1 Political Parties and Elections 149

5.2 Registration with Election Commission 149

6. Political PartyCriteria 1497. Recognition and Reservation

of Symbols 1498. MediaCoverage 1499. State Funding of Elections 150

9.1 New Rules for Corporate Funding 150

10.Delimitation 15010.1 Purpose of Delimitation 150

11.NOTA in Elections 15012.Simultaneous Elections 150

12.1 Advantages of Simultaneous Elections 150

12.2 Arguments against Simultaneous Elections 150

13.Electoral Bonds 150 Self–Evaluation Test 151

19. Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes 152

1. Introduction 1522. ScheduledCastes and Scheduled

Tribes 1522.1 Protection of Scheduled Castes

and Scheduled Tribes 153

2.2 National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes 153

3. Anglo-Indians 1544. BackwardClasses 154 Self–Evaluation Test 155

20. Official Language (Part XVII, Articles 343–351) 156

1. Constitutional Provisions 1561.1 Article343:OfficialLanguageof

The Union 156

1.2 Article 344: Commission and Committee of Parliament on OfficialLanguage 156

2. Regional Languages 1573. Language of the SupremeCourt,

HighCourts, etc. 1574. Special Directives 1575. Official LanguageCommission 158 Self–Evaluation Test 159

21. Democratic Decentralization: Panchayati Raj 160

1. Concept andDevelopment 1602. Balwant RaiMehtaCommittee 1603. Ashok Mehta Committee 1614. L.M. Singhvi Committee 1615. Constitutionalization of

Panchayati Raj 1616. Organizational Structure of

Panchayati Raj System 1626.1 At the Village Level 162

6.2 At the Block Level 163

6.3 Panchayat Samitis 163

6.4 At the District Level 164

7. Panchayats Election 1648. PesaAct of 1996 (ExtensionAct) 165

8.1 Objectives of the Act 165

8.2 Features of the Act 165

9. 73rdAmendmentAct of 1992 167 Self–Evaluation Test 168

22. Urban Local Government 169

1. Introduction 1692. Salient Provisions 169

2.1 Constitution of Municipalities 169

3. District PlanningCommittee 1704. Metropolitan Planning Committee 1715. MunicipalCorporations 171

5.1 Functions of Municipal Corporation 171

5.2 Discretionary Functions 171

6. OtherUrban Bodies 171 7. Provisions for Cooperative

Societies in theConstitution 172 Self–Evaluation Test 173

23. Constitutional Amendments 174

1. Constitutional Procedure for Amendment 1741.1 Procedure of Amendment 174

2. Different Methods for Amendment 1742.1 Introduction of the Bill 174

2.2 ThreeDifferentMethodsofAmendment174

3. List of Amendments to the Constitution of India 1753.1 Latest Amendments 181


24. Autonomous Bodies and Constitutional Bodies 182

1. Public ServiceCommissions 1822. Niti Aayog 183

2.1 What is NITI Aayog? 183

2.2 NITI Aayog Composition 183

2.3 Functions of NITI Aayog 183

2.4 What is new in NITI Aayog? AndhowDifferentisitfrom Planning Commission? 184

2.5 Why was Planning Commission Scrapped? 184

3. FinanceCommission 1843.1 Functions 184

4. Comptroller and Auditor General of India 1854.1 Duties and Powers 185

4.2 Reporting 185

4.3 Tenure 185

4.4 Salary 185

4.5 CAG’s Role 185

5. NationalCommission forWomen 1855.1 Composition 186

5.2 Functions 186

6. NationalCommission for ScheduledTribes 1866.1 Duties and Functions 186

6.2 Powers of the Commission 187

7. NationalCommission for SCs 1877.1 Functions and Duties of the Commission 187

8. NationalCommission for BackwardClasses 187

8.1 Composition and Service Conditions 188

8.2 Functions 188

8.3 Powers of a civil court: 188

9. Minorities Commission 1889.1 Functions of the Commission 188

10.Central InformationCommission 18910.1 Quasi Judicial Powers and Functions 189

10.2 Quasi Judicial Power to order inquiry if there are reasonable grounds 189

11.State InformationCommission 18911.1 Quasi Judicial Powers and Functions 189

Self–Evaluation Test 190Practice Test 191

1. Meaning of Constitution

• Constitution means a document having a special legalsanctity, which sets out the framework and principalfunctionsoftheGovernment.

• Therearevarious formsofGovernmentprevalentacrosstheworld.Constitutionofacountrygivesideaaboutthebasic structure of the political system under which itspeoplearetobegoverned.

• TheideaofConstitutionalismsuggestswaysandmeanstoworkoutagovernmentalform,whichexercisespowerandensures,atthesametime,individualfreedomandliberty.

• Constitutionalism suggests a way for reconciling thepoweroftheStatewithindividual liberty,byprescribingtheprinciplesoforganisingtheState.

• It defines the powers of the main organ of the State,demarcates their responsibilities and regulates theirrelationshipswitheachotherandwiththepeople.

• Itcanalsobetermedasthe‘FundamentalLaw’ofacountrywhichreflectspeople’sfaithandaspirations.

2. signifiCanCe of Constitution

• The philosophy embodied in a nation’s constitutiondeterminesthekindofGovernmentpresentthere

• Aconstitutionoutlines thevisionof the stateand is themostimportantdocument

• Aconstitutionensurescertainrightstoitscitizensaswellasdefinestheirduties

• A constitution is an expression of faith and hopes, thatpeople have from the state, and thepromises that theywishtomakeforthefuture

3. Constitutional DevelopMents: lanDMarks

The landmarks in the development of the Constitution are asfollows:

3.1 Early History• Lawofdharma• Sabhasandsamitis• BhikshuSanghas(Buddhist)• Constitutionalmonarchy• Republics• DecentralizationofvillageadministrationintheCholaperiod

3.2 East India Company (EIC), 1605 – 1765A Trading Company Governed by a Director and his court (of25Men)

3.3 1765 – Diwani Rights — Lead To Dyarchy

and

3.4 Regulating Act 1773• Thiswas the first step taken by the British Government to

controlandregulatetheaffairsoftheEastIndiaCompanyinIndia.

• 1ststeptowardscentralizationinIndia.• Courtofdirectorcompositionwasreformed.• 1stwrittencharterforEIC.• Prevented private trade by EIC officers, that had been the

causeofdisputebetweentheEICandlocalrulersandcausebattleslike–Plassey(1757).

• FromnowonEIChadtoreporttoBritainregularly.• ThefirstGovernor-GeneralwasLordWarrenHastings.

The Constitution lays down the framework demarcating the fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers and duties of government institutions and sets out Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and the duties of citizens.This chapter gives the introduction to the Indian Constitution. Through this student will be able to understand: y The meaning and significance of the Constitution. y Process of formation of the constitution through the study of different Acts from 1773 to 1947. y Nature and salient features of the Indian Constitution. y Basic features of the Constitution.

Chapter 1Drafting of Constitution

of India

Indian Polity2

• It subordinated the Governors of Bombay andMadras tothe Governor-General of Bengal. The Supreme Court wasestablishedatFortWilliamsastheApexCourtin1774.

• Regulatingact(1773)amended–1781.

3.5 Pitt’s India Act 1784• ItwasintroducedtoremovethedrawbacksoftheRegulating

Act.• ItwasnamedafterthethenBritishPrimeMinisterSirWilliam

Pitt.• This Act placed the Indian affairs under the direct and

completecontroloftheBritishGovernment.• ItestablishedaBoardofControlovertheDirectors.

‘Double govt.’

-

-

• This had the effectofpolitical powersbeing transferred toBritishgovernmentandEICreducedtoitsoriginalstateofapurelycommercialbodywithafewadministrativefunctions

3.6 Charter Act, 1793• TheEastIndiaCompanyAct1793,orCharterActof1793,was

anActoftheParliamentofGreatBritainwhichrenewedtheCharter issued to theBritish East IndiaCompany (EIC), andcontinuedtheCompany’sruleinIndia.

• Company’s trade monopoly was continued for a further20 years.TheCompany’s charterwas next renewedby theCharterActof1813.

3.7 Provisions of the Act 1. TheActrecognizedtheCompany’spolitical functionsand

clearly established that the“acquisitionof sovereigntybythesubjectsoftheCrownisonbehalfoftheCrownandnotinitsownright.“

2. Salaries for the staff and paid members of the Board ofControlwerealsonowchargedtotheCompany.

3. The Governor-General was granted extensive powersover the subordinate presidencies. Governor General wasempowered to disregard the majority in the Council inspecial circumstances. Thus more powers were entrustedinhim.TheGovernorGeneralandrespectivegovernorsofthe other presidencies could now override the respectivecouncils, and the Commander in Chief was not now themember of Governor General’s council, unless he wasspecially appointed to be a member by the Court ofDirectors.

3.8 Charter Act 1813• 3 provincial councils were enlarged and brought under

Britishparliamentscrutiny.• TheEastIndiaCompanyAct1813',alsoknownastheCharter

Act of 1813, was an Act of the Parliament of the UnitedKingdomwhichrenewedthecharterissuedtotheBritishEastIndiaCompany,andcontinuedtheCompany’sruleinIndia.

• Company’s trade monopoly was continued for a further20 years.The Company’s charter was next renewed by theCharterActof1833.

3.9 Provisions of the Act 1. The Act expressly asserted the Crown’s sovereignty over

British India. The Charter Act of 1813, for the first timeexplicitly defined the constitutional positionof the BritishterritoriesinIndia.

2. Thisactalsoempoweredthelocalgovernmentstoimposetaxes on the persons subject to the jurisdiction of theSupremeCourt.

3. The Company’s commercialmonopolywas ended, exceptfor the tea trade and the tradewithChina. Reflecting thegrowthofBritishpowerinIndia,

4. TherewasalsoaprovisionthatCompanyshouldinvestRs.1LakheveryyearontheeducationofIndians.

3.10 Charter Act, 1833• It made the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-

GeneralofIndia.• FirstGovernor-GeneralofIndiawasLordWilliamBentick.• EICrelievedofitscommercialpowersandonlyadministrative

powersremained.Itwasallowedtooperateonatrusteeshipbasis.

• Legislativefunctionstakenawayfromcouncil.

3.11 Charter Act, 1853• Separated–legislativeandexecutivefunctionsofCouncil• Central legislative council introduced and enlarged (6–12

members)• Localrepresentationinprovincesintroduced• OpenCompetitionforcivilservicesincludingIndians

3.12 Government of India Act, 1858ThisActtransferredthegovernment,territoriesandrevenuesofIndiafromtheEastIndiaCompanytotheBritishCrown.Inotherwords,theruleoftheCompanywasreplacedbytheruleoftheCrowninIndia.

ThepowersoftheBritishCrownweretobeexercisedbytheSecretaryofStateforIndia.• Viceroy–arepresentativeofthecrown• TheSecretaryofStatewasamemberoftheBritishCabinet• HewasassistedbytheCouncilofIndia,having15members• Hewasvestedwithcompleteauthorityandcontrolover

the Indian administration through theGovernor-Generalashisagent

• HewasresponsibleultimatelytotheBritishParliament• TheGovernor-GeneralwasmadetheViceroyofIndia• LordCanningwasthefirstViceroyofIndia

3.13 Indian Council Act, 1861• It provides that Governor-General's Executive Council

shouldhavesomeIndiansasnonofficialmembers• Decentralization of legislative powers to Bombay and

Madras• Portfoliosystemintroduced• Ordinancemakingintroduced• NewlegislativecouncilsforPunjab,BengalandNorthwest

frontierprovince• Viceroy empowered to make rules for convenient

transactionsofbusinessinthecouncil

3 DraftingofConstitutionofIndia

3.14 Indian Council Act, 1892• Increasenumberofnon-officialmembers(withoutmajority)• Provided for a nomination of some non-official members

both tocontrol legislativecouncil andprovincial legislativecouncil

• Functions of legislative councils expanded which includeddiscussbudgetandaskingquestions

• Indirectelectionsintroduced

3.15 Indian Council Act, 1909• CommonlyknownasMorley–MintoReforms• Considerableincreaseinsizeofallcouncils(legislative)• Allowedprovincialcouncilstohavenon-officialmajority• IndiansintroducedinexecutivecouncilwithS.P.Sinha• Communal electorate introduced with separate electorate

forMuslims• Deliberative functions of legislative councils enlarged. E.g.

membercouldaskedsupplementaryquestions.

3.16 Government of India Act, 1919• Introduction of responsible / accountable government in

Indiaespeciallyatlocallevel• Legislativecouncilreplacedbybicameralism• Directelections-1sttime• Dyarchy introduced-provincial subjects separated between

transferredandreservedlist• Transferred list were given to a Government of minister

answerable to the provincial Council. At the same time,reservedlistremainedunderthecontrolofgovernoranditsexecutiveCouncil

• Provincialbudgetsintroduced

Q. Whichofthefollowingis/aretheprincipalfeature(s)oftheGovernmentofIndiaAct,1919?

1. Introductionofdyarchyintheexecutivegovernmentoftheprovinces

2. Introduction of separate communal electorates forMuslims

3. Devolutionoflegislativeauthoritybythecentretotheprovinces

Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelow:(a) 1only (b) 2and3only(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2and3

(UPSC-2012)Q. TheGovernmentofIndiaact1919clearlydefined: (a) the separation of power between judiciary and the

legislature (b) the jurisdiction of the central and provincial

governments (c) thepowersofthesecretaryofstateforIndiaandviceroy (d) noneoftheabove. (UPSC-2015)

Q. Considerthefollowingstatements: AConstitutionalGovernmentisonewhich 1. Placeseffectiverestrictionsonindividuallibertyinthe

interestofStateAuthority 2. Places effective restrictions on the Authority of the

Stateintheinterestofindividualliberty Whichofthestatementsgivenaboveis/arecorrect?

(a) 1only (b) 2 only(c) Both1and2 (d) Neither1nor2

(UPSC-2012)

3.17 Government of India Act 1935• TheActprovidedfortheestablishmentofanIndiaFederation

consistingoftheProvincesandthePrincelyStatesastheunits• TheActdividedthepowersbetweentheCentreandtheunits

asnamelytheFederal,ProvincialandtheConcurrentList• The Federal List for the Centre consisted of 59 items, the

ProvincialListfortheProvincesconsistedof54itemsandtheConcurrentListforbothconsistedof36items

• TheresiduarypowerswerevestedwiththeGovernor-General• TheActabolishedtheDyarchyintheProvincesandintroduced

‘ProvincialAutonomy’whichwasabolishedin1939• ItprovidedfortheadoptionofDyarchyattheCentre(didn’t

comeintooperation)

Q. In the federation established by The Government on India Act of 1935. Residuary Power were given to the: (a) Federal Legislature (b) Governor General(c) Provincial Legislature (d) Provincial Governors

(UPSC-2018)

• TheActintroducedbicameralismin6outof11provinces• These six provinces were Assam, Bengal, Bombay, Bihar,

MadrasandtheUnitedProvince• Increase in communal representation including SC/ST,

women,labourers.• Courtofinquiry(establishedby1858act)abolished• FederalPublicServiceCommissionunderGOIact1935and

provisionmadeforProvincialPublicServiceCommission

3.18 Indian Independence Act, 1947TheIndianIndependenceAct,1947wasasanActoftheParliamentof the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the twonewindependentdominionsofIndiaandPakistan.TheActreceivedtheroyalassenton18thJuly1947,andPakistancameintobeingonAugust14thandIndiaonAugust15th,astwonewcountries.

The legislationwas formulatedby theGovernmentofPrimeMinister Clement Attlee, after representatives of the IndianNationalCongress, theMuslimLeague, and theSikh communitycametoanagreementwiththeViceroyofIndia,LordMountbattenofBurma,onwhathascometobeknownasthe3rdJunePlanorMountbattenPlan.

Following are the different provisions of Indian Independence Act, 1947:• TheAct’sprovisionsthedivisionofBritishIndiaintothetwo

new and fully sovereign dominions of India and Pakistan,witheffectfrom15thAugust1947;

• thepartitionoftheprovincesofBengalandPunjabbetweenthetwonewcountries;

• theestablishmentoftheofficeofGovernor-Generalineachofthetwonewcountries,asrepresentativeoftheCrown;

• the conferral of complete legislative authority upon therespectiveConstituentAssembliesofthetwonewcountries;

• theterminationofBritishsuzeraintyovertheprincelystateswitheffectfrom15thAugust1947,andrecognisedtherightofstatestoaccedetoeitherdominion

• thedroppingoftheuseofthetitle‘EmperorofIndia’bytheBritishmonarch(thiswassubsequentlydonebyKingGeorgeVIbyroyalproclamationon22thJune1948).

Indian Polity4

• TheActalsomadeprovisionforthedivisionofjointproperty,etc.betweenthetwonewcountries, including inparticularthedivisionofthearmedforces.

4. forMation of the Constituent asseMbly

• The Constituent Assembly was formed on therecommendationoftheCabinet MissionwhichvisitedIndiain1946butMNRoywasthefirsttorecommendforformationofit.

• ThetotalstrengthoftheConstituentAssemblywastobe389.Of these, 296 seatswere tobeallotted toBritish India and93 seats to thePrincelyStates.Outof296 seats allotted totheBritish India, 292memberswere tobedrawn from theeleven governors’ provinces and four from the four chiefcommissioners’provinces,onefromeach.

• Eachprovinceandprincelystate(orgroupofstatesincaseofsmallstates)weretobeallottedseatsinproportiontotheirrespectivepopulation.Roughly,oneseatwastobeallottedforeverymillionpopulation.

• SeatsallocatedtoeachBritishprovinceweretobedecidedamongthethreeprincipalcommunities—Muslims,Sikhsandgeneral(allexceptMuslimsandSikhs),inproportiontotheirpopulation.

• The representativesofeachcommunitywere tobeelectedbymembersofthatcommunity intheprovincial legislativeassemblyandvotingwastobebythemethodofproportionalrepresentationbymeansofsingletransferablevote.

• Therepresentativesofprincelystatesweretobenominatedbytheheadsoftheprincelystates.

• After formation of Pakistan the Muslim League members(hailing from the areas included in the Pakistan) withdrewfromtheConstituentAssemblyfor India.Consequently, thetotalstrengthoftheAssemblycamedownto299asagainst389 originally fixed in 1946 under the Cabinet MissionPlan.The strength of the Indian provinces (formerly BritishProvinces) was reduced from 296 to 229 and those of theprincelystatesfrom93to70.

• TheConstituentAssemblymetforthefirsttimeinNewDelhion9th December, 1946

• Mr. Sachchidanand Sinha was elected as provisionalchairmanoftheassembly.

• Dr. Rajendra Prasadlaterbecamethepermanentchairmanoftheconstituentassembly.

• On13th December, 1946, Pandit Jawaharlal NehrumovedtheObjectivesResolutionwhich resolved toproclaim IndiaasanIndependentSovereignRepublicandtodrawupforherfuturegovernance,aConstitution.

• The Constituent Assembly took almost three years (two years, eleven months and eighteen days to be precise)tocomplete itshistorictaskofdraftingtheConstitutionforIndependentIndia.

• TheConstituentAssemblyheldeleven sessionscoveringatotalof165days.

• India is governed in terms of the Constitution, which wasadoptedon26th November, 1949.Thisdatefindsmention

in the Preamble to the Indian Constitution ‘‘thus in ourconstituent assembly this twenty-sixth day of November,1949, do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves thisconstitution.’’

• Thehonourablemembersappendedtheirsignaturestotheconstitutionon24th January, 1950

• TheConstitutionof India came into forceon26th January, 1950.Onthatday,theConstituentAssemblyceasedtoexist,transforming itself into the Provisional Parliament of IndiauntilanewParliamentwasconstitutedin1952.

Important Dates—Constituent Assembly to Constitution

ConstituentAssemblymetforthefirsttime

ObjectivesResolutionmoved

Constitutionadopted

Signedbymembers

ConstitutioncameintoforceandConstituentAssemblyceasedtoexist

09Dec1946 13Dec1946 26Nov1949 24Jan1950 26Jan1950

Objectives of the Resolution of Assembly

The basic aims and objectives of the new State of India findtheirexpression in theObjectivesResolutionapprovedby theConstituent Assembly on January 22nd, 1947 and it laid thefoundationoftheconstitutionalstructure.

TheObjectivesResolutionsetforththat(i) Indiawouldbean independent and sovereign republic; (ii) therewould be ademocraticUnionwithequallevelofself-governmentinalltheconstituent parts; (iii) all power and authority of governmentderived from the people; (iv) the Constitution must strive toguaranteetothepeoplejusticebasedonequality(social,politi-calandeconomic),equalitybeforelawandequalityofopportu-nity;(v)thereshouldbefreedomofthought,expression,belief,faith,worship,etc., subject to lawandpublicmorality; (vi) theConstitutionshouldprovidejustrightsforminorities,depressedclassesandbackwardareassoastoensurejustice;(vii)theCon-stitutionwouldbeframedtosecureforIndiaadueplaceinthecommunity of nations and to contribute to the promotion ofworldpeaceandthewelfareofmankind.

Drafting Committee of the Constitutional Assembly

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar is rightly regarded as the ‘Father of theConstitutionofIndia’.Chairman:Dr.B.R.AmbedkarMembers

1. N.GopalswamiAyyangar 2. AlladiKrishnaswamiAyyar 3. K.M.Munshi 4. MohammedSadullah 5. B.L.Mittar(replacedbyN.MadhavRao) 6. D.P.Khaitan(whodiedin1948andwasreplacedbyT.T.

Krishnamachari)


4.1 Committees of the Constituent AssemblyTheConstituentAssemblyappointed22committeestodealwithdifferent tasks of Constitution-making.Out of these, 10wereonprocedural affairs and 12 on substantive affairs. These were asfollows:

Committees on Procedural Affairs 1. SteeringCommitteeChairman:Dr. K.M. Munshi 2. RulesofProcedureCommitteeChairman:Dr. Rajendra

Prasad 3. HouseCommitteeChairman: B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya 4. HindiTranslationCommittee 5. UrduTranslationCommittee 6. Finance and Staff Committee Chairman: Dr. Rajendra

Prasad 7. PressGalleryCommittee 8. CommitteeontheeffectofIndianIndependenceActof

1947 9. OrdersofBusinessCommitteeChairman:K.M. Munshi10. CredentialsCommitteeChairman:Alladi Krishnaswamy

Iyer

Committees on Substantive Affairs 1. DraftingCommitteeChairman:Dr. B.R. Ambedkar 2. Committee for Negotiating with States Chairman:

Dr. Rajendra Prasad 3. CommitteeonChiefCommissioners’Provinces 4. Union Constitution Committee Chairman: Jawaharlal

Nehru 5. Provincial Constitution Committee Chairman: Sardar

Patel 6. Special Committee to Examine the Draft Constitution

Chairman:Sir Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer 7. CommissiononLinguisticProvinces 8. ExpertCommitteeonFinancialProvisions 9. Ad-hocCommitteeonNationalFlag10. UnionPowersCommitteeChairman:Jawaharlal Nehru11. Ad-hocCommitteeontheSupremeCourt12.Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minorities,

Chairman:Sardar Patel13. Committee on the Functions of the Constituent

Assembly:G.V. Mavalankar14. StatesCommittee:Jawaharlal Nehru15. MinoritiesSub-Committee:H.C. Mookherjee16. FundamentalRightsSub-Committee:J.B. Kripalani17. North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam Excluded

andPartiallyExcludedAreasSub-Committee:Gopinath Bardoloi

18. Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas: Other than those in Assam

19. Sub-Committee:A.V. Thakkar

InadditiontothemakingoftheConstitutionandenactingofordinarylaws,theConstituentAssemblyalsoperformedthefollowingfunctions:1. ItratifiedtheIndia’smembershipoftheCommonwealthin

May1949.2. ItadoptedthenationalflagonJuly22,1947.3. ItadoptedthenationalanthemonJanuary24,1950.4. ItadoptedthenationalsongonJanuary24,1950.5. ItelectedDrRajendraPrasadasthefirstPresidentofIndiaon

January24,1950

Q. Democracy’ssuperiorvirtueliesinthefactthatitcallsintoactivity

(a) the intelligence and character of ordinary men and women.

(b) themethodsforstrengtheningexecutiveleadership. (c) asuperiorindividualwithdynamismandvision. (d) abandofdedicatedpartyworkers. (UPSC 2017)

5. nature of our Constitution: feDeration or not

• Though themembers of theDraftingCommittee of theConstituent Assembly called the Indian ConstitutionfederalalthoughnowherementionedintheConstitutionitself ),somejuristsdisputethistitle.

• TheWestern scholarsgenerally take theUSConstitutionas a role model of federal Constitution and excludethoseConstitutions,whichdonotconformtoitfromthenomenclatureof‘federation’.

• Butnow,itisincreasinglyrealisedthatanyassumptionofsuchatypologyisfallacious,anditisgenerallyagreedthatthequestionwhethera state isunitaryor federal isoneofdegrees,andwhetheritisafederationornotdependsuponthenumberoffederalfeaturesitpossesses.

5.1 Meaning of Federation• It is a group of regions or States united with a Central

GovernmentoraFederalGovernment.• A federation has a well-established dual polity or dual

formofGovernmenti.e.thefieldofGovernmentisdividedbetween the Federal and the State Governmentswhicharenotsubordinatetooneanother,butco-ordinateandareindependentwithintheirallottedspheres.

• Therefore, the existence of co-ordinate authoritiesindependentofeachotheristhegistofthefederalprinciple.

5.2 Federation in Indian Constitution • A perusal of the provisions of the Indian Constitution

revealsthatthepoliticalsystemintroducedbyit,possessesalltheaforesaidessentialsofafederalpolity.

• The Indian Constitution establishes a dual polity withtheUnionat theCentreandtheStatesof theperiphery,each enjoying powers clearly demarcated by theConstitution.

Indian Polity6

• The Constitution is written and supreme, with enoughpower todeclareenactments inexcessof thepowersoftheUnionorStateLegislaturesasultravires(thishasbeenfirmlyestablishedafterKeshavanandacasein1973)

• Moreover, no amendment making any change in thestatusorpowersoftheCentreandtheStates ispossiblewithouttheparticipationoftheStates(Art.368).

• Finally, the Supreme Court is the apex authority tointerpret the Constitution of India as well as decide ondisputesarisingoutofCentre-Staterelations.

• Eventhoughallthefiveessentialcharacteristicsarepresentin the Indian Constitution, in certain circumstances,the Constitution empowers the Centre to interfere inthe matters of the States, which places the States in asubordinateposition.

This violates the federal principle. Provisions in the IndianConstitutionwhicharenotstrictlyfederalincharacterinclude:

1. In the USA and Australia, the states have their ownConstitutions which are equally powerful as thefederalConstitution,but in India, there areno separateConstitutionsforthememberStates.

2. India follows the principle of uniform and single citizenship, but in the USA and Australia, doublecitizenshipisfollowed.

3. IntheUSA,itisnotpossiblefortheFederalGovernmentto unilaterally change the territorial extent of a Statebut in India, theParliamentcandosoevenwithouttheconsenttotheStateconcerned(Art 3).Thus,theStatesinIndiadonotenjoytherighttoterritorialintegrity.

4. If the President declares national emergency for thewholeorpartofIndiaunderArt. 352,theParliamentcanmakelawsonsubjects,whichareotherwise,exclusivelyunder theStateList.TheParliamentcangivedirectionsto the States on themanner inwhich to exercise theirexecutive authority inmatters within their charge.Thefinancialprovisionscanalsobesuspended.

5. UnderArt. 155, theGovernorofaState isappointedbythe President and the former is not responsible to theStateLegislature.Thusindirectly,theCentreenjoyscontrolovertheStatethroughtheappointmentoftheGovernor.

6. IffinancialemergencyisdeclaredbythePresidentunderArt. 360,onthegroundthatthefinancialstabilityorcredibilityofIndiaoranyofitsunitsisthreatened,alltheMoneyBillspassedbytheStateLegislaturesduringtheperiodoffinancialemergencyarealsosubjecttothecontroloftheCentre.

7. UnderArt. 256,theCentrecangiveadministrativedirectionstotheStates,whicharebindingonthelatter.Alongwiththedirections, the Constitution also providesmeasures to beadoptedbytheCentretoensuresuchcompliance.

8. UnderArt. 312,AllIndiaServicesofficials—IAS,IPSandIFS(forest)—areappointedbytheCentre,butarepaidand controlled by the State. However, in case of anyirregularities by the officer, States cannot initiate anydisciplinaryactionexceptsuspendinghim/her.

9. JudgesoftheHighCourtsareappointedbythePresidentin consultationwith theGovernorsunderArt. 217 and

theStatesdonotplayany role in this.Thus,apart fromcertain provisionswhich are biased towards theUnion,the Constitution of India, in normal times, is framed toworkasafederalsystem.

ThefederalConstitutionsoftheUSAandAustralia,whichareplaced ina tightmouldof federalism,cannotchangetheir form.TheycanneverbeunitaryaspertheprovisionsoftheConstitution.

But,theIndianConstitutionisaflexibleformoffederation—afederationof itsownkind.That iswhyIndianfederationiscalledfederationsuigeneris.ProfK.C.WhearedescribedtheConstitutionof India as ‘Quasi Federal’ and remarked that Indian Union is ‘aunitaryStatewithsubsidiaryFederalfeaturesratherthanaFederalStatewithsubsidiaryunitaryfeatures’.

GranvilleAustindescribedIndianFederalismas‘Co-operativefederalism’. Dr B.R. Ambedkar said that Indian Political system isboth‘Unitaryaswellas federalaccordingtotherequirementsoftimeandcircumstances’.

6. salient features of the Constitution

The IndianConstitution closely follows the British parliamentarymodel but differs from it in one important respect that is, theConstitutionissupreme,notParliament.SotheIndiancourtsarevestedwiththeauthoritytoadjudicateontheconstitutionalityofanylawpassedbyparliament.Thepresentconstitutionconsistsofthefollowing:

1. ThePreamble 2. PartsItoXXIIcoveringArticles1to395 3. Schedules1to12 4. An appendix. Part IX—The Panchayats and Schedule

XI (Articles 243-G) have been incorporated under 73rdConstitutionalAmendmentAct,1992.

The salient features are:

1. A Written Constitution: The constitution must benecessarily a written one. This is basically to avoid any doubtabout the Supremacy of the Constitution as well as to clearlydemarcate the powers between the centre and the stategovernments.

Enactment of Constitution• Some provisions of the Constitution pertaining to

citizenship, elections, provisional parliament, temporaryand transitional provisions, and short title contained inArticles5,6,7,8,9,60,324,366,367,379,380,388,391,392and393cameintoforceonNovember26,1949itself.

• The remaining provisions (the major part) of theConstitutioncameintoforceonJanuary26,1950.

• ThisdayisreferredtointheConstitutionasthe‘dateofitscommencement’,andcelebratedastheRepublicDay.

• January 26 was specifically chosen as the ‘date ofcommencement’ of the Constitution because of itshistorical importance. It was on this day in 1930 thatPurnaSwarajDaywascelebrated,followingtheresolutionoftheLahoreSession(December1929)oftheINC.


(a) TheState-itsstructureandfunctions(b) Thecitizens–rightsandresponsibilities(c) RelationsamongstthedifferentorgansoftheStateand

betweenthecitizenandtheState.

2. Lengthy Document: The Constitution of India has thedistinctionofbeingthemostlengthyanddetailedconstitutionaldocumenttheworldhassofarproduced.TheoriginalConstitutioncontainedasmanyas395Articlesand8schedules.

3. Drawn from Different Sources: CriticsoftheConstitutionhavedescribeditasa‘bagofborrowings’,oras,‘aglorifiededitionoftheActof1935’oras‘ahotch-potchofelementsdrawnfromvarioussources’. But such criticism is baseless. In fact, our constitution-framerswanted tohave thebest fromvarious constitutions andthentomoulditaccordingtoIndianconditions.TheConstitutionderives a lot from the India Act of 1935. ‘Both in language andsubstance’remarksProf.Srinivasan,‘itisaclosecopyoftheActof1935 ..... almost two-thirdsof theConstitutionowes itsorigin tothisActwithmodifications in thecontextof thenewconditionsobtainableinthecountry.’However,itisnotmerelyaglorifiedandenlargededitionof theActof1935. Ithasbeenmodifiedtosuitourneeds.

4. A Federal Polity with a Unitary Bias: Inaccordancewiththefederalset-uptherehasbeenadivisionofpowersbetweentheCentreandtheStates.ThereareCentralList,StateList,ConcurrentListandthensomeresiduarypowersgivenuponthecentre.Theresiduarypowertomakelawsonsubjectsthatarenotmentionedin any of the lists, like the cyber laws, rest completely with theCentre.

5. Single Citizenship: In a federation, there is usually dualcitizenship.Acitizenbelongstothestateinwhichheisbornandalsoenjoysthecitizenshiprightsofthefederation.This isonthebasicprinciplethat thestates ina federationareofcourseunits,butdonot,atthesametime,giveuptheirindividualentity.ButinIndia, there isonlyonecitizenship.Citizensbelongto the IndianUnionandnottoanystate.

6. More Flexible than Rigid: Another distinctive feature ofthe Indian Constitution is that it seeks to impart flexibility to awrittenfederalconstitution.Theamendmentofonlyafewoftheprovisions of the Constitution requires ratification by the StateLegislaturesandeventhenratificationbyonly1/2ofthemwouldsuffice(whiletheAmericanConstitutionrequiresratificationby3/4oftheStates).The flexibility of our Constitution is illustrated by the fact that since its working, it has been amended 100 times (till June 2015). Amendment of first schedule to constitutionfor Aquisition of certain territories of Bangladesh due to landBoundaryagreement,2011.

7. Democratic Republic: The Preamble to the Constitutiondeclares that India is a Sovereign, Democratic, Republic. It hasbeen argued that the word ‘Democratic’ used before the word‘Republic’isredundant.

Provisions of Constitution and their Sources1. IndependenceofJudiciary USA Constitution2. JudicialReview USA Constitution3. PresidentastheExecutivehead USA Constitution4. PresidentastheSupremeCom-

manderoftheArmedForcesUSA Constitution

5. TheVice-Presidentastheex-officioChairmanofthecouncilofstates

USA Constitution

6. FundamentalRights USA Constitution7. Preamble USA Constitution8. RemovalofSupremeCourtand

HighCourtJudgesUSA Constitution

9. Law-makingprocedures UK Constitution10. RuleofLaw UK Constitution11. Systemofsinglecitizenship UK Constitution12. Parliamentarysystemwithministe-

rialresponsibilityUK Constitution

13. FederationwithastrongCentreConstitution

Canadian Constitution

14. DistributionofpowersbetweentheUnionandtheStatesandplacingresiduarypowerswiththeCentre

Canadian Constitution

15. DirectivePrinciples Irish Constitution16. MethodofElectionofthePresident Irish Constitution17. Nominationofmembersofthe

RajyaSabhabythePresidentIrish Constitution

18. EmergencyanditseffectonWeimar Constitution of Ger-many

19. TheConcurrentList Australian Constitution20. Provisionregardingtrade

andcommerceAustralian Constitution

21. ConstitutionalAmendments South African Constitution

22. FundamentalDuties Soviet Union Constitution

23. RepublicLiberty,equalityandfraternity

French Constitution

24. IntegratedJudiciaryGovernorprovisionsFederalprovisions,UPSC

GOI1935 act

25. Jointsitting Australian Constitution

8. Balance between Judicial Supremacy and Parliamentary Sovereignty: AnindependentJudiciarywiththepowerofjudicialreviewisaprominentfeatureofourConstitution.Theharmonisationwhich our Constitution has effected between ParliamentarySovereignty and a written Constitution with a provision forJudicial Review, is a unique achievement of the framers of ourConstitution. The Indian Constitution adopts the via media between the American system of Judicial Supremacy and theEnglish principle of Parliamentary Supremacy, by endowing theJudiciary with the power of declaring a law as unconstitutionalif it is beyond the competence of the Legislature according tothe distribution of powers provided by the Constitution or if itis incontraventionof the fundamental rightsguaranteedby theConstitution.

Indian Polity8

9. Universal Adult Franchise: The introduction of adultsuffragewithout qualifications of any kindwas theboldest steptakenby theConstitution-makersand itwasanactof faith theyhadplaced in the commonman.Article 326of theConstitutionprovides that election to the House of the People and to theLegislativeAssemblyofeveryStateshallbeonthebasisofadultsuffrage.

10. Secular State: Amulti-religiousnationlikeIndiahastobeasecularstate.Theword‘Secular’wasmissingfromourConstitutiontill the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution. Secularism inIndiadoesnotmeanan irreligious stateoragodless stateorananti-religiousstate.

11. Provision of Fundamental Rights: A long list of Fun-damental Rights has been incorporated in the Constitution. AnIndiancitizendoesnotenjoyrights,otherthanthoseguaranteedbytheconstitution.Theyaredefiniterights.

12. Directive Principles for a Welfare State: TheobjectiveoftheConstitution-makerswastodraftaConstitutionofsocio-economicrevolutionandtheyincorporatedmanyprovisionsintheConstitutiontomakeIndiaaWelfareState.

13. Incorporation of Fundamental Duties: It was withthe passing of Forty-Second Constitutional Amendment ActthatachapteronFundamentalDutieswasincorporatedintheConstitution, by the addition of a new Article (Art. 51 A) TheArticle provides that every citizen of India shall have specificFundamentalDuties.

14. Emergency Provisions: Article 352, 356 and 360of the Constitution provide the provision for emergency.Accordingtotheseprovisionsm,whentheHeadoftheStateis satisfied that it is impossible to run theadministrationofthecountryorapartthereof,inaccordancewiththenormalprocedure laid down in the Constitution, he can declareemergency and take administration of the country or partthereofinhisownhands.

15. Protection of Minorities: TheConstitutionhasprovidedforasystemofreservationofseatsforculturalminorities,inallwalksoflife.Thisis,however,atemporaryprovisionandassoonas it is felt that theseminorities have come at parwith othersectionsofsociety,thisreservationwillceasetoexist.

16. Provision for Autonomous Organisations: TheConstitutionhasalsomadeaprovisionforcertainautonomousbodieswhichhavebeensetupwithaview toprovidecheckson the important organs of the government. An ElectionCommissionhasbeenprovidedtoimpartiallyconductelectionsin India. The Constitution has also created an autonomousSupremeCourt.

Q. RighttovoteandtobeelectedinIndiaisa (a) FundamentalRight. (b) NaturalRight. (c) Constitutional Right. (d) LegalRight. (UPSC 2017)

7. basiC struCture of the Constitution

The basic structure doctrine is an Indian judicial principle thatthe ConstitutionofIndia hascertain basic features thatcannotbealteredordestroyedthrough amendments bythe parliament. Key among these “basic features”, are the fundamentalrights grantedtoindividualsbytheconstitution. The doctrine thus forms the basis of a limited power ofthe Supreme Court to review and strike down constitutionalamendments enacted by the Parliament which conflict with orseektoalterthis«basicstructure»oftheConstitution.

Facts About Kesvananda and Verdict

• OnApril24,1973,ChiefJusticeSikriand12JudgesoftheSupremeCourtassembled todeliver themost importantjudgementinitshistory.Itwasthelargestbenchevertositinthesupremecourt.

• Literally hundreds of cases had been cited and the thenAttorneyGeneralhadmadeacomparativechartanalysingtheprovisionsoftheConstitutionof71differentcountries.

• ThemainquestionwasthepowerofparliamenttoamendtheConstitutionunlimited?CouldParliamentalter,amend,abrogateanypartof theConstitutioneven to theextentof talkingawayall fundamentalRights?Article368,onaplainreading,didnotcontainanylimitationonthepowerofParliamenttoamendanypartofconstitution.ThecasedepictsthetusslebetweenArticle13(2)andArticle368.

• The 703 page judgement revealed a sharply dividedcourtandbyawaferthinmajorityof7:6,itwasheldthatparliament can amend any part of the Constitution solongasitdidnotalteroramend"thebasicstructureoftheConstitution".

• 'Basic Structure' was interpretected to include thesupremacy of the Constitution, the rule of law,independence of judiciary, doctrine of separation ofpowers, federalism, secularism, theparliamentary systemofgovernmentfairelection,etc.

• TheKesavanandaverdict refusedtoconsider theright topropertyasa fundamental right thatwascoveredbythe'BasicStructure'.

• The Judgement ruled that Article 368 does not enablethe parliament in its constituent capacity to delegateits function of amending the Constitution to anotherlegislatureortoitselfinitsordinarylegislativecapacity.

• Thiscaseupheldthechangesin24thamendmentinArticle368 of Indian Constitution by overruling the GolaknathJudgement.

7.1 According to the Kesavanada VerdictEachjudgelaidoutseparately,whathethoughtwerethebasicoressential featuresoftheConstitution.Therewasnounanimityofopinionwithinthemajorityvieweither.

Sikri, C.J. explained that the concept of basic structureincluded:


• supremacyoftheGolaknathConstitution• republicananddemocraticformofgovernment• secularcharacteroftheConstitution• separation of powers between the legislature, executive

andthejudiciary• federalcharacteroftheConstitution

Shelat, J. andGrover, J. addedtwomorebasicfeaturestothislist:

• the mandate to build a welfare state contained in theDirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy

• unityandintegrityofthenationHegde, J. andMukherjea, J. identifiedaseparateandshorter

listofbasicfeatures:• sovereigntyofIndia• democraticcharacterofthepolity• unityofthecountry• essential features of the individual freedoms secured to

thecitizens• mandatetobuildawelfarestate

Jaganmohan Reddy, J. stated that elements of the basicfeaturesweretobefoundinthePreamble oftheConstitutionandtheprovisionsintowhichtheytranslatedsuchas:

• sovereigndemocraticrepublic• parliamentarydemocracy• threeorgansoftheState

He said that the Constitution would not be itself without the fundamental freedoms and the directive principles.

Only six judges on the bench (therefore a minority view) agreed that the fundamental rights of the citizen belonged to the basic structure and Parliament could not amend it.

Centre-State Relations

■ PartXI Centre-statelegislativeandAdministrativeRelations.(Art.245-263)

■ PartXII Centre-stateFinancialRelations(Art.264-300A)

■ PartXIII Centre-stateTradeandCommerceRelations(Art.301-307

■ PartXVIII Emergencyprovisions(Art.352-360)

Other Parts of the Constitution

■ PartXIV PublicServices(Art.308-323)

■ PartXV Elections(Art.324-329)

■ PartXVI SpecialProvisionsforSCsandSTs(Art.330-342)

■ PartXVII OfficialLanguage(Art.343-351)

■ PartXIX Miscellaneous(Art.361-367)

■ PartXXI Temporary,TransitionalandSpecialProvisions(Art.369-392)

■ PartXXII ShortTitle,Commencement(Art.393-395)

Parts of Indian Constitution

Part I TheUnionanditsTerritory Articles 1–4

Part II Citizenship Articles 5–11

Part III FundamentalRights Articles 12–35

Part IV DirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy

Articles 36–51

Part IVA FundamentalDuties Article 51A

Part V TheUnion Articles 52–151

Part VI TheStates Articles 152–237

Part VII TheStatesinPartBoftheFirstSchedule

Article 238–(repealed) by con-stitution 7th Amend-ment Act, 1956

Part VIII TheUnionTerritories Articles 239–243

Part IX Panchayats Articles 243–243O

Part IXA Municipalities Articles 243P–243ZG

Part IXB TheCooperativeSocieties Articles 243ZH-243ZT

Part X TheScheduledandTribalAreas

Articles 244–244A

Part XI RelationsbetweentheUnionandtheStates

Articles 245–263

Part XII Finance,Property,ContractsandSuits

Articles 264–300A

Part XIII Trade,CommerceandInter-coursewithintheTerritoryofIndia

Articles 301–307

Part XIV ServicesundertheUnionandtheStates

Articles 308–323

Part XIVA

Tribunals Articles 323A-323B

Part XV Elections Articles 324–329A

Part XVI SpecialProvisionsRelatingtoCertainClasses

Articles 330–342

Part XVII

OfficialLanguage Articles 343–351

Part XVIII

EmergencyProvisions Articles 352–360

Part XIX Miscellaneous Articles 361–367

Part XX AmendmentoftheConsti-tution

Articles 368

Part XXI Temporary,TransitionalandSpecialProvisions

Articles 369–392

Part XXII ShortTitle,Commence-ment,AuthoritativeTextinHindiandRepeals

Articles 393–395

Indian Polity10

8. sCheDules of the Constitution Introduction: TheoriginalConstitutionhadEightSchedules.Bythefirst constitutional amendment,NinthSchedulewasadded.TenthSchedulewasaddedbythe35thAmendmentin1974regardingthe‘associatestatus‘ofSikkimandafterthe36thAmendment,SikkimwasadmittedasaStateofIndia.Onthequestionofdefection,anewTenthSchedulewasadded in thewakeof the52ndAmendment.TheEleventhandTwelfthScheduleswereaddedwiththe73rdand74th Amendments. However, there are Twelve Schedules to theConstitutionofIndiaprovidingdetailsaboutvariousaspects.First Schedule: It deals with the territories of the 28

States and 7 Union Territories of theIndianUnion(Articles-1and4)

Second Schedule: It prescribes the salaries, allowanceetc. of the President, Vice President,SpeakeroftheLokSabha,Comptrollerand Auditor General, Judge of theSupremeCourtandHighCourt[Article-59(3),65(3),75(6),97,125,148(3),158(3),164(5),186and221].

Third Schedule: FormsofoathofaffirmationtobetakenbytheUnionMinisters,candidatesforelection to the Parliament, Judges ofthe Supreme Court and High Court,Comptroller and Auditor General,Members of Parliament and StateLegislature, candidate for election toState Legislature etc. (Articles - 75(4),99,124(6),148(2),164(3),188and219).

Fourth Schedule: Allotmentofseats intheRajyaSabhatoStatesandUnionTerritories(Articles4(1)and80(2).

Fifth Schedule: It deals with the administration andcontrolofScheduledAreasaswellasof Scheduled Tribes in states otherthan Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura andMizoram[Articles-244(1)].

Sixth Schedule: Itdealswiththeprovisionsregardingadministration of Tribal Areas in thestatesofAssam,Meghalaya,Mizoram,TripuraandArunachalPradesh[Article-244(2)and275(1)].

Seventh Schedule: ThisSchedulegivesthedetailsofthedi-visionofsubjectsintothethreelists—ListI(theUnionlist),comprising97sub-jects.ListII(theStatesListcontaining66subjectsandListIII(theconcurrentlist)containing47subjectsandoverwhichtheUnion and the StateGovernmentenjoyauthority(Article-246).

Eighth Schedule: It gives the list of 22 languagesrecognised by the Constitution. 22recognisedlanguagesarelistedinthisSchedule:

1. Assamese 2. Bengali 3. Gujarati 4. Hindi 5. Kannada 6. Kashmiri 7. Malyalam 8. Marathi 9. Oriya10. Punjabi 11. Sanskrit 12. Sindhi13. Tamil 14. Telugu 15. Urdu16. Konkani 17. Manipuri 18. Nepali19. Bodo 20. Dogri 21. Maithili22. Santhali (Articles344(1)and351).

Ninth Schedule: ItcontainscertainactsandregulationsofStateLegislaturedealingwith landreformandabolitionoftheZamindarisystem.Theseactsandregulationsareprotectedfromjudicialserenity.Attheendof1995, thisSchedulecontained285suchActs[Article-31B].

Tenth Schedule: It was added to the Constitution in1985bytheFifty-SecondAmendmentActandcontainsprovisionsregardingdisqualifications on grounds ofdefection[Article102(2)and191(2)].

Eleventh Schedule: It enumerates the powers andfunctionsofPanchayatiRajInstitutionand was inserted by the 73rdAmendmentAct,1993[Article-243G].

Twelfth Schedule: This Schedule lists 18 matters whichare the responsibility of the mun-icipalities. It was added by the 74thAmendment Act. This Schedulementions three types of municipalcommittees - Nagar Panchayats fortransitional area, municipal councilfor smaller urban area andmunicipalcorporationforlargeurbanareas.

Q. Consider the following statements:1. The Parliament of India can place a particular law in the

Ninth Schedule of the Constitutions of India.2. The validity of a law placed in the Ninth Schedule

cannot be examined by any court and no judgement can be made on it.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2

(UPSC-2018)


Self–Evaluation Test1. Which one of the following Schedule of the Constitution

contain provisions relating to allocation of seats to the Rajya Sabha?(a) FirstSchedule(b) SecondSchedule(c) ThirdSchedule(d) FourthSchedule

2. Who among the following was the chief draftsman of the constitution in the Constituent Assembly? (a) S.N.Mukerjee(b) H.V.R.Iyengar(c) SirB.N.Rau(d) NandLalBose

3. Which of the following Acts is responsible for the separation of Burma from India?(a) TheGovernmentofIndiaAct,1858(b) TheGovernmentofIndiaAct,1935(c) IndianIndependenceAct,1947(d) TheIndianCouncilsAct,1892

4. What were the salient features of the Government of India’s Act, 1935?1. AbolitionofCouncilofIndia2. Dyarchyatthecentre3. Abolitionofdyarchyinthestates4. EstablishmentofaFederalCourt

Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelow:(a) 2and3 (b) 1,2and3(c) 1,3and4 (d) 1,2,3and4

5. Who among the following takes the oath to ‘uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India’?1. ComptrollerandAuditorGeneral2. JudgesOfHighCourts3. CentralVigilanceCommissioner4. President

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:(a) 1,2and3only(b) 2only(c) 4only(d) Alloftheabove

6. With reference to the composition of the Constituent Assembly, consider the following statements: 1. SeatsallottedtotheProvincesandPrincelyStateswere

inproportiontotheirpopulation.2. Seats allocated to each British province were to be

decidedamongHindusandMuslimsonly. Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1only(b) 2only(c) Both1and2(d) Noneoftheabove

ANSWERS

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (a)

Indian Polity - Unique ShikshaINDIAN POLITY 1-200 Contents 1.2 Fazl Ali Commission 17 2. The Concept of Union and its Territory 17 3. Name 17 4. Acquired Territories 18 5. Formation

Documents