Index Abailard (Abelard), Pierre, Dialectica 84 abductive change 118–19 abecedaries 71 Abercrombie, D. 151 abjad 43–4, 47, 54, 62, 68, 69, 72 Abkhaz 24 Abkhaz-Adyghe 24 ablaut 225 Abondolo, D. 22 Aboriginal languages of Australia 527 absolute synonymy 243, 249–50 absolutive case 217, 340, 352–3 abugida 44, 54, 62, 68, 70, 72, 80n Abe’l-Aswad ad-Du.alc 83 accent identifying by 495 non-native in SLA 495 accentual meter 450 accommodation 525 Acehnese 28 Achard, P. 576 Acholi 37 acoustic phonetics 4, 151, 156 acquisition of alphabetic writing systems 668 automaticity and systematicity in sign language 549–54 competition model 333, 474–5, 480–1, 498–9 hypothesis testing 640 the logical problem of language 479–81 see also first language acquisition, second language acquisition acquisition studies 130, 131, 147, 332–3 acrophonic principle 74 active articulator 165 actuation problem 108, 110, 114 Adamawa-Ubangi languages 35 Adelaar, Willem 39 Adelung, Johan Christoph 86, 93, 94 adjacency pair 437 adjectives and numeral word order, attested vs. unattested 343–4 table 14.1 similitudinal 231 Adyghe 24 aesthetic experience 448–9, 458, 459, 465 Afar 33 affixation 114, 217, 229, 262, 359 affricates 176, 181 Africa, languages of 31–7, 710 “African Eve” 7 African-American Vernacular English 657–60, 662, 711 Afroasiatic languages 31–3, 124 ageing, language of 644 agglutinating morphology 223–31, 236 agglutination 224 deviations from 224–7 agglutinative languages 70, 94, 224, 228 agrammatism 584, 605 agreement 586 role of inflection in 220
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774 Index
Index
Abailard (Abelard), Pierre, Dialectica 84abductive change 118–19abecedaries 71Abercrombie, D. 151abjad 43–4, 47, 54, 62, 68, 69, 72Abkhaz 24Abkhaz-Adyghe 24ablaut 225Abondolo, D. 22Aboriginal languages of Australia 527absolute synonymy 243, 249–50absolutive case 217, 340, 352–3abugida 44, 54, 62, 68, 70, 72, 80nAbe’l-Aswad ad-Du.alc 83accent
identifying by 495non-native in SLA 495
accentual meter 450accommodation 525Acehnese 28Achard, P. 576Acholi 37acoustic phonetics 4, 151, 156acquisition
of alphabetic writing systems 668automaticity and systematicity in sign
language 549–54competition model 333, 474–5, 480–1,
498–9hypothesis testing 640the logical problem of language
479–81
see also first language acquisition,second language acquisition
acquisition studies 130, 131, 147, 332–3acrophonic principle 74active articulator 165actuation problem 108, 110, 114Adamawa-Ubangi languages 35Adelaar, Willem 39Adelung, Johan Christoph 86, 93, 94adjacency pair 437adjectives
and numeral word order, attestedvs. unattested 343–4 table 14.1
similitudinal 231Adyghe 24aesthetic experience 448–9, 458, 459, 465Afar 33affixation 114, 217, 229, 262, 359affricates 176, 181Africa, languages of 31–7, 710“African Eve” 7African-American Vernacular English
657–60, 662, 711Afroasiatic languages 31–3, 124ageing, language of 644agglutinating morphology 223–31, 236agglutination 224
deviations from 224–7agglutinative languages 70, 94, 224, 228agrammatism 584, 605agreement 586
role of inflection in 220
Index 775
Aikhenvald, A. 39Ainu 25airflow
central 169glottalic egressive 162glottalic ingressive 162initiation and direction of 161–2lateral 169nasal 169oral 169pulmonic egressive 160, 162pulmonic ingressive 162velaric ingressive 162
identity test 245–6independent truth-conditions test 246in literary texts 447–8parsing structural 609, 611, 612, 613tests 245–6zeugma test 246see also scope ambiguity
“ambilingualism” 490Amele 364amelioration 259American Association for Applied
Linguistics 638American English 112–13, 171, 182, 183,
295American Indian languages
see Amerindian languagesAmerican Sign Language (ASL) 11, 41,
536–8, 539–40, 556, 557, 561ncoordination in 539in courtroom situation 691recursion and subordination in 536 –8verb signing 545–7word order 538
American Structuralism 97–8, 99Americas, languages of the 38–41Amerind language family 40Amerindian languages 135– 6, 137, 163,
580Amharic 33, 365Amish, Old Order 522, 530analogy
Kury4owicz’s fourth law of 127nin language change 118, 119
anaphoradynamic 382–5dynamic binding account 383–4see also donkey anaphora 392n
anaphoric expression 425nanaphoric relations 373anarthria 584Anatolian 22Andamanese languages 31Andean languages 39Andersen, H. 115, 118Anderson, J. 505
776 Index
Anderson, S. 147, 199, 225–6, 229animacy 220, 499
conceptual space for 349–50 figure 14.1hierarchy 350
anomic aphasia 585Anshen, Frank 216, 646, 704–13antecedent 306–7anthropology
linguistic 431–2, 440, 645and origins of language 3–6
anti-causative 232antonyms 251–4
comparative forms 252see also equipollent antonyms,
anticipatory 176in ASL 541 figure 22.3and co-articulation 176–7linguistic 528nasal place 202, 205, 209–11perseverative 176in sound change 113, 119
Atatürk, Kemal 67Athabaskan languages 38, 123, 219Athabaskan-Eyak 38Athenaeus 74Atlantic languages 34Atlantic-Congo 34attested language types 343–4attitudes to language 572–5attribution 587audience, of literary text 448audiolingualism 640audition, and articulation 471auditory phonetics 685auditory processing, and memory 467–8Augustine, Saint 473Austen, Jane 459Austin, J. L. 411, 433, 616Australia 4, 6
Aboriginal languages 527immigrant languages 527, 531
Australian languages 30, 163Australian Sign Language 557australopithecines 4, 5, 16australopithecus afarensis (“Lucy”) 4Austro-Asiatic languages 26, 31Austro-Tai macro-family 31Austronesian languages 28–9, 31, 123,
aspectual 219–20inversion 278–9omissions in child language
development 478Avar 24Avestan alphabet, Zoroastrian scripture
59–61 table 3.13awareness of language, in children
653–60, 663, 672Aymara 40Azeri (Azerbaijani) 23
babbling 469babies
preference for maternal speech 468vocalizations 468–9
baby-talk 503Babylonian annals 78Bach, K. 411Background 426nbackwards verbs 545Bacon, Roger 84Badha (Lendu) 37Bahasa Indonesia 705Baker, Mark C. 146, 265–94, 302Bakhtin, M. M. 655Balinese 28Balkan languages 121Balochi 22Baltic 21Balto-Finnic 22Bambara 34Bangala 35Bantu languages 35–6, 123, 124, 219Baric 27Barthélemy, Jean-Jacques 77, 78Barthes, Roland 96Barwise, J. 392nbase 223, 302Bashkir 23Basho, Matsuo 449
778 Index
Basque 20, 24–5, 31, 123, 514, 709, 710Bates, E. 333, 336Baudouin de Courtenay, Jan (Ignacy
Niecislaw) 95, 96Baule 35Bauman, Richard 448Becanus, Johannes Goropius ( Jan van
Gorp van Hilvarenbeek) 87Bedawi (Beja) 33Beeman, M. 595Behagel’s law 361behavioral potential 348behaviorism 101, 469, 489, 490, 640Behistun inscription of Darius 78, 79Beja (Bedawi) 33Belfast Irish 570Belgium, language policy 704, 706, 709Belorussian (Belarusian) 21Bemba 36Benchmark School 671Bender, M. L. 34, 36, 37Bendor-Samuel, J. 33–4, 35, 37Benedict, P. K. 31Bengali 22
script 52 table 3.7in UK 522
Benue-Congo languages 35Beowulf 449, 452Berber 32, 33Berlin, Heinrich 79Bernstein, B. 580Bhojpuri 22Bibliander, Theodor 84Bickerton, D. 10, 15, 16Big Nambas 352bigram probabilities 632–3
de facto and de jure 517definitions of 490early 508and intelligence 513without diglossia 522
bilingualityand flexibility 468, 474one system or two 508–9
binary branching 613binding principles 306–7
as referring to semantic argumentstructures 314–17
biologyand evolution of language 2, 4–6and first language acquisition 2,
648–50, 668“bioprogram” hypothesis 15bipedalism, and evolution of human
vocal tract 4–5Birdsong, D. 496, 497, 510Bislama 41Black Carib see GarifunaBlackfoot 39Blake, William 462Bland, Betty 138Bley-Vroman, R. W. 501, 502, 510Bloch, Bernard 99blocking effect 119–20Blom, J. P. 523Bloom, P. 2, 17Bloomfield, Leonard xiii, 98, 99–100,
325–6, 327, 490Blust, Robert 28Boas, Franz 94, 95, 97–8, 325
Handbook of North American IndianLanguages 98
Bodic languages 27Bolinger, D. 335Bongaerts, T. 495bonobo (Kanzi) 12–13Booij, G. 218, 220, 222Bopp, Franz 86, 94, 98, 103Borer, H. 511borrowings 121
from English into Japanese 193–4Bosnian 21bound morphemes 213, 223Bourdieu, Pierre 576boustrophedon 69Bowker, Lynne 701Boxhorn(ius), Marcus Zuerius 87Brahmi script 52 table 3.7, 54, 55brain
Burmese-Lolo 27Bursill-Hall, G. L. 84–5Burt, M. K. 490, 497Burundi 710Burushaski 30, 31, 123Buse, J. E. 177Bybee, J. L. 348–9, 361, 366
c-command 276cadence 451Caedmon, Hymn 105caesura 451–2Cahuilla 140California Indian languages 140, 145California Penutian 41calligraphy 76Calvin, W. H. 13, 14Cambodian script 54Cambridge Language Surveys 20Cameroon, Pidgin of 41Campbell, Lyle 38, 40, 81–104, 342Canaanite languages 32, 47Canada
language policy 704, 706, 707–8, 709Cann, R. L. 7Cantonese (Yue) 27, 710capacity for language, status of human
102, 397, 424, 555Caplan, David 582–607Caramazza, A. 590–1, 604caretaker–child interactions 101–2,
652–3Cariban languages 40Carnap, R. 373–4Carpenter, Bob 608–36Carroll, Lewis, Alice 475Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew 1–18, 126Carston, R. 406, 411, 412, 414case 218case filter 293Case Grammar 103case marking 323
absence or presence in differentlanguages 351–2 table 14.4
distributed theories 596, 597–8equipotentiality 596grammar and control of the vocal tract
16–17and language learning 467, 483language and the 592–607localizationist theories 13, 554, 586,
596–7, 598–607mass action principle 596, 598
brain damage 13, 14, 15and control of language use 485, 554in deaf signers 554–5and disorders of sentence
comprehension 590–2and disturbances of word meanings
588–90“graceful degradation” of performance
after 597recovery after language loss 552
brain organizationfor language 5, 582, 592–6and spoken and sign languages 558–9
brain size 5uneven increase in hominid evolution
16breathy voice see whispery voiceBreen, J. G. 171Bresnan, J. 300, 313Breton 21, 515Breva-Claramonte, M. 85bridge rules, in word-boundaries 451–2Bright, W. 43British Sign Language 42, 556, 557Broadwell, George A. 146Broca, Paul 583, 601Broca’s aphasia 14, 17, 555, 584, 585,
as bundles of features 304see also functional categories,
grammatical categories, lexicalcategories
Catford, J. C. 151Cathlamet 97Catullus, Gaius Valerius 697Caucasian language families 24causative constructions 232
linguistic distance in 361Cavalli-Sforza, F. 7Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. 7CED see Condition on Extraction
DomainsCeltic languages 21, 88, 363, 514
meter 453Cenderawasih Bay (Geelvink Bay) 29Central Dravidian 26Central Khoisan 37Central Malayo-Polynesian 28Central Semitic 32Central Sudanic 36, 37Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian 28cerebral cortex 593, 599, 603–4Chadic languages 32, 33Chafe, W. 329, 433Chagga 36Chamic languages 28Chamorro 29Chamot, A. 505Champollion, Jean-François 77–8change, language
deliberately guided 574discoveries and methods 121–5and diversity across languages
341–67examples of 113–14explanations of 117–21as a function of abstract properties of
grammars 115–16gradualness of 364, 365mechanisms of 114–17naturalness in direction of 110, 114, 125physiological factors 119, 125problems for a theory of 108–10,
125–6
psychological factors in 118–19,349–50
social factors 120–1systemic factors 119–20through time 105–29, 348–9types and spread of 111–14typological perspective 363unidirectionality 366–7and variation 564, 577–9velocity in urban and rural areas 578
figure 23.2Chaouia 33characters, in Chinese writing 49, 51
table 3.5Chaucer, Geoffrey 111, 699
Canterbury Tales 105Troilus and Creside 106–7
Chechen 24Chechen-Ingush 353Chemakum 97Chemehuevi 140Cheney, D. L. 8–9Cherokee 39, 140
syllabary 63, 65 table 3.17, 71Cheyenne 39Chibchan languages 39, 40Chicanos 526Chickasaw 39, 132–3, 139, 140, 141child language acquisition see first
language acquisitionchild–caregiver dialogue 101–2, 652–3CHILDES corpus 483children
with mental retardation 466, 486with neurological disorders 466, 486
Chimborazo Quichua 40Chimbu 30chimpanzees
acquisition of abstract concepts 10–11learning sign language 11, 477see also bonobo
China, language policy 710–11Chinese 27, 113, 284, 435
Ancient 364archaic meters 453as a world language 530writing 49–51, 68, 713n
Chinese grammatical tradition 61, 69Chinookan 41, 97
Index 781
Choctaw 39, 140, 146choice, language, in multilingual
cognitive science revolution 267–8Cohen, A. 505Cohen, P. R. 616coherence of discourse 435cohesive discourse 435Cohn, Abigail 151, 158, 180–212colonialism, language and 515, 705, 706,
710colophon 76Comanche 39
782 Index
commands see imperatives“comment” 97commissives 433communication
interactional models of 676language and 394–427literary and linguistic 447–8in literary texts 457–9
communication strategy, in SLA 506communicative dynamism (CD) 436communicative functions, of language
319, 320–5, 326–7, 328–9, 336, 648,663
communicative motivations, for theselection of linguistic forms 429–38
community interpreting 695Comorian 35comparative grammar 86, 90comparative linguistics 86comparative method
in language relatedness 122–3philosophical-psychological
approaches 93–4the rise of the 85–93typological-evolutionary approaches
Creek 138Creek-Seminole 140creoles 15, 41, 513creolization 15, 41, 575criminal cases, and forensic linguistics
686–9critical discourse analysis 655critical literacy 655critical period hypothesis (CPH)
in second language acquisition 493–4in sign language acquisition 552, 553
Croatian 21Croft, William 284, 299, 337–68cross-cultural linguistics, and second
language teaching 643–4cross-linguistic surveys, sampling
techniques 341–2Crow 140Cruse, D. A. 238–64, 358Crystal, David 642, 646, 673–82Csató, E. 23culture, and evolution of language 6Cumming, S. 460cuneiform signs 44–5 figure 3.1, 46
table 3.1, 49, 68, 74, 78cursive writing 46Curzon Language Family Descriptions
20Cushitic 32, 33Cuzco Quechua 40cynghanedd groes o gysswllt 463cynghanedd (harmony) 463Cypriote syllabary 49, 50 table 3.4Cyrillic script 55, 61, 72Czech 21, 240Czech linguists see Prague School
Daic languages 27, 31Damasio, A. 601–2Dani see Grand Valley Dani, Western
DaniDaniels, Peter T. 43–80Danish 21, 164Danish Sign Language 556, 557Dante Alighieri 86Dari 22data analysis, in fieldwork 143–5
data collection 131–8, 565, 572–3, 577database queries, generating with
parsing 615dative shift 461Davidson, D. 6, 375–81de Beaugrande, Robert 428, 435De Guignes, J. 89Deacon, T. W. 5deaf children
acquisition of ASL 552with deaf signer parents 549–50with hearing parents 552–3, 561–2n
deaf infants, babbling 469deaf people see hearing impaireddeaf sign languages see sign languagesdécalage 694decipherment 76–9declarative approaches, to computational
phonology 626declarative sentences 321–2, 371–2declensions 219–20decoding 408decontextualization 448default 230, 236, 258, 345default inference rule 403, 405defective distribution 209deference 579deficit, language see language
defined 109Diakonoff, I. M. 32dialect atlases 565dialect surveys 141dialectics 84dialectology 92–3, 147, 564, 565, 645dialects
chains of 19endangered and language maintenance
645formation of 113, 117or languages 710–11
dialogue, discourse segments of 617figure 25.1
Dickson, D. R. 163dictionaries 131, 148, 239, 257, 264Diegueño 140, 537diglossia 519–22diglossic societies 521–2
Dik, S. C. 329, 330–1Dinka-Nuer languages 37Dionysius Thrax 633diphthong, articulation of 172diplomatics 76directional opposites 251, 254–5directionality 312–13directives 433disability, language see language
disabilitydisadvantage, language see language
disabilitydisambiguation, and part-of-speech
tagging 633–5discourse 327, 381, 587, 650
use of term 428–9discourse act recognition 622discourse actions 621, 622discourse analysis 266, 428–45, 460, 580
activities and tasks 441–2computational 615–22in forensic linguistics 685, 688–9functionalist 322–4, 331–3, 336and language use in context 644and linguistics 444–5plan-based approach 433–4, 616–22and sequential organization 437–8see also critical discourse analysis
discourse level 586, 595discourse markers, in social languages
392–3nDorian, N. C. 527dorsolateral frontal cortex, left 603–4Dowland, John 455Dravidian languages 26, 31, 52, 709,
713nDRC see Disjoint Reference ConditionDryer, M. 342, 343duality of patterning 540ductus 76Dulay, H. C. 490, 492, 497Dunbar, R. 11duration of sound 161, 177
contrastive and contextual control of177
Durkheim, Émile 96, 576Dutch 21, 494, 495
in Australia 527Dutch etymologists 86–7Dyirbal 331, 336n, 528
“gama” songs 452dynamic binding 383–4, 392ndynamic programming, parsing as
dysarthria 584, 600dysfunction, language see language
disabilitydyslalia 677dyslexia 671
regularization strategy in 597
É. Kiss, K. 333E-type pronouns 384–5, 392nEarly Christian writers 84Early Modern English 105–6East Caucasian 24East Germanic 21East Papuan phylum 29East Semitic 32East Slavic 21East Sudanic 36Eastern Armenian 21Eastern Christian alphabets, Greek-based
72Eastern Kwa 35Eastern Malayo-Polynesian 28–9Eastern Nilotic languages 37Eastern Panjabi 22Ebonics see African-American
Vernacular Englisheconomic motivation see economyeconomy 279, 334, 348
and iconicity 355–62Edmont, E. 565Edo 35, 280–3education 645, 664
bilingual for minorities 532genre approaches to 655–6and language maintenance 645and theories of language 648–52
educational linguistics 647–63Edwards Jr, Jonathan 89Efik, tone riddles 464Egyptian 32
Ancient 33, 364hieroglyphic writing 45–7 table 3.2,
69, 77Einstein, Albert 485Eisenstein, E. L. 75ejectives 162Ekari 30Ekstrand, L. H. 494Elamite 31, 45
Index 787
elicitation, in fieldwork 132, 133, 577ellipsis 415–16, 426n
vehicle change 426nEllis, R. 488elsewhere condition 230embedded clauses 287–8, 301
in sign languages 535–6, 560embedding problem 108, 109–10, 120,
125Emmerik, Wim 548–9emotion, role of language in construction
of 440Empty Category Principle (ECP) 502empty morphemes 357enculturation 648, 651–2endangered languages 104, 137, 141,
changes in 105–7, 111, 113compared with Mohawk 285–94denominal verbs 233iambic pentameter 450–1, 452, 453, 455in India 706in Ireland 528irregular verb forms 225–6plural marker 202–3sound inventory of 183spelling 182, 666–7word order 342, 362, 364as a world language 530, 531, 710see also American English, Early
development of 86–7Eurasia, languages of northern 24–5Eurasiatic 25, 40Europe, languages of 20–5European Union 531EUROSLA (European Second Language
Association) 488evaluation problem 108, 110, 112–13, 120Evans, Howard 699–700Evans, James 63, 392nevent related potentials (ERPs) 558, 582,
605–6evidentials 459evolution
“brain-first” view of 5and modality 562n
evolution of language 1, 2, 11, 65–6,93–4
Ewe 35
788 Index
exclusion, opposition and relations of251–5
existential quantifier 381, 383–4“exotic languages” 325, 329, 333, 337–9expertise, role of language in construction
of 440explanatory criteria
theory-internal 333–4types of 334 table 13.1
explicatures 411, 412expressives 433extended exponence 226extended projection principle 271Extended Standard Theory 102extensions 373–5“externalized language” 294Extra, G. 531extralinguistics 151, 165Eyak 38eye, mammalian 17eye movement studies, in reading 665
Fabb, Nigel 446–65facial expressions, in sign language 542
figure 22.4factor analysis 597Faliscan 113“false friends,” in translation 698–700
defined 697diachronic interlingual 699–700diachronic intralingual 699synchronic interlingual 698synchronic intralingual 700
“family tree model” 92Fang 35Fantini, A. 508Faroese 523Fasold, R. 576featural scripts 44, 62, 63feature geometry 206feature structures, as category labels
304, 313–17features
multiple values of 304and segmenthood 198–201spreading 204–6values of 199see also phonetic features, phonological
features
feedback markers, in forensic linguistics689
feet, metrical 187, 450felicity conditions 433Ferguson, Ronnie 698Ferhardi, A. 172fiction 459field 432field linguistics 130–49, 341, 645
contribution to linguistic theory146–8
defined 130–1techniques of 131–3
fieldwork 130, 140–3methods 133–7starting 133–40technology and 142–3
Fijian 29filler-gap dependencies 307–10, 315–17,
318nfinal devoicing 173, 175 figure 7.5b,
206–7finite, and infinite 265, 296, 535–6finite-state acceptor see finite-state
Finno-Ugric languages 22, 123, 124first language acquisition 466–87
awareness of language 653–60, 663,672
and biology 2, 648–50, 668compared with second language
acquisition 492–3, 640–1, 648critical period hypothesis and signing
552, 553cues in 473–4, 479, 485delay in 678, 679, 680–1early articulation 468–9
Index 789
early semantics 472–4early stages 469–70emergentist accounts 483–5errors in 478–81, 640, 671first word combinations 476–7first words 469–72and language complexity 102, 332parent perspective 485–6plural formation in 203“poverty of stimulus” argument 102,
299, 300processes in 467, 478sign languages 533, 549–55“two-word” or “telegraphic” stage
11, 15, 16see also infants; innateness hypothesis
first-order languages 375, 390, 391nFirth, John Rupert 243, 432, 692Fishman, J. A. 518, 522, 530, 569fixation 665flapped stop 172
voiced oral alveolar retroflex 172Flege, J. E. 496, 499, 510Flemish 706–7, 712nflexional languages 94focalization 459focus 328–9, 333focus particle 422focussing rule, in discourse analysis 619Fodor, J. A. 313, 425nFoley, R. 3Foley, W. A. 3, 29, 31, 285, 320, 327,
and function 324–5, 648, 653–4, 655and interpretation of narrative 460–2in literary texts 448–9and meaning 446, 447–8, 457–62,
584–5: in sign languages 556–7meaning deviations 226–7musical and linguistic 454–5shaped by contexts of use 429–38, 444shapes structure of thought 476stylistic options of linguistic 461
form–meaning correspondence 356–9figure 14.5
formal language theory 624formal linguistics 429–30, 576formal semantics 369–93formal syntax 268, 289formal writing style 46formalism vs. functional approaches to
language 319, 330, 333–5, 576formality 263, 579Formosan languages 28Foucault, Michel 96Fox, B. 435fragment reconstruction 415–16France, language policy 704Francez, N. 393nfree translation 696–7Freed, B. 503Frege, G. 371–5French 21, 113, 114, 515, 517, 518, 519,
522, 698alexandrine 449in Belgium 706–7loan translations 121negation 357teaching in primary school 494terms of address 120vowels 163as a world language 530, 531, 710see also Old French
French Revolution 120, 515French Sign Language 41–2fricatives 168, 181, 189
cross-linguistic comparison in 324–5functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) 558, 582, 601, 603functional neuroanatomy of language
theory 600functional sentence perspective, theory
of 328–9, 436functional-typological approach see
typologyfunctionalism 284, 329–33
conservative 330–2extreme 330, 331–2, 336moderate 330–1Parsonian structural 576vs. formal approaches to language
319, 330, 333–5Fur (For) 36fusion of meanings 226, 356, 357
Ga 35Ga-Dangme dialect cluster 35Gaelic 21, 527
Hebridean (of Lewis) 174Irish see Irishsongs 463
Galla (Oromo) 33Gallician 713nGamkrelidze, T. V. 72Gan 27“gapping” 464Garifuna (Black Carib) 40, 135–6, 140
verbal agreement markers in 135table 6.1
Gazdar, G. 273, 305, 313, 403, 404–5Gbaya 172Gbe 35Gê ( Je) language family 40Geach, P. 392nGee, James Paul 645, 647–63Geelvink Bay phylum 29Ge’ez 33, 365Gelb, I. J. 43, 67, 68, 79gender 222, 569, 579, 644
identities constructed by language use439, 444
and politeness 580
general phonetic theory 151, 154, 158,178
general phonological theory 151generalization
capturing 298–9of meaning 259typological 364–5universal 365–7
generalized conversational implicatures403
Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar103, 284, 615
generalized quantifiers (GQs) 379–81,385–7, 390
generation, language 575–6“generative”, use of the word 268,
296–7generative grammar 100, 125, 146, 268,
295–318, 575, 650and functionalism 332the future of 317–18phenomena studied by 305–11rules 446tenets of 297–300varieties of 311–17
generative language model 632–3generative linguistics 648–9generative metrics 452generative phonology 97, 187, 211generative semantics 103Genesee, F. 496, 508, 509, 510genetics, and origins of language 6–7genre 655–6, 663Georgian 24
700learning gender 483–5in Pennsylvania 528Standard 574see also Swiss German
Germanic 20–1, 57, 88, 124verse 456
Geschwind, N. 584, 598, 599, 601–2Gesner, Konrad 86Gestuno 562ngesture, origins of language in 11–12Gheg 21Ghezzi, R. W. 460
Index 791
Gikuyu 36Gilbertese (Kiribati) 29Gilliéron, Jules, Atlas linguistique de la
France 92, 565Gilyak (Nivkh) 25Giraldus Cambrensis 86Givón, T. 335, 361, 435Glagolitic script 55, 56glides 181global aphasia 585global holonym 248glottal 166, 167, 181glottal fry see creakglottal stop 164glottalic airstream mechanism 162glottis 162, 163“glottonic” view of languages 86Goldin-Meadow, S. 510, 559Golding, Sir William 461Goldsmith, J. 151, 204Good Language Learner strategies 505Gothic 21, 88, 91
script 55, 56government, role of inflection in 220,
222Government and Binding Theory 102grammar
actual vs. conceivable 16–17common formal elements 238, 300–5explicit teaching of 643explicitness of 298language-specific 342psychological relevance of 299–300as a theory of language 100theory of and universal claims 2, 299,
341–67use of the word 295–6, 424nvs. meaning 325
grammars 131, 148should be maximally general 298–9teaching 85
grammatical categories 339see also parts of speech
grammatical morphemes research in L2acquisition 490, 497, 502
grammatical relations 323, 324hierarchy 351–4map of attested systems of 354–5
figure 14.4
grammatical structure, and iconicity559
grammatical traditions 81–4grammatical words 188, 214, 217, 236grammaticality judgements 510
and language disorders 591grammaticalization 103, 127n, 218
conceptual space for 366–7 figure14.6
of facial “intonation” in sign language542
grammatology 79Grand Valley Dani 30graphemes 66–7, 96, 667, 670Grassmann’s Law 91Greek 21, 88, 91, 124, 318n, 519
in Australia 527in the Balkans 121Byzantine 21changes in 111–12, 113, 116, 118, 119Classical 21, 82, 219drama 452early script 49, 52, 69, 79Medieval 125, 127nMycenean 21Pontic 127nscript 59
Greek alphabet 56, 70, 72, 73, 75letter names 74scripts derived from the 55–6 table 3.9
Greek grammatical tradition 82–3Greenberg, Joseph H. 25, 31, 33, 34–5,
36, 37, 38, 40, 103, 299, 342, 344, 346,365
“Greenbergian” approach see typologyGreenlandic 38Gregg shorthand 63Grice, H. P. 322, 397, 401–7, 414Grimes, B. F. 19, 30, 37, 42Grimes, J. E. 19, 42Grimm, Jakob, Deutsche Grammatik 86,
89, 90Grimm’s Law 88, 90–1, 124–5Grondin, N. 502Grosjean, F. 506, 509, 512Grotefend, Georg Friedrich 78Guaraní
Paraguayan 40, 349, 351, 704, 710and Spanish 521
792 Index
guessing, psycholinguistic 118–19, 485,665
Gujarati 22script 52 table 3.7in UK 518, 522
Gumperz, J. J. 523, 572, 677Gur (Voltaic) languages 34Gurmukhi script 52 table 3.7Gutenberg, Johannes 75Gutknecht, Christoph 646, 692–703Gutt, E.-A. 697Gyarmathi, Sámuel, Affinitas linguae
Hungaricae cum linguis Fennicae . . .86–90
Gypsies (Rom) 22
Haas, Mary R., Survey of CaliforniaIndian Languages 145
Halliday, M. A. K. 329, 330, 331–2, 432,435, 461, 490, 572, 655
Hamito-Semitic languages seeAfroasiatic languages
handedness, and language 5–6, 594, 595handicap, language see language
disabilityhandshapes, in sign languages 539, 559Hannay, M. 696Hanson, K. 451, 452, 454Harari, Old and Modern 365Hardcastle, W. J. 151Harley, B. 493, 494harmony, word order 344–5, 346Harnish, R. 411Harris, A. C. 94, 103Harris, J. 169Harris, James, Hermes 85Harris, Zellig 99
Hasan, R. 432, 435, 436Hasidic Jews, in US 522Haugen, E. 490, 526Hausa 33, 162Hawaiian 29, 159, 529, 530Haya 36Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar
103, 615heads 301, 305hearing impaired, rights in courtroom
abjad 47, 48, 72, 73as original language 84, 86revival 522status in Israel 525vowel marking 59
Hebrew linguistic tradition 83–4, 87Heim, I. 392nHellenic 21Hemnesberget, Norway 523Herder, Johann Gottfried von 2, 94Herodotus 87Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo 86, 89, 93Hervey, S. 697Hetzron, R. 32hidden Markov models (HMMs) 633–4hierarchical tag set 633, 636nhierarchies, and conceptual spaces
349–55hieratic 46hieroglyphic writing 33, 39, 49
Egyptian 45–7 table 3.2, 69, 77Higginbotham, J. 392nHiligaynon 28Hincks, Edward 78–9Hindi 22, 705–6, 708–9, 710, 712n
word order 363Hindu grammatical tradition 82Hindu legal texts 89Hinton, L. 145hiragana 51, 80 figure 3.6historical linguistics 105–29, 147, 351, 564
defined 107historiography, linguistic 81–104history of linguistics 81–104Hittite 22
script 45, 49
Index 793
Hmong 27–8Hmong Njua (Western Hmong) 28Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao) languages
27–8, 31Hock, H. H. 108, 116Hockett, C. F. 43, 99, 324Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. 494Hoem, I. 455Hoenigswald, H. M. 86, 89Hokan 41Hokkien 522holism 242–3, 676–7Holm, A. 498, 510holonym 248home immersion, in school-related
language 651, 656, 663home language instruction 532“home sign” language model 553, 559Homer 82, 450, 452hominids 5, 16homo erectus 16homo habilis 16homo sapiens 4, 7, 16homogenization, linguistic 530–1homomorphism 376, 388, 390, 393nhomonymy 214, 226, 246, 358, 359homophony 214Hopi 39, 140Hopper, P. 331, 333Hopper, P. J. 461Hovdhaugen, E. 82, 83, 84Howard, S. 678, 680hPags pa’s script 62, 63 table 3.15, 70Huang, C.-T. J. 284, 289Huffman coding 632Huichol 39Hulstijn, J. 499human language, compared with animal
cries 8–9human language faculty 2, 4, 300, 466,
486–7, 533, 553, 555autonomous 2, 332–3evolution of the 65–6
Humboldt, Wilhelm von 89, 94, 98, 103,291, 296, 580
humor 595Hungarian 22, 88, 352, 361
preverbs 235–6Hurford, J. R. 3
Huron 39Hurrian 25, 45Hymes, D. 431–2, 460, 677hypernym 247hypometabolism, cortical 594, 606hyponymy 247–8hypothesis testing, in reading 665
iambic pentameter 450–1, 452, 453, 455Ibibio-Efik 35Ibn Janav of Cordova, Kitab al-Luma’ 83Icelandic 21, 171, 174iconicity
and economy 355–62in sign languages 12, 543, 551, 559in spoken language 562n
identitycultural and literacy 651, 660inclusion and relations of 247–51language and 518, 526linguistic construction of 439, 440
identity test 245–6ideology
language and 654–5role of language in construction of
440Igbo 35, 169Ihre, Johan 86Ijo 35Ijoid 34IlliB-SvityB, V. M. 25illocutionary acts 426n, 433Ilocano 28immersion programs 516, 529
vs. direct instruction 649–52, 656, 663immigrant languages 527, 528, 531immigration
195, 200, 344, 347, 348in hierarchies 350and linguistic and conceptual distance
359–60
794 Index
implicational universals cont’dand sequence of word order changes
364–5implicatures
and contextual implications 411see also conventional implicatures;
conversational implicaturesimplosives 162Inca quipu 80ninchoative 232inclusion, identity and relations of 247–51incompatibility 251incorporating languages 94incorporation 146
see also noun incorporationindexical pronouns 424nIndia
language policy 704, 705–6, 708–9,709, 712n, 713n
multilingualism 517Indic languages 22, 52
scripts 52–5, 57, 67, 70, 71indigenous languages 137, 514–15
immersion programs 529and immigrants 522prestige of 709–10and school experience 657–60
in deaf children 553–4innovations, spread of 110, 112–13, 117,
120–1, 579Input Hypothesis theory, in SLA 504inscriptions
Aramaic and Prakrit 70Behistun of Darius 78, 79early Chinese 49Greek and Palmyrene Aramaic 77“Hittite” hieroglyphic 49Mayan hieroglyphic 39Meso-American 62“Proto-Canaanite” 47“Proto-Sinaitic” 74Sassanian 78Urartian 79
institutional discourse 430–1, 439, 444,644
institutions, social interaction in 660–2intelligence, bilingualism and 513intelligibility 19intensional semantics 375–81intensions 373–4, 375intentions, speaker’s / author’s 447–8,
alliteration 447relative clause construction in 309–10word order 362, 363see also Belfast Irish, Old Irish
irony 447, 458–9Iroquoian languages 39island constraints 310–11, 312, 316isolating languages 94isomorphism 356–9Israel, language policy 705Israeli Sign Language (ISL) 542, 544–5,
556, 557Issidorides, D. 499
Italian 21, 517, 666, 698, 710dialects of 711endecasillabo 451in US 527
Italian Sign Language 557Italic 21item-and-arrangement morphology
223–4, 230item-and-process approach to
morphology 229
Jackendoff, R. 555–6Jäger, Andreas 86, 87, 88Jakobson, Roman 96–7, 103, 199, 424n,
Chinese writing for 49, 51haiku 449, 452, 453syllabaries 49, 51 table 3.6syllable structure 192–4, 196, 197writing system 666
Japanese Sign Language 556, 557Japanese-Ryukyuan languages 23–4jargon, spread of 120Javanese 28, 704, 705
script 53 table 3.7, 54, 55, 80figure 3.6
Je (Gê) language family 40Jespersen, Otto xiiiJieng (Dinka) 37Johanson, L. 23Johnson, J. S. 495, 501Johnston, M. 491Jones, Sir William 86, 87–91, 93Joseph, Brian D. 105–29, 337Josephus, Flavius 87judges, language of 690Jula 34Junggrammatiker see Neogrammariansjury instructions 690Justin, Saint 87
script 52 table 3.7Kanuri 36, 352Karachay-Balkar 23Karamojong 37Karcevskij, Serge 96Karen 27Karlsson, F. 228Karok-Shasta 41Kartvelian (South Caucasian) 24, 124Kashmiri 22Kasper, G. 498, 499, 506katakana 51Kate, Jan Jacob Lodewijk ten 87Katyayana’s rules of interpretation 82Katz, J. 299Kaufman, T. 40Kawaiisu 140Kazakh 23Kazenin, K. I. 354Keenan, E. 342Kekchi 39Keller, Helen 466Kempson, Ruth 394–427Kent, R. D. 151Kenya 524Keresan 38Ket 25Khalaj 23al-Khalcl 83Kharia 350, 351Kharoshthi script 52 table 3.7, 54Khmer 26
342–3, 345, 350, 353, 358Kikongo 36, 88Kilwardby, Robert 84Kim-Renaud, Y.-K. 61Kintsch, W. 434, 435Kinyarwanda 36, 362Kiparsky, P. 115, 116, 451, 452, 454, 456Kipchak (Northwestern Turkic) 23Kirghiz 23Kiribati (Gilbertese) 29Kirsner, K. 509Kirundi 36, 710Kituba 36Klamath-Modoc 41Klavans, Judith 702Klein, W. 491–2, 510Klima, E. 115Knorosov, Yuri 79knowledge
and discourse analysis 442–4human compared with animal 10
knowledge about language 653–60, 672knowledge of language 394–6, 397–400,
555procedures for interpreting utterances
400–1in SLA 511
Koasati 140Kober, Alice 79Koch, G. 452, 454Koehn, E. H. 460Koessler, Maxime 698Kolokuma Ijo 35Kopitar, J. 128nKoran see Qur’anKordofanian 34Korean 23, 188, 200, 475
Koskenniemi, K. 625, 629Kosraean 343Kpelle 34, 360Krashen, S. 494, 504Krasinski, E. 508
Index 797
Kraus, Christian Jakob 86, 89Krio of Sierra Leone 41Kroeber, A. L. 98Kroll, J. F. 509Kru languages 34, 35Kruszewski, Mikolaj 96Kumyk 23Kuno, S. 325, 329, 330, 332, 335Kurdish 22, 172Kurds, in Turkey 528Kwa languages 34–5
L2 acquisition see second languageacquisition
labelingin child language acquisition 475,
652–3product 684–5
labels, in computational phonology 624labial 160, 166, 167, 181labialization 170, 171labiodental 167Labov, William 108, 109, 113, 114, 117,
428, 439, 462, 568, 570, 572, 573, 579,659
Ladefoged, P. 147, 150, 151, 155, 162,163
Laetoli, Tanzania 4Lahnda (Western Panjabi) 22Lahu 347Laka, I. 147Lakhota 140, 285, 321–2, 326, 331Lambert, W. E. 493laminodental 167Lampung 28Lancelot, C., Grammaire générale et
raisonnée de Port Royal 85Langdon, Margaret 145Lango 37language
as an art form 548–9complexity of 466, 486definition of 19essential nature and sign languages
533–4neural specialization for 555rule-governed nature of xivthe similarity of all human 279–85as a social fact 96, 563–6, 575–6
theories of 648–52universal core 466–7, 547and writing 65–75
language acquisition see acquisitionstudies, first language acquisition,second language acquisition (SLA)
language awareness, and consciouscontrol 653–60, 663, 672
language contact see contact, languagelanguage death 526–30language disability 673–82
explicit 704–5language shift 522, 526–30language socialization 440language universals see universalslanguages
classification and listing 86common properties of all 3–4distribution of 19genetically related 19–20, 122–4legal equality of 708–9origins of differences in 93–4use of different forms for same
function 460see also diversity, linguistic
798 Index
languages of wider communication713n
languages of the world 19–42sound inventories 182–3
position in humans 4–5Lascaux cave paintings 6Lashley, K. S. 596Lasnik, H. 272, 274, 276lateralization, and language 558, 594–5Latin 15, 21, 47, 85, 88, 124, 226, 519,
699alphabet see Roman alphabetchanges in 113, 114, 115–16, 118consonant deletion in 200–1
Latvian 21, 352songs 454
Lauttamus, T. 177Laver, John 150–79law, and language 683–91lax 173learnability 300, 312learning
to read 668–70to spell 670–1
learning algorithm 484learning language 466–7
as habit formation 640leather 74Lee, Felicia A. 146left anterior negativity (LAN) 606leftmost derivation 635Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 86, 87, 89,
93Lemnian 25Lendu (Badha) 37Lenneberg, Eric H. 101, 466, 493, 553Leopold, W. 508Lepcha of Sikkim script 70Leskien, August 92
letter names 72–5 table 3.18letter order 71–2letters
correspondence with phonemes666–7
inventories of 52used as numerals 72
Lëtzebuergesch 574levels of representation
in language processing 586and locality conditions 413–14
Levelt, W. J. M. 505Lévi-Strauss, Claude 96Levinson, S. 322, 403, 405lexeme 214, 236, 239
the structure of the 231–6lexeme concept 213–14
and Item-and-Arrangement theory 224lexical categories 267, 301lexical entry 214lexical fields see word-fieldslexical forms 239lexical groups, in child language
acquisition 481–3lexical heads see headslexical hierarchies 259–62
branching 259–60non-branching 259, 260
lexical integrity 213, 234–6lexical items see wordslexical level 586lexical parallelism 462, 463, 464lexical relatedness, four types of 232–3lexical semantics 242–4
componential/localistic approach243–4
conceptual approach 244contextual/holistic approach 242–3see also word meanings
one or two in bilingualism 509in second language teaching 654
“lexigrams” 12Li, C. N. 325, 435Libya 710
Index 799
Lichtheim, L. 584, 600, 601Liddell, S. K. 536–8Lieber, R. 228–9Lieberman, P. 4, 493Lieberson, S. 527Lightbown, P. 491Lillo-Martin, Diane 533–62Linear A 49, 76Linear B 49, 50 table 3.4, 79Lingala 36lingua franca 41, 574“lingual” mechanism see velaric
airstream mechanism“linguistic areas” (Sprachbund) 97linguistic distance 359–60linguistic engineering, imperfections in
and phonological form 447–8logical theory see semantic analysislogograms, phonetic complements in 47logographic readers 669–70logographic script 43, 45, 67logosyllabaries 43, 69
of the New World 61–5old world 44–51
Lombard 711, 713nLomwe 36London Cockney 164Long, M. 504Lopez, Felipe 144Loprieno, A. 33Lottner, Carl 124
800 Index
loudness 161Lower Chinook 97Luba-Kasai 36Luba-Shaba 36“Lucy” see australopithecus afarensis
Maasai 37McCarthy, J. 194, 206, 225McCloskey, J. 309–10McDonough, S. 505Macedonian 21, 121machine translation 317, 702
and parsing 615machine-aided human translation
(MAHT) see machine translationMacNeilage, Peter 469, 562nmacro-sociolinguistics 572–5macrostructure 434MacWhinney, Brian 333, 466–87, 498Maddieson, I. 147, 151, 162, 163, 183,
Marathi 22Margany 171Maricopa 138, 140markedness 97
universal 347–9see also typological markedness
markers, non-manual grammatical insign language 537, 561n
Markov property 633–4Martha’s Vineyard 117, 573Martin, Robert 139–40, 591–2Marxist models of social class 567Masica, C. P. 22Mathesius, V. 328–9, 436Matisoff, James 25matres lectionis 47Mauritius, French-based creoles 41Maya hieroglyphs 62, 79Maya syllabary 64 table 3.16Mayan languages 39, 68, 653Mbundu see Northern Mbundu,
Southern Mbundumeaning
arbitrary relationship between wordsand 12
assignment of more than one 389–90encoded 342, 396, 400extensions and change 257–9and form 356–9, 446, 447–8, 457–62,
584–5: in sign languages 556–7
Index 801
grammar vs. 325and language universals 346–62possible language-world connections
369properties of 650specialization of 259and use 394–6
meaningscumulation of 226and denotations 370–81fusion of 226, 356, 357and situations 385–8
medial phase 165Medlpa 30Meier, Richard 551Meillet, Antoine 96, 103Meisel, J. M. 491, 502, 508Meithei (Manipuri) 27Mekeo 360memory
and auditory processing 467–8interpreter’s in simultaneous
interpreting 694see also semantic memory, short-term
memory, working memoryMende 34mental lexicon 263, 458, 666mentalism 100Meroitic 37meronymy 248, 260, 261–2Meso-America, languages of 39Mesopotamian cuneiform 44–5, 46
metrical strength, and phonologicalstrength 449–50
metrical structure, and phonologicalstructure 449–54
metrical systems, distribution of 455metrical theory, methodological and
conceptual problems for a 452–3metrical traditions, metrical rules in
452–3Mexican-Americans 526Miao-Yao (Hmong-Mien) languages
27–8micro-sociolinguistics 567Micronesian languages 29Middle English 105–6, 113, 114Mien 27–8Milan, Carlo 699Milberg, W. 589–90, 602Milroy, James 569–70Milroy, Lesley 569–70, 573mimetic culture 10Min see Northern Min, Southern MinMinangkabau 28minimal pairs 186
in ASL 540 figure 22.2Minimalist program 102, 146, 511minority languages 516–17, 518–19, 530mirror writing 671misarticulation 677Mitterrand, François 515Miwok-Costanoan 38, 41Mixe-Zoquean languages 39mixed categories 234Mixtec 39modality
iconicity and grammatical structure559, 560
and point of view 459mode, in discourse 432modification 587
Davidson and Montague’s analysescompared 376–8
modifiers 287–8order of 343–4
Modistae 84–5modus significandi 84–5
802 Index
Mohawk 39, 146compared with English 285–94
Mojave 140, 142Mon 26Mon-Khmer 26Monboddo, J. B., Lord 89Mongolian 23, 70, 711
script 61 table 3.14, 62, 70Mongolic languages 23monolingualism 704, 706
see also agglutinating morphology,computational morphology,concatenative morphology,derivational morphology, non-concatenative morphology,processual morphology
morphosyllabary see logosyllabarymorphotactics 224Moscow Linguistic Circle 96mother
inheritance of mitochondrial DNAfrom 6–7
preference in babies for voice of 468“mother tongue,” in historical and
biological senses 7motivated sign languages 12motivation 334, 341
communicative for the selection oflinguistic forms 429–38
competing in typology 344–5, 363iconic see iconicitysee also economy
motor strip, proximity to Broca’s area14, 17
Mountford, J. 43mouth 159, 160Moutier, François 600Mueller, Max xivMüller, Friedrich 94, 98Müller, N. 502multilingualism 512–32
individual vs. societal 516–17modern 530–2origins of 513–16role in language change 128n
multivariate analysis 577Munda 26Mundari 26Munro, Pamela 130–49, 341Murdoch, Rupert 514murmur see whispery voiceMurtha, S. 604musical form, and phonological form
454–5musicology, linguistically sensitive
454–5Muskogean language family 39, 225–6mutual exclusivity, and competition
474–5Muysken, Pieter 40, 507Myers-Scotton, C. 507, 523mythic culture 10
and 3neutralization 206–7New York, Puerto Ricans in 518, 568Newmeyer, F. J. 2, 17, 312Newport, Elissa 495, 501, 503, 556Ngambay (Sara-Ngambay) 37Ngbandi 35, 41Nicaragua, sign language 553–4,
559–60Nichols, J. 20, 330Niger-Congo languages 33–6, 37, 124Niger-Kordofanian 34Nigeria
language policy 709–10Pidgin of 41
Nihali (Nahali) 30–1Nikolayev, S. L. 24Nilo-Saharan language families 34,
36–7Nilotic languages 33, 37
see also Eastern Nilotic languages,Southern Nilotic languages
Oakland School, Ebonics War 711object 271, 339“object concept,” in child development
470“oblique” 351obstruents 189, 200Occam’s razor see economyOceania, languages of 25–31Oceanic languages 28–9Ochs, E. 429, 437, 439, 440, 445Ocracoke Island dialect 645official languages 516, 706, 707offset phase 165Ogham 57 table 3.10, 74Oghuz (Southwestern Turkic) 23Ohala, J. 119, 153Ojibwa (Ojibwe) 39, 460Oksaar, E. 508Old Chinese 27Old Church Slavonic 55
analogical change to modern Polish349 table 14.3
Old Cyrillic script 56Old English 105–6, 113, 449Old French 699Old Irish 113Old Persian 78, 88
simplifications in child 471–2phonological features
natural classes of 158, 200and phonetic features 157–8and segmenthood 198–201
phonological feet 449phonological form
and logical form 447–8in metrical texts 449–51and musical form 454–5
Index 807
Plateau Penutian 41Plato 85, 480
Cratylus 82, 83, 106, 107pleonastic extensions 472plural inflection, in different languages
349–51 figure 14.2Pochutec 97poetic traditions 455–7, 659, 660poetry, sign language 548–9point of view, communication of 457, 459“pointing” 59polar antonyms 242, 253polarity (negation) 219Polish 21, 318n
analogical change from Old ChurchSlavonic to 349 table 14.3
Final Devoicing 206–9Vowel Raising 208–9
politeness 579–80political consciousness, and attitudes to
languages 526, 574Pollard, C. 313polyglossia 522Polynesian languages 29polysemy 214, 236, 246, 358, 359
see also systematic polysemypolysynthesis 146, 149nPomo 41Poplack, S. 506Port Royal grammarians 85Portugal, language policy 706Portuguese 21, 172, 710Poser, W. J. 452positron emission tomography (PET)
13, 558, 582, 603, 606, 607Posner, M. L. 603possession
alienable 360inalienable 360linguistic distance in expressions of
360–1 table 14.8possible worlds 374Postal, P. 298, 299, 302Potter, Brian C. 146Poulisse, N. 506“poverty of the stimulus” argument
(Chomsky) 102, 299, 300power, role of language in construction
quantitative meter 450Quebec, language policy 707–8Quechua 40Quechumaran 40questionnaires 577questions see interrogativesQuiché see K’iche’Quine, W. V. 473Qur’an 32, 59, 83, 519
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. 569Rajasthani 22Ramoni, C. 591–2Raphelengius (Ravlenghien) 87Rask, Rasmus 86, 88, 90, 93, 124Rawlinson, H. C. 79Read, C. 151reading
bottom-up processing 664–6comparison of good and poor 665eye movement studies 665hypothesis testing 665intensive program for dyslexics 671learning 668–70and linguistics 645, 664–72and meta-awareness of the
phonological code 651phonics instruction 650–1, 668, 669and sequential parsing 426nsounding out 668top-down processing 664–6whole language approach 668, 669,
670readings
established 257literal 257–8non-literal 257–8nonce 257
reasoning processes 397, 401–12and knowledge of language 397–400
rebus principle 45, 68Received Pronunciation (RP) 163recipes, generic in discourse analysis
618–20 figures 25.3 and 5reconstruction, by comparative method
92, 107, 123recursive descent in parsing 611–12recursive function 266–7recursive rules 267, 296–7, 301, 370, 391nrecursiveness
in sign languages 535–6, 560vs. subordination 536–8
Richelieu, Cardinal 711Rigveda, Sanskrit 451rime 191, 455, 667Rindi, Indonesian 463Ritwan languages 39Ritwan-Algonquian family 98Rogoff, B. 652–3Role and Reference Grammar (RRG)
330–1roles
grammatical representation ofparticipant 10
linguistic construction of 440Rölle, L. J. 701Rom (Gypsies) 22Romaine, Suzanne 507, 512–32, 576Roman alphabet 52, 55, 57, 61, 67, 69,
337Roman linguistics 83, 84Romance languages 21, 219Romani languages 22
Index 811
Romanian 21, 121Romanies, in Finland 516Romantsch 517root 262
bound 223root nodes 200–1, 206Rosetta Stone 77–8Ross, J. 277, 310Rotokas, sound inventory of 185Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 2Routledge Language Family Descriptions
20Ruhlen, M. 7, 20, 31rule function morphology 229–31, 236rules xiv, 100, 115–16, 209
cognitive and cultural 446grammatical 296of impoverishment 231internalization of 369linguistic and social norms 572optionality of 273ordering of 209recursive 266–7of referral 230–1
Russian metrical theory 452Ryukyuan languages 23–4
Saadya ben Joseph al-Fayyemc (a.k.a.Saadya Gaon) 83
Saamic (Lappish) 22Sabean abjad 47, 48, 58saccade 665Sacy, Antoine Isaac Sylvestre de 78Sag, I. A. 312, 313Sahaptin 41Sajnovics, Johannis ( János) 86, 88, 90Sakha (Yakut) 23Salinan 41Salishan 38
Salmasius, Claudius (Claude Saumaise)87
Sami, in Finland 515, 516, 529, 530Samoan 29Samoyedic languages 22, 124sampling techniques
in cross-linguistic surveys 341–2proportional sample 342variety sample 342
Sampson, G. 61, 68Samuelson, Christer 608–36Sánchez, Francisco de las Brozas,
Minerva 85Sanctius see Sánchez, Francisco de las
BrozasSandawe 37Sandler, Wendy 533–62Sands, B. 37Sango 35, 41Sankoff, G. 519Sanskrit 22, 52, 82, 87–8, 89, 91, 95, 113,
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis 99Sarcee 146Sassanian inscriptions 78Saussure, Ferdinand de 95–6, 99,
325–6, 327, 559, 563–4, 676Cours de linguistique générale 95–6
Savitch, W. J. 302Savory, T. H. 696scaffolding 649Scaliger, J. J. 86Scaliger, Julius Caesar (L’Escale), De
causis linguae latinae 85Scandinavian languages 21Schieffelin, B. 440, 445Schiffrin, D. 429Schlegel, Friedrich von 89, 90, 93, 94,
98, 103Schleicher, August 92, 93, 98, 103
Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatikder indogermanischen Sprachen 94
Schmandt-Besserat, D. 68
812 Index
Schmidt, Johannes 92Schnitzer, M. L. 508school
language differences in 657–60, 663question-answer-evaluation activities
661–2social interaction in 660–2
schoolinghome language instruction 532native language 528–9
Schuchardt, Hugo 92Schumann, J. 496Schütz, A. 576schwa [@] 184Schwartz, B. 492scope ambiguity
alternative readings 389–90narrow 388–9wide 388–9
Scottish Gaelic see Gaelicscribal traditions 76Scrieckius 86script
direction 69–70“motivated” canonical orders of 80
figure 3.6transmission 70–1
scripts/plansand discourse analysis 433–4invented by persons who cannot read
68Scythae 87Scythian hypothesis 87, 89Searle, J. 320, 322, 411, 426n, 433, 616second language acquisition 488–511
additive 493age and 484, 493–6codeswitching in 506–7compared with first language
acquisition 492–3, 640–1, 648critical period hypothesis 493–4fossilization in 493interactional modification 504Multidimensional Model 491negative evidence in 504–5one language or two 508–9pragmatic competence in 644proficiency compared with native
speakers 496–7
role of language input 503–5sequence of 490–2strategies 505–6subtractive 493transfer in 489, 497–500and Universal Grammar 500–3
second language learners“approximative system” 490cognitive deficit 503“transitional competence” 490
second language teachingaudio-lingual method 640best age for 494–5communicative method 641comprehension-base approach 640–1content-based instruction 643and cross-cultural linguistics 643–4Focus on Form 643lexicon in 654production approach 640–1theory and practice in 637, 639–42
segmental classification of speech sounds161
segmenthood, and phonological features198–201
segments 198–9equivalence sets 456featural phases of the structure of 165see also inter-segmental coordination
segments, phonetic, relationship withphonetic features 157, 164–5
selection 257selectional frame 228–9self-reference, and the liar paradox
392nSelinker, L. 490, 493semantic analysis 84semantic change 114semantic memory
and degenerative disease 603disorders of retrieval and storage 589localization of 601–4verbal and visual 588, 589
semantic priming effects 589–90semantic relatedness 232semantic roles, conceptual space for
354–5 figure 14.3semantic theory, Tarski’s truth definition
linguistics and writing 79–80Semitic 32, 123, 124, 225
script 52, 57, 72vowel marking 58–9
Sena 36Seneca 39Senegal 710sense 239, 245
and denotation 373–4sense relations 246–56
paradigmatic 247–55syntagmatic 255–6
sentence comprehension, disorders of590–2
sentence probability 636sentence structure
problems in language disability 675in sign languages 534–9
sentences 327connection with the world 375–81propositional content 586–7, 590stylistic differences 461
sentential level 586separatism, political and language 515Sepik-Ramu phylum 29Septuagint 72, 74, 80nsequential organization, and discourse
analysis 437–8Sequoyah, syllabary order 63, 71 figure
3.5Serbian 21, 110, 119, 127nSerbo-Croatian 21Seri 41Serto 47, 48setting 165Seychelles, French-based creoles 41Seyfarth, R. M. 8–9S’gaw Karen (White Karen) 27
Shakespeare, William 450, 451Othello 105
Shanghai 27shared reference 473–4shift-reduce 610–11shifters 424nShilha, Northern, Southern and Central
33Shona 36short-term memory, disturbances in
584, 591–2“shortest move” constraint 278–9shorthand systems 63Shoshone 39Shuy, Roger W. 646, 683–91Sibawayhi 83Siberian (Northeastern Turkic) 23Sicilian 710, 711Sidamo 33Sierra Leone, Krio of 41sign 214, 236, 342, 676
Saussure’s theory of the 95–6, 325–6sign language experiments, with
primates 11–13, 477sign language poetry 548–9sign languages 41–2, 533–62
and Broca’s area 14change in 127nchild language acquisition 549–54complex word formation 543, 560control in left hemisphere 555, 558handshapes, locations and movements
in 539–40iconicity of 12, 543, 551, 559linguistic structure of 534–47morphology 542–7neural control of 554–5neurological differences 534, 558–9origin of 128nphonology 539–42, 557similarities among 556–8syntax 534–9, 557typological traits of 556–8
Signed English 534Signed Hebrew 534signed languages see sign languagessignified (signifié) 95–6, 325signifier (significant) 95–6, 325Silverstein, M. 320
814 Index
Simmons, D. 464simplification
in child phonological development471–2, 478
and language shift 128n, 528simultaneous interpreting 693–5
standard phrases in 694–5syntactic anticipation in 695
Sindhi 22, 164, 174Singapore, multilingualism 516, 522Singleton, D. 494, 495singular/plural, attested and unattested
individual 387and meanings 385–8quantificational 387relations between sets of 387–8resource 386–7
Skehan, P. 493Skinner, B. F., Verbal Behavior 101Skjaervø, P. O. 59, 60SLA see second language acquisitionslang, spread of 120Slavic functional linguistics 325Slavic (Slavonic) languages 21, 218,
328–9, 436see also Old Church Slavonic
Slovak 21Slovenian 21smiling 126nSmith, Henry Lee 99Snow, C. 494social class 567–9social domain 569
social evolution 94social indicators 567–8social languages 652–5social mobility, and language change
571–2social network analysis 569–70social relationships, in language
evolution 11socialization 648, 651–2
and language use 440sociolinguistics 130, 131, 141, 147, 151,
152, 178, 428, 563–81, 645, 677discourse work 439and language change 110, 126micro–macro distinction 566and narrative 460quantitative 107
sociology of language 566, 574Socrates 106, 107soft palate see velumSoga 36Sogdian script 59, 60 table 3.13, 62,
70solidarity, language and social 570,
579Solomon Islands, Pijin of the 41Somali 33Songay 36songs 452, 454–5
music and meter in 453sonorants 158, 189, 200
nasal 190oral 190
sonority 189–90Sotho see Northern Sotho (Pedi),
Southern Sothosound changes 90–2, 564
explanations for 115–16regularity of 122, 124–5role of physiology in 119
sound patternsrule formalism 204systematic 456–7
sound substitutions, in languagedisability 674
sounding out, in learning to read 668sounds
contrast 185–7inventories 181–5, 211
Index 815
phonetic quality of 161relationship with symbols 182restricted number of types 153–4sequence of 187sonority hierarchy 189–90structure above the level of the
segment 187–98and their sign language equivalents
539–42source language, in translation 693South Africa, Republic of, language
policy 712nSouth America, languages of 39–40South Arabian languages 33, 47, 72South Asian, Brahmi-derived scripts of
710changes in 113, 116and Guaraní 521in US 527, 531–2verbal morphology 626–30as a world language 532
spatial functioning, and damage to righthemisphere 554, 555
speaker identification, and forensiclinguistics 685
speaker recognition 152speakers
acoustic variation between 155–6displaced 140–1finding for fieldwork 137–8
speakingprocessing in 587and writing 66–7
SPEAKING acronym 431–2speaking rights, negotiation of 437speaking-turns 157specialization of meaning 259specialized language 690specific language abilities tests 597specifier 305spectographic analysis, in voice
speech events 431roles and identities 439see also discourse
speech pathology 152, 646speech production
the componential organization of159–61
processes 161–77
816 Index
speech recognition 152corpus-based methods in 631–2and parsing in automatic 615technology 152, 702
speech synthesis, and parsing 615speech therapy 486spelling
correlation with reading ability 670English 182, 666–7learning 670–1transfer in 498
spelling-to-sound translation process667
Spencer, Andrew 213–37Sperber, D. 395, 400, 407–12, 413, 414,
457–9split brain studies 595spoken language
differs from written language 67influence of written language on 672origins of 3and sign language 533, 558–9see also interpreting
Sprachlisten tradition 86Sproat, Richard 608–36Sprouse, R. 492Sranan 41Sri Lanka, language policy 706, 707Sridhar, K. K. 497Sridhar, S. N. 497stability, and change in language 111,
117, 126, 363Standard Theory (Chomsky) 102Starostin, S. A. 24state languages 708–9statements see assertionsstates, in computational phonology 624status, in-group or out-group 120Steever, S. B. 26Steinthal 94, 98stem 217
bound 223Stephens, L. D. 452Stevens, K. N. 151, 153Stewart, O. T. 280Stiernhielm, Georg 86, 87stochastic context-free grammar (SCFG)
635–6Stoics 82, 83
Stokoe, William 539–40stop release 175–6stops 160, 168, 181, 189
convergence in language 121determined by use and historical
factors 345–6the nature of linguistic 336
structure-dependency 500–1Stump, G. T. 231stuttering 674style, and social class 568–9stylistic analysis 686stylus 44, 74Suárez, J. A. 39, 176subcategorization 228–9subjacency 501subject 271, 339subject nominals 217subjunctive mood 219
Index 817
submersion programs 528subordination 535–6 figure 22.1subordination vs. recursiveness 536–8subsaharan Africa, monolingualism in
706subsegmental structure 198–211substitution see paradigmatic relationssubtractive morphology 225–6Sudanic 163, see also Central Sudanic,
East SudanicSukuma 36Sumerian 31, 79, 81–2, 123, 364
script 44–5, 62, 68Summer Institute of Linguistics 147Sundanese 28
vowel nasalization 203–4Supalla, E. 545, 557Supalla, S. J. 560superordinate 247suppletion 356–7
derivational 232, 233total and partial 217
suprasegmental level 161surface structure, changes in 114–15survey sampling 577Susanne corpus 633Swahili 35, 524, 544, 556, 574Swati 36Sweden, language policy 706Swedes, in Finland 516, 517Swedish 21Swedish Sign Language 556, 557Swinney, D. 590Swiss German 523
Kerenzen dialect 93Switzerland, federal multilingualism
517“swooping vs. looping” controversy
309, 316syllabaries 43, 67, 68
Japanese 49–51of the modern world 62–5, 71
syllable structure 188–98relationship with stress 192–8
target language, in translation 693Tarifit 33Tarlinskaja, M. 452Tarone, E. E. 506, 510Tarski, A. 375, 392nTasmanian languages 30, 31, 527Tatar 23, 337, 338–9, 341, 342, 346–7taxonomies 260, 261teacher training, and applied
theme, in discourse 328–9, 435–7theory, and practice in language teaching
639–42theory-internal criteria 333–4theta criterion 271Thody, Philip 699–700Thompson, H. 536–8Thompson, S. 325, 435Thompson, S. A. 461thought
language of 425nlanguage and 581
Tiberian system 59Tibetan 27, 70, 711
script 53 table 3.7, 54–5, 61, 63table 3.15, 70
Tibeto-Burman 27Tigré 33, 365Tigrinya 33, 365timing units 200–1, 211Tiv 35Tiwi 30, 350, 351Tlingit 38Toba Batak 28Tocharian 22Tojolabal 460Tok Pisin 41, 507, 519, 527Tokelau, songs 454–5token frequency 353–4
Index 819
Toma, C. 652–3Tonga 36Tongan 29, 353tongue 162
grooved 171retroflexion 171shape in articulation 170–1
topic 97, 328, 333in discourse 435–7introduction and recycling in forensic
linguistics 688–9topic NPs 324–5, 328topic-prominent languages 435topicalization 416–19, 461
in sign languages 539topoi 458Toronto school of literacy studies 75Torricelli phylum 29Tosk 21“touristese” 15Trace Theory 102traces, inability to co-index 605trade names
arbitrary 684suggestive 684
trademark infringement 683–4traditional grammar 295Trager, George 43, 99Trahey, M. 504Trans New Guinea phylum 29transcortical motor aphasia 584, 585,
600transcortical sensory aphasia 584, 586,
600transcription 134, 136, 143–4
of conversations in criminal cases687–9, 691
in language pathology 676phonetic 143–4, 153, 157, 182
transferin SLA 489, 492, 497–500in spelling 498see also negative transfer
transformational grammar 102, 302–3,615
historical development 312–13see also generative grammar
voiced oral alveolar 172triphthong, articulation of 172trochaic inversion 451Trubetzkoy, Prince Nicholai S. 96–7,
199, 346Trudgill, P. 568, 573truth values 370–2, 373, 374, 375
in possible worlds 374truth-conditional semantics 246, 404–7truth-relations 404–5Tsetsaut 97Tsimshian 41Tsonga 36Tswana 36Tübatulabal 140Tucanoan languages 40
820 Index
Tumbuka 36Tungusic languages 23Tunisia 710
diglossia in 522Tupian languages 40Turkana 37Turkic languages 23, 219Turkish 23, 113, 356–7, 492
use of Roman alphabet 67Turkmen 23turn taking 437Tuscarora 39Tuvaluan 29Tuvan 23Twain, Mark 106Twi-Fante 35type–token distinction 327typological markedness, and
morphological representation346–9
typology 94, 103, 147, 324, 337–68,556
competing motivations model 344–5,363
diachronic 363, 365–6synchronic 363
Tzutujil 353
Ubangi subgroup 35Ugaritic abjad 47, 48, 71, 72, 73, 74Ugric 22Ukrainian 21unattested language types 343–4undergeneralization, in child language
acquisition 472–3underspecification 304–5, 388–90, 414understanding, processing in 587–8ungrammaticality 265Uniformitarian Principle 108, 364, 365United Kingdom, language policy 708United States
immigrants in 518, 527, 568language policy 704, 706unstable bilingualism 527
Universal Grammar (UG) 2, 17, 84–5,299, 300, 312
constraints 538and language acquisition 4, 101,
482
and Principles and Parametersapproach 283, 285–94
and second language acquisition500–3 figure 20.1, 504
Chomsky on 100–1cognitive basis for 119, 487the dynamic approach to 362–7and the formal encoding of meaning
346–62identifying as goal of synchronic
linguistics 108–9the nature of 341–6in sign language 539, 556–8, 560transparent 299see also implicational universals
unwritten languages 75Uralic languages 20, 22, 25, 124Urartian 25
inscription 79script 45
Urdu 22, 517, 710Uruk 44US Federal Court Interpreters Act (1978)
690US Food and Drug Administration 684usage frequency
and conceptual encoding 348–9and language change 112–13
useabnormal language 673–82in context, discourse analysis 644determines language structure 345–6domains of 518–19interpretive 414and knowledge of language 394–6motivated by communicative needs
429–38non-literal of language 257–8, 397real-world language 642social nature of language 320, 332,
363and social structure 566theory of language in 448
Ute 39
Index 821
Uto-Aztecan language family 39, 98, 123utterance 157, 451, 458
recognizing as part of discoursestructure 618, 620–2
Vainikka, A. 502Vallduví, E. 333van Dijk, T. 429, 434, 435, 440van Driem, G. 27van Summeren, C. 495Van Valin Jr, Robert D. 285, 319–36variables, correlation of linguistic with
social 567variation
and language change 564–5, 577–9regional and social 578within and across languages 365–7,
and devoicing 172–5Volgaic 22Volta-Congo 34Voltaic (Gur) languages 34Voorhoeve, C. L. 464vowel harmony 206, 217, 623vowel-sounds, acoustic characterization
155vowel-space 168vowels 181
chain shifts in long 119front, central or back 181
822 Index
vowels cont’dhigh, mid or low 181length of 177loss of unaccented 119nuclear in the syllable 159script for 47, 52, 55, 57–9sonority 189
Vygotsky, Lev 653, 655
Wakashan 38Waletzky, J. 462Walter, Theodor 87Wang, W. 493Waray-Waray 28Ward, I. C. 172Warlpiri, verse 451Warrgamay 360Washo 41Wasow, Thomas 295–318Watkin’s Law 127nWatson, I. 509“wave theory” 92–3Webb, R. 557Weber, Max 567, 576Webster, Noah 67Weihun He, Agnes 428–45Weinreich, Uriel 93, 108, 489, 499, 508,
abjads 48 table 3.3, 59West Slavic 21Westermann, D. 172Western Apache 146Western Armenian 21Western Dani 30Western Hmong (Hmong Njua) 28Western Kwa 35Western Malayo-Polynesian 28Western Panjabi 22
wh-phrases, island constraint 310–11wh-questions 620–1
and filler-gap dependencies 307–9wh-words, movement rules 271–2,
273–4, 278–9whisper 163whispery voice 164White, L. 496, 502, 504, 510White Karen (S’gaw Karen) 27white matter tracts, lesions of 593–4, 599Whitney, William Dwight xiii“whole language” pedagogy 647, 648,
649, 668, 670Whorf, Benjamin L. 94, 99, 475–6, 580Wieden, W. 492Williams, G. 576Willmond, Catherine 132–3, 139, 141Wilson, Bob 483Wilson, D. 395, 400, 407–12, 413, 414,
457–9Wilss, W. 694Winteler, Jost 93Wittgenstein, Ludwig 238, 243Wiyot 39, 124Wolaytta 33Wolfe Quintero, K. 492Wolof 34, 710Woodbury, A. C. 460word
notion of 236see also grammatical word, prosodic
wordword bigram model 632–3word families 262word forms 214, 236
analysis in computational morphologyand 622–3
individuating by graphic and phoneticclues 240
word meaningsconstraints on 241contextual variability of 244–6,
413–14disturbances of 588–90, 601mutual exclusivity and competition
474–5normality profile 243overextension of 675as a set of procedures 414–15
boundaries 240, 451–2“classifier sets” of 464grammatical properties of 240number known by average speaker
263semantic properties of 240–2see also compounds
working memory, in SLA 503world languages 530–2writing
defined 68earliest evidence of 3and history 44–65integration of reading and 668, 670and language 65–75linguistics and semiotics 79–80materials 74–5mechanical aids for 75origin of 68–9processing in 587and scholarship 75–80and speaking 66–7theory of 43
writing systems 43–80alphabetic see alphabetsChinese-derived 62conscious construction of 66different from spoken languages
66–7meaning-based and sound-based
497–8Semitic-derived 62speech-based 666
spread of 47types of 43–4
written documents, authorship andforensic linguistics 685–6
written languagediffers from spoken language 67influence on spoken language 672reading 664–72see also translation
Wu 27, 711Wundt, Wilhelm 98, 103Wurm, S. A. 29
X-bar theory (Chomsky) 305Xhosa 36, 162Xiang 27
Yabem 519Yakonan 41Yakut (Sakha) 23Yallop, C. 151Yana (Northern Hokan) 41Yao 36Yavapai 140Yeniseian languages 25, 31Yiddish 21, 705Yoruba 35, 170, 337–8, 339, 341, 342Young, Thomas 77Young-Scholten, M. 502Yucatec 39Yue (Cantonese) 27Yukaghir 25Yuman 38, 41Yupik (Yup’ik) 38, 140, 353Yurok 39, 124Yuwaalaraay 340
Zadrozny, W. 393nZaenen, A. 309Zaliznjak, Grammatical Dictionary of
Russian 233Zande 36Zapotec 39, 140
San Lucas Quiaviní 144, 146Zeps, V. J. 454zero marking 230, 356zero morpheme 227zeugma test 246Zhuang 27
824 Index
Zulu 36, 162, 346–7, 355Zuni 38Zurif, E. 590–1, 604–5Zwicky, A. 237
ZISA project 491Zoroastrian scripture, Avesta 59–61Zukovsky, Celia 697Zukovsky, Louis 697