Indentured Indian Immigration to Natal, 1860- 1870 with special reference to the Hindu Caste System and its implications By Pathmaloshini Moodley 1981
Welcome message from author
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Indentured Indian Immigration to Natal, 1860-1870 with special reference to the Hindu Caste
System and its implications
By
Pathmaloshini Moodley
1981
INDENTURED INDIAN IMMIGRATION TO N&Tt+L . 1860 - 1870
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE HINDU CASTE SYSTEM AND
ITS IMPLICATIONS
PATHMALOSHINI MOODLEY
Submit ted i n p a r t f u l f i l m e n t o f the requirements f o r the degree o f
BACHELOR OF ARTS (HnNnURS)
i n t h e D e p a r t ~ ~ ~ e n t o f H i s t o r y
i n the Facul ty. o f A r t s
a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f Durban-Westvi- le
SUPERVISORS : Professor S. Bhana D r . J B Bra in
DATE SUBMITTED: NOVEMBER 1981
SUMMARY
To t h e people o f t h e West, t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f I n d i a a r e t h e l e a s t
understood and t h e most e a s i l y misunderstood o f a l l men. T h i s p r o j e c t
has two themes : f i r s t l y , t o probe t h e reasons as t o why many I n d i a n s
l e f t I n d i a f o r South A f r i c a and secondly, t o e x p l o r e t h e Hindu c a s t e
system, a Pan-Indian phenomenon.
A l though I n d i a n i n d e n t u r e i n t o South A f r i c a has been s t u d i e d and w r i t t e n
about, i t i s remarkable j u s t how much more t h e r e i s t h a t i s undiscovered.
Whi le much i s w r i t t e n about t h e I n d i a n s f rom t h e t i m e they came t o South
A f r i c a i n 1860 t o t h e present day, research l e a d i n g t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n
I n d i a p r i o r t o 1860 and t h e p o s s i b l e reasons as t o why t h e y l e f t
has been neg lec ted. T h i s s tudy t h e r e f o r e i s designed t o g i v e some
L i n s i g h t i n t o t h e geographic, h i s t o r i c a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l background
o f I n d i a , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e Presidency o f Madras i n t h e South o f I n d i a
and t o show how c a s t e operated i n a t y p i c a l South I n d i a n v i l l a g e . I
have at tempted t o g i v e an e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e r u l e s , r e g u l a t i o n s and r e s t r i c -
t i o n s o f t h e Hindu c a s t e system.
From t h e sh ipp ing l i s t s o f t h e Lord George Bent inck and Tyburnia, I
have t r i e d t o ana lyse t h e cas te , sex, age and r e g i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s
o f t h e I n d i a n s on board these sh ips . ,
I f i n these pages, I can h e l p o t h e r s o f t h e West t o come f a c e t o face
w i t h t h e immense and i n t r i c a t e problems which c o n f r o n t a l l who d e s i r e t o
know, and s h a l l enable them t o understand b e t t e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s and
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 1 i f e i n t h e Land o f Vedas, I w i l l f e e l amply r e p a i d
f o r my l a b o u r s .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish t o express my s incere thanks t o Professor S. Bhana, Head o f t h e
Department o f His tory , and D r J .B. Brain, Department o f H i s to r y f o r
t h e i r very ab le superv is ion o f t h i s study. I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l
f o r t h e i r percept ive c r i t i c i s m s and t h e i n t e r e s t which they have shown.
I am a l s o g r a t e f u l f o r the ass is tance g iven by :
Andhra Maha Sabha o f South A f r i ca ;
The Tamil Assoc ia t ion o f South A f r i c a ;
M r Bala Naidu, U n i v e r s i t y o f Durban-Westvi l le;
Joan Mckenzie, L i b r a r i a n a t t h e Un i ve rs i t y o f Nata l ;
Miss P. Naidu and Miss F. D. Kajee who typed t h i s d i sse r t a t i on ;
and my f r i e n d s from the U n i v e r s i t y o f Durban-Westvi l le who ass is ted
i n var ious ways.
F i n a l l y , the complet ion o f t h i s H i s to r y assignment i s i n no small
measure due t o the understanding and s a c r i f i c e o f my f am i l y .
P. MOODLEY
NOVEMBER 1981
( i i i )
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
L I S T OF TABLES, MAPS AND I L L U S T R A T I O N S
INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
PAGE -
( i )
( i i )
( i v )
1
CHAPTER :
ONE : CONDIT IONS I N SOU'TH AFRICA AND I N D I A
TWO : SURVEY OF CASTE I N I N D I A
CONCLUSION
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
ABBREVIATIONS I N APPENDICES
APPENDICES :
A : . S H I P P I N G L I S T S OF LORD GEORGE BENTINCK
B : S H I P P I N G L I S T S OF TYBURNIA
SOURCES
L I S T OF TABLES, MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
TABLES :
1 : AREA, POPULATION OF MADRAS PRESIDENCY I N 1871
2 : REGIONAL D ISTRIBUT ION OF EMIGRANTS
3 : SEX D ISTRIBUT ION OF EMIGRANTS
4 : CASTE D ISTRIBUT ION OF EMIGRANTS
5 : AGE D ISTRIBUT ION OF EMIGRANTS
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
MAP OF I N D I A
MAP SHOWING AREAS OF RECRUITMENT OF I N D I A N LABOURERS
PLAN OF MADRAS
PLAN OF A TYPICAL SOUTH I N D I A N VILLAGE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND TO INDIA
The sub-cont inent o f I n d i a i s i n the shape o f a t r i a n g l e s tanding upon
i t s po in t . I t s s t re tches over two thousand m i l e s f rom t h e Himalayas i n
t h e Nor th down t o the southern t i p j u t t i r i g out i n t o the I nd ian Ocean.
This g rea t t r i a n g l e f a l l s i n t o t h ree c l e a r d i v i s i o n s . There i s the
nor thern mountain w a l l and i n t he south t he Peninsular Plateau. Between
them l i e s t h e great p l a i n formed by t h e v a l l e y s cf t he Indus and t h e
Ganges where t he mass o f t h e i nhab i t an t s have always l i v e d .
Nine o u t o f t e n Ind ians 1 i v e i n v i l l a g e s and most a re farrr~ers. I n the
towns, the slum q u a r t e r s o f the i n d u s t r i a l workers a r e i n marked c o n t r a s t
t o the e l egan t splendour o f t h e f i n e s t bu i l d i ngs . Such v i o l e n t con t ras ts ,
many kept going by the t r a d i t i o n a l cas te system, a r e accepted w i t h amazing ?
equanimity by the I nd ian people.
The c l imate i n I n d i a i s ve ry va r i ed and almost everytype o f d i s a s t e r
can descend upon t h e land. The g rea tes t problem i s water. R a i n f a l l
comes i n summer w i t h t he south west monsoon. "Everything depends upon
t h e amount o f the prolonged deluge."
The p la teau i n the south i s t he most backward area where famine always
h i t s hardest. Apart frorn t h e c o t t o n grown on t h e b lack s o i l o f t h e Deccan,
t he re i s l i t t l e beyond p r i m i t i v e a g r i c u l t u r e . The peasants a re susp ic ious
o f ou ts ide i n f l uence and progress i s necessar i l y slow.
1 . India 1965. Annua 2 Review, p . 6 .
Madras i s t h e premier p o r t and c i t y i n t h e south and i s a modern B r i t i s h
product, d i s t i n c t i v e i n i t s western appearance and no t n e a r l y as t r u l y
I n d i a n as t h e o l d telnple c i t i e s w i t h i n t h e presidency, namely Tanjore,
Coonjeeveram, TPich i nopoly and Madural . The 1 and o f Madras i s p ie rced
by th ree g r e a t r i v e r s , the Godbwari, K is tna and the ~ a v e ( r i . The f i r s t
census conducted i n r e g u l a r form i n t h e Madras Presidency 1871 showed
t h a t t h e Hindus numbered 28, 863, 968; Moslems 1, 857, 857; C h r i s t i a n s
t h a t i s Roman C a t h o l i c s 397, 071; and Pro tes tan ts 93,228; Ja ins 21,254
and o thers 4328. However, C h r i s t i a n s a r e more numerous i n Madras than i n
any o t h e r p a r t o f 1 n d i a S 2 The Hindus, 92,3% o f thewhole, a r e sub-div ided
i n t o 16, 159, 610 S iva i tes , t h a t i s worshippers o f Siva, God o f
D e s t r u c t i o n i n t h e Hindu t r i a d , 11, 657, 311 V ishnuv i tes who worship
t h e God Vishnu, t h e preserver , 154, 989 L ingava ts who a r e a l s o a sec t o f
S i v a i tes b u t who d e r i v e t h e i r name from t h e p r a c t i c e o f c a r r y i n g about
on t h e i r persons t h e 'L inga ' o r emblem o f Siva; and 892, 068 a r e o f
o t h e r sects i n c l u d i n g H i l l t r i b e s .
Most o f t h e people i n the south and i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e presidency o f
Madras, speak one o r o t h e r o f t h e D r a v i d i a n languages namely Tamil,
Telegu, Kannada o r Malayalam. And t h e most dominant element o f t h e
popu la t ion i s t h e proto-Medi t teranean type which i s noted f o r i t s
medium s ta tu re , l o n g and narrow head, medium nose, e i t h e r s t r a i g h t
o r acqu i l i ne .
Over t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e area o f Madras a r t i f i c i a l i r r i g a t i o n i s
2 . Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9 t h ed i t i on , VoZ XV, p. 185.
imposs ib le because t h e r e a r e no dams and c u l t i v a t i o n i s dependent upon
t h e 1 ocal r a i n f a l l which r a r e l y exceeds f o r t y inches a year and i s 1 i a b l e
t o f a l l i r r e g u l a r l y . The Malabar Coast i s t h e o n l y p a r t where t h e
r a i n f a l l brought by t h e South West Monsoon may be t r u s t e d both f o r i t s
amount and i t s r e g u l a r i t y . Over t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e Presidency
t h e r a i n y season i s caused by t h e South East Monsoon which breaks about
t h e end o f September. The d e l t a s o f t h e Goddvari, K is tnd and ~ a v e ' r i
r i v e r s a r e the on ly areas on the East Coast where a r t i f i c i a l i r r i g a t i o n
i s a b l e t o save t h e people from r i s k o f occasional s c a r c i t y .
O f t h e t o t a l c u l t i v a t e d area about 8m i s re tu rned as ' d r y ' l and o r
t h a t which i s s o l e l y dependent on l o c a l r a i n f a l l . 15% as 'wet ' l a n d
i r r i g a t e d f rom r i v e r channels and about 3% f a l l o w and pasture and 2%
as garden land i r r i g a t e d f rom w e l l s .
The p r i n c i p a l food s tap les a r e r i c e , 'cholam', 'kambu', ' r a g i ' and
'varagu ' . The most common o i l seed i s g inge l ly . Garden crops comprise
tobacco, sugar-cane, ch i1 1 i e s , b e t e l - l e a f and p l a n t a i n s . The f r u i t
t rees a r e cocoa-nut, areca-nut, date, palmyra palm, jack , tamarind
and mango. Special crops i n c l u d e cot ton, i nd igo , cof fee, tea, cinchona.
The f i r s t c o f f e e p l a n t a t i o n was opened i n t h e Wainad i n Madras i n 1840.
Today c o f f e e covers 131, 348 acres o f Madras. Tea covered 4000 acres i n
1880 - 1881. Tobacco i s grown e x t e n s i v e l y i n Godivar i and K is tna d i s t r i c t s .
Because i r r i g a t i o n i s f a i r l y s t a b l e i n the d e l t a s i t was ve ry populous
b u t d e s p i t e t h i s my sample3 shows t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t number o f people
3 . See Table 2
came from t h e i n l and d i s t r i c t s , and very few f rom t h e De l t a and cos ta l
reg ions.
The g rea te r p a r t of Madras i s he ld by t he c u l t i v a t o r s d i r e c t f rom t h e
government under t h e tenure known as Ryotwari . The peasant i n e f f e c t
became t h e p r o p r i e t o r o f t h e l and w i t h a r i g h t t o mortgage, lease o r s e l l
h i s land. Th is system was in t roduced by S i r Thomas Munro i n Madras
when he was i t s governor from 1820 - 1827.
Ryotwari i s a mode o f set t lement w i t h small farmet >, so small, indeed
t h a t t h e i r average ho ld ing i s on recen t f i g u r e s on ly about 63 acres.
The system possesses t he f o l lowing p roper t ies : The reg i s t e red occupier
i s , so f a r as concerns governments, f r e e t o a l i e n a t e encumber and
4 dev ise h i s land a t d i s c r e t i o n , sub jec t t o unimportant q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ,
he may a t any t ime re1 inqu ish any p o r t i o n o f h i s holding, he can never
be ousted unless ,he f a i l s t o pay r e g u l a r l y t h e assessment f i x e d on t h e
land o r any o ther charge by law recoverab le as land revenue i n which
case h i s land may be at tached and so ld t o t h e ex ten t necessary t o d i s -
charge t he debt; no a d d i t i o n a l charge may be imposed on account o f r
improvements e f f ec ted a t t h e r y o t s cost , b u t a separate charge may be
made f o r minera ls ex t rac ted and t h e r a t e o f assessment i s l i a b l e t o
a l t e r a t i o n on t h e exp i r y o f t h e s p e c i f i e d per iod f o r which i t has been
f i x e d and then on ly .
Prev ious ly a share i n t he produce o f t h e i r l and cou ld be claimed by a
sovereign, o r by a grantee o f t h e land revenue d e r i v i n g h i s r i g h t f rom
4 . H . H . D o d w e l l : The Cambridge H i s t o r y of India, VoL 6, p . 1 5 4 .
the sovereign or by a 'Zamindar'(1andlord)who claimed t h i s among other
r ights of the sovereign. In the absence of any court of law, the nature
of the sovereign's r igh t s and the cu l t iva to r s tenure was determined not
by law b u t by the interplay of three forces - the power of the sovereign,
the custom of the v i l l age and the economic condition of the d i ~ t r i c t . ~
The Hindu j o i n t family system, where a l l land i s held in common by mem-
bers of the household, and the lack of stock tended t o divide u p the land
in to smaller holdings. In many vi l lages , especial ly in the i r r iga ted t r a c t s
there was a t r ad i t ion of a jo in t settlement and a cornmod ancestry and
the whole v i l lage was held in shares, the lands in some of them being
periodical ly redis t r ibuted .
Madras however in the course of time had discovered new potential
fo r raw materials 1 ike iron-ore, magnesite and 1 igni te . The u t i l i sa t ion
of natural resources l i k e waterfal ls t o generate e l e c t r i c i t y and t o
establ ish industr ies was a modern phenomenon which he1 ped agr icul ture
and industr ies . Two railway companies and the continuous seaboard of
the Madras Presidency had created a widely diffused t rade in Madras.
The geography of Madras has had another, no l e s s important e f fec t
on the cul ture of the south. The s i tua t ion of idadras in the south of
the Peninsula has saved i t from the exotic cul tural and pol i t ica l inf lu-
ences brought in by the Kushans, Afghans, Turks and Mughals in the North,
even as the Madras Presidency i t s e l f i s broken u i in to a number of sub-
regions by the hi1 1 s and r ivers and these have developed t h e i r own sub-
regional d ia l ec t s as well as cul tural variat ions largely due t o poor
5. H . H . Dodwell : The Cambridge History of ~ n d i a , VoZ 6 , p . 54 .
9 ,tge$pu~ u! uot6a~
Jay30 he ueyq Jaqqaq pue aJow a~nq~nz~ uekpu~ quaL3ue 40 slekquassa
ayq paukeqaJ A[ Lnjssamns sey yqnos ayq csa;~nqua3 qua3aJ uk sax04
~e~nqln3 ~[JOM 40 33eduk ayq paAka3aJ ekpu~ ~[!3 'aqeueq ins 40 LeJnpeW
u! quawu~a~o6 4akJq e pue X~nqua3 yquaaqJno4 ayq uk suoksehu! wil
. -snW 40 1 lads uaqqo6~04 lC~~sea pue q~oys e JaqjV,, .sa!qk [!3e4 q~odsue~q
CHAPTER ONE
CONDITIONS I N SOUTH AFRICA AND INDIA
Ind ians m ig ra ted f rom I n d i a t o many p a r t s o f the globe b u t no I n d i a n c o l -
ony was the r e s u l t o f a s i n g l e mass m i g r a t i o n t o re1 i e v e congest ion o r t o
expand dominions, r a t h e r I n d i a n c o l o n i z a t i o n was always a means t o
" c u l t u r a l expansion and cnmmercial e n t e r p r i s e . " 7 But t h e r e was a spec ia l
c l a s s o f I n d i a n emig ra t ion under the inden tu re system between 1835 - 1917
which was unique i n some respects .
The a g r i c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n and the expansion o f European i n f l u e n c e i n
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e wor ld necess i ta ted adequate manpower t o exp l o i t
t h e vas t resources a t hand. The a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y i n 1833 and t h e
general r e l u c t a n c e o f b lacks t o work aggravated t h i s s i t u a t i o n and a
system o f indentured labour was devised i n 1835. It was r e a l i z e d t h a t
I n d i a cou ld be an i d e a l c o u n t r y f o r t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f l aboure rs u r g e n t l y
needed f o r t h e sugar p l a n t a t i o n s o f t h e co lon ies and t h e Government o f
I n d i a was approached by t h e p l a n t e r s through the imper ia l government.
The inden tu re system was a h i g h l y organised and p e c u l i a r system o f re -
c r u i t i n g cheap labour on c o n t r a c t . The m i g r a n t undertook t o work as
a labourer f o r f i v e years i n t h e co lony f o r a wage and t h e c o s t o f h i s
passage. On the e x p i r y o f t h e indentured per iod t h e I n d i a n l a b o u r e r cou ld
e i t h e r renew t h e c o n t r a c t o r s e t t l e i n t h e co lony t o work as a f r e e
laboure r o r r e t u r n t o I n d i a a t t h e expense o f t h e impqr t ing co lony.
7 , J.C. Jha : Indentured Indian Migration, Journal o f Indian
History, 1970, VOZ 4 8 , p . 335.
HQW d i d Na ta l come t o a v a i l i t s e l f o f t h e p r o v i s i o n o f I n d i a n l a b o u r
under t h e system o f i n d e n t u r e a l r e a d y worked o u t f o r M a u r i t i u s and t h e
West I n d i a n c o l o n i e s ? I n o r d e r t o answer t h i s , i t i s necessary t o l d o k
a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n Nata l d u r i n g t h e m id -n ine teen th c e n t u r y .
Dur ing t h e yea rs 1838 - 1843 Nata l was a V o o r t r e k k e r Repub l ic b u t
once t h e Voor t rekke rs had reached t h e sea and seemed l i k e l y t o t a k e poss-
e s s i o n o f t h e o n l y good harbour o n t h e Natal coas t l i n e , t h e "sens i t i ve- . -
ness o f B r i t i s h sea-power awokeu81nd i t was dec ided i n 1843 t o annex
Na ta l . With Nata l under B r i t i s h r u l e , many e m i g r a t i o n schemes were
dev ised i n B r i t a i n t o b r i n g s e t t l e r s o u t t o N a t a l . However many o f t h e
Boers who had p r e v i o u s l y s e t t l e d i n Na ta l , now t r e k k e d ove r t h e Dra-
kensberg, l e a v i n g t h e s e t t l e r s t o fend f o r themselves. T h i s e x e r c i s e
1 ed them i n t o exper imen ta t i on w i t h a v a r i e t y o f s u b - t r o p i c a l p roducts ,
i n c l u d i n g tea , co f fee , a r r o w r o o t sugar and i n d i g o . 0;t i n t h e end i t
was proved t h a t sugar was t h e main c r o p f o r t h e hot , humid c o n d i t i o n s
of Natal . Sugar however depends upon a s teady supp ly o f l a b o u r and
i t was t h i s f a c t o r t h a t was l a c k i n g .
It was d i f f i c u l t t o understand how a shor tage o f l a b o u r c o u l d a r i s e i n
a co lony s e t t l e d b y some 20 000 b lacks . F i r s t o f a l l t h i s was due t o
t h e t y p e o f economy o f t h e b l a c k s . They were a p a s t o r a l people,
p r a c t i s i n g a smal l amount o f e x t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e and even t h e l a t t e r
was l e f t m a i n l y t o t h e women. The second f a c t o f was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
system o f t r i b a l reserves i n t r o d u c e d b y S i r Theoph i lus Shepstone. T h i s
system a l lowed t h e b l a c k s i n Nata l t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l methods
8 . M. Palmer : The His tory o f t h e Indians i n Natal , p. 9
o f subsistence a g r i c u l t u r e and c a t t l e he rd ing . Furthermore Shepstone
s t e a d i l y b locked any proposa ls f o r compuls ion o f l a b o u r on t h e b l a c k
popu la t i on .
I n these c i rcumstances, i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e p l i g h t o f t h e European
p l a n t e r was a s e r i o u s one and i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h e r e f o r e t h a t t hey
exp lored every p o s s i b l e means o f secu r ing an adequate supp ly o f l a b o u r .
However i t soon became apparent t h a t t h e o n l y p r a c t i c a l source o f l a b o u r
f o r t h e sugar p l a n t a t i o n s was a supp ly o f I n d i a n i nden tu red immig ra t i on .
Under t h e con t inued pressure o f t h e p l a n t e r s , t h e Government o f Nata l
was u l t i m a t e l y compel 1 ed t o open n e g o t i a t i o n s and t h e governments o f
B r i t a i n and I n d i a r e l u c t a n t l y consented t o t h e p lan . It was a r e l u c t a n t
move because t h e government o f I n d i a f e l t t h a t e m i g r a t i o n t o M a u r i t i u s
and t h e Caribbean was s u f f i c i e n t . Never the less e m i g r a t i o n t o Nata l
was f i n a l l y sanct ioned by A c t X X X I I I o f 1860 on 7 August. The Emigra-
t i o n Agency was w a i t i n g , W.M. C o l l i n s t h e Postmaster General o f Natal
was sen t t o Madras as Emig ra t i on Agent i n March 1860, and t h e f i r s t
sh ip , the T ru ro , f rom Madras a r r i v e d a t Durban on 16 November 1860.
So I n d i a n e m i g r a t i o n on a l a r g e sca le and over l ong d i s t a n c e s was a
phenomenon novel t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and had t o w a i t upon p rev ious
s e t t l e m e n t o f European c o l o n i e s and investment o f c a p i t a l i n p l a n t a t i o n
a g r i c u l t u r e . I n d i a n ' c o o l ies19 had o n l y u n s k i l l e d l a b o u r t o s e l l and
were thus f o r c e d t o move i n t o areas where t h e r e was a s k i l l e d w h i t e manage-
r i a l group t o d i r e c t them and where t h e i r " d o c i l i t y and c a p a c i t y f o r
l a b o u r i n g were welcome". 10
9. Coolie, i s a Portuguese term for 'load-bearers, dockers 'Cu l i ' , See H-Tinker, p . 41 - 42.
10. I . M . Cmpston. A Survey o f Indian Immigration t o B r i t i s h Tro i c a l C o l o n i e s t o 1910, Population Studies Journal, Vol 9 & 10, 5. 1 5 8 -
1 The success o f t h e t r a f f i c from an economic p o i n t o f view may be measurid
i n t h e almost meteor ic r i s e i n expor t f i g u r e s from p l a n t a t i o n products
and t he establ ishment o f new i n d u s t r i e s . Th is cou ld be seen i n Natal
where Natal sugar exported a t t h e end o f 1860 was £32,005 almost f o u r
t imes g rea te r than t h a t o f t h e preceding year which was £8,368. 11
While t h e inden tu re system was a success from t h e economic p o i n t o f
view, i t should be remembered however t h a t the re was a l ow p ropens i t y
among t h e people o f I n d i a t o m ig ra te due ma in ly t o i n e r t i a , ' t o t he
r e s t r a i n t s imposed and s e c u r i t i e s o f f e r e d by t he v i l l age community
and j o i n t f a m i l y and t o r e l i g i o u s o b j e c t i o n s ' . 12
Furthermore t h e peasant was f a r from being t h e business man. He
seldom l e f t h i s v i l l a g e which f o r generat ions has been a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t
u n i t i n which men l i v e d i n c l ose r e l a t i o n t o God and man and t h e s o i l .
Trave l a1 so invo lved t h e r i s k o f breaking cas te r u l e s . I 3 To emigrate
meant t o c ross t h e "Kala Pani", t h e t e r r i b l e b lack waters w i t h t h e
consequent l o s s o f caste . Th is was a g rea t d e t e r r e n t t o emigrat ion.
There was a l so t he dread o f f o r c i b l e conversion t o C h r i s t i a n i t y coupled
w i t h a dread o f t h e unknown, common t o a1 1 ' ignorant , u n t r a v e l l e d peop1.e' . 14
There was a l so a s t rong suspic ion t h a t t h e whole system was no t working
11. R.F. Osborne : Val ian t Harvest, p. 66.
12. K.L. G i l l i o n : The Sources o f Indian Emigration t o F i j i , Population S tud ies Journal, 1956, Vol 9 & 10, p. 14
3 . See Chapter 3 .
14. K.L. G i l l i o n : The Sources o f Indian Ehigrat ion t o F i j i , Population S tud ies Journal, 1956, Vol 9 & 10, p. 141.
t o t h e i r disadvantage a susp ic ion very n a t u r a l l y a r i s i n g from the pauc i t y
o f news.. To t h i s l i s t cou ld be added t h e f a c t t h a t i t was an a l i e n system,
d i s l i k e d by the upper castes o f I nd i a .
I f Ind ians i n general r e s i s t e d emigrat ion, what then accounts f o r t h e
vas t numbers t h a t l e f t I nd i a i n the l a t e n ineteenth and e a r l y twen t i e t h
cen tu r ies? I n t r y i n g t o f i n d a reasonable answer i t i s necessary t o
cons ider t h e per iod of B r i t i s h r u l e i n I n d i a 1850 - 1857, which I be l i eve
could have played a major r o l e i n causing t h e people o f I n d i a t o e n l i s t
f o r indenture.
When i t came t o t he i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e i r laws, the B r i t i s h found i t
d i f f i c u l t t o adapt because l a r g e sect ions o f t h e popu la t ion were exempted
from the operat ion o f c e r t a i n acts, on r e l i g i o u s grounds. Furthermore
the laws in t roduced by t h e B r i t i s h d i d no t always prove e f f e c t i v e
because t he va lue o f execut ive dec is ions was destroyed by t ime and by
t he d is tance between London and Ca lcu t ta .
When i t came t o education, t h e B r i t i s h r u l e r s were n o t i n t e res ted i n
promoting techn ica l knowledge o r techn ica l change i n Ind ia , except t o I
t he ex ten t t o which i t was necessary f o r t he "smooth f unc t i on i ng o f
i t s r u l e and the economic expl o i t a t i o n o f t h e count ry" !5 Education under
the B r i t i s h was a1 ways charac te r i sed as being excess ive ly 1 i t e r a r y ,
which produced " q u i l l d r i v e r s r a t h e r than t e c h n i c i a i s " . 16
15. N.'V. Sovani : B r i t i s h Impact on India a f t e r 1850 - 1857, Journal o f World History, 1954, Vol 1 & 2, p . 103.
16. N . V . Sovani : B r i t i s h Impact on India a f t e r 1850 - 1857, Journal
o f World His tory , 1954, VoZ 1 & 2, p . 103.
The o l d leadersh ip o f I nd i a under t h e Kushans, Afghans, Turks and Mughals
was complete ly wiped o u t and t h e new leadersh ip t h a t arose came main ly
from t h e educated Brahmans. As a r e s u l t t h e new leadersh ip was more
t heo re t i ca l than p r a c t i c a l . Though i n t e l l ec tua l specu la t ion was f ree ,
t h e people o f I n d i a were prevented from t r a n s l a t i n g any new ideas i n t o
p rac t i ce . The Brahmans saw t h i s as an i n s u l t t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g e th i cs
and modes o f behaviour and condemned any oppos i t i on from t h e people i f
i t were n o t i n tune w i t h t h e p r e v a i l i n g t r a d i t i o n a l behaviour p a t t e r n and
aga ins t popular f o l k ways.
It i s t he re fo re ev iden t t h a t B r i t i s h r u l e i n I n d i a 1850 - 1857 could
have caused g rea t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among t h e I nd ian people.
From my sample17i t has been estab l ished t h a t 74,21% o f t h e people came from
t h e Madras Presidency. The reason f o r t h i s cou ld be t h a t the s t a tes t h a t
make up t h e Presidency were complete ly under f o r e i g n domination, It
would be on l y na tu ra l t he re fo re t h a t t h e g rea tes t d i scon ten t would be
i n these s ta tes . Furthermore these s ta tes under B r i t i s h r u l e had t o
ma in ta i n t h e i r own army. Th is prevented f inance from being used i n areas
most needed and i t was these people who needed t he government f inance .
t h a t became staunch enemies o f t he B r i t i s h .
It has been suggested t h a t t he re was concern t h a t B r i t i s h r u l e would
b r i n g w i t h i t forced conversion t o C h r i s t i a n i t y s ince emig ra t ion was
g rea tes t from Madras where t he number o f Ch r i s t i ans i s sa i d t o be
greatest,18 i t i s poss ib le t h a t t h i s cou ld have been a reason f o r a
17. See Tab Ze 2 .
18. ~ncyc lopaedia Britannica, 9th ed i t ion , VoZ XV, p . 1 8 5 .
l a r g e number o f Hindus f rom Madras want ing t o emigrate.
O f my sample '%7,49% o f t h e m i g r a n t s were Hindus. What cou ld p o s s i b l y
be t h e cause f o r such a h i g h number o f Hindus emigrat ing? I am i n c l i n e d
t o b e l i e v e t h a t c e r t a i n s o c i a l reforms brought about by B r i t i s h r u l e
cou ld have been t h e cause o f t h i s . Hindu re1 i g i o u s customs were a1 so
d r a s t i c a l l y a l t e r e d d u r i n g t h e per iod o f B r i t i s h r u l e . Th is cou ld be seen
d u r i n g t h e governersh ip o f Lo rd W i l l i a m Bent inck 1828 - 1835 when Hindu
Law had been modi f ied t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t a Hindu becoming a conver t i n
C h r i s t i a n i t y would be e n t i t l e d t o h i s share o f t h e f a m i l y p roper ty .
P rev ious ly a Hindu conver t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y was considered as being an
ou tcas t who had t o r e l i n q u i s h a l l f a m i l y t i e s . Al though Ben t inck ' s
i n t e n t i o n s were good, t h e Hindus considered him an i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e
Hindu r e l i g i o n and c rea ted g r e a t d i s c o n t e n t among them. A lso Ben t inck ' s
a b o l i t i o n o f 'Sati", t h a t i s t h e s e l f - i m m o l a t i o n o f wives on t h e funera l
pyres o f t h e i r husbands was considered a d i s r e s p e c t t o t h e Hindu way o f
l i f e . Furthermore, t h e l e g a l i s a t i o n o f Hindu remarr iage was regarded
by t h e Hindus as an unwarrantable i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h t h e i r s o c i a l and
re1 i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s .
Furthermore t h e cas te system, which I w i l l d iscuss a t a l a t e r chapter,
was t h e most impor tant aspect o f Hindu 1 i f e , so t h a t any law passed i n
o p p o s i t i o n t o t h i s system was regarded by t h e Hindu as an a t tempt t o
conver t them t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h i s was t h e general f e e l i n g d u r i n g
Governor Da lhous ie ' s term o f o f f i c e 1848 - 1856, when a r u l e had been
19. See Table 4.
made whereby t h e pr isoners had been p r o h i b i t e d f rom preserv ing t h e i r own
exc lus ive pots. Th is was a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e caste r u l e s which forbade
persons o f a p a r t i c u l a r caste from d r i n k i n g o f a vessel o f a lower
caste .
Yet again the Hindus and even the Musl ims f e l t an i n t e r f e rence w i t h
t h e i r way o f 1 i f e when the B r i t i s h in t roduced a new type o f c a r t r i d g e
which was sa id t o be .s tee l b u l l e t s of cow and p i g . Th i s a g i t a t e d t h e
minds o f Hindus as we l l as Moslems who saw i t as an a f f r o n t on t h e i r
respec t i ve r e l i g i o n s , t h e cow being sacred t o t he Hindus and t h e p i g
being taboo t 0 Musl ims.
These a re j u s t a few poss ib le exp lanat ions which m igh t have accounted
f o r t he ve ry h igh percentage o f Hindus t h a t came t o South A f r i c a i n
my p a r t i c u l a r samples. These a re by no means t he so le reasons bu t
cou ld be regarded as the cause o f a general d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among t h e
H i ndus .
Even i n the economic sphere, a d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h B r i t i s h a g r i c u l t u r a l
p o l i c i e s seemed t o have p reva i l ed i n I nd i a . The r yo twa r i system in t roduced
i n Madras, d is rup ted t h e o l d ag ra r i an system and gave r i s e t o a new
soc ia l order. The land revenue was so h i gh t h a t t h e peasant was fo rced
t o take loans from 'moneylenders' whose i n t e r e s t charges were a lso h igh
so e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e peasants was a common f ea tu re o f t h i s system.
I n d i r e c t l y t h i s system provided a prosperous business f o r t he emerging
c l ass o f money1 enders. The new r e n t r ece i v i ng land lords, money-lenders
and businessmen came t o form t h e nucl eus o f t h e new mfddle-class and
were t he f i r s t t o a v a i l o f t h e bene f i t s o f B r i t i s h educat ion w h i l e t he
v i 1 lage c u l t i v a t o r s , a r t i s a n s and o ther "menials c o n s t i t u t e d t h e
p r o l e t a r i a t " . 20
A l l t h e systems of c o l l e c t i o n o f l a n d revenue destroyed t h e powers o f t h e
o l d c l a s s o f i n t e r m e d i a r i e s 1 i k e t h e l a n d l o r d s (zamindars) and v i l l a g e
counc i l s (panchayats), w h i l e these bodies have been c o r r u p t , they
never the less he ld together r u r a l s o c i e t y s ince a n c i e n t t imes. "Co-operation
was rep laced by compet i t i on . The c o l l e c t i v e l i f e o f the v i l l a g e gave
way t o i n d i v i d u a l ism". 2 1
Pr ices, r e n t s and wages a l l came t o be determined by c o n t r a c t between
t h e buyers and s e l l e r s . Furthermore the opening o f t h e v i l l a g e t o
f o r e i g n imports gave a death blow t o t h e v i l l a g e c r a f t s and i n d u s t r i e s .
The v i l l a g e a r t i s a n l o s t h i s custom and the market f o r h i s wares. From
an i n d u s t r i a l worker, he was t ransformed i n t o a land less laboure r seek-
i n g work i n a g r i c u l t u r e , sometimes as a tenan t and o t h e r t imes as a wage
laboure r . The inc reas ing compet i t i on f o r l a b o u r f rom indus t ry , e s p e c i a l l y
cot ton, and p u b l i c works was t h e main cause o f d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n and t h e
o v e r a l l t r e n d away from I n d i a .
The d e s t r u c t i o n o f co t tage i n d u s t r i e s and t h e i n s u f f i c i e n t growth
o f i n d u s t r i e s which fo l l owed it, s t e a d i l y increased t h e pressure on land.
As a r e s u l t t h e r e were densely populated d i s t r i c t s where t h e l a n d was
unable t o support an ever- increas ing number o f people dependent on
a g r i c u l t u r e . Emigrat ion frorr~ rny sample was g r e a t e s t i n areas where
the pressure o f popu la t ion r e l a t i v e t o resources was g r e a t e s t and t h e
' l a n d l o r d s ' zamindars most power fu l . An increase i n the numbers depen-
20. V.C. Pandey, L.N. Muckerjee and U.S. Kuat t r i : Modern ~ n d i a , p. 553.
21- V.C. Pandey, L.N. Muckerjee and U.S. Kuat t r i : Mcdern India , p . 5 5 4 .
den t on t h e l a n d was accompanied b y f ragmentat ion o f h o l d i n g s u n t i l these
reached uneconomic l e v e l s, indebtedness grew and c u l t i v a t o r s 1 o s t t h e i r
land. Once they were reduced t o t h e p o s i t i o n of l aboure rs they became
a l i e n a t e d t o some e x t e n t from t h e s o i l . Most emigrants yere i n f a c t
l aboure rs and n o t c u l t i v a t o r s .
Many o f the landholders i n t h e Madras Presidency worked p a r t o f t h e t ime
f o r wages, as ho ld ings were smal l and t h e h i g h e r wages t o be earned
overseas were made more a t t r a c t i v e by t h e f a c t t h a t " p r i c e s had been r i s i n g
f o r some t ime w h i l e wages had n o t kep t pace'22 o t h e r s who l e f t t h e
v i l l a g e s o f t e n d i d so t o avo id the pressure f rom r e l a t i v e s .
To t h e t y p i c a l I n d i a n u n s k i l l e d l a b o u r e r w i t h o n l y t h e c l o t h e s on h i s
back and famine round t h e corner , t h e symbolic f i g u r e o f t h e new cond i -
t i o n s was the peasant p r o p r i e t o r o r prosperous shopkeeper. The emigrants
were u s u a l l y " u n s k i l l e d laboure rs o f t h e c l a s s accustomed t o wander f o r t h
i n search o f serv ice , accustomed t o r e c u r r e n t unemployment, famine and
deb t " . 23
While a general d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h B r i t i s h r u l e p r e v a i l e d , i t would be
i n c o r r e c t t o see t h i s as a s o l e reason f o r emig ra t ion . As seen f rom t h e
ou ts ide , B r i t a i n was hoping t o cu re what she though t were s o c i a l and
economic i l l s , and was t h e r e f o r e no t consc ious ly 'aware o f t h e resentment
i t brought .
22. K.L. G i l l i o n : The Sources of Indian m i g r a t i o n t o Fiji, Population s tudies Journal, p . 144.
23. K.L. CiZZion : The Sources o f Indian Emigration t o F i j i , Population stucztuczies Journal, p . 144.
Certainly the group most affected were the Hindus and they constituted
the greatest number of emigrants. S t i l l others l e f t India for very
d i f fe ren t reasons. If the closely woven fabr ic of jo in t family and
vil lage community l i f e was an obstacle to spontaneous emigration i t a l so
imposed pressures which some peopl e found into1 erabl e . And those with
a s p i r i t of adventure, those who had been outcastes and those who had
quarrelled with re la t ives were among those who l e f t t h e i r v i l lages and
were picked u p by recrui ters .
Then there were a l so the females who though small in number comparison
to the males. My sample shows 71,56% males and 28,44% females l e f t to
give the i r men a family l i f e i n South Africa b u t a greater number of
them l e f t fo r non-economic reasons. Besides the wives and females children
of the emigrants, there were for instance widows or women who had been
deserted, or were escaping from bad husbands or tyrannical mothers-in-law.
Emigration must have seemed " t o some of them an honourable a l ternat ive
t o a l i f e of pros t i tu t ion ." 24
Surprisingly from my sample there were among the emigrants those of the
higher castes who could have come under a great deal of f a l s i f i ca t ion by
saying t h a t they were agr icu l tu ra l i s t s and labourers, men accustomed t o
working hard. Castes l ike the Rajputs, 63% and Musselman, 7,34% and
Maratta, 16% had owing t o extravagance, l o s t more land than other cas tes . 2 5
These people could also have come for reasons of health - cholera, small pox
were, widespread in India.
24. K.L. G i l l i o n : The Sources of Indian m i g r a t i o n t o F i j i , Population Studies JournuZ, p. 1 5 1 .
25. See Table 4 .
Since the south was always prone t o droughts and famine, i t would be only
natural to assume tha t the one who l e f t would be the victim of famine or
drought. B u t such a person was not wanted by the colonies due to under-
nourishment and ine r t i a , so i f people l e f t because of the constant threat
of famine o r droughts, they did so because of the fear t h a t hung over
t h e m . I t i s important t o note tha t the Government of India never saw
emigration as a means of relieving famine.
Then there was the th rea t of unemployment who faced many unskilled workers.
With the growth of industries and railways, a1 1 jobs were taken up and
even i f jobs were available, they were not ski1 led enough t o do i t . For
those who depended on the land, the f a i l u r e of the harvests; which in
the south happened frequently coul d have pushed people out of
India.
I t was a t t h i s psychological moment tha t the colonial planter held out
earnest ent rea t ies and rosy promise t o these depressed and oppressed
people. B u t i t should a lso be remembered that s t i l l others from my
sample especially the Christians 4,38% and Musselmans (Muslims) 7,34%
came fo r prof i t or personal venture. 26
I t should a l s o be noted tha t the recruit ing agents were se lec t ive when
i t came t o the emigrants. Those who did come were selected on the basis
of physical f i tness and were predominantly young men in the age group 2 7
20 - 3 0 years.
26: See TabZe 4. 27. See TabZe 5 .
CHAPTER TWO
SURVEY OF CASTE IN INDIA
The word ' cas te ' i s der ived from the L a t i n term ' cas tus ' which
s i g n i f i e d p u r i t y o f breed. It was the term used by Vasco Da Gama and
h i s f e l l o w Portuguese adventurers, cen tu r ies ago, as they landed upon
the south-west coast o f I n d i a and began t o s tudy t he soc ia l and r e l i g i o u s
cond i t i ons o f the people.
I
Other coun t r ies have o r have had t r i b a l connections, c lass d i s t i n c t i o n s ,
t rade unions, r e l i g i o u s sects, p h i l a n t h r o p i c f r a t e r n i t i e s , soc i a l gu i l ds
and var ious o t h e r organisat ions. But " I n d i a i s t he o n l y l and where a l l
these a re p r a c t i c a l l y welded toge ther i n t o one cons is ten t and mighty
whole which d i c t a t e s t he every d e t a i l o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p and con t ro l s
the whole des t iny o f man f o r t ime and e t e r n i t y " . 28
The t r a d i t i o n a l l y accepted theory of the o r i g i n o f caste t o the Hindus
i s t h a t Brahma the f i r s t God o f the Hindu t r i a d t h e Creator, was
the immediate source and founder o f t he caste order. "For he caused
the august Brahman t o proceed out o f h i s m o ~ t h " , ~ ~ h e n c e h i s supe r i o r
s t a tus , f o l lowed by the roya l and war1 i ke Ksha t t r i ya who emanated from
h i s shoulders, then the t r a d i n g caste, Vaishya from h i s t h i ghs and the
menial Sudra from h i s f e e t . So t h a t an essen t i a l fea tu re o f t h e caste
system i s the system o f h ie ra rchy from the p r i e s i l y down t o t he menial
castes .
28. J.P. Jones : India : I t s Life- -gad T h p ~ g h t p. 9 2 2 9 . J.P. Jones : ~ n d i a : I t s Life and ~ h o u ~ g , p. 9 4
Various d e f i n i t i o n s o f caste have been p u t forward. Kroeber, an
an th ropo log is t defines caste as "an endogamous and he red i t a r y
subd iv is ion o f an e t h n i c u n i t occupying a p o s i t i o n o f super io r o r
i n f e r i o r rank o r s o c i a l esteem i n comparison w i t h o the r subdiv is ions" . 30
Hutton def ines caste as "a c o l l e c t i o n o f f am i l i es o r groups o f f am i l i es ,
bear ing a common name, c la im ing a comnon descent from a myth ica l ancestor,
human o r devine, p ro fess ing t o f o l l ow the same pro fess iona l c a l l i n g and
regarded as a homogenous commlrni t y N . 3 1 G.S. Ghurye def ines caste "as
groups w i t h a we l l - de f i ned l i f e o f t h e i r own, the membership whereof,
u n l i k e t h a t o f vo luntary associat ions and o f classes was determined no t
by s e l e c t i o n b u t by b i r t h " . 3 2
The f i r s t and foremost feature of the Hindu caste sys tem i s t h a t o f
in termarr iage between the castes. "None except members o f totemi s t i c
clans, can w i t h impunity, look beyond t he sacred borders o f t h e i r own 33
caste f o r conjugal b l i s s " so l ong as castes remain endogamous they w i l l
preserve t h e i r i n t e g r i t y and t h e i r foundations w i l l never be removed.
Next i n importance t o the connubial i s the convival l e g i s l a t i o n o f
caste. It i s the business of every member of a caste t o conserve the
p u r i t y o f h i s 'gens' by ea t i ng on ly w i t h h i s f e l l ow castemembers.
Under no circumstance can he i n t e r d i n e w i t h those o f a caste below h i s
own. Not on ly must he no t e a t w i t h those o f h i s own connection b u t he
must be very scrupulous as t o t he source o f the a r t i c l e s which he i s
about t o eat, he must know who handled them and &spec ia l l y who cooked
them.
Some a r t i c l e s o f food, such as f r u i t are n o t sub jec t t o p o l l u t i o n wh i l e
E.R. Leach : Aspects o f Caste i n South Ind<,a, Ceylon and North- West Pakistan, p. 10
Hutton : Caste i n ~ n d i a Ghunyo : Caste, CLms -4 8' Occupation, 4g p. 2 Jones : India : I t s L i f e and Thought, p. 105
others ; p reeminen t l y water , a r e t o be v e r y c a r e f u l l y guarded a g a i n s t
t h e po l 1 u t i n g touch o f t h e 1 ower castes. "F i r e p u r i f i e s , w a t e r p o l 1 utes .
It would f a l l o w t h a t t h e y c o u l d e a t sweetmeats and choco la tes t o g e t h e r
w i t h l ower castes b u t c o u l d n o t d r i n k t e a o r coffee o r accept any th ing
on a p o r c e l a i n vessel r a t h e r than
The r a t i o n a l e o f t h i s i n t e r d i c t i o n i s doubt less the d e s i r e t o preserve
the p u r i t y o f cas te b lood. "As food becomes p a r t o f t he body, t h e
Hindu b e l i e v e s i t shou ld n o t be sub jec ted t o t h e p o l l u t i n g touch o f
o u t s i d e r s " . 35
Th is urgency i s i nc reased b y t h e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t castes p r e s c r i b e
d i f f e r e n t a r t i c l e s o f d i e t . The " S i v a r ' , f o l l o w e r s o f L o r d Shiva, a r e
s t r i c t vegetar ians and w i 11 have absol u t e l y no communion w i t h meat-
e a t e r s , even though t h e l a t t e r may be o f a h i g h e r cas te than themselves.
Other respec tab le castes w i l l touch o n l y ch icken meat, some meat, ve ry
few pork w h i l e no cas te w i l l p e r m i t t h e k i l l i n g o r e a t i n g o f beef ;
t h e cow be ing the most sacred and commonly worshipped animal o f I n d i a .
Another f a c t o r cas te i s r e l a t e d t o i s occupat ion . Trade castes n o t
o n l y p r e s c r i b e t h e one a n c e s t r a l occupat ion t o t h e i r members, t h e y a l s o
w i t h equal d i s t i n c t n e s s and s e v e r i t y p r o h i b i t t o a1 1 w i t h i n t h e i r ranks
any o t h e r work o r t rade . So i n a l l these l e g i o n s castes n o t o n l y has a
man h i s s o c i a l sphere and s t a t u s ass igned t o h im b u t he i s a l s o t i e d t o
t h e t r a d e o f h i s ancestors . Furtherniore he i s exp$cted t o conf ine
h i m s e l f t o ances t ra l t o o l s and methods o f work i n t h a t way o f 1 i fe .
These f o u r , t h e connubial , t h e c o n v i v a l , are t h e cons tan t f a c t o r s o f t h e
3 4 . J.P. Joms : India : I t s Life and Thought) p . 105 35. J.P. Jones : India : I t s ~ i f e and Thought, p. 107
c a s t e e x i s t e n c e and a c t i v i t y i n I n d i a . There a r e however o t h e r f u n c t i o n s
t h a t cas te assumes i n c e r t a i n l o c a l i t i e s and under c e r t a i n c i rcumstances.
D e f i n i t e forms o f r e l i g i o u s observance a r e o f t e n en jo ined , c e r t a i n
p laces o f p i 1 grimage a r e sanct ioned, mar r i age forms p r e s c r i b e d ,
mar r i age o b l i g a t i o n s def ined, d i v o r c e made p o s s i b l e o r imposs ib le and
t h e 1 i m i t o f mar r iage expenses s e t .
So t h e cas te system permeates p r a c t i c a l l y eve ry department o f I n d i a n
l i f e - s o c i a l , economic, r e l i g i o u s , even p o l i t i c a l . To add t o t h i s
t h e p e n a l t i e s i n f l i c t e d b y c a s t e f o r v i o l a t i o n o f i t s r u l e s a r e many and
severe. I t i s h a r d l y t o o much t o say t h a t " t h e r e i s no o t h e r o r g a n i s a t i o n
t h a t i s more a b s o l u t e i n i t s power, more w idereach ing i n t h e sweep o f
i n t e r e s t s and more c r u s h i n g i n i t s punishment, t h a n i s cas te" . 3 6
It would seem a t t h i s p o i n t a p p r o p r i a t e t o show how cas te opera tes i n
a t y p i c a l South I n d i a n v i l l a g e .
The v i l l a g e s o f t h e south, and e s p e c i a l l y those of t h e Madras
Pres idency a r e d i v i d e d i n t o a number o f m u n i c i p a l i t i e s and a l s o has a
number o f s ~ n a l l market towns and p o r t s b u t t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
was suppor ted by a g r i c u l t u r e , p e t t y t r a d e and h a n d i c r a f t s . There was
v e r y 1 i t t l e mechanised i n d u s t r y . Rai lways and bus s e r v i c e s 1 i n k e d t h e
l a r g e r towns and roads 1 i n k e d t h e l a r g e r v i l l a g e s .
3 6 . J . P . Jones : India : I t s L i f e and Thought, p . 11 5
I n South I n d i a t h e v i . l l a g e i t s e l f appears t o have been t h e bas ic " u n i t ' ) o f r e g u l a r economic, soc i a l , r i t u a l and l e g a l co-operat ion between
caste communities; a l though t h e endogamous group o f each caste
extended over a number o f v i l lagesU3! It was s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , f requent1 y
a u n i t o f l and ownership and i t was an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n j t w i t h i n which
most o f t h e day t o day d isputes w i t h i n cas te communities were s e t t l e d .
"Although B r i t i s h p a c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e coun t ry removed b a r r i e r s t o
soc i a l in tercourse, and a l though a cen t ra l government was created, castes
d i d no t become organised on a a l l - I n d i a bas is . For t he B r i t i s h made no
cons i s t en t use o f cas te i n the i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t they c r e a t e d ~ ~ ~ a n d i n
r u r a l areas where t h e p a t t e r n o f subsistence s t i l l p reva i led cas te
cont inued t o func t ion , so t h a t the v i l l a g e i s t he re fo re a f r u i t f u l u n i t
f o r t h e study o f cas te i n s t i t u t i o n s whereas t h i s i s changing as one
approaches t h e towns.
I have a l ready discussed d i v i s i o n s , h ie ra rchy and r u l e s . F i r s t l y t h e
Brahman cornmuni t y o f Madras c m p r i ses f o u r dominant exogamous p a t r i 1 i-
neal 1 i neages. They a re a1 1 r e 1 ated t o each other by p a t r i n e a l ,
a f f i n a l o r cogna t i c t i e s . They show a h i gh degree o f i n t e r n a l i n t e r a c t i o n
and ex te rna l exclusiveness. They have common residence, a common
cremat ion ground and common soc ia l and c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s t o
t he exc lus ion o f o thers . Ch i l d ren a re soc i a l i zed w i t h i n t h e i r
s t r e e t and u n t i l t he age o f f i v e do n o t ming le w i t h those o f o t he r
castes. The i r women on l y know t h e rpads o f v i l l a g e ou t s i de t h e i r own
3 7 . E.R. Leach ( e d ) : Aspects of cas te i n South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan. v . 13
38. E.R. Leach l ed ) : Aspects of cas te i L ~ L u t h India, Ceylon and North-West ~ a k i s t a n , p . 13
s t r e e t and never v i s i t t h e s t r e e t s of non-Brahmans and lower castes.
S o c i a l d i s t a n c e between Brahmans and o t h e r castes i s phrased i n terms of
r u l e s of r i t u a l po l 1 u t i o n " . T h e i r k i n s h i p system and t e r m i n o l o g i c a l
s t r u c t u r e i s d i f f e r e n t , t h e i r c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n t and t h e y h o l d t h e
monopoly o f r i t u a l s and know1 edge o f s a n s k r i t re1 i g i on and c u l tureu3'
The heads o f t h e f o u r Brahman l i n e a g e s form a group r e s p o n s i b l e t o t h e
government f o r t h e v i l l a g e ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and revenue c o l l e c t i o n .
T h e i r d u t i e s i n v o l v e t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f l a n d and se rvan ts t o separa te
households, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e w i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e as a whole and
they a l s o a d m i n i s t e r t h e temple ded ica ted t o t h e D r a v i d i a n goddess.
The temple i s t h e nerve c e n t r e o f t h e v i l l a g e where a1 1 castes owe t h e i r
a1 leg iance t o the d i e t y .
Under t h e broad category o f non-Brahman t h a t a re found i n t h e v i l l a g e s ,
i s i n c l u d e d t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c castes o f l a n d managers and v i l l age
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , who a r e a c t u a l l y descendants o f r o y a l s and former
s o l d i e r s . They a re f o l l o w e d by t e n a n t farmers and s p e c i a l i s e d v i l l a g e
1 abourers who serve t h e dominant Brahman and non-Brahman a r i s t o c r a t i c
castes. Spec ia l i s t v i ? l age workers 1 i ke a r t i s a n s , carpenters ,
f ishermen, washermen, o i 1-mongers , barbers , music ians, p o t t e r s and low
caste temple p r i e s t s come i n t o t h i s ca tegory . The t h i r d non-Brahman
c l a s s i s t h a t o f c ra f tsman and t r a d e r s i n town, they i n c l h d e s k i l l e d
wood-carvers , s tone-carvers , and go1 d-smi ths .
The lowes t cas tes o f t h e d i s t r i c t a r e t h e "Pa l lans" , a g r i c u l t u r a l s e r f s
of l a n d l o r d s o f t h e dominant castes o r 1 andless l aboure rs and
"ParaiyanS1who a r e a l s o a g r i c u l t u r a l s e r f s b u t who i n a d d i t i o n b e a t
39. E.R. Leach (ed. ) : Aspects of cpste i n South ~ n d i a , Cey Lon and ~or th -wes t Pakistan, p. 22
uap~e6 op uatu asayl *A1 leau! 1 yqed paqpal.lu! s ! qy6y J Lay1 'sabeau !l
no^ ueweJq ayq Aq pal lo~quo3 pue 6uowe paqnqyqs!p aJe s~ap~ay-mo3 ayl
' UI?lUyPJfl-UOU
aqsez~ y6!y pue uetuye~g ayq Kq Klquior JO uetuyevlg ayq Kq K~a~kqua JayqLa
pal lo~quo3 s: y3~y~ pue a6el [!A ayq s 1 ue6~o ahlq3npodd ~orew ayl
*PUP[ a6ell !A a(q jo a3npo~d ayq ~OJJ a3ueuaquletu oq sqy6y LelquaJajj~p
yqk~ pue suo~qedn330 pas! ~epads yq~~ paqeposse 'Me1 Kq 'aJe saqse3
qeyq s! houo~a ~euoiq!pe~q ayq jo 3~qsyaq3e~eyz~ Lequatuepunj ayl
'~U~MUJ~AO~ ayq Aq KL ~enuue a3~~q
anuahaJ ~oj passasse Klqu!or st adAq puo3as ayq al!yM quauKed anuaAaJ
wo~j paqdwaxa A[ [oy~ JO A~q~ed s! a6e LA jo adKq qs~ ~4 ayl 'saqse:,
46!4 Jayqo pue sueuywq ayq punoJe pa~aqua3 s! quawa6euetu ayq y3 L~M
u$ a6el~y ,aqse3-!q~nw, ayq pue s6u!y s! 3e4q ',e!ea, ayq Kq tuayq
oq paque~b aJe y3~y~ spuel ayq jo sJauMo A~queupuopa~d aJe suewyeJg
Y3!qM u! a6el [!A ,aqse3-~un, ayq cuotuwo3 aJe sa6el L!A 40 sadAq OM^
*aqLs a6elllh u!ew ayq u~yq!~
qnq sueuqe~q ayq UJOJJ paqe~edas 'sasnoq pay~qeyq ~a6~el 40 sqaaqs
J!aqq u! uo!q!sod alpppu aqq Kdnmo saqse:, ueiuye~g-uou ayl '~ado~d
a6elly ayq aplsqno spla!j Apped sso~3e sqalwey paqelos! u! sy3eys
y33eqq pue pnw 1 [ews u! ah !l sJaJnoqel ssalpuel ',,sue led,, ayq a 1 !YM
sasnoy aL$q pue y3pq a6~el 40 sqaa-iqs J!ayq u! papnlDas ah
husband's masters b u t are forbidden t o en te r the k i t chen because of
t h e i r p o l l u t i n g nature. I n r e t u r n f o r serv ices, each f am i l y o f cow-
herders rece ives mate r ia l f o r b u i l d i n g houses, t he r i g h t t o f i s h i n t he
v i l l a g e pond and c l o th i ng .
The 1 andless labourers , "Pa l l ansHand"ParaiyanS' are s t r i c t l y s e r f by law
and they rece ive d a i l y renumeration i n g r a i n o r g i f t s . Barbers ,, po t t e r s ,
washermen and temple p r i e s t s serve the v i l l a g e as a whole. They too
are p a i d i n g ra i n f o r t h e i r serv ices.
One impor tant p o i n t t o note i s t h a t " the range o f t he v i l l a g e servan t ' s
c l i e n t e l e i s i n p a r t determined by t h e nature and r i t u a l q u a l i t y o f h i s 4 0
task" . Ha i r - cu t t i ng , m idw i fe ry and laundry work having t o do w i t h t h e
body are " p o l l u t i n g " tasks and r i t u a l l y lower, so t h a t a l l groups engaged
i n them are r i t u a l l y lower than a l l those whom they serve.
The economy o f the v i l l a g e t he re fo re func f ions through the medium of he
he red i t a r y caste-determi ned occupations and economi c re1 a t i onshi ps" . While t h i s system i s very r i g i d i t does a l low f o r f l e x i b i l i t y because
considerable movement o f 1 abour between v i 11 ages i s a1 1 owed. A1 so
members o f a whole caste can change t h e i r occupat ion t o meet l o c a l
demand.41 A non-Brahman s p e c i a l i s t caste can t ake up a g r i c u l t u r e as a
secondary source o f 1 i ve l i hood.
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f economic re1 a t i ons i~ i ps of caste i s as fo l l ows :
Each caste group i s homogeneous i n occupat ion an$ welath, the Brahmans
are considerably w e a l t h i e r than t h e i r non-Brahman servants and t he
non-Brahmans s l i g h t l y w e a l t h i e r than t h e lowest o f castes. Except f o r
a few castes l i k e making ploughs o r bu l l ock -car ts , except on t he bas is
40. E.R. Leach (ed . ) : Aspects o f c a s t e $n South, Ind ia , Ceylon and North-West Pakistan,, p . 24 .
41. E.Z. Leach ( e d . ) : Aspects o f c a s t e i n South Ind ia , Ceylon and North-West Pakis tun, p. 33.
o f sex and age, i s almost unknown. A l l economic r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o n s i s t
of t he p rov i s i on of goods and serv ices i n d i r e c t exchange f o r paddy.
Wi th in t h e v i l l a g e t he re i s no middleman t rader , no market and very
l i t t l e economic compet i t ion. The v i l l a g e has non-hered i tary economic
t r ansac t i on w i t h f i x e d p r i ces , w i t h castes from ou t s i de t he v i l l a g e , and
a l so a v a r i e t y o f cash t ransact ions, under market ing condi t ions, through
con t rac tna l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h castes of t r ade rs and town craftsmen.
So i t i s c l e a r t h a t cas te i n t h e v i l l a g e stressed a r i g i d and almost
w a t e r t i g h t s t r u c t u r a l h i e ra r ch i ca l arrangement o f people.
From my sample4'it would f o l l o w t h a t no t a l l t h e areas o f recru i tment
mentioned would f o l l o w t h i s s o r t o f v i l l a g e lay -ou t . Table 2 shows
t h a t t he re were q u i t e a number t h a t came from the c i t i e s where cas te
adherence i s no t as s t r i c t as i n t he r u r a l areas. These urban areas
i nc l ude Madras C i t y , Bangalore, Bombay, Vizagapatam, j u s t t o name
a few.
Perhaps i t would be i n t e r e s t i n g a t t h i s p o i n t t o see t he caste break-
down i n t he Madras Presidency.
43 O f t h e Hindu castes i n Madras, t h e "Brahmans number 1,094,455" . They
f o l l o w var ious p u r s u i t s and many o f them were sa id t o be recen t immigrants
who came south t o t r a i n the ~ a h r a t t a armies. A pecu l i a r cas te of
Brahmans, t he Namburi Brahmans o f t h e Malabar area a re sa id t o be
descended from f istiermen.
"The Ksha t t r i yas o r w a r r i o r cas te number 190,415. The t h ree t r a d i n g
42. See Table 2. 43. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ninth Edition, Vol XV, p . 185.
castes o f C h e t t i s , B e r i C h e t t i s and Komatis number 714,712~~ and except
i n Kanara d i s t r i c t s t i l l r e t a i n i n t h e i r lands n e a r l y a l l t h e commerce
o f t h e country. The a g r i c u l t u r a l castes number 7,826,127; the h ighes t
classes among them do n o t c u l t i v a t e w i t h t h e i r own hands and many o f them
fo rmer l y h e l d t h e i r lands on a m i l i t a r y tenure.
The "pas to ra l castes numbered 1 , 7 3 0 , 6 8 1 " ~ ~ b u t a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f them
had abandoned t h e i r h e r e d i t a r y occupat ion by 1871. A r t i sans numbered
785,085 o f whom n e a r l y one-ha l f are workers i n metal. Weavers nun~ber
1,017,781 b u t t h e i r i n d u s t r y has been decaying due t o compet i t i on from
o t h e r B r i t i s h i n d u s t r i e s .
The l a b o u r i n g castes a re re tu rned a t 3,944,463, f i s h i n g and h u n t i n g
castes 971,873 b u t many have now betaken themselves t o a g r i c u l t u r e . 4 6
The palm c u l t i v a t o r s and toddy makers 1,664,862 and outcastes (pa r iahs )
number 4,761,503. The l a t t e r c o n s t i t u t e s one- th i r d o f t h e t o t a l popu la t ion .
Then l a s t l y we have t h e u n c l a s s i f i e d Hindus, who c o n s i s t main ly o f h i l l
t r i b e s and abor ig ines and who t o t a l 2,666,890.
47 O f t he emigrants t h a t came, on the sh ips , Lo rd George Bent inck and
48 Tyburn ia o n l y f o u r groups fa1 1 under Hindu - Gentoo, Marat ta , Rajputs,
and Malabar, o f which the g r e a t e s t number belongs t o t h e l a t t e r . I
say groups and n o t castes because one misconcept ion seems t o have
ar isen. From my s tudy o f t h e t o p i c and t h e sources I have consul ted,
Malabar does n o t e x i s t as a caste and y e t i t i s recorded under the
heading o f ' c a s t e ' i n t h e s h i p p i n g l i s t .
44. Encuclopaedia Britannica, Ninth Edition, Vol XV, p. 285. 45. En~icZopaedia Britannica Ninth Edition, VoZ XV, p . 285. 46. ~ o d d y making comprises de fermenting of palm tree sap i n t o liquor. 47. See Appendix A 48. See Appendix B
My discussions and readings have led me t o believe that Malabar was
simpl) a geographic region in the extreme south and since the l a t t e r
i s predominantly tamil -speaking, the term 'Malabar' may have been used
to class Tamil-speaking Indian emigrants i n general. 4 9
Plow i t would be proper and correct t o ta lk of the other four as castes.
Since Gentoo according t o Thurston was a term applied to Telegu-speaking
sudras that i s , menials, in general . The word i s said to be a corruption
of the Portuguese Gentio, a genti le o r , heathen, which they applied to 50
the Hindus in contradiction to the Moros or Moors, tha t isUMahomedans" . The reason why the term was specif ical ly appl ied t o the Tel egu people
i s probably that the Telegu monarch; of Vijayanagar was dominant over
a great part of the peninsular when the Portugeuse f i r s t arrived in India.
The Rajputs a r e t o be found a l l over India and they belong bo the
warrior that i s "Kshattriya" caste. They looked upon war and po l i t i c s
as the i r own sphere of influence. Many of the rulers i.n India belonged I
to the Rajput caste.
The "Marattas" a re the mili tary caste of the Maharatta country. Their
position in the Hindu caste system i s not a very high one compared to
a l l warrior castes and not exactly the same as the Rajputs.
From my discussion on caste, i t i s clear that caste i s essent ia l ly a
pan-Hindu phenomenon. Yet we find tha t in the shipping l i s t p l t h e r e
appears under the heading of caste two other groups, "Musselman" (Muslims)
49. Trustees of t h e Andhra Maha Sabha o f South Africa and the Tamil 5G. Association of South Afr ica were consulted on t h i s aspect .
E . T h r s t o n :-Castes and Tribes of South India, p . 280. 5 1. See Appendix AX
and "Ch r i s t i an " . These a re c e r t a i n l y n o t castes, and i t s i n c l u s i o n w i t h
t h e o t h e r groups was probably f o r t he sake of convenience.
But i n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, the Ch r i s t t ans and "Musselman" (Musl ims) a re
d i v i d e d amongst themselves. The Muslims f a l l i n t o t h e ca tegor ies o f
Ashraf , t h e nobles, symbol i s e d by the h o n o r i f i c names "Saiyad" and
"Shaikh", then t he w a r r i o r s , "Pathans" and "Mughals", and l a s t l y t h e I
descendants o f Hindu conver ts t o I s l am and "Moplas", t h e descendents o f
Malayalam conver ts t o I s 1 am. The 1 a t t e r group comprises hard-working,
uneducated f r u g a l peopl e.
I n I n d i a though t h e C h r i s t i a n s a re d i v i d e d i n t o Roman C a t h o l i c and
var ious P r o t e s t a n t sec ts t he re does seem t o be, accord ing t o L. Dumont
some d i s t i n c t i o n between " t h e Churches f o r t h e untouchables and those 5 2
f o r C h r i s t i a n conver ts o f the h i ghe r castes".
I t l r~us t however be remembered t h a t w h i l e these d i v i s i o n s do occur amongst
t h e Muslims and C h r i s t i a n s , these a re n o t castes as such and these two
r e l i g i o n s u n l i k e Hinduism are t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t o
d i f f e r e n t groups and d ispersed through t h e ac tua l s o c i a l l adder . .
Furthermore i t does n o t necessa r i l y e n t a i l t he tens ion t h a t p reva i 1s i n
the Hindu caste system and i n t h i s way i t stands apa r t from caste and
Hinduism. 53
F i n a l l y i t seems app rop r i a t e f o r me t o g i ve an o v e r a l l ana l ys i s o f my
5 4 two sh ipp ing 1 i s t s , Lord George Bent inck and ~ ~ b ' u r n i a ~ ~ .
To beg in w i t h I have devised f o u r t ab l es con ta i n i ng a l l the in fo rmat ion
I was ab le t o e x t r a c t f rom my sh ipp ing 1 i s ts . These i nc l ude t ab les
52 L. Dumont : Homo Hierarchians; The Caske .System and i t s implications, w . 203 . -
53 The ~ o l o n i a f agents Uere therefore wmng i n including the Christians and Muslims under the heading o f 'caste ' i n the shipping l i s t s .
54. See Appendix A 55. See Appendix B
showing r e g i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f mi grants , sex d i s t r i b u t i o n , age
d i s t r i b u t i o n and caste d i s t r i b u t i o n .
5 6 From Table 2 on r e g i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n I found t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t
number o f emigrants came f rom Madras C i t y 74,21%, w h i l e t h e s m a l l e s t
numbers came from t h e s t a t e s each c o n s i s t i n g o f ,16% o f Hindustan,
Cuddapah , J a l nah, Goa, Pal uimetah , Coimbatore, Puchi nopoly ,
K i stnayurum, Bor~ibay and Rajput . Outs ide Madras Presidency t h e s t a t e s
o f Mysore 15,31% and Cochin, 47%.
The most numerous castes i n Tab le 4%ere t h e Malabar 54.53 and Gentoo
32,96%. Together these two castes f a l l under t h e Hindu r e l i g i o n which
makes t h e percentage o f Hindus 87,49%. T h i s was f o l l o w e d by Muslims,
7,34%, C h r i s t i a n s 4,38%, Rajputs ,63% and M(arat ta ,16%.
d f t h e sexes, Tab le fahe g r e a t e s t number cons is ted o f males 71.56% and
females 28.44%. The most common age,Table !??for emigrants was between
t h e 20 - 30 age group which had a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h percentage o f 46,56%
T h i s was f o l l o w e d by youngsters who cou ld p o s s i b l y have shown a s p i r i t
f o r adventure and i n t h e i r age group 10 - 20 cons is ted o f 22,66%.
I n f a n t s and c h i l d r e n who would have accompanied t h e i r parents
cons is ted o f 11,09% much more numerous than those i n m idd le age ,16%
and over 50 age group 1.09%.
56 See Tab le 2, p . 11 fa ) 57See Table 4, F . 1 2 fa ) 58See Tab le 3, p. . 1 6 fa) 59.see Table 5, F . 1 7 fa)
CONCLUSION
I n conc lus ion I would l i k e t o say t h a t whatever t h e s i t u a t i o n on Ind ian
s o i l , cas te r e s t r i c t i o n s and r u l e s d i d no t su r v i ve t h e journey from
I n d i a t o South A f r i c a . I n the f i r s t p lace those o f t h e h igher castes were
d e f i l e d by c ross ing t h e ocean. Th is a c t pu t them o u t o f t h e i r cas te
groups, t o whose punishments they would have had t o submit were they
t o have re tu rned t o t h e i r v i l l a g e s .
Secondly l i f e on board t h e immigrant ships was i k o n s i s t e n t w i t h caste
r u l es . There cou ld be no r i g i d s p a t i a l segregat ion i n t h e holds o f such
vessels and people who had l o s t caste by coming abroad were l ess i n c l i n e d
t o s t i c k t o t h e i r r u l e s o f d i e t . Furthermore t h e emigrants cou ld no t
reproduce t h e soc ia l system o f caste because they were a m i n o r i t y i n
a l a r g e non-Hindu popu la t ion i n South A f r i c a and a l s o because they
themselves came from w ide ly dispersed d i s t r i c t s i n I nd i a .
On a r r i v a l i n South A f r i c a , a l l t h e indentured labourers worked on the
sugar esta tes. Th is even tua l l y destroyed s ta tus d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n on t h e
bas is o f occupat ion and interdependence o f one caste on another f o r
serv ices. Since cooking and a g r i c u l t u r a l vessels were bought i n South
A f r i c a , t he re was no need f o r p o t t e r s and carpenters. The indentured
labourers g o t used t o t h e idea o f doing t h e i r own jobs.
I
Immigrat ion a l s o changed t h e n o t i o n t h a t a man's caste was g iven t o him
by b i r t h and could t he re fo re no t be changed. It had been mentioned
i n an e a r l i e r chapter t h a t many o f t he h igher castes came under a
g rea t deal o f f a l s i f i c a t i o n and i n t h i s way they had taken on a new
caste s ta tus . Immigrat ion a l s o made i t eas ie r f o r t h e lower castes t o
assume a cas te s ta tus which had n o t been t h e i r s by b i r t h . Th is was
l a r g e l y due t o the ignorance o f t h e r e c r u i t i n g agent ,espec ia l ly o f
cas te and i t s imp l i ca t i ons .
Furthermore t h e r e was no counc i l formed among the emigrants t o pena l i se
people who broke r u l e s o f ea t i ng and smoking. Most o f t he immigrants
were young men and women and there were few e lders on whose shoulders
the operat ion o f caste counc i l s had t r a d i t i o n a l l y f a l l e n and who would
have been qua1 i f i e d enough t o r e s t a r t them.
Even marr iage i n c e r t a i n instances f a i l e d t o be endogamous as t he r u l e s
o f in te r -mar r iage were no t s t r i c t l y adhered t o . Th is was due t o t he i n -
s u f f i c i e n t number o f h igher cas te i n d i v i d u a l s among t h e immigrants so
t h a t marr iage i n South A f r i ca , was l a r g e l y hypergamous, t h a t i s i t
invo lved marriages o f h igher cas te men w i t h lower cas te women. The
l a t t e r were the o n l y women i n South A f r i c a they could have marr ied.
The f a i l u r e o f t he Hindu re1 i g i o n i n South A f r i c a t o develop a cas te
system meant t h a t a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e p u b l i c r e l i g i o n connected w i t h t h e
system f a i l e d t o develop. Nevertheless re1 i g i ous c u l t s and sects were
t ransplanted i n South A f r i c a and a l l i e d w i t h one another i n community
bodies l i k e the Andhra Maha Sabha o f South A f r i c a and Tamil Assoc ia t ion
which were s u f f i c i e n t l y s t rong t o ma in ta in a c t i v i t i e s o f cons iderable
soc ia l and economic value.
REG. NO.:
FATHER'S NE4E AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZILLAH
Lu tch ie
Coopen
Adeenee
Mariaman
Marian
Painee
Vee ras amy
Lutchmoo
Valen
Painee
Umco
Rangien
Painen
Mu1 l e e
El lapen
I r sen
Rama Reddy
Ramasaumy
Lu tchme
n o t a1 loca ted
Chengel royen
Thanamay
Madoor?y
Veerasaumy
Ellamah
Moonesaumy
Sabapathee
Painapen
Moonesaymy
U in idava l ian
Soobryen
Moon i en
Rungasaun~y
Moothoosaumy
Lu tchme
A1 1 aghery
Moonien
Chenchoo
Mi niadoo
Marian
Chinapen
Ramasaumy
Min ien
Cunden
Moothoosaumy
Valen
Vurdapen
Sadi en
V i l e u
Painen
D
Suryanee
Anapa Reddy
Ramas aumy
Ni r i s i m l o o
Venceataramen
Holapen
Saumy
Vencatachel l um
Vee ras aumy
D
0
D
C h i l l e n 1
Miniapen
Marr ien
Umavasee
Thooloocanum
Coomen
20
14
34
18
23
2 2
23
20
32
30
3
20
3 5
28
5
1
32
3 5
29
23
28
17
29
78
9
3
1 mth.
30
19
22
16
19
32
28
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma! abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Gen too
Gentoo
Gen too
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gen too
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
C h i t t o o r
Madras
C h i t t o o r
Mysore
Chi t t o o r
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Salem
Salem
Salem
Hydrabad
Bangalore
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
C h i t t o o r
Madras
C h i t t o o r
Mysore
Chi t t o o r
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Salem
Salem
Salem
Hydrabad
Mysore
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
732 Moorghen Chengelnyen 22 M Gentoo Madras Madras
LLC VAFP
R. I. Catarqui 18/11/1861
R. I. Umvoti 7/3/ 1874
LLC VAFP
D F
R.I. Umvoti 11/2/1876
R.I. Red R id ing Hood 13/2/1872
LLC VAFP 1873
D F 1873
LLC VAFP 1973
LLC VAFP
R.I. Regina 15/3/1865
R.I. Red R id ing Hood 13/2/1872 . ..,
REG. NO. NAME FATHER'S
NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZILLAH REMARKS
Sholapoor
Sunee
Moonee
Moonegadoo
Thunadoo
Mungathayee
Lutchmanah
Moon i o i ah
Jumnah Bhoyee
Moonesaumy
Varasaumy
E l lamah
A l l amaloo
Daniel
Jacoob
n o t a1 loca ted
Rungasamny
Moothosammy
Moonghen
Ramanjooloo
Neetheayee
Samuel
Rungasmy
Lutchmee
Munien
Coopoos amny
Karramu
Veeramah
Aurimui tho0
Thooloocanun
Vencatasamny
Nun japah
Busvanah
Ramanjoo
Neelee
D
Moothal oo
Ramas aumy
0
Unnueun
Chi nyamah
Chet t iah
Veeramah
Moothasaumy
Sol eman
Soleman
Vencatasammy
Moothien
Valen
Venca tasumaloo
Coinel 1 i
D
Vuraiah
Narrainsamny
Moothen
Soobvyen
Muniegadoo
~ o o ~ o o s a m i n ~
Apinachel 1 urn
Dunnien
Ramdoo
18 F Gentoo
18 Female Gentoo
34 F
9 M Gentoo
6 M Gentoo
26 F Gen too
14 F Gentoo
Gentoo
Raj pu t
Gen too
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
C h r i s t i a n
C h r i s t i a n
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Gentoo
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Gen too
Gentoo
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Gen too
Madras
Vi zagapatal.:
Vizagapatim
Hydrabad
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
so; Bangal o re
Bangalore
Bangalore
Bangalore
Mysore
Chingleput
Nel l o r e
Madras
Vizagapahm .,
Vi zagapatam ' '
Hydrabad
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Mysore
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Chingleput
N e l l o r e
86 3 Thutchanamoothee Patchamootoo 19 M Malabar Cuddal o re Cuddal ore
864 Chengelroyen Goonyapen 30 M Gentoo Chi t t o o r Chi t t o o r
R. I. Umvoti 9/9/1876
R. I. Umvoti 9/9/ 1876
R.I. h v o t i 9/9/1876
R.I. Red R id ing Hood 13/2/1872
P. I. h v o t i 24/4/ 1871
R.I. Umvoti 14/4/1871
R. I. lknvoti 10/1/1883
R.I. Umvoti 23/7/1874
R. I. Red R id ing Hood 13/2/1872
R.I. Umvoti 3/1877
R.I. l h v o t i 3/1877
R.I. h v o t i 3/1877
D.F. R.I. l h v o t i 11/2/1876
R.I. Red R id ing tiood 13/2/1872
LLC VAFP 1873 . ...
REG. NAME FATHER'S
!YO.: NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZILLAH REMARKS
Lu tchn~ee
Iy landum
Vej ianayaven
P u r i n a l i y u n ~
K o t i a h
Vencatasammy
Hoossain Sa io
Caroomben
An tnonee
Cundasammy
Vencatache l l um
n o t a l l o c a t e d
n o t a l l o c a t e d
Chooremootoo
P h i l i p
Munien
Mooth ie
Cha la thah
Putchay
Mun i amah
C h i n i e n
Veeren
Moo toocoodee
Mooni amah
Dajagopaul
Varamah
Canniah
~Yagnee
Lutchmiah
E s t e r
Moses
E l i z a b e t h
Joseph
Jer ieamah
Rachael
Soosiah
Vencatasammy
Padavat ion
Cundasammy
Pakeeree
Ramen
Abuool Rhymen
N a r r a i nen
Goothee
Chinasammy
D
Anthonee
Joseph
Armoogum
Kol en
Munien
D
D
Vee ras a m y
Veeren
Chel 1 en
Veeren
~Narrainsammy
Veeren
Gengadoo
Sau~ny
Rungi ah
John
Joseph Joshua
Joseph Joshua
Joseph Joshuan
D
Joseph Joshuah
Gentoo
Gentoo
Ma1 aba r
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
~ l u s s e l laan
Ma1 aba r
C h r i s t i a n
Malabar
Malabar
C h r i s t i a n
C h r i s t i a n
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 aba r
Ma1 aba r
Ma1 aba r
Ma1 abar
Ma1 aba r
Ma1 aba r
Malabar
Ma1 aba r
Malabar
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
C h r i s t i a n
C h r i s t i a n
C h r i s t i a n
C h r i s t i a n
C h r i s t i a n
C h r i s t i a n
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Madras
V izagapatar
Ch ing l eput
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Ganj am
Madras
Madras
Madras
C o i r a t o r e
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Nadras
Madras
Vi zagapatan~
Chi coco le
Madras
Salem
Bangal o r e
Bangal o re
Banga lore
Bangal o r e
Rajamundry
Gan jar
Chi t t o o r R. I. Umvoti 9/9 /1876
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r LLC VAFP lb74
Madras
Vizagapatam
Ch ing lepu t
Chi t t o o r LLC VAFP
C h i t t o o r DF
Gan j am
Madras
Madras
Madras R. I . Umvoti 23/ 7/ 1874
Co ina to re R. I . Regina 15/3 /1d65
Madras R.I. Umvoti 23/7 /1874
Madras
Maaras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Maaras
Maaras
Madras
Madras
Vizagapatan
Ch icoco le
Madras
C n i t t o o r
Yysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Rajamundry
LLC VAFP 1973
LLC 1867
REG. NO.: AGE SEX CASTE ZILLAH
?abekan
C31111ia030
.A; : eemee
Sencategacoo
b10o:hcosinrny
7 . InunSYm
Y u n g a t n a t u
:.loonusaumrny
3 a r r a i nsaurny
Vai oyden
V e e r a p u t ~ r e n
Mat.: kuq
Chi r, 3s auqly
;laucee
M o o t n i e n
a y r a d o c
2.
Doiapan
Veerapen
I4oosaoan
Bhoyee
Vencatacne: l ~ n
':encatapa?
Ged?acoo
Boyadoo
Yenge t e ~ a o -
Mar; inian
Gooroo~ncothee
Somasoonorurn
bloonesaniny
Cunoasanmy
MoonesaL:cm;/
Murgusayagen
Za~nasanlrg
Bramasee
P a d l e n
Soobranan-en
Mocsekeen
T i r i n a l a y
iyasaurr!
Veerapen
Vyahpooree
:parcil
? a s e e r e e
I rea:ar i r :w
C h r i s t i a n
Gen t o o
Gentoo
Gentoo
M a l a b a r
Malabai-
Ma1 a b a r
M a l a o a r
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
M a l a b a r
Ma1 a b a r
M a l a b a r
M a l a b a r
M a l a b a r
Ma1 a b a r
Gentoo
Gentoo
Ma1 a o a r
M a l a o a r
M a l a b a r
Ma1 a b a r
M a l a b a r
M a l a b a r
M a l a b a r
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gan j am
Y u s s i l i o a : m
Rajanmundrg
T r i chino:oiy
Madras
Madras
:4adras
Madras
Madras
Vadras
:4adras
Madras
Nadras
Madras
Madras
l l a d r a s
Madras
Madras
Madras
Sa lem
Ganj am
K i s t n a y u r c m
Pa1a~co::an
Goa
Bangal o r ?
Maoras
Madura
T a n j o r e
T a n j o r e
:4adras
N y s o r e
Ganjam
Yuss : i ' pa tum LLC YAFP
R a j a m u n c r y
T r i c n i n o p o l y
Hadras LLC CAFP 187:
i4adras
i4adras
Madras
I laaras
Madras
Maoras
Madras
Madras
M a i l r a i
Madras
S a l e i
Ganjam
Mysore
?a1 a n c o t t a h
Coa
R. I . Red g i a i n g Yooa 13 /2 /1872
R.1. Red R i c i n g d o o d 13 /2 /1972
R.!. U n v o t i 2/1677
DF 1873
LLC 'IAFP 1972
'LLC VAFP 1673
LLC f c r ..IAUR:TIUS
R. I . Red g i d i n g Xooc 13/2/1872
Mysore
f ladras R . I. Rsd Z i c i n g t iood 13/2/1875
flads.t-a
T a n j o r e
Tan j o r e
I !adras
:.ljiso r e
33 1 Paupa,!oo Yaciadco 1 14 Gen t o o ,,lagilra ;<atbra
332 da: a k i s t z n e n Yer lcara ien 32 M Gentoo Yadura "lacara
REG. NAi4i FATdER'S AO. : NAME
AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZILLAH REMARKS
Danacodee
Syed Ebrani
Apaooo
Ramdoo
Yeeradoo
Somaooo
Cuniah
Anoonlen
Syed Abdool
Yeddapan
P o t h i ah
Paupee
Yoorvee
Ramcoo
Ye1 l adoo
Rarnasaumy
Paupee Pentah
Geddi yadoo
Valanganee
Mausel amoney
~qoonesaurny
Ramakistna 2eddy
Busnen
Pe rma l l
No t A1 1 oca t e d
~ l o o n i ghan
Bhader
Dhal apah
Sunpiah
Sheik Ahneo
P a r i an
Shan S a l a l l
I y 1 andum
N i rs io t l oo 2 4 F
She ik Hoossain 30 M
Samiah 16 M
Soyadoo 32 M
Ch in ian 30 ~l
D00t-gad00 26 M
Veerasoo 30 14
Pakeerah 22 N
Syed Abdool A1 l e e 25 M
Pedoo 2 7 M
Sumath ree 40 M
Api an 30 F
Po th i ah 14 F
U 7 M
D 4 Male
Sonni an 25 M
Nundean 26 F
Pa th iah 6 M
John 26 F
Josepn 3 M
Unknown 18 M
Veeras aumy 23 M
Nunjen 2 8 irl
Mundaval ian 2 0- M 32 M
Sonnah 32 M
Jeemi 30 M
Boosaroo 30 Male
G i r i a h c h e r r y 14 M
Abdool 24 M
Pursa l oo 30 Male
Sheik Hoossain 22 M
Pe runa l l 22 F
Gentoo
Musselman
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Musselman
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gent oo
Gen t o o
Gentoo
Gentoo
C h r i s t i a n
C h r i s t i a n
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Gentoo
Gentoo
Musselman
Gentoo
Musselman
Malabar
Madura
V i zagapatam
V i zagapatam
Vizagapatam
V i zagapatam
Vizaqapatarn
V i zagapatam
V i zagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatarn
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Madras
Madras
Mysore
Bangalore
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Maaras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madura
V i zagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
V i zagapatam
V i zagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagaparam
V i zagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Vizagapatam
Madras
Madras
Mysore
Mysore
Maoras
I.ladras
Madras
~ l a d r a s
Nadras
Madras
i4adras
Madras
Madras
Madras
i-ladras Madras
Maaras
DF
R. I . Red R i d i n g Hood 13/2/1872
R.i. Red R i d i n g Hood 13/2/1872
R. I . Umvoti 23/7/1374
R . I . Red R i d i n g Hood 13/2/1872
R. I . Cata rqu i
R.1 . Ca ta rqu i
R. 1. Cata rqu i
R.I. Ca ta rqu i
R. I. Cata rqu i
R. I. Cata rqu i
R. I. Cata rqu i
R. I. Cata rqu i
D ied 1861 on S t a t e
R.I. Urnlazi 28/9/1899
LLC VAFP
R. I. Umvoti 23/7 / 1874
D. F.
R . I . Red R i d i n g Hood 13/2/1872
R. I. Cata rqu i 13/11/1861
R. I . Reo R i d i n g tlood 13/2/1672
. ...
TYBUR;:IA - MADRAS - MARCH 20 1861 (1223 - 1599
REG. >VAME FATHER'S NO.: NAME
AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZlLLAi i REMARKS
Sabaputnee
Moothen
Cnel 1 t in
Soobian
naugoo
Lutcnugaaoo
Gengaooo
Goo1 am
Cader Bee
Moonesaumy
Thayee
Veerasaumy
Ragavadoo
Par thasarudee
M i n i e n
Lutchmanen
L d t chrradoo
L u t c n m a o o
Ramu
T i t m a i a y
Mungay
Poinee
Chinapen - Sapa tn ie
Batcneo
Cader Saib
Pursooramin
Mooniesaumy
Raini an
Cni nee
Vencatasaumy
Rdnghu
Manaju
Thy 1 amay
H e y a l l Khan
Jamsvah Bhoyoo
Soobramany
Po inen
Rarl~asauny
Soobiah
Vencatacoo
Gengadra
Vencatasoo
Hyaer 3ux
Mahomed A1 l y
Veerasaumy
Perma l l
Narra insaumy
Vencatarsunghen
K e i s t a p e n
Lutcnmanen
0
Changeel ee
N u r s i a h
Sooben
Po inee
Vencatasen
T r i m a l a y
0
Veerapen
Somiah
Ebram S a i b
Mooniapen
Pursooramen
Neerejendah
Soonikannah
Th im iah
Vencatapen
Raaasaumy
Moo1 00
Labb Khan
Pavan Pavanajee
Ma labar
Ma labar
Ma labar
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Musselman
Musselman
Ma labar
Ma labar
Ma1 a b a r
Gentoo
Ma1 a b a r
Ma labar
Ma1 a b a r
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma labar
!lalabe:-
Gentoo
Musselman
Ma1 a b a r
Malabar
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gen t o o
M a r a t t a
Ma1 abar
Musselman
R a j p u t
Salem
Salem
Salem
Chi t t o o r
Ch i t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Ch i t t o o r
Banga lo re
Banga lo re
C h i n g l e p u t
Nadura
Ch ing l e p u t
Ne l 1 o r e
Cudda lo re
Madras
Madras
Ne l l o r e
C h i n g l e p u t
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Cudda lo re
Cudda 1 o r e
Cuaaa lo re
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Mysore
Mysore
C h i n g l e p u t
Madura
C h i n g l e p u t
N e l l o r e
Cuddalore
Madras
Maaras
N e l l o r e
C h i n g l e p u t
Maaras
r iadras
Madras
Madras
Hadras
Maaras
Madars
Madras
Madras
Madras
Maaras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Maoras
Maaras
blauras
Maaras
VAFP LLC 1875
VAFP LLC 1876
-
FATHER'S NAI4E AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE Z l LLAH
Mahon~eu Hoossn~an
La11 aee
Cinano Bee
J a n ~ i e Q Sa ib
Vadachel 1 em
Churpuryee
Val leamay
i4oorgayee
'la i ay aen
Sapaparhee
k o l apen
Lutcnmoo
h a n u
Moonesaumy
Abdool Cader
Ramasaumy
Mahomed Knan
Meerasagmy
C h i n i e n
Veeraragoo
Anarila 1 ay
Pani: en
Pursooranen
Vaden
damasa~riiy
Pe rma l l
Unyamah
Lutcnmee
(Dlrrnb)
earnasauniy
Ran~as ah,;:/
Canaita!i
?Iooneadoo
Moon i er,
~ I c o t!:en
Mah~med Jaman
Hoossman Khan
Manomea lioasinan
Mahomed Hoosman
Ramasaun;y
Veerapen
Vadachel lum
Vadache l l um
Vaaacnel 1 um
Appasauri~y
Vencatache l ldm
Parean
Sabapathee
Sabapathe?
Jamal Ahmea
Veeragons?
Canam Lhan
Veeraragaven
N e l l a n
Veera
Veera
Caopen
Cool ler ,
;Aarhain
Cundapan
Soondr~dm
Rarnasaumy
P e n a l 1
Chinapen
Bomen
M o o t i a l o o
Ramdoo
damasauny
Talanarcham
Veeraoen
Mussel nian
Musselman
Musselman
Musselman
Malabar
I4alabar
Ma laoa r
Malaoar
Malabar
Mai abar
Malabar
Ma laoa r
Malaoar
Ma laba r
Musselman
iblalabar
Musselroan
Ma1 abar
Ma laba r
Malabar
Ma laba r
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malaoar
Ma1 aoar
i4a laozr
Ma1 aoa r
Malacar
Malabar
Ma1 anar
G e n ~ o o
Gentoo
Gen t o o
Ma laoa r
Malat iar
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
T r i c h i n o p o l y
Bangal o re
Banga lo re
Banga lore
Banga:ore
Ne l l o r e
Salem
Bangal o r e
Bangal o re
Bangal o r e
Madras
Madras
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salerii
Sal en
Salem
S a l e q
Salem
Salern
Sa 1 em
Sa?ern
Salern
Salem
Salern
Chi n g l e p ~ ~ t
Ch ing lepu t
Ch ing lep r i t
Nel 1 o re
Madras
Maoras
Maaras
i4aaras
Madras
T r i c h i n o p o l y
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
C h i t t o o r
Sa le3
Mysore
Myscre
Mysore
Macras
Nadrzs
S a i e n
S a i z
Sa le?
Sa l??
Sa le?
S a l e i
Sale71
Sa le3
Salem
S a i e l
Sa le7
Sa l f-
Sa 1 erli
Sa 1 e~
C h i ~ ? ? e p u t
C h i n ~ ' e p u r
C h i n S e p u t
Cni t ~ o o r
Madrds
REG. N O . : NAME FATHER'S
NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE REMARKS
Poi nee
Anthachee
Poi nadoo
Ldtchmi ah
~ l a n y o o
Veerasaumy
Permal amah
Ba 1 1 amah
Dassee
I n f a n t
Pavanday
Ramas aumy
Valen
doonean
Gouree
E l lamah
Rani Dhevi
Mooni esaumy
Moones aumy
Soobamah
Annasaumy
Moonee
I yah Cunnoo-
Soob roye n
Che l l en
Chonnee
Ramas aumy
Lutchma
Syed Booden
Nunoo Bee
Lazoo Bee
Abdool Cunee
Kuniur A1 l e e
Maurumortoo
Sheik i io rden
Cal l e e
An anla 1 ay
Anthonee
Vencatadoo
Dassee
N a r r a i nen
Lutchmiah
Lutchmiah
Lutchmiah
Lutchmiah
Lutchmiah
Thondrayan
Chenyapen
Anamalay
Poosaren
Goinden
Unknown
Galpasuh
Seeneevasen
Halapen
Vurdapen
Na r ra inen
Mooneesaumy
Veerasaumy
Ramas aumy
Mootoo
Aurokium
Curpanen
Curpanen
Syed Ahmed
Sheik Haveed
Syed Borden
Syed Borden
Mahomed A l l e e
Chinn ien
Sheik l loossa in
Mooneapen
Malabar
C h r i s t i a n
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gen t o o
Malabar
Malabar Malabar
Ma1 aba r
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
C h r i s t i a n
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Musselman
Musselman
Musselman
Musselman
Musselman
r la l abar
Musselman
Ma1 abar
Madras
Madras
i4adras
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i c h i nopo ly
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i ch inopo l y
Cuddalore
Madras
Sal em
Salem
Salem
Salem
Ra jpu t
Salem
Salem
Madura
Madura
Madura
Madura
Ganjam
Ch ing lepu t
Bangal o r e
Anachary
Chi t t o o r
Madras
T r i c h i n o p o l y
Naghery
Ch ing lepu t
Ch ing lepu t
Ch ing lepu t .
Naghery
Madras
Madras
I laoras
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i c h i n o p o l y
T r i ch inopo l y
T r i c h i n o p o l y
Cuddalore
i4adras LLC DF 1873
Salem
Salem D ied 3/9/1887
Salem
Salem
Ra jpu t
Salem
Salem
Madura
Madura
Madura
Madu r a
Gan j am
Ch ing lepu t
14ysore
Anachary
C h i t t o o r
Madras
T r i c h i n o p o l y
Mysore
Ch ing lepu t
Ch ing l e p u t
Ch ing lepu t
Mysore
REG. 140.: NAME FATHER'S
NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZILLAH REMARKS
Hoolsdm Bee
Sheik Abdoolah
Sheik Mahomed
Moothoo A l l
Woonamal ay
Moothen
Coopachee
Tunchen
Minchee
Anamal ay
Minchee
Chinnamoonee
Bordum
Annamalay
Genghee
N e l l an
Woonamal ay
I n f a n t
Sanevasen
Rungasaumy
Poongavanen
Veeren
Coothen
Sorbiah - Lu tchmrdoo
Ashusb Saib
La1 l a h Meyah
Doorghee
Cunden
Moonchee
Soomdrum
Anasaumy
Ramas aumy
Honen
Thathen
Moonegadoo
Ghool am Mai dun
Sheik Hyder
Sheik Hyder
A1 1 aghen
Aanachel lum
Moo tho0
Moothoo
Tiramalay
Coopen
Vengnan
Venchan
J a l l o o
Moonen
Coopandee
Genghan
Moothen
Moothen
Moothen
Rungasaumy
Ramasaumy
Ramas aumy
Chel l e n
Moon i en
Umiah
Soobiah
Hoossain Saib
Sheik Rustoom
Moonsi ng
E l l apen
Canden
Madooranai gam
Radooranai gam
Veeraragaven
Vencatapah
Payen
Thimadoo
Musselinan
Mussel man
Mussel man
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Mdl abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Musselman
Musselman
Rajput
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
14al abar
Naghery
Maghery
Naghery
Naghery
Masulipatam
Bangalore
Bangalore
Bangalore
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Bangal ore
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Nel l o r e
C h i t t o o r
Bangal ore
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Bangal ore
Bangalore
Bangal ore
Bangalore
VAFP LLC 1876
Mysore
My sore
Mysore R.I. Quathlamba 20/5/1887
Mysore
Masul i patam
My so r e
My so r e
Mysore
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
Mysore
Salem
Salem
Salem
Salem
C h i t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
N e l l ore
Chi t t o o r
Mysore
Chi t t o o r
C'ni t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
REG. NO. : NAME
Cunden
Ansomien
Moonien
Moonchee
P a r i a c a l l e e
Padavat tah
C h i n a c a l l i e
Mooloosaumy
Seecunder
Runghen
Vurdapen
Vencatasaumy
Moothen
Doorgiah
Lutchmee
Mooneesaumy
Mooneesaumy
A1 l e n
Ramasaumy
E l 1 apen
Nynamah
Paupen
Vencat ie - n o t a1 l o c a t e d
Chi nadoo
Vencatapen
Thimadoo
Busvanah
Goorvaaoo
Gengaaoo
Kuriamah
n o t a1 l o c a t e d
Chinnamah
Soondrem
Veeraragaven
FATHER'S NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZILLAH
VAFP a p p l i e d f o r l a n d i n 1 Punjen 2 8 M Ma1 abar Salem Salem of p a s s a ~ e - 8/3 /71
26 26 M Malabar Salem Salem
Moonien 17 M Ma1 aba r Salem Salem
Thathen 24 F Ma1 abar Salem Salem
Thathen 30 F Malabar Salem Salem
Thathen 22 F Ma1 abar Salem Salem
Curthen 2 1 M Malabar Salem Sal em
Sevanden 46 M Malabar Salem Salem
Seecunder Rawter 32 M Musselman Salem Salem
Ramen 36 M Ma1 abar Salem Salem
Veerasaumy 30 M Malabar Salem Salem
Goorvapah 2 7 M Gentoo Sal em Salem
Iyahsawmy 32 M Ma1 aba r Salem Salem
Goindara joo 24 M Gentoo Salem Salem
Vencapah 20 F Gentoo Salem Salem
Painasaumy 23 M Malabar Salem Salem
Moonesaumy 19 M Malabar Salem Salem
Ramen 30 M Malabar Chi t t o o r C h i t t o o r
Goinden 25 M Ma1 abar Chi t t o o r C h i t t o o r
Mauree 30 M Malabar Gan j am Ganjam
Poinen 19 F Ma1 abar Ganjam Gan j am
D ied 19/7/ 1886
Vencatapen 34 M Ma1 abar Gan j am Gan j am
Vencatapen 30 F Ma1 abar Ganj am Ganj am
Vencatapen 19 M Gentoo Gan j am Gan j am
Vencatapen 17 M Gentoo Ganj am Gan j am
Gengapah 26 M Gentoo Ganjam Genj am
Yeramah 30 M Gentoo Ganj am Ganj am
Nagapah 30 M Gentoo Ganj am Gan j am
Sunkapah 24 M Gentoo Gan jam Genjam
Cavangapan 2 4 F Gentoo Gan j am Gan j am
Soondren 14 F Ma1 abar Gan j am Ganj am
Soondrem 9 M Ma1 abar Salen~ Salem
T h o l s i e 22 M Ma1 abar Salem Salem
REG. NO.: NAME FATHER'S
NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE REMARKS
Vencatadoo
Moonaswamy
Lutchrnee
Latchrnanen
Vencataswarny
Vencatararnen
Moothee
Moonean
Mu1 1 ornah
China lay
Runghen
n o t a1 1 ocated
Col undaval oo
Sevabaigurn
Vencataswarny
Sumshoodeen
Lazer
Cundaswamy
Mootooswamy
Moo tharnah
Soobrarnanean
A1 lamaloo
Cundaswamy - Ramasawmy
Maunee
Pyanee
Vee rasamny
Veerasamrny
Moonien
P e m ~ a l l
Comatchee
Ca l l ee
Chinaman
Ramasamny
Parvathee
Tnimjee
Cavareapah
S i do01 oo
Saben
L inghen
Veerapen
Chendrapah
Vencatapah
Thathen
Vencataramadoo
Saiboo
Vencataswamy
Chel 1 apen
Goinden
Mootooswarny
A lee Khan
Daveed
Appal swarny
N a r r a i nen
Pursooramen
Terauangadur
Mundrum
Nacheapen
Veeraragaven
Ragaven
Soobrayan
K i s tnasamny
Moonesamrny
Thirnen
Beernen
Woothendee
Vencataramen
Meyen
Vencatache l l um
Min iapen
Vencatache l l urn
Malabar
Gentoo
Gen t o o
Malabar
Malabar
Gentoo
Gen t o o
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Musselman
C h r i s t i a n
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 aba r
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar Ya labar
Malabar
Salem
Bangalore
Chingl epu t
Cuddal o re
Bangalore
Bangalore
Bangalore
Salem
Salem
Tan jo re
Madras
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Nel l o r e
Madras
Cuddalore
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chingl epu t
Chingl eput
Madras
Bangalore
Bangalore
Bangal o r e
Bangalore
Bangalore
Bangalore
Bangal o re
aangal o re
Bangal o re
Salem
Mysore
Ching leput
Cuddal o r e
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Salem
Salem
Madras
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Nel l o r e
Madras
Cuddal ore
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
C h i t t o o r LLC DF 1876
Ching leput
Ch ing leput
Madras
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
R.I . He len Ma l l ace J u l y 1686
REG. NO.: NAME
FATHER 'S NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE Z I LLAH REMARKS
Moodool i n g m
Moonien
Moonien
Minchee
Goorven
Mooneesammy
Soondroydoo
Enkiah
Paupiah
Ch in iah
Ramiah
Lutchmiah
Cunnian
Gooriah
Rajoo
Ramiah
Sarathee
Chiniah
Joghee
Raj iah
Chiniah
Appiah
Sarathee *
Vencadoo
Pol i ah
Ramiah
Raj iah
Yendoo
Enkool oo
Thasoo
Uppiah
Gengiah
Canacal l ee
That iah
Sarathee
Raj iah
Moodool ingum
Vencatachel lum
Vencatachel lum
Vencatashel lum
Veeraragaven
Moonien
Bal aramdoo
Caumi ah
Gengool oo
Coormiah
Thumiah
Ramiah
Purr iah
Goorvoo
Ramiah
T i rpathee
Gendaloo
Kis tnamah
Sarathee
Camdoo
Cami ah
Sarathee
Pool 00
Goo roo
Thumi ah
Sapadoo
Yenkiah
Naydoo
Appi ah
Ni rs imloo
Yagathasen
Juggi ah
Camdoo
Sarathee
Paupiah
Dal 1 apah
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Ma1 aba r
Gen too
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gen too
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Bangalore
Bangal ore
Bangalore
Mangalore
Bangalore
Nel l o r e
Chi t t o o r
Madras
Madras
Madras
T r i ch i nopo
Cuddal ore
Madras
Madras
Madras
Bangalore
Bangalore
Bangal o re
Bangalore
Chi t t o o r
Cuddalore
Madras
Ganjam
Ganjam
Ganjam
Ganjam
Gan j am
Ganj am
Gan j am
Ganjam
Gan j am
Ganjam
Ganjam
Gan j am
Ganjam
Gan j am
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Ne l lo re
Chi t t o o r
Madras
Madras
Madras
l y T r i ch inopo ly
Cuddalore
Madras
Madras
Madras
My s ore
Mysore
Mysore
Bangalore
Chi t twr
Cuddalore
Madras
Ganj am
Ganjam
Ganj am
Ganjam
Gan jam
Ganj am
Ganjam
Gan jam
Ganjam
Gan j am
Gan jam
Ganjam
Gan jam
Gan jam
LLC DF 1873
Murdered 1890
REG. NO. :
NAME FATHER 'S NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE Z I LLAH REMARKS
Cunnian
Chin iah
Raj iah
Ba la jee
Venki an
Errapah
Lutchmiah
Thumiah
Dhal iah
Gosanjee
Goorapah
K i s tnamah
Ba la jee
Jog i ah
Canee
Jungum
Venkiah
Dalapah
K i s tnamah
Sarathee
Thumiah
Erregadoo
Rami ah
Dhal apah
Camdoo
Ba la jee
Uppiah
Sarathee
Ra j i ah
Chenchoo
Ganah
Vencataroy l o o
Ghool arn Mahomed
Gopaloo
Paupen
Goi nden
Sarathee
da la jee
K is tnamah
Rami ah
Gengooloo
Kistnamah
Cunni ah
K i stnamah
Sar iah
Cami ah
Lutchmi ah
Nar ra i doo
Po th i ah
Mathi ah
Vencatasawmy
Dha l l i a h
D a l l i a h
Uppi ah
Thumiah
Pool00
Sarathee
Sarathee
Dhalapah
Appanah
Paupiah
Goorviah
Thongooloo
Paupiah
Camdoo
Ramiah
Vencatasammy
Somi an
Syea Cader Sa
Raj iah
Arnachel l um
Poinen
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gen too
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gen too
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gen too
Gentoo
Gentoo
Musselman
Gen too
Malabar
Malabar
Ganj am
Ganjam
Ganjam
Ganj am
Gan j am
Gan jam
Ganjam
Gan jam
Ganjam
Gan j am
Gan jam
Ganjam
Gan j am
Gan j am
Ganj am
Ganjam
Masul ipatan
Madras
Madras
Nel l o r e
Nel l o r e
Nel l o r e
Nel l o r e
Nel l o r e
Nel l o r e
Cuddal ore
Madras
Nel l o r e
Nel 1 ore
Ching leput
Mysore
Chi n g l e p u t l
Chi t t o o r
Cuddalore
Madras
Madras
Gan j am
Gan j am
Ganjam
Gan j am
Gan j am
Gan j am
Ganjam
Gan j am
Ganj am
Gan j am
Ganj am
Ganjam
Gan j am
Ganjam
Ganjam
LLC 28/4/1866
Ganjam
Masulipatam LLC 2&/4/1866
Madras LLC 28/4/ 1866
Madras
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Ch i t t o o r
Cuddalore
Madras LLC OF 1873
Chi t t o o r
C h i t t o o r
Chingleput
Mysore
Chingleput
Chi t t o o r
Cuddalore
Madras
Madras
---. . . LU (., "
1545 Endegadoo Ramiah
REG. NO. : NAME
FATHER'S NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZI LLAH REMARKS
Chengapen
Coopoo
Meenatchee
Ramas ammy
A1 1 amal oo
Moonesanvny
Kempanah
Abdool Cader
Pursooramen
Veeras amny
Cundas amny
Vi rpachee
Putchapen
Putchapeamah
Moonesamny
Soondrum
Moorgasen Rungasammy
Kis tnapen
Narrainen
Hoossain Saib
Amogum
Lutchmee
Vadachel 1 um-
Moones amny
Moonegadoo
Gengnee
Nagadoo
Maunee
Nagnee
Poinoosamy
Moonien
Lu tchrnee
Permall
Minachee
Chinniamen
Endegadoo
Narainen
Narainen
Poinapen
Poinapen
Pi tchamoot oo
Somadoo
Pariapah
Alle Saib
Narrainen
Iyasamy
Mootoos ammy
Nagachell an
Rassapen
Vencatashell um
Mootho0
Ramas amny
Arnachel 1 urn
Arnachel 1 urn
Soobryen
Moothen
Cattvah
Cunden
Thondroyen
Armoogum
Moorgapen
Vencatapah
Gengapah
Nagadoo
Goorapan
Nagadoo
Peddoo
Thathen
Permall
Moonien
Moonien
Moonien
Rami ah
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Gentoo
Musselman
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Mussel man
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Gentoo
Malabar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Mdlabar
Malabar
Gen too
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Salem
Chi t t o o r
Chengleput
Chengleput
Chengleput
Chengleput
Chengleput Chengleputl
Madras
Tanjore
Chit toor
Chengl eput
Chengleput
Chengleput
Madras
Bangal ore
Bangalore
Bangalore
Bangal ore
Bangalore
Madras
Salem
Nel 1 ore
Nel lo re
Nel l o r e Nell ore
Gan j am
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
Salem
Chi t t o o r
Chengl eput
Chengleput
Chengleput
Chengleput
Chengleput Chengleput
Madras
Tanjore
Chi t t o o r
Chengleput
Chengleput
Chengleput
Madras
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Mysore
Madras
Salem
Chi t t o o r
Chit toor
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Ganj am
L L C DF 1876
REG. NO.:
NAME FATHER'S NAME AGE SEX CASTE VILLAGE ZILLAH
Chi nniatombee
Seevagamee
Narrainsammy
Mi gale
Chinasamy
Moorghen
n o t a1 l o c a t e d
Narrainsamny
Chel 1 apen
Goolam Nabee
bloonesammy
Andenarrainen
Goinden
Migale
Mooneesarnmy
Nar ra i nen
Ra j oo
E t tean
Poinen
Appasammy
Moonees amny
Pakeeree
Veeras anmy
Moonien - Soobrayen
Moorghen
Insen
Pyenden
Mungeenee
Moon i e n
n o t a1 l o c a t e d
Veeren
Aurokeum
Mooneamah
Ma1 iapen
Poi namoonee
Annarnal ay
Purseramen
Mooneapah
F r a n c i s 1
Royacoothen
Chinapen
Ramen
Vencatapah
Sheik Hoossain
Ramas ammy
Vurdarajooloo
Ramas amny
Chowrimooloo
Veerasammy
Ramen
Papaurajoo
Veeraragaven
Valen
Pariatumbee
Mooneapen
Vencatachellum
Goindoo
Pursoo ramen
Goinden
Anoogurn
Armoogum
Vencatasen
Soobiah
Appasamy
Annumden
Ch in ien
Veeren
unknown
Appasammy
Malabar Cuddal o r e Cuddalore
Ma1 abar Cuddal o r e Cuddalore
Malabar Chengleput Chengleput LLC VAFP 1876
C h r i s t i a n
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Mussel man
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
C h r i s t i a n
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Mal abar
Ma1 abar
Ma1 abar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar
Malabar Madras
Malabar Madras
Ma1 abar Madras
Malabar Madras
Malabar Madras
R.I. Red R i d i n g Hooh 13/2/1871
VAFP LLC 1876
Madras
Madras
Madras
Madras
bladras
REG. NO. : HPME FATHER'S
NPME AGE SEX CASTE VI LLAGE ZILLAH REMARKS
Pal i athan
Moonesammy
Parianaigum
Amah Lutchmee
Vencatasammy
Mahalutchmee
Motay
Moorghen
Po inorsamy
Kuner Oheen
Veeras amny
Sokapen
Chinapen
Juganathan
Noydoo
Paupiah
Vencatasamny
Sooben
Thandmyen
Soobmyen
Azeezordeen
M Malabar
M Malabar
M Malabar
M Malabar
F Gentoo
M Gentoo
F Gentoo
M Malabar
M Malabar
M Malabar
M Malabar
Madras
Madras
Madras
Chi t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Masulipatam
Masul ipatam
Chengleput
Chengleput
Chengl epu t
Bombay
- -
Madras I n v a l i d . R.I. Umvoti 1877
Madras
Madras
C h i t t o o r
Chi t t o o r
Masulipatam
Masulipatam
Chengl epu t
Chengleput
Chengleput
Bombay
'(OE - t2 'dd 't ON 'El LoA '~561
CvO ZvuJnop uJaqsaM yqnos)
Xqa~3os uekpuI uJapow uk uo~6k~aa pue aqse3
40 Xpn3s y : e3~~4y 3se3 ul a3ua~aj~ :
'(51~ - €62 'dd '2 ON '€1 LoA '6~61 'fiBo20z30~
uo;zpul 07 uozqnqz~?uo~~) Xqa 30s npu !H
uL uOC7PZlqkJqSuPS PUP UO~~~JOS~~ LQqkJl :
aqse3 ayq 40 A~k~eaa pue amass3 ayl :
Related Documents
