Inclusive International Schooling, Philosophy and Practice Revisited (Agustian 2010)

Inclusive international schooling

Philosophy and practice revisited

Abstract

Title: Inclusive international schooling: philosophy and practice revisited

This paper seeks to investigate the ways in which inclusive practices are implemented in two international school settings in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The findings show that international schools, to some extent, advocate inclusive practices. There are several approaches to evolving inclusive practices in this context, including curriculum development, celebration of learning, understanding of difference, and catering for special education needs. However, there seem to be tensions between different stakeholders of international schools in defining inclusion; between the rhetoric of inclusion found in school documents and the reality; between the original philosophy of international education and the schools admission policy.

Keywords: inclusion, inclusive practice, Index for Inclusion, international school

Chapter One. Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

Over the last five decades, the world has witnessed the rapid increase of mobile professionals whose children accompany them to different postings in many countries (Langford, 2001). The implication of this global mobility is huge. In the context of education, it demands provision of schooling which is accessible to a greater diversity. As the world shrinks due to globalisation, it is of paramount importance that diversity in any term is catered for. Education should therefore foster equal opportunity for all learners across geographical and political boundaries.

The reason why diversity in many terms should be catered for is that it will serve as a resource to enforce social cohesion at two fronts, local and global contexts. As Kalantzis and Cope (2002) assert, when managed and negotiated properly, differences will lead to productive diversity, in which all members of community strive for excellence in their own right. In the world where borders between countries collapse, diversity has even wider and ever-growing scope. Therefore, the movement towards catering for diversity should be projected onto the global realm.

Collective movement towards negotiating diversity has been developed as one of the most sought after contemporary global issues. In so far as diversity in educational milieu is concerned, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has beaten the drum of equal opportunity and education for all, with the adoption of the Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994). Since then, it has reverberated throughout the world, reaching developed and developing countries. Inclusion becomes the heart of all endeavours to provide just and better education, regardless of difference in terms of cultural and ethnic backgrounds, socio-economic status, gender, religious beliefs and learning abilities (Kalantzis and Cope, 2002). Hence, the term inclusive education has come to light.

In many different parts of the world, inclusion has been defined and redefined into different interpretations. In the context of the United Kingdom, for example, The Special Education Needs Code of Practice which was published by Department for Education and Skills clearly refers to inclusion as providing access and adequate support for children with special education needs in maintained and local schools (DfES, 2001), whereas in Australian context, inclusion is redefined as inclusivity, which has somewhat broader boundaries beyond the issue of disability and special education needs (Forlin, 2004). Whichever definition is adopted, it is likely to go through an ongoing process of understanding, implementing and developing.

In the context of this research, inclusion is translated as an unending process towards greater inclusivity in schools (Carrington and Robinson, 2004; Forlin, 2004), where the focus is broadened to reach not only children with disabilities, but also to include all children who are regarded as being at educational risk due to marginalisation. The risk may emerge as a result of minority group status, such as ability, ethnicity, religion, socio-economic background, and/or psychological factors (Forlin, 2004). Having said that, inclusive practices as one dimension of inclusive school development (Booth, Ainscow and Kingston, 2006), are regarded as activities that are responsive to the diversity of students and young people in the setting and in the surrounding community.

The complexity of schooling is increasing with the rapid movement into global community. This is eminent in the realm of international education. According to Codrington (2004), the behaviourist and cognitive processing models are no longer relevant to the currently globalised education, as they stifle creativity and problem solving. Accordingly, the OECD (2009) emphasises the need to build trajectories for reform by addressing the relevance of education to real-life situations. Codrington further identifies several favourable approaches to education that meet the requirement of the current learning environments. The notion of constructivism, active learning, critical thinking and logic, and a balanced model of educational formation are regarded as the essential characteristics of 21st century education (Codrington, 2004).

Akin to Codringtons statement, Carrington and Robinson (2004) argue that schools are now challenged to be more effective in this circumstance. Inclusive school development, as a part of managing change in education has therefore become imperative. In the more specific area of international education, Hayden (2006: 7) argues that international education as a concept is inclusive. But for those who experience international schooling, as a representation of international education, this is not always the case. Bradley (2000) concedes that provision initially made for diversity in terms of linguistic and cultural diversity in international schools rarely extends to diversity in ability. She further asserts,

[f]or whatever reason, whether due to economics, lack of expertise or negative attitudes towards people with special needs in the host country, students with special education needs appear to be the forgotten children in this web. (Bradley, 2000: 30)

I referred to Bradley as the framework for the early stage of this research. However, I had to broaden and modify this framework in the later stage, as there were further emerging issues to be discussed.

1.2 Rationale behind the choice of the topic

The rationale behind the choice of the topic of this research is somewhat personal. For the last three years prior to coming to Europe for this masters degree, I had been working in two schools which shared common characteristics as being international. Those schools claimed that they were international even though they did not necessarily label themselves international schools. All notions of international curriculum, international examinations, international diploma, and international environment were at the forefront of the advertisement made by the marketing department of those schools in their endeavour to admit prospective students. Having claimed this, the schools promoted internationalism as their underlying philosophy. The idea of coming together as members of global citizen was reflected in every aspect of school activities. Each student, who came from different cultural, nationality, and language background, participated in celebrations of diversity which might take form as a United Nations Day celebration, different religious festivals in which all students took part, or simply a pot luck party where students and teachers brought food from their country of origins to be shared with friends. At this point, it seemed that they were inclusive. As I looked deeper into the daily practice and written policy, that impression somehow changed.

Reflecting on what I experienced in my professional practice back home in Indonesia, I observed that the idea of inclusion was somehow neglected. The practitioners of international schooling often perceived themselves as being exclusive. Commonly I heard how they prided themselves as high-class teachers, one level higher than public school teachers. This was probably due to difference in salary scale, or better English proficiency, but this might not always be the case. This feeling of exclusivity had, to some extent, influenced the way they dealt with students. Those who were considered low achievers, having learning difficulties or behaviour problems, were left out from the learning dynamics of the classroom. At some point, some students were even expelled from the school. To me, then, the idea of inclusive international schooling seems to be a misnomer.

As if ironically synchronised, the school policies on admission and curriculum were not in favour of those students either. I remember once I had to help a school psychologist assess a prospective student who had autistic spectrum disorder. I was with her in the counseling room, trying to help her with the assessment test on mathematics. She might not communicate very well, but she was a girl who also had the right to education in international school. It was such a pity that the school decided not to admit her, owing to the poor result of the assessment. Even when a student survived this first screening, school had never been easy for those who have learning difficulties. The rigorous demand of international curriculum, let alone additional obligation to sit for national examination, could be very stressful for them. One of my students in Grade 5 told his mother that he did not like school anymore because it was just too much. He had mild autism, but he was bright in mathematics.

I would argue that international school should and could be more inclusive. This unique milieu of education, where diversity is a philosophy, should extend the service to cater for diversity in learning abilities as well. It is because the underlying philosophy of international education is unity in diversity (Sylvester, 1998), in which global citizenship is fostered. Everyone is invited, regardless of cultural background, linguistic difference, or learning abilities. The corpus of literature does not explicitly makes a case for the status of inclusivity of international schools, but it seems to be inferable that the understanding of inclusion and inclusive practices in the context of international schooling still evokes a question as to what extent the understanding of inclusion is adopted. The degree of this understanding will clarify the position of international education in the realm of inclusive education and vice versa. This study was conducted on the ground of this rationale.

1.3 Objectives of the study

In this research, I inquire into ways in which inclusive practices are implemented in two international schools in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The specific objectives of this research are finding out how the practitioners of international schooling interpret inclusion; exploring the approaches to evolving inclusive practices based on the indicators in the Index for Inclusion; and investigating to what extent inclusive school policies support inclusive practices. The settings of this research is an international school in the United Kingdom. I also complement the findings from this school with the preliminary study that I conducted in an international school in the Netherlands, as a part of the buddy school programme that was organised by Fontys University of Applied Sciences. The findings of this study will serve as useful insights into my future professional practice in international schooling in Indonesia and beyond.

Chapter Two. Review of literature

The emergence of international schools worldwide has brought a new dimension to the research on inclusive education in a way that it introduces the concept of international education into the field. There have been few research projects conducted in the international school context (e.g. Hayden, Rancic and Thompson, 2000; Brummitt, 2007; Harper and Hayden, 2008), but research specifically devoted to inclusive practices in this context is still limited. The report by Bradley (2000) serves as a relevant background of this research. In her case study from an international school in Singapore, inclusive education was developed to cater for diversity in a linguistic and cultural sense, as well as a range of learning and physical disabilities. Bradley maintains,

[f]or families with children who fit the norm, confronting the whole issue of global mobility and the difficulties that often accompany it can be a daunting task. For parents of a child with special educational needs, however, problems are manifold. (p.30)

It is noteworthy that the range of special education needs in the context of her study is relatively wide, from mild to severe learning difficulties, from hearing impairment to Downs syndrome. The notion of special education needs is, however, not the only focus of my study. As far as inclusive education is concerned, the broadest sense of inclusion will be advocated here, taking into account any form of educational risk (Forlin, 2004: 187).

In the light of Bradleys study (ibid), this chapter seeks to explore the many dimensions of international education and how the actual dimensions are different from the way they were in the past. I will elaborate on the ongoing process of inclusive school development and how it relates to international education, and why there seem to be a tension and contradiction between inclusive education and international education. Insights into the Index for Inclusion and the wider context of British education will also be discussed.

2.1 International school definition revisited

Before coming to terms with the definition of an international school, it would be relevant to see where in the realm of education this type of schooling is. Hayden and Thompson (1995), highlight the different perspectives of the importance of classifying and generalising international schools by their characteristics. While agreeable requisites for a school to be classified as an international school are perceived as important, the efforts to identify these characteristics have also been considered futile, given the variety of the institutions that claim the label international. International schooling is, on the one hand, a way of furthering international education, where the underlying respects for international mindedness and global citizenship are advocated. It is, on the other hand, not necessarily true that international education always happen in international schools. In the case that the school offers the national curriculum of one particular country in an international school overseas, the relationship between the international school and international education might not be self evident.

Attempts to define an international school have always been contestable among many who experience the international schooling system. It is due to the fact that no one organisation internationally can grant the right to use the term international school in a schools title (Hayden, 2006: 10). In reality, however, there have been more schools sharing common characteristics of being international schools which are opened. Some of these characteristics encompass the variety of private, fee-paying schools that usually admit pupils whose parents are called upon to work in many different countries. In the case where the school also admits host country nationals as pupils, this might not quite fit the definition given, but it still holds true that all international schools offer opportunities to learn English in a much more rigorous way compared to the more generic concept of schooling. Langford (2001) maintains that the international school populations are characterised by:

their multinational composition, fairly high levels of student turnover as a consequence of career paths of [the] parent[s] which in turn may result in childhoods of transiency and international mobility a very strong likelihood that their pupils will not complete their education or attend university in the country where the international school is located, [and] the strong probability that the cultural development of their pupils will be influenced by the culture of the host country as well as the various culture that they represent. (p. 28)

In an attempt to define an international school more clearly, the following subsections seek to highlight some key characteristics of international schools and how they are different from one another.

2.1.1 International students

Hayden, Rancic and Thompson (2000) argue that the description of international may not be clear when applied to young people. Therefore, in their extensive study, perceptions from students and teachers from international schools worldwide were analysed based on categories of what might be considered characteristic of being international. The findings reveal that international schools students tend to perceive that attitudes such as open-mindedness and flexibility of thinking and action are essential. Additionally, second language competency, attitude towards other value systems and cultures, as well as respect for others are also considered to be equally important.

In the corpus of literature, international students are often referred to as Third Culture Kid or Global Nomads (e.g. Langford, 2001; Fail, Thompson and Walker, 2004; Gallagher, 2008; Grimshaw and Sears, 2008). Langford (ibid) concedes that due to their mobility, international students become excluded and detached from the concept of belonging to a country. Thus, the concepts of home and identity are pertinent to their personal and psychological development.

For young lives whose parents keep moving between job postings in different countries, the concept of home as a place that gives a sense of stability and security becomes somewhat twisted. Walker (2001) maintains that the impact of such mobility on those young people could be so deep that it creates disorientation. Home for the young lives is a place of physical security with powerfully memorable features, scents and atmospheres (ibid, p.18). It is where they have to go through early survival, confirming love and feelings of belonging. As the place called home is dislocated due to mobility, the young people are thrown into the turmoil or confusion. Walker states the importance of recognition that although students who are admitted in international schools seem to be well-travelled, multilingual, and sophisticated, they may be vulnerable deep inside. Experiencing high mobility at a crucial stage of their development can be very stressful and challenging (McKillop-Ostrom, 2000).

Echoing Walker (ibid), Kusuma-Powell (2004) finds that although international students are often perceived as highly competent in more than one language, they may not established academic competence in any single language. It is debatable that Kusuma-Powells findings are generalisable to the majority of international students, but it seems that the notion of Functionally Multi-Lingual (FML) children and yet their being unable to take full advantage of the curriculum on offer need to be addressed. The following subsection seeks to highlight some important aspects of international curricula and how they are different from one another.

2.1.2 International curricula

Curriculum is one of many attractions that international schools have to offer. Adopting from Lawtons definition, curriculum is a selection from the culture of society (Lawton, 1980). In the context of education, curriculum serves as a set of guidelines of priorities to best maintain and develop school (Hayden, 2006). In so far as international school is concerned, it can be problematic to define curriculum in a straightforward way, because it is not established from which societys culture an international school may select. However, Squires (2009) seems to have a more prescribed definition of curriculum, as he defines it as:

the districts written plan incorporating aspects of time use, content, and process aligned to standards and assessments that establishes a focus for instruction, assessment, staff development, and management so student achievement improves. (p.143)

For the sake of focus orientation, the term international school in this research will be referred to as any school that adopts a recognised international curriculum, such as International Baccalaureate (IBO, 2010), Cambridge International Examination (CIE, 2010), International Primary Curriculum (IPC, 2010), and the like.

The International Baccalaureate curriculum consists of three progressive and continuous academic programmes, i.e. Primary Years Programme (PYP) for ages 3-12, Middle Years Programme (MYP) for ages 11 to 16 and Diploma Programme (DP) for ages 16 to 19 (IBO, 2010). The continuity of international education experience seems to be the hallmark of the IB curriculum that interests many international schools, including the one in which I conducted this study. Designed for students of early childhood to pre-university age, these programmes build on a continuum of consistent structure centred around the development of international-mindedness. Notwithstanding its continuous nature, each programme is self-contained, thus allowing schools to adopt only one or two of them. In every programme, there are phases of development of students that schools ought to work on.

Relatively new, International Primary Curriculum (IPC) is developed as a response to the advent of knowledge economy, replacing muscle economy (IPC, 2010: 2). IPC aims to prepare students for the 21st century, in which both change and stability must be regarded as equally important. The idea of nationality is changing, so is the demand of employment. But it also suggests that the core values such as honesty, respect, co-operation and caring still apply.

Both IB and IPC curricula position learning of the students at the core of its goals, and in so doing, they define the learning goals of the students in the framework of international-mindedness. It is an international perspective based upon the knowledge and understanding of ones own national culture within international context. Both curricula seek to build an awareness of the independence of and the interdependence between peoples and countries. They put as much emphasis on similarities between peoples as they do on differences.

On the other hand, the Cambridge International Primary Programme (CIPP) has different foci, as it addresses mainly the traditional core subjects. Offered typically to 511 year olds, it gives schools a curriculum framework to develop Mathematics, English and Science skills and knowledge in young children (CIE, 2010). Cambridge Primary provides guidance for curriculum development and classroom teaching and learning. It enables teachers to assess children's learning as they progress with two optional assessments: Cambridge Primary progression tests and Cambridge Primary Achievement Tests.

2.2 International schools today: inclusive by nature, exclusive by choice?

International schools emerge as a consequence of the shifting global context, from the geographically-bound territories, which are more known as countries, to that of fluid state of flux, where national, racial and religious boundaries collapse (Wishard, 2009). The shrinking world, as Wishard argues, has eventually forged a global single identity, where education encounters prolific change. The change in systems, accessibility and inclusivity will determine whether or not education is indeed for all. Resistance to change could, therefore, lead to stagnation.

Wishards argument is actually echoing the original idea of international schooling. If we look back to the history of international education, it becomes clear how the emergence of international school was actually a reaction of the humanitarian advocates against imperialism. According to Sylvester (2002), The Spring Grove School, which is claimed to be the first international school in the world dating back to 1866, was founded on the underlying philosophy of world peace and international harmony. Richard Cobden, who supported the establishment of the school, was strongly against war and imperialism. In the period when western colonisation was prevalent, he was one of the most assertive founding fathers of a new type of education which would enable the citizens of different countries to become international ambassadors (p. 5). It is palpable that the original philosophy of international education and international schooling is indeed inclusive. One of the burning questions that I aim to investigate through this study is why then, international schools as we know at present belong to an exclusive system of education affordable only by the minority within elite society.

The overwhelming majority of international schools today charge fees (Wilkinson, 2001). Although some of them provide scholarships and bursaries for students in financial need (MacDonald, 2006), the private and independent nature of the schools still renders them inaccessible to the majority of children. MacDonald argues that because international schools exist within an economic context, management of educational issues is not the only concern of the school leaders and, inevitably, the school owner(s). There is always notion of business management, in which revenues, market structures, financial efficacy and efficiency perpetuate the inaccessibility of international schools.

Viewed from a different perspective, the issue of exclusivity also arises as a consequence of segmented labour markets in international schools, in which discrimination is a key concept (Canterford, 2003). For instance, customer discrimination asserts that the customer, who in the international school setting would be the parent, may rather see their child taught by an expatriate rather than a locally hired teacher. The preference may be founded more on prejudice than on well-informed evaluation. The prevalent perception about the added values of international education for the future of the children contributes to this haphazard prejudice. Supporting Canterfords arguments, Wilkinson (2001) observes that parents tend to build resistance to a certain type of teachers, especially when it comes to English teachers. For example, parents feel that the British GCSE programme is best taught by British or British-trained teachers. However, several African staff doubt that by so doing, international schools would not be able to escape from the domination of the first world, i.e. predominantly western view.

Although the exclusivity of the present international schools seems to forge a paradox as they are juxtaposed with the original philosophy of international education, there are some good examples of the movement towards a more inclusive international schooling, such as what we can observe from the United World College (UWC, 2010). In their official website, UWC describes that it is the only global educational NGO that brings students together from all over the world, selected from within their own countries, on merit and regardless of their ability to pay. These students come together at one of thirteen UWC schools and colleges that aim to foster international understanding and peace. Another example is the International School of Dublin (International School of Dublin, 2010), which claims to operate as a not-for-profit organisation dedicated to the advancement of international education. Also, there are more international schools that attempt to be more inclusive by producing inclusive policy as a part of their school policies, or at the very least, mentioning inclusion in their promotional websites (e.g. International Community School, 2010; St Andrews International School, 2010; and Beijing City International School, 2010). Notwithstanding these attempts, their understanding of inclusion and inclusive practices seems to raise more intriguing questions as to what extent the understanding of inclusion is adopted, whether it entails students with special education needs, or students from underprivileged family, or again simply entails students from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that the understanding of inclusion is made clear, explicit and contextual, and that is what this study seeks to investigate.

2.3 Inclusive education in the realm of international education

Inclusive education is heralded as a breakthrough in the fight against discrimination and marginalisation. For many years, students with disabilities and those being at educational risk due to marginalisation could not fully benefit from education the way they are supposed to benefit. In many countries around the world, inclusive education has been a new way of negotiating diversity in a more productive and effective way (Corbett, 1999; Kalantzis and Cope, 2002; Carrington and Robinson, 2004; Udvari-Solner, Thousand, Villa, Quiocho and Kelly, 2005). Albeit there is a corpus of literature that puts the reservations about full educational inclusion (Fuchs and Fuchs, 1994-95; Shanker, 1994-95; Heung, 2006), there is more evidence that inclusive education results in improved outcomes of the students, both with and without disabilities (Forlin, 2004), building social networks among all students (Hick, 2005), and promoting greater inclusion beyond the boundaries of school premises (Ainscow and Kaplan, 2004).

In the context of international schooling, inclusive education is argued to accrue benefits not only to the students with special education needs, but also to mainstream students as they are presented with additional learning opportunities and encouraged to face challenges rather than to run away from them (Hayden, 2006). This is reiterated by Udvari-Solner et al. (2005), who argue that when inclusive practices are used, educators are better equipped to facilitate meaningful and effective education not only for students at risk, per se, but also for those who are allegedly average, or even gifted. Very often teachers pay the utmost attention to the students with learning difficulties while the more able ones are left unchallenged. In an international school where diversity is even more pronounced beyond learning abilities, inclusive education becomes imperative.

At the heart of international education is the philosophy of embracing diversity and difference. Coming together as one single nation of the earth, removing barriers in terms of geographical confines and cultural boundaries, and advocating global citizenship are key features of international education which are most celebrated. As a form of international education, international schools share their own views on some current issues in education, including inclusion and inclusive practices. From this premise, inclusion is translated as a goal of the whole focal point of global education, which encompasses social inclusion and active participation (Levy, 2007). Accordingly, special education needs are herein regarded as functional and intellectual disabilities (Clausen-May, 2007). The description of special education needs is arguable here, as there seems to be a narrow understanding of special education needs which is confined within the boundaries of disability. However, there are provisions of special education needs in international schools in the UK, which include not only pupils with learning difficulties but also those who experience temporary disabilities due to language barriers (e.g. Jonietz, 1991; Kusuma-Powell, 2004). In 2008, the Independent School Council (ISC) made a survey and observed that most cases of special education needs in independent schools in the United Kingdom, including international schools, are the ones statemented with dyslexia, dyspraxia and dyscalculia (ISC, 2008). The rest of the students are statemented with other learning difficulties, such as Aspergers syndrome, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), hearing impairment, behaviour and emotional difficulties, and physical disability.

Little has been researched that inclusive schooling is developing in international school premises, but there are some studies devoted to the inclusive school development in international school. Bradley (2000), for example, maintains the collective aspiration of education in the twenty-first century: equal opportunities and education for all. The case study that she conducted in an international school in Singapore is an example of how international school also plays a significant role in the worldwide move towards inclusive education, as she argues, an inclusive system may be regarded as a necessary requirement for all international schools if they are to be considered as institutions that cater for all the children of the world (Bradley, 2000: 30).

2.4 Index for Inclusion

The Index for Inclusion (Booth et al., 2000) is a set of materials to support schools in the process of inclusive school development. It was developed in the United Kingdom at the Centre for Studies in Inclusive Education (CSIE) in collaboration with the University of Manchester and University of Christ Church College Canterbury. It does not offer a blueprint for improvement and transformation, but rather facilitates far-reaching scrutiny and encourages self evaluation on how far the school has been going through the process of inclusion (Vaughan, 2002). Once a school embarks on the process of inclusive school development, the Index serves as a framework to guide the school with investigation using a number of indicators and related questions. Over a period of time, the school will get insights into the current state of inclusion and provide future plans to develop greater inclusion.

In the country where it was developed, thousands of mainstream schools across the United Kingdom have used the Index for Inclusion (Vaughan, 2002). According to Norwich, Goodchild and Lloyd (2001), the United Kingdom government supported the distribution of the Index to no less than 26,000 primary, secondary and special schools and to all LEAs in England by giving financial backing. The findings obviously showcased how much impact development initiatives can have on schools driven from a distinct inclusion agenda (Norwich et al., 2001). Since it was launched in the United Kingdom (March 2000), Index for Inclusion has been validated for use in several countries (e.g. Deppeler & Harvey, 2004; Forlin, 2004; Hick, 2005; Engelbrecht, Oswald and Forlin, 2006; and Heung, 2006). There are hitherto more schools around the world embarking on the inclusive school development by adopting the Index.

In the Index, inclusion is an approach to education in which activities are carried out according to inclusive values (Ainscow et al., 2003). The inclusive values, which are often associated with children with impairments or those seen as having special educational needs, are extended to embrace full participation of all children as well as adults involved in the setting. The four elements of the Index, i.e., key concepts, planning framework, reviewing materials and inclusive processes will sustain long-term improvement in schools in terms of inclusion. In exploring possibilities for improvement, the Index entails a process of school self-review on three dimensions concerned with creating inclusive cultures, producing inclusive policies and evolving inclusive practices. The focus of this research is the investigation of inclusive practices, which, as Ainscow et al. (2003) state, is an evolutionary process. There will be association with inclusive policies and cultures as well, because the three dimensions of the Index are interconnected. The following figure shows the interplay among these dimensions.

2.5 Contexts of the study

2.5.1 The United Kingdom

Education system in the United Kingdom comprises of primary, secondary, further and higher education. Primary and secondary education is compulsory for all children of 5 up to 16 years old. The system is also split into key stages, where pupils are assessed at the end of each stage. Wherever British curriculum is adopted in international schools around the world, this key stage system is usually followed.

More than 90% pupils in the UK attend maintained schools (British Council, 2010). The rest of those who are enrolled in formal education attend independent schools, including international schools. Although the percentage of pupils attending independent schools is relatively low, the private sector is equally important as the maintained sector, in a way that it provides the parents who are willing to pay school fees with more options and possibilities.

In the UK, education is at the time of writing administered and catered for by the Department for Children, Schools and Families (recently revised to Department for Education). The responsibility of this department is not only for giving children and young people top quality education, but also their well-being and security (DCSF, 2010). In order to make it happen, DCSF designed the Children Plan in 2007, with an ambitious goal of making England the best place in the world for children and young people to grow up. In response to inclusive education, DCSF introduced the Inclusion Development Programme (IDP), focusing on different areas of special education needs.

Inclusion has long been an issue of concern in British education. There are at least four major organisations supporting inclusive education, among others, The Alliance for Inclusive Education, Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education, Disability Equality in Education, and Parents for Inclusion. In cooperation with DCSF, each of these organisations developed programmes and released publications on inclusive education. It is by unfailing efforts of these organisations too, the Index for Inclusion came to light (Booth et al., 2000). The emergence of the Index for Inclusion has set a new dawn to the development of inclusive practices in school not only within the geographical confines of the United Kingdom, but worldwide alike. It serves as a framework with guidelines to support schools in the process of inclusive school development. Since it was launched in March 2000, thousands of mainstream schools across the UK and throughout the world has used the Index in the attempts to investigate the current inclusive state of the school as well as structurally plan future development for inclusion (Vaughan, 2002).

Out of more than 2,500 private schools throughout the UK, there are no less than 84 international schools where international or country-defined curricula is adopted (School Search, 2010). Each of these schools offers different range of educational key stages, admits different range of nationalities, and charges different amount of school fees, which can be as high as ?32,000 per annum. The whole idea of inclusion seems to meet a challenge here, where pupils are admitted on grounds of affordability and economic capacity.

Ever since the government encouraged schools in Britain to make links with overseas schools in 1999, there are more international schools emerging (Bunnell, 2008). The operation of International School Award (ISA) by the British Council has encouraged even more British schools to build international networks. The emergence of this sort of cultivated international schools provides a huge implication on the establishment of international curriculum. Provided that this curriculum incorporates inclusive school development, as is echoed by Ainscow et al. (2003), international schools in the UK will play a more salient role in supporting inclusive education nationally and further afield.

2.5.2 The Netherlands

According to Euredyce (2009), about 2.6 million children were enrolled in Dutch compulsory education in October 2008. Almost all 4-year-olds (99%) in the Netherlands attend Basissschool (primary school), although compulsory education starts at the age of 5 up to 20. Every child must attend school full time from the first school day of the month following its fifth birthday, until the end of the school year in which they turn 16. From then on all pupils up to the age of 18 will be required to continue learning until they have obtained a basic qualification certificate.

In the Netherlands, people have the right to found schools and to provide teaching based on religious, ideological or educational beliefs. As a result there are both publicly run and privately run schools. It is interesting that the percentage of pupils attending private schools is very high, up to 70%. This is the result of the statutory equal status of public and private schools. The government expenditure on public education must be matched by spending on private education (Euredyce, 2009).

Dutch education is controlled by the central government by means of regulations and legislation. The prime responsibilities relate mainly to the structuring and funding of the system, the management of public-authority institutions, inspection, examinations and student support. The ministry of education is more responsible for the coordination of science policy, emancipation policies for women and homosexuals, and for cultural and media policy.

Used to recognising four clusters of segregated special needs education, the Netherlands now has two groups of special education; one for primary education (speciale scholen voor basisonderwijs), for children with learning and behavioural, learning and developmental difficulties, and another one called special schools (speciaal onderwijs), for children with visual and hearing impairments, physical and mental disabilities, and children with phychiatric or behavioural disorders. The latter caters for both the primary and secondary age group.

Since 1991, Dutch education policy has been geared to integrating children with special needs in mainstream primary schools (Eurydice, 2009: 8). According to the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2009), equality and equity are important characteristics of the Dutch educational system. There is a number of policy measures that support this statement, inter alia, free-of-charge compulsory education, provision of additional resources and staff to support pupils with a potential educational disadvantage, collaboration between municipalities to draw a local educational agenda together with school boards and childcare providers, early detection of potential disadvantages and early intervention, development of community schools, and amendment of the Primary Education Act and Secondary Act in favour of inclusion.

There are at least 40 international schools in the Netherlands, adopting multifarious international or country-defined curricula (Expactica, 2010). International schools such as International School of Amsterdam, International Secondary School Eindhoven, and International School Groningen adopt IB curricula, whereas British School of Amsterdam, Japanese School of Rotterdam, and American School of The Hague adopt country-defined curricula.

Different from the United Kingdom, international schools in the Netherlands are entitled to receive funding from the government. This is made possible because of the equal status of public and private education. The Constitution requires equal financial support of public and private schools, but private schools must satisfy certain conditions in order to qualify for funding.

2.6 Summary

The idea of investigating inclusive practices in international schools arose as a response to the lack of previous literature in this specific area of educational research. Owing to the loose definition of international education and international schooling, I began my review by trying to define international schools in the context of this research. Although it is not intended to be prescribed as a single interpretation, I argue that it is nevertheless important to make a case for the appropriate definition, or redefinition, of an international school. It also applies for inclusion and inclusive education. I subscribe to the school of thought that views inclusion from the broadest perspective, breaking the boundaries of disabilities and special education needs per se. In so doing, I also attempt to position this research in the framework of inclusion as suggested by the Index for Inclusion (Booth et al., 2000) and within the relevant contexts of the study, i.e. the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The following chapter will explore the methodological aspects of the research and the rationale and justification of the choices that I made in this study.

Chapter Three. Research methodology

In this chapter, I will outline the methodology chosen for my research and the rationale behind the choice. I will examine the appropriate research paradigm in which I locate my research. This chapter also seeks to explore the doing of the research, taking into account the sample, the instruments, as well as validity and reliability of the research. I will explain how the data is analysed and how the issue of ethics is addressed.

The aim of my study is to investigate the ways in which inclusive practices are implemented in two international schools in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. As it was revealed in the previous chapter, the corpus of research on inclusive practices in the particular context of international school is still very limited. There are some contradictions between the original idea of international schooling and the current situation. Thus, there may be some problems posed by the difference between rhetoric and reality, in terms of methodological approach of inquiry. This chapter explores some of these issues.

3.1 Research paradigm

The nature of inquiry asserts that there is more than one way to make sense of social reality (Robson, 2002). Social research and social theory are intertwined in a way that the former seeks to inquire into the reality of the social world with the guidance of the latter, or conversely, the latter is grounded upon the findings of the former. According to Babbie (2010), these fundamental frames of reference, or paradigms, are a way of providing logical frameworks within which theories are created. He defines paradigms as:

the fundamental models or frames of reference we use to organi[s]e our observations and reasoning [which] are often difficult to recogni[s]e as such, because they are so implicit, assumed, taken for granted. (Babbie, 2010: 33)

Yet, Babbie further reiterates the benefits accrued from operating a research within an appropriate paradigm. It allows better understanding of the seemingly bizarre views and actions of others who are operating from a different paradigm, and also allows new ways of seeing and explaining things.

I conducted this study within the underlying assumptions of interpretive paradigm. According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2005), interpretive paradigm is characterised by concern for the individual, where social reality is regarded as being subjective, constructive, fluid, multi-layered and complex. As opposed to positivistic paradigm which assumes social world as hard reality out there, interpretive paradigm assumes that there are multiple interpretations of a single event, depending on the perspective from which that event is examined. Thus, the view from the eyes of participants is essential. In dealing with inclusive practices in a school realm, I argue that people interpret the concept of inclusion in many different ways. They are deliberate in construing the social reality of inclusion as their own perception, which can be affected by their experiences and beliefs. A view from the head teacher might not necessarily reflect the views of the teachers in a school. It is likely that the views among the participants of this research are different, and that is exactly what interests me. Perhaps the views will illuminate one another, or maybe they will pose a contradiction. Such richness of different interpretations will provide me with ways in which I can establish the key emerging issues in the light of the research questions.

3.2 Research methods

Research aims at the extension of new knowledge, whereas the broader term scholarship refers to many ways of seeking knowledge (Willis, 2008). Departing from the firm understanding of research and its difference from scholarship, I designed this research based on the principle of fit-for-purpose. The entire design acts as a guide for me in conducting the research, so as to make informed choices about my research questions, methods, instruments and analytic procedures, as Barton (2006) concedes, the lack of discussion of research methods in social studies sometimes leaves researchers ill-prepared. Inappropriate methods only lead to inaccurate and unreliable result, and lack of preparation is deemed to lead to failure. Therefore, this section will examine the appropriate methods used in this study.

3.2.1 Qualitative research

In so far as methodology is concerned, this research is mostly qualitative. According to Cottrell and McKenzie (2010), qualitative research is designed to describe, explain and understand the complex nature of phenomena. Thus, it is also referred to as phenomenological inquiry (Hoepfl, 1997: 47). In my study, the issue of inclusive practices in international schools is the phenomena being researched. It is complex, by nature, because different stakeholders of a particular international school may have different perspectives about what, why, and how inclusive practices should be addressed. It is also likely that the understanding of inclusion in an international school is different from the other international school, or from that of other types of school, bearing in mind that there is perceived exclusivity of international schools. The tension between these two ends: inclusivity and exclusivity, is in itself complex. By gathering the different stories about inclusion in the research setting, I can get an insight into how inclusion is actually interpreted and implemented in an international school.

As opposed to quantitative research which relies on causal determination, prediction and generalisation of findings (Hoepfl, 1997), this study relies mostly on words and phrases in order to search for meaning, concepts, or theory. I use naturalistic approach to understand the phenomena in context-specific settings (Cohen et al., 2005). Thus, I seek illumination, understanding, and extrapolation to similar situations. The findings of this study will provide me with a way of looking at my own professional practice from a different lens, because I also work in an international school in Indonesia. To some extent, there is a role of critical theory in this qualitative research (Taylor and Trujillo, 2000), as I critique my own professional practice based on the findings of this study. Therefore, for some practical purposes, this research will contribute to my own professional development, whereas it is also expected that the study will contribute to the augmentation of knowledge in the field of inclusive education and international education.

3.2.2 Case study approach

This research is a case study at two international schools in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Referring to Babbie (2010), case study focuses attention on a single instance of some social phenomenon, which in this case, is inclusive practice in international schools. Babbie describes that the limitation of attention to a particular instance of social phenomenon is the essential characteristics of a case study. I find this relevant to my own situation. Research on inclusion and inclusive education heretofore did not embrace the premises of international schools, as there is only a very limited primary source of findings from this context. Thus, I seek to fill in the gap of the knowledge in this particular idea of inclusive international schooling.

Bassey (2002) thoroughly defines a case study as:

an empirical enquiry which is conducted within a locali[s]ed boundary of space and time, [inquiring] into interesting aspects of an educational institution, mainly in its natural context in order to inform the judgements and decisions of practitioners or policy-makers, or of theoreticians who are working to these ends. (p. 109)

The purpose of a case study is to gather comprehensive, systematic, and in-depth information about a case of interest (Patton, 2002). Akin to this, Yin (2006: 112) maintains that the case study method is pertinent in a research addressing a descriptive question (what happened?) or an explanatory question (how or why did something happen?). The term case study itself may refer to either the process of analysis or the product of analysis, or both. This study will refer to, accordingly, both process and product of analysis. It refers to the process of analysis, because the whole design of the research, from the formulation of research questions until the analysis of the result, is characteristic of case study. It also refers to the product of analysis, because the findings of this research take form as a case being studied.

In inquiring into the ways in which inclusive practices are implemented in international schools, I set the research in two international schools in the UK and the Netherlands, within a defined period of time (January to June 2010). I narrowed down the scope of this issue into a singularity (Bassey, 2002). Thus, I focused my research on two schools in their natural contexts, in order to explore significant features of the case, create plausible interpretations of what is found, construct a worthwhile argument, and relate the argument to any relevant research in the literature. Furthermore, I sought to convey this argument to the audience of this study in a convincing way, so that I could provide an audit trail by which other researchers may validate or challenging the findings.

Simply speaking, the rationale behind the choice of this case study approach is, as Cohen et al. (2005) argue, the most naturally suited to an interpretive paradigm, in which subjective dimensions are interpreted. Accordingly, Yin (2006) also states that case study is viable for doing educational research. Constraints in terms of finance are of course taken into consideration, since there is no specifically proposed budget for this research.

3.2.3 Reflective practice

I firmly advocate reflective practice in this research, as it is one of the central strategic themes of contemporary, postmodern qualitative inquiry (Patton, 2002: 299). Hence, reflection and reflexivity are embodied in the study. According to Bolton (2005), reflection and reflexivity entails contestation, questioning the status quo and the taken-for-granted. The process goes on through constructive developmental change which illuminates the existing knowledge.

In this study, I advocate reflective practice as proposed by Bolton (2005), who defines reflective practice as:

[a creative process of] learning and developing through examining what we think happened on any occasion, and how we think others perceived the event and us, opening our practice to scrutiny by others, and studying texts from the wider sphere. (Bolton, 2005: 7)

Furthermore, Bolton asserts that reflexivity is the way of discovering strategies to observe those experiences as an inquiry. It involves an awareness of the way one is experienced and perceived by others. It is a higher level of reflection in which we reflect on our reflection. Patton (2002) emphasises the importance of reflexivity, which entails voice and perspective, in doing research. The notion of self-awareness, political and cultural consciousness, and ownership of ones perspective are crucial to the significance and relevance of the research. Reflexivity reminds me to observe myself so as to be attentive to and conscious of the cultural, political, social, linguistic, and ideological origins of my own perspective and voice as well as the perspectives and voices of those I observe and talk to during the data collection. There is potential contradiction or perhaps confirmation of what I perceive and understand. Although I have a professional background in some international schools in Indonesia, the different contexts between Indonesia, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands may pose such contradictions.

In an attempt to translate an abstract concept of reflection into a concrete model, I adopt the three-stage model of reflective learning proposed by Scanlan and Chernomas (1997) as seen in Figure 1. I refer to the word learning because I intend to really learn from and make the most out of the research that I have conducted. The findings of this study should inform and illuminate my own practice.

In Scanlan and Chernomass model, the first stage of reflection is awareness, stimulated by some uncomfortable, disturbing thoughts or feelings or even positive thoughts or feelings about a learning situation or event. The second stage is critical analysis, in which the individual critically analyses the situation, taking into account their relevant knowledge and experience as well as the application of new knowledge resulting from the analysis process. The third stage of the model is learning, which involves the development of a new perspective based on the critical analysis and the application of new knowledge to the learning situation under reflection. Loo and Thorpe (2002) describes these three stages in a way that they are connected chronologically from the past to the future.

Awareness Critical analysisLearning

Present Connects present with Future

The past and future

Figure 2. Scanlan and Chernomas (1997) three-stage model of reflective process

3.3 Ethical considerations

Bryman (2008) argues that researchers must be aware of the issues involved in the research so as to make informed decisions about the implications of certain choices, particularly the issues that arise in relations between researchers and research participants. It is important to keep in mind that the ethical issues in the course of doing research are most likely to impinge on the participants as well as the researcher. Therefore, I followed the ethical principles in social research as proposed by Bryman (2008). I ensure that the research does not harm the participants to any extent, be it physically or psychologically. One way of going about it is by ensuring data protection. I ensure that any data gathered from this study are confidential. When I have to use names, they will all be pseudonyms. The interviews were transcribed in a way that no participants or schools can be identified.

The other ethicalissue that I address here is the informed consent. Christians (2005) states that participants must agree voluntarily to participate in the research, without physical or psychological coercion. In my study, I ensure that the participants had all the information with regard tothe research before they gave consent. Before proceeding to observation and interviews, Iasked them to read the participant statement (Appendix 7) and decide whether they wish to participate or not. They were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without affecting the relationship between them and the institutions which were involved in the study. I gained access to the schools through the universities offering the masters programme, and the schools were chosen mainly through the recommendations from the universities. It was not very easy to get this access but through formal reference from Roehampton University and Fontys Hogescholen, the schools agreed to participate in this study.

3.4 The contexts

I conducted my research in two international schools in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The school in the UK, which I will refer to as ABC International School, adopts the IB curriculum (PYP, MYP and DP) as well as the American Preparatory High School Diploma, whereas the school in the Netherlands, which I will refer to as XYZ International School, adopts the International Primary Curriculum and IB curriculum (MYP and DP). More information about the schools will be presented in Chapter Four.

3.5 Sampling

According to Cohen et al., (2005), there are several key factors which should be considered in deciding the sample strategy used in a research, i.e. the sample size, the representativeness of the sample out of the population, and access to the sample. In my qualitative research, constraints in terms of time, cost, resources, and administrative support by the schools were also taken into account. I had only three effective months to conduct the research, with no additional fund apart from the monthly stipend that I was entitled to receive. Based on this consideration, I used a small sample of five participants. The sample was selected from the study population with non-probability sampling technique (Cottrell and McKenzie, 2010). The interviews, which will be elaborated in the next section, were conducted with one Primary Years Programme Coordinator who was responsible for the curriculum development and implementation, one Head of Student Services who was in charge of addressing the students at educational risk, and one Language Coordinator who was also a class teacher. All of them are from ABC International School. I also conducted interviews with the Head Master and Principal of XYZ International School.

I used convenience sampling in this study, on the ground of availability and accessibility of the participants (Bryman, 2008). The questionnaires were administered to the teachers who were available. They might not represent the whole population in the school, whichis why thismethod may render the findings difficult to generalise. However, Bryman states that this could provide a springboard for the next step of the research.

The sample size of five participants may seem small, but to try to do more than this was unrealistic, given the time it would take to collect and analyse the data, as well as the availability of the teachers and administrators who worked full time in the schools. The statement of participants (Appendix 7) made it clear from the beginning that their participation in the study was voluntary and at any time they could stop participating and withdrew from the study if they wished to do so. The seemingly small sample may also create sampling bias. Patton (2002: 93) argues that a completely value-free inquiry is impossible. However, I tried to keep being objective in collecting and analysing the data. Cottrell and McKenzie (2010) reiterate that such method of non-probability sampling still has its distinctive power of selecting information-rich cases for in-depth study from which researchers can learn the most about issues central to the purpose of the research.

3.6 Research instruments

3.6.1 Questionnaires

I used questionnaires in this study (Appendix 5). The rationale for the choice of using questionnaires, having said that this study is qualitative research, is that it will serve as identification of key issues as are described in the indicators of Index for Inclusion. Due to the qualitative nature of the study, the questions were less-structured and partly word-based (Cohen et al., 2005). Questionnaires were distributed at the first visit to ABC International School. The questionnaires were designated for teaching staff, including teaching assistants where available. All the questions were derived from the Index, with modifications so as to make the questions varied in order to encourage the participants to respond. The questions were selected from the Index according to their relevance to the research questions. My own professional background as a teacher in international schools also influenced the way I chose, modified, and elaborated the questions from the Index.

According to Denscombe (2010), questionnaires rely on written information supplied directly by the participants. The generated data are distinct from that which could be obtained from interviews, observation or documents, in a way that the data tend to fall into two broad categories: facts and opinions. I used questionnaires because they can serve as a means of triangulation to the interviews, observations and documentary analysis conducted in this study. They are also economical in terms of materials, money and time. As compared to interviews, the absence of the interviewer in questionnaires avoids social desirability bias (Bryman, 2008). In interviews, the participants might be biased bymy ethnicity, gender, and social background. The fact that I am an Asian by race, for instance, might influence the way the interviewees see me as the researcher, and thus influences the way they answer my questions. With questionnaires, I reduced the likelihood of this bias.

In constructing the questions for questionnaires, first I identified the key issues (Denscombe, 2010) related to the research topic, guided by the Index for Inclusion. I addressed the wording of the questions so as to elicit the presumably most important information from the respondents, without leading them. Some of the questions were open-ended, in a case that I wanted the respondent to decide the wording of the answer, the length of the answer and the kind of matters to be raised in the answer. Unfortunately, the return rate of the 10 questionnaires that I distributed in ABC International School was nil. I present this instrument in this chapter because despite the nil return rate, the process of designing the questionnaires is still of important value for the next step in this study.

3.6.2 Interviews

According to Denscombe (2010), interviews are better used when they are applied to the exploration of more complex and subtle phenomena. If the researcher wants to collect information on simple and uncontroversial facts, then questionnaires might prove to be a more cost-effective method. But when the researcher needs to gain insights into people's opinions, feelings, emotions, experiences, then interviews will provide a more suitable method. It allows the exploration of the intricacy of the subject matter.

In this study, I used semi-structured interviews, in which a clear list of issues to be addressed was prepared beforehand (Appendix 2). However, I was prepared to be flexible in terms of the order in which the topics were considered. Sometimes I let the interviewee develop ideas and speak more widely on the issues raised. Semi-structured interviews allow possibilities of different interpretations about inclusion and inclusive practices. In ABC International School, I conducted interviews with the Curriculum Coordinator, who used to be a special education needs teacher, the Head of Student Services, and a Grade 4 teacher who is also the Language Coordinator. In XYZ International School, I conducted interviews with the Head Master and the Principal. All interviews were recorded properly and transcribed for further analysis (Appendix 3).

3.6.3 Observations

Observation is the main activity in doing case study research (Cohen et al., 2005). In this context, as a researcher, I positioned myself as a non-participatory observer, in order to discern salient features of behaviour as it occurs. From the beginning of the visit to the school, I started observing daily activities in the school as I tried to keep in mind the chosen indicators of inclusive practices from the Index for Inclusion. In this instance, the observation is aimed at gathering data with regard to physical and interactional settings (Cohen et al., 2005) and narrative interpretations of the case (Stake, 1995). I conducted semi-structured observations with an agenda of issues around inclusive practices, but it was in a less pre-determined and systematic manner. In ABC International School, I did a half-day observation of a Grade 4 Classroom, a music lesson in a music room, and an IT lesson in an IT room. In XYZ International School, I did observation of a Grade 5 mathematics lesson.

Observations offer me a distinct way of collecting data. It does not rely on what people say they do, or what they say they think. It is more straightforward, drawn on the direct evidence as I see it. Bryman (2008) asserts that while observation provides more reliable information and more accurate time order of events, several issues of validity and reliability should be addressed. The aspect of validity relates to the question whether people change their behaviour because they know they are being observed, an instance of what is known as the 'reactive effect' (Bryman, 2008: 265). In my study, however, the students in the classroom which I observed were not told that I specifically observed any behaviour related to inclusive practices. The teacher simply introduced me as a student coming from Indonesia, and she also told them that I was also a teacher. By so doing, she assured the students that I was actually not really a stranger. I was also a teacher, just like their teacher. To a certain degree, it helped me in positioning myself in the setting of the observation without so much discomforting the students.

3.6.4 Documentary analysis

Cohen et al., (2005) describe documentary analysis as an accompanying technique of observations. It is an indispensable element in most case studies (Bush, 2002), which can be used as a subsidiary form of research to provide triangulation within a case study (Cortazzi, 2002). The documents that I analysed were ABC International Schools admission policy documents, curriculum documents and school handbooks, XYZ International Schools curriculum document, as well IB and IPC curricula documents. In analyzing the documents, I employed techniques and methods from discourse analysis (Gee, 2005), in which I saw the documents as a text in their social contexts. Because all documents were held as computer files, I also used techniques of corpus linguistics (Cortazzi, 2002), in which I called up words on screen in their sentence contexts to see their meanings and whether they are being used in different ways.

3.7 Validity and reliability

3.7.1 Validity

Babbie (2010) argues that the measures of research drawn from qualitative research are often criticised as superficial and not really valid. As compared to surveys and experiments, the kinds of comprehensive measurements available to thequalitative researcher tap a depth of meaning in concepts. Instead of specifying concepts in quantified measures, qualitative researcher commonly gives detailed illustrations. According to Denscombe (2010), the issue of validity may really have to be addressed in qualitative research. It is difficult, for example, to check whether information given by theparticipants is honest or of a factual nature. However, Denscombe suggests that the researcher should gauge the credibility of what the participants have said and avoid being a 'gullible dupe' who accepts anything without being critical.

3.7.2 Reliability

According to Babbie (2010), qualitative research can pose problems of reliability. Although they are in-depth, the measurements are also often very personal. Thus, apparently valid findings from a research might not be replicable in a different setting, even with the same amount of research instrumentations. Babbie suggests that qualitative researchers should be conscious of this issue and take pains to address it. One way of addressing this issue is through comparative evaluations, which might entail two different settings to compare. In this study, the choice of two international schools, instead of one, is a way of addressing the issue of reliability.

Robson (2002) observes that case study might just be concerned with explaining and understanding what is going on in a particular setting, hence external generalisability may not be an issue. Cohen et al. (2005) assert, though, that generalisation in case study must be clarified. In this light, Bassey (1999) suggests that the use of fuzzy generalisation for qualitative study serves as the most reasonable way of projecting the study of singularity onto similar situations elsewhere. As opposed to statistical generalisation in quantitative study and empirical generalisation in scientific research, fuzzy generalisation will be a way of tackling this issue.

The findings from this research will be characteristic of the two schools, but drawing from the similarity of the type of schools, curricula, as well as underlying philosophy of the schools, this study will be likely to have common features of how inclusive practices are implemented. Some lessons will definitely be taken for my own professional context.

3.8 Analysis of data

I analysed the findings of this study using thematic analysis. In making a case for this method of qualitative data analysis, Boyatzis (1998) argues that as a way of seeing, thematic analysis allows different interpretations and insights emerging from the data. What one sees through this analysis might not appear to others. The different moments of seeing lead to different ways of encoding, as key emerging themes are seen as something. Eventually, they lead to different interpretation.

Boyatzis defines theme as pattern found in the information that at minimum describes and organi[s]es the possible observations and at maximum interprets aspects of the phenomenon (ibid., p. 4). From the findings of this study, I initially generated the themes inductively from the raw data in the light of the research questions. When necessary, deductively generated themes from theories and prior researches were also used.

Key emerging themes were coded subsequently, ranging from descriptive to inferential. Miles and Huberman (1994: 58) reiterate that codes are important in the way that they are astringent they pull together a lot of material, thus permitting analysis. When done properly, codes signal themes that account for the wealth of data, which make the data become intelligible and meaningful. In this study, codes represent initials of the key issues (Appendix 6). For example, code I stands for implementation, whereas I-Cha stands for implementation challenges. The code may be refined further into I-ChaHR, which stands for implementation challenges specifically in human resource. All codes will be referred to their respective pre-coded hard evidence, either in interview transcripts, observation notes, questionnaires, or relevant documents. For example, pre-code iA-T-Q3 stands for interview with a teacher in School A (ABC International School), question number 3. The references are pre-coded in order to facilitate the traceability of the findings, as well as to make further reference of the evidence easier.

Chapter Four. Data analysis and discussion

This chapter seeks to analyse some key issues emerging from the study using interpretive approaches. As mentioned in the previous chapter, I used thematic analysis in interpreting the data collected through interviews, questionnaires, observations, and documentary analysis. Although I conducted this study in the contexts of two international schools in two countries, this is not a comparative research project. I aim to show links and connections, emphasising complementary, rather than contradictory aspects. In a case that there are contradictions, I will discuss these considering international schools as a conceptual setting, rather than physical setting. This study is more about the approach within the field of international education, rather than individual schools. Thus, the schools investigated in this study serves as illustrative examples of the case.

Having discerned the salient features of inclusive practices in two international schools, I found three key issues that illuminate the inquiry. Firstly, international schools have their own definition of inclusion, which may or may not differ from other schooling systems. Secondly, as in all schools, there are multifarious ways of evolving inclusive practices in international schools, ranging from curriculum development to collaboration, from celebrating diversity to providing access for wheelchair user. Lastly, there seems to be intricacy in international schools admission policy. There seems to be tension between their eagerness to advocate inclusive practices and constraints on making it happen. Contained within these issues, there are some factors that seem to be advantageous to the extent of practising inclusion in international schools. Along with these advantages, come challenges that international schools seem to face or are likely to face, that make it harder for inclusion to genuinely happen. All of these key issues will be elaborated further in the following sections.

4.1 Contexts of the study

4.1.1 ABC International School

The school is a part of an aggregation of three international schools in a suburb area of the United Kingdom. Founded in 1967, the three schools enroll as many as 2600 students aged 2 to 18 from more than 70 countries, predominantly from the United States, speaking over 30 languages. Compared to the other two neighbouring international schools, ABC International School is perhaps the smallest in size, having only 550 students. It is noteworthy that the schools claim to be developing their educational aims on the underlying principles of American as well as international research. The American/international preparatory High School Diploma is a curriculum that the students may choose, but the whole schools adopt the three International Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum, from Primary Years Programme (PYP) up to Diploma Programme (DP). Additionally, in ABC International School, an Early Childhood programme for age 2 to 4 is also offered. Ofsted report in 2006 praises this school as having innovative play-based programmes that encourage positive social interaction and teamwork. The school showcases the English as an Additional Language (EAL) and Native Language Enrichment (NLE) programmes as their strengths.

In this school, I conducted interviews with the PYP Curriculum Coordinator, who used to be a special education needs teacher, the Head of Student Services, who is responsible for special education needs issues and transition programmes, and a Grade 4 Classroom Teacher who is also the Language Coordinator. Any further mention of these job titles in this dissertation will refer only to ABC International School. I conducted the observation of a Grade 4 classroom, an Information and Computer Technology (ICT) lesson in the ICT room, and a music lesson in the music room. I also distributed some questionnaires to be filled in by the teachers, but unfortunately, none of them was returned, which was, according to the Principal, due to the unavailability of time to fill in those questionnaires.

4.1.2 XYZ International School

Like the aforementioned school, XYZ International School also belongs to a larger group of schools that share a similar philosophy. Catering for students with foreign nationalities who will only be spending a few years in the Netherlands, as well as for Dutch students who need to be educated in an international school to ensure continuity of education, the school claims to have a foundational philosophy of community-based school. The primary school adopts International Primary Curriculum (IPC), while the middle school and high school adopt IB Middle Years Programme (MYP) and DP curricula. A relatively new school, XYZ International School seems to be settling down and searching for the best practice, as a parents review says.

In this school, I conducted interviews with the Head Master, who is responsible for the educational management and administration of the school, and the Principal, who is responsible more for the networking and public relation. I conducted an observation in a mathematics lesson of a Grade 5 classroom. The whole process of data collection was done during the buddy school programme which was organised by Fontys University of Applied Sciences as a partner institution of this Masters course.

For each of the schools above, I conducted some analyses of policy documents, curriculum documents, brochures, reports and reviews which are accessible online. Some of the documents belong to the organisations that provide the curricula. The triangulation between the three research instruments provides me with a wealth of data to be analysed. The following sections seek to present, analyse, and discuss the findings.

4.2 Definition of inclusion: voices from international school (interview data)

For the practitioners of international schooling, the term inclusion is not an obscure idea. Although they may have different ways of interpreting inclusion, it seems that international schools support the advocacy of inclusion. A teacher in ABC International School looks at inclusion on a micro-level. On the issue of special education needs, she says that inclusion is a kind of a philosophy of education whether students with special education needs should be included, or should be pulled out from the classroom. Her understanding of inclusion seems to transform into her classroom pedagogy, as I observe how she divides the class into learning groups. Every now and then, some students are pulled out of the classroom to work on their assignments in the corridor, when the teacher sees that they can move independently in small groups. But most of the time, all students learn together. They may learn individually or in groups. Although this may indicate the advocacy of inclusion, Gallagher (2008) asserts that inclusion should extend far beyond the texts and methodologies of individual classroom. Inclusion, in Gallaghers view, should be informed throughout the wider school community, so as to create positive climate for all learners. It is arguable that the teacher only looks at her own classroom when she defines inclusion in this way, as she also acknowledges the school as a whole.

In the context of ABC International School, the idea of inclusion seems to reach the school as a whole, as the Curriculum Coordinator in the school confirms that inclusion is an integral part of what they do in education. She mentions that promoting inclusive practices really benefits all children. At this point, she seems to strongly advocate inclusive practices, as endorsed by the International Baccalaureate Primary Years Programme (IB PYP) curriculum, which will be elaborated further in the next section. The benefit accrued from inclusion is echoed by the teacher, as she says that an inclusive model allows for a greater achievement than if its separate. But then, she concedes that inclusion [is not just] putting everybody together and just leaving it. She seems to be aware of the danger of placing students in a classroom without providing adequate support for them (Sapon-Shevin, 1996).

The support that the teacher mentions is described here by the Curriculum Coordinator:

We have two levels of support, one is for children who develop speaking and listening skills in English, they are pulled out of the class for 45 minutes a day And the reason why we pull them out is that we believe that the children who are working in the second language sometimes need small group setting When they reach a level of proficiency but their reading and their writing needs some support because their academic language is still inadequate, then the EAL teacher comes into the class and she uses the inclusive model where they work with the group to do the same thing the other children are doing, but they have their EAL teacher there working with them.

(Interview, ABC International School, Curriculum Coordinator)

The Curriculum Coordinator seems to view inclusion as providing adequate language support for those whose first language is not English, which is common in international schools (Carder, 2009). According to Carder, many of international students have little or no knowledge of English. It is understandable then, why the role of EAL (English as Additional Language) is considered essential in supporting those students. However, the Head of Student Services, who is responsible for coordinating the support for students at educational risk, including those with special education needs and disabilities, seems to have different interpretation about this support programme. According to her,

EAL is one of the very few programmes that we have in this school with the beginner English which is not inclusive. Theyre taken out and dealt with separately. It becomes more inclusive as the child grasps English then they put them back in the classroom. But I would say that EAL throughout the school, in the higher school, in the lower school, is the area where you will definitely see that theres an exclusive programme that begins with English speakers.

(Interview, ABC International School, Head of Student Services)

The Head of Student Services seems to view inclusion as getting all students together in the classroom all the time. As they are pulled out of the classroom for a particular reason, then inclusion is not happening anymore. It is interesting that there seems to be tension in interpreting inclusion here. On the one hand, EAL is considered important to the advancement of students whose first language is not English, and, as the Curriculum Coordinator mentions, it is in itself inclusive, in the sense that the support for those students are provided. On the other hand, the fact that the students must be pulled out of the classroom is considered as an exclusionary practice, as the Head of Student Services concedes. Akin to this statement, Carder (2009: 19) states that taking students out of classes for ESL instruction [is] defined as discrimination. At this point, the definition of inclusion from the viewpoint of international school seems to become contestable. Notwithstanding this seemingly contradictory interpretation, the action of providing support for diversity, including linguistic diversity, is considered to be one of the indicators of inclusive practices, as guided by the Index for Inclusion (Booth et al., 2000).

In the other context, the Head Master of XYZ International School seems to define inclusion from a slightly different perspective. In his view, inclusion is about meeting the needs of the students, as

the order of reasoning is crucial ... We always read in the other way around, which is, what does the child need? What can we do to facilitate that? If its realistic, we will do it, if its not, we will find a way to help the child to get a place [in another school]

(Interview, XYZ International School, Head Master)

The notion of needs leads to the term special education needs. In the context of this school, inclusion is regarded as providing viable and feasible support for those with special education needs. The Head Master seems to be aware of the perception that as an educational body that admits students, international school may not be inclusive, as the process of admission itself is directed towards what he calls dedicated cosmopolitan, i.e. internationally-mobile students whose parents are, or are planned to be, employed in different countries. Further elaboration on this issue will be discussed in the following section.

4.3 Approaches to evolving inclusive practices in international school

It is not my intention to evaluate the inclusivity of the schools that agree to participate in this study. Rather, I am more interested in finding out what practices are considered inclusive and why they are important in the view of the participants, and what practices the participants wish to improve. Inclusive education is an ongoing process. It is not a pot of gold at the end of the rainbow (Carrington and Robinson, 2004: 142). As mentioned in the previous chapter, I used the Index for Inclusion (Booth et al., 2000) to guide me in inquiring into the ways in which inclusive practices are implemented in international schools. The Index suggests that there are many indicators of inclusive practices, most of which are centred around the issue of learning orchestration as well as resources mobilisation. Pertaining to Carrington and Robinsons work (ibid), I hold the view that there are always opportunities and possibilities to keep furthering inclusion in any setting, be it social or educational. The same case applies for international schools. This subsection seeks to explore some of these.

4.3.1 Curriculum development

The first indicator of inclusive practices that seems to be evident in the setti