1 IMPROVING JUVENILE JUSTICE IN WEST VIRGINIA Authors: Ted Boettner, Rick Wilson Introduction to West Virginia’s Juvenile Justice System West Virginia communities and families will benefit if the only young people who are confined or detained in out-of-home facilities are those who constitute a threat to the public or themselves. While there has been progress toward this goal in recent years, much remains to be done. Adjusting policies could have a major positive impact on juveniles, their families and communities—and the state’s taxpayers. West Virginia’s juvenile justice system can be a confusing maze even to those who know it well. Data is often difficult or impossible to obtain. This report provides an overview of West Virginia’s juvenile justice system, including historical background, recent reforms, and recommendations for improvements. It also suggests that looking at the system through a mental health lens could lead to more constructive solutions and positive outcomes for the state’s youth offenders. Entering the System Every year in West Virginia, around 4,000 juveniles will appear before a judge. They may wind up in court because of delinquency, a behavior considered a crime by a person of any age. Or they may be there because of a status offense, behavior only forbidden to minors, including skipping school, running away from home, violating curfews or possessing tobacco products and/or alcohol. It is often unclear what issues may underlie the problem behavior, such as family conflicts, substance abuse and/or undiagnosed and untreated mental health issues. Pending the judge’s decision, several possible outcomes can follow for the juvenile in question. He or she may be: • given an improvement period in which to address problem behaviors so that the case can be dismissed;
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IMPROVINGJUVENILEJUSTICEINWESTVIRGINIAAuthors:TedBoettner,RickWilson
IntroductiontoWestVirginia’sJuvenileJusticeSystem
WestVirginiacommunitiesandfamilieswillbenefitiftheonlyyoungpeoplewhoareconfinedordetainedinout-of-homefacilitiesarethosewhoconstituteathreattothepublicorthemselves.
Whiletherehasbeenprogresstowardthisgoalinrecentyears,muchremainstobedone.Adjustingpoliciescouldhaveamajorpositiveimpactonjuveniles,theirfamiliesandcommunities—andthestate’staxpayers.
WestVirginia’sjuvenilejusticesystemcanbeaconfusingmazeeventothosewhoknowitwell.Dataisoftendifficultorimpossibletoobtain.
ThisreportprovidesanoverviewofWestVirginia’sjuvenilejusticesystem,includinghistoricalbackground,recentreforms,andrecommendationsforimprovements.Italsosuggeststhatlookingatthesystemthroughamentalhealthlenscouldleadtomoreconstructivesolutionsandpositiveoutcomesforthestate’syouthoffenders.
EnteringtheSystem
EveryyearinWestVirginia,around4,000juvenileswillappearbeforeajudge.
Theymaywindupincourtbecauseofdelinquency,abehaviorconsideredacrimebyapersonofanyage.Ortheymaybetherebecauseofastatusoffense,behavioronlyforbiddentominors,includingskippingschool,runningawayfromhome,violatingcurfewsor
possessingtobaccoproductsand/oralcohol.
Itisoftenunclearwhatissuesmayunderlietheproblembehavior,suchasfamilyconflicts,substanceabuseand/orundiagnosedanduntreatedmentalhealthissues.
Pendingthejudge’sdecision,severalpossibleoutcomescanfollowforthejuvenileinquestion.Heorshemaybe:
• givenanimprovementperiodinwhichtoaddressproblembehaviorssothatthecasecanbedismissed;
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• givenprobation,aformofcommunitysupervision,whichmayincludereportingtoajuvenileprobationofficer,participatingincommunity-basedprograms,drugtestingand/orpayingrestitution;
• referredtoaspecialcourt,suchasateenorjuveniledrugcourt;or• committedtosomeformofout-of-homeplacement,rangingfromtreatmentfacilities,secure
andnon-securefacilitiesunderthesupervisionoftheWestVirginiaDepartmentofHealthandHumanResourcestothecustodyoftheDivisionofJuvenileServices.
Theoutcomeofthiscontactwiththejuvenilejusticesystem-anoftenconfusingmixofpublicagencies,privateorganizations,anddiverseindividuals-canhavealastingimpactonthelivesoftheyoungpeopleaffected,theirfamilies,andcommunities.
ImpactsoftheSystem
Asimplewaytounderstandtheimpactofthejuvenilejusticesystem,andespeciallyout-of-homeplacement,istoconsiderhowitcanaffecttheordinarylifecourseofindividuals.
Intoday’sworld,becominganadultoftenmeansmovingfromschooltowork,thenoftentomarriageoralong-termrelationship,makingahome,andpossibilitybecomingaparentorguardian.
AssociologistBruceWesternnotes,“Today,arrivingatadultstatusinvolvesmovingfromschooltowork,thentomarriage,toestablishingahomeandbecomingapparent.Completingthissequencewithoutdelaypromotesstableemployment,marriage,andotherpositivelifeoutcomes.Theprocessofbecominganadultthusinfluencessuccessinfulfillingadultrolesandresponsibilities.”(1)
Incarcerationorotherformsofdetainmentearlyinlifeareamajordisruptionintheordinarylifecoursewhichcanhaverippleeffectsfarintothefuture.Studiesofadultoffenders,manyofwhoseproblemsbeganasjuveniles,foundthatformerprisonersearnlessthantheirpeerswhohavenotbeenconfined.Theyaremorelikelytobeunemployedorsporadicallyemployedinjobsthatlackapathforadvancement.Thestigmaassociatedwithincarcerationmayblockaccesstocareersorpublicbenefits.
Incarcerationhasastrongimpactonfamilylife.Westernconcludes,“Imprisonmenthasalsoinhibitedtheformationofstabletwo-parentfamiliesinthelow-incomeurbanneighborhoodsfromwhichmostofthepenalpopulationisdrawn.Stablefamiliesprovidedthepoorwithavaluablemeansofimprovingwelfare.Familiespoolresources,socializeandsupervisechildren,andprovidenetworksofmutualaid.”(2)
Onceayoungpersonisdetained,heorsheisatriskofbeingdrawnmoredeeplyintothejuvenileandcriminaljusticesystem.
TheCostsandPathsoftheSystem
TheJusticePolicyInstituteisaWashington-basedthinktankthat,“changestheconversationaroundjusticereformandadvancespoliciesthatpromotewell-beingandjusticeforallpeopleandcommunities.”(3)InareporttitledTheDangersofDetention:TheImpactofIncarceratingYouthinDetentionandSecureFacilities,theInstitutelaysoutkeyfindings.Theseinclude:
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• Morelikelihoodofrecidivism.Incarcerationmayhavetheunintendedconsequenceofincreasingfuturecriminalbehavior.Onestudyfoundthat“priorincarcerationwasagreaterpredictorofrecidivismthancarryingaweapon,gangmembership,orpoorparentalrelationship.”(4)
Confinementbynatureforcesacloselivingrelationshipwithotherswhohavehaddelinquencyissues.Forthisreason,prisonshaveoftenbeenreferredtoas“finishingschoolsforcrime.”
• Otheralternativesaremoreeffective.Severalstudieshavesuggestedthatcommunity-basedprogramsaremoresuccessfulatreducingrecidivism.InSanFrancisco,forexample,participantsinaDetentionDiversionAdvocacyProgramhadabouthalftherecidivismrateofthosewhoweredetained.(5)
Bycontrast,theJuvenileJusticeInformationExchangereportsthatincarceratedyouthfaceahigherriskofphysical,emotional,andsexualvictimization,suicide,disruptionstotheirmentalandphysicaldevelopment,disruptionstotheireducation,andnegativeimpactsonemploymentandfutureeconomicsuccess.(6)
• Manyyoungpeople“ageout”ofdelinquencyontheirown,aprocessknownasdesistance.AccordingtotheU.S.OfficeofJuvenileJusticeandDelinquencyPrevention,“mostyouthwhocommitfeloniesgreatlyreducetheiroffendingovertime,regardlessoftheintervention.”Further,theirresearchfoundthatconfinementdidnotreducerecidivismwhilecommunity-basedprogramsweremoreeffective.(7)Confinementcandisruptthisagingoutprocessandreinforcenegativebehaviors.
• Themissingpiece:mentalhealth.AccordingtotheJusticePolicyInstitute,“ofallthevarioushealthneedsthatdetentionadministratorsidentifyamongtheyouththeysee,unmetmentalandbehavioralhealthneedsrisetothetop.”(8)AccordingtoThomasGrisso,authorofDoubleJeopardy:AdolescentOffendersWithMentalDisorders,“anestimatedtwo-thirdsofyouthsinjuvenilejusticecustodymeetthecriteriaforoneormorementaldisorders—twotothreetimestheratefoundinthecommunityatlarge.”(9)
Mentalhealthissues—suchasdepression,bullying,substanceabuse,familyproblems,etc.—canleadtobehaviorsthatputayoungpersonintothesystem,whichinturncanactuallyworsenmentalhealth.
• Downstreameffects.ResearchersAnnaAizerandJosephJ.Doyle,Jr.foundthat,“thoseincarceratedasajuvenileare39percentagepointslesslikelytograduatefromhighschoolandare41percentagepointsmorelikelytohaveenteredadultprisonbyage25comparedwithotherpublicschoolstudentsfromthesameneighborhood.”(10)
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Detentionalsoaffectsfutureeconomicsuccess.Giventhelinkbetweeneducationalattainmentandearningsthisshouldbenosurprise.Astudypublishedin1991foundthatincarcerationinyouthreducedhoursworkedby25-30percentyearsafterreleasefromthesystem.(11)
Allthesenegativetrendsdisproportionatelyimpactlow-incomecommunitiesandpeopleofcolor,whocontinuetobeoverrepresentedinthecriminalandjuvenilejusticesystem.
GiventhesefactsitispromisingthatWestVirginiaembarkedonthepathtojuvenilejusticereformin2014.
TrendsoftheSystem
WestVirginiatendstobucknationaltrendsandwindsupatthetoporbottomoflistsofstates,oftennotinagoodway.Untilrecently,thatwasthestatetrendinjuvenilejustice.
In2013,WestVirginiaconfinedjuvenilesatarateof510per100,000.Bycontrast,Massachusetts,withnearlyfourtimesthepopulationofWestVirginia,hadjust393youthinconfinement.Whilethestatemadesomeimprovementsinreducingracialdisparities,AfricanAmericanyouthwerestillnearlythreetimesaslikelytobeconfinedastheirwhitecounterparts.Thestate’syouthconfinementrateforAfricanAmericanswas1.5timeshigherthanthenationalaverage.(12)
WestVirginiawassecondonlytoWyomingintherateper100,000ofconfiningyoungfemales,witharateof175,comparedwithanationalrateof47.(13)
In2013,theAnnieE.CaseyFoundationreportedthatnationally
therateofjuvenileconfinementdroppedby41percent.(14)ThePewCharitableTrustsreportedthat“thenumberofjuvenilescommittedtoresidentialplacementfacilitiesdeclined35percentfrom2006to2011,mirroringanationwidedecreaseinyoutharrestrates.”(15)
WestVirginia,however,wasoneofonlyfivestateswheretherateofdetentionincreased,despiteadropinbothcrimeandpopulation.
Between2002and2012,“thenumberofcourtreferralsfordelinquentoffensesactuallydeclinedby55percent;duringthesameperiodoftime,referralsforstatusoffensesincreasedby124percent,”accordingtotheWestVirginiaIntergovernmentalTaskForceonJuvenileJustice.Recallstatusoffenseswouldnotbeconsideredoffensesweretheycommittedbyanadult.
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Thereportalsofoundthatthenumberofstatusoffendersplacedout-of-homebyDHHRincreased255percentinthesameperiod.Nearlyhalfhadnopreviouscontactwithacourt,whichmeans,“theseyouthhadneverbeenarrestedforacrimeorreferredtocourt,informallyorformally,foranytypeofbehaviororoffense,statusordelinquent.Inaddition,morethanhalfofthosecommittedtotheDivisionofJuvenileServices(DJS)fordelinquencyhadonlycommittedmisdemeanors.Ifthatwasn’tbadenough,thelengthofstayforyouthinDHHRfacilitiesincreasedby11percentto15months.”(16)
Seventy-fourpercentofjuvenilesplacedout-of-homebyDHHRwereconfinedfortruancy,whilenonviolentoffenses(67percent)andmisdemeanors(76percent)madeupthemajorityofDJSplacements.(17)
Inotherwords,despiteafallingcrimerateandadecliningpopulation,WestVirginiawaslockingupmorechildrenforlongerperiodsoftimeforminoroffensesatgreatcoststofamilies,communitiesandtaxpayers.Accordingtothetaskforce,“TheaveragecostofplacingayouthinaDHHRout-of-homefacility—basedonaveragefacilityperdiemsforemergencysheltersandallinstateandout-of-stategroupresidentialprograms—is$289.32perday,or$105,600peryear.TheaveragecostofplacingayouthinaDJSfacilityis$277.91perday,or$101,439peryear.”(18)Thosecostshaveonlyincreased.
In2013,onlyaboutoneoutofeveryeightcommittedyouthinWestVirginiawaslockedupbasedonaViolentCrimeIndexoffense,suchashomicide,aggravatedassault,robbery,orsexualassault.(19)
Thestatecouldpaymorethanamilliondollarsperyeartolockup10childrenformissingafewdaysofschool.Therehadtobebetterpolicysolutionsforkids,families,communities,andtaxpayers.Fortunately,stateleadershavetakendecisiveactiontoreversethesetrends.
BeginningsofJuvenileJusticeReforminWestVirginia
In2014,GovernorEarlRayTomblinconvenedtheWestVirginiaIntergovernmentalTaskForceonJuvenileJustice,whichbroughttogetherlegislativeandjudicialleadersaswellotherswithexpertiseinthesystem.ThegroupwasalsoaidedbythePewCharitableTrusts,whichhasworkedforjuvenilejusticereforminotherstates.TheWestVirginiaSupremeCourtestablisheditsownJuvenileJusticeCommissionin2011.
Themissionofthetaskforcewastoconductacomprehensiveanalysisofthestate’sjuvenilejusticesystemandtoproduceasetofpolicyrecommendationsaimedatprotectingpublicsafetybyimprovingoutcomesforyouth,families,andcommunities;enhancingaccountabilityforjuvenileoffendersandthesystem;andcontainingtaxpayercostsbyfocusingresourcesonthemostseriousoffenders.(20)
Thetaskforceeventuallyrecommended“prioritizingcostly,state-fundedfacilitiesforthemostseriousoffenders;expandingeffectivecommunityservicesandstrengtheningsupervision;andenhancingoversightandaccountability.”(21)TheserecommendationsweretheinspirationbehindSenateBill393,whichunanimouslypassedthestateHouseandSenatein2015.Thebillisintendedtoreducethenumberofyouthinresidentialfacilitiesbyatleast16percentby2016andtoinvestthesavingsincommunityservices.
Acompanionpieceoflegislation,HouseBill2550,wasalsopassedin2015andmayhaveanevengreaterimpactonreducingout-of-homeplacement.Thebillreformedwell-intentionedstatetruancypoliciespassedin2010whichhadunfortunateunintendedconsequences.
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The2010legislationloweredthenumberofunexcusedabsencesrequiredforastudenttoberegardedastruantfromtentofive.Manymorestudentswithabsenteeismissueswerethenadjudicated—andthenconfinedoutsidetheirhomesandcommunitiesatgreatpublicexpense.Thiswasoneoftheharshesttruancypoliciesinthenation.
AccordingtotheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnionofWestVirginia,H.B.2550callsforschoolstosendaletterhometoparentsafterthreeunexcusedabsences;meetwiththefamilyafterfiveandpossiblyadjustdownthenumberofunexcuseddays;andengagethecourtafterten.Inaddition,thelawprovidesmuchneededclarificationonwhattypesofabsencesarecountedasunexcused.(22)EffortstoweakentheprovisionsofH.B.2550inthe2016legislativesessionwerefortunatelyunsuccessful.
Thesestepsdemonstratethatdespitepartisanandotherdivideslawmakers,judges,andcommunitymemberscancrosslinestopromoterationalpoliciesinthepublicinterest.However,thereismoretobedonetobuildonthissuccess.Andcomparedtopastefforts,thenextstepscouldbeeasytotake.
PolicyRecommendationstoImprovetheSystem
In2015,theCivilRightsDivisionoftheUSDepartmentofJusticeissuedadetailedlettertoGov.Tomblinwarningthatthestate’scurrentjuvenilejusticesystemwasindangerofviolatingthe1990AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA).Amongotherprovisions,theADArequiresthat“individualswithdisabilities,includingchildrenwithmentalillness,receivesupportandservicesinthemostintegratedsettingappropriatetotheirneeds.”(23)
Thefindingsinthisletterareworthconsidering.Amongthemare:
• ChildrenplacedinDHHRfacilitiesareoftenplaceoutofhome,but“Unnecessaryplacementinsegregatedresidentialtreatmentfacilities,andremovalfromtheirfamiliesandcommunities,canharmchildren.Childrenfrequentlylosetheabilitytomakeeverydaydecisionsabouttheirlivesbecausefacilitiesregimentalldailyactivities.”Theymayalsobesubjecttoseclusion,chemicaltreatment,andmanualrestraintbystaff.Allofthiscancontributetodisruptionbehaviorsandleadto“furthersegregationandisolationfromtheircommunities.”(24)
• Childrenwholiveinthecommunityandneed,butdonotreceivein-homeandcommunity-basedservices,areatriskofunnecessaryplacementinsegregatedtreatmentfacilities.”
• Thestate“hasnotdevelopedcomprehensive,community-basedservicesforchildrenwithmentalillness,includingwraparoundsupportsthatarethestandardofcareforchildrenwithsignificantmentalhealthissues.WestVirginiahasnotdevelopedstatewidecommunity-basedcrisisservices,norhasiteffectivelydivertedchildrenfromunnecessaryplacementinsegregatedresidentialtreatmentfacilities.”
• Thestatehas“takeninsufficientstepstoreallocateexistingresourcesformentalhealthserviceto,andhasnottakenfulladvantageofMedicaidsupportfor,in-homeandcommunity-basedservices.”
• Agenciesthatservechildreninthestatehave“failedtocollaboratetoaddresstheneedsofchildrenwithmentalhealthconditionsinvolvedinmultiplesystems.”
• Thestate“failstoengagefamilieseffectivelytodevelopstrategiestosupportchildrenintheirhomesandcommunities.”
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• Thestate“continuestofundexpensiveplacementinsegregatedresidentialtreatmentfacilitiesbothwithinthestateandoutofstate,butneglectstodevelopsufficientcommunity-basedservices.”(25)
Insum,theDepartmentofJusticearguesthatthesepoliciesviolatethecivilrightsofchildrenandwastestateresources.
BringingSystemPolicyRecommendationstoFruition
WestVirginia’sjuvenilejusticesystemhasmaderealprogress,however,itcontinuestofacesignificantproblems,particularlyintheareaofjuvenilementalhealth.Somenextstepsarefairlyeasytoimplement,whileothersmayrequireanextendedeffort.
Oneimmediatestepwouldbetocreateataskforcetoaddressjuvenilementalhealthissues.WestVirginiahasalreadycreatedstrategicplanstoaddresschronicdiseasessuchasasthmaanddiabetes.AccordingtoMentalHealthMatters,WestVirginia,“Theseplanshelpstakeholderstackleissuescollectivelybyassessingneededservices,settinggoalsanddelegatingresponsibilities.”(26)Abilltocreatesuchataskforcediedinthe2016legislativesession.Thisissueshouldberevisitedinthecominglegislativesession.
Anotherpromisingapproachistobuildtheinfrastructuretohelppublicschoolsaddressmentalhealthissuesbeforeastudentissuspendedorsenttocourt.Often,actingoutisasymptomofdeeperproblems,whichoftengoundiagnosedanduntreatedinthecurrentsystem.Apilotprograminoneortwocountiescouldbeagoodstartingpoint.
Aworthylong-termgoalforourstatewouldbetocreatetheinfrastructurewhichwouldensurethatstudentsindangerofenteringthejuvenilejusticesystemareassessedandreferredtoappropriatecommunity-basedprogramswheneverpossibleandappropriate.
ItisregrettablebuttruethattheremaybesomejuvenilesinWestVirginia,aselsewhere,whoconstituteamajorthreattothepublicand/orthemselves.Itonlymakessensethatout-of-homeplacementandextensivetreatmentshouldbereservedforsuchyoungpeople.Therest,thelow-riskandlow-threatpopulationthatsofarmakesupthemajorityofjuvenilesinconfinement,shouldbetreated,wheneverpossible,intheirhomesandcommunities.
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EndNotes
1.Western,Bruce,PunishmentandInequalityinAmerica,RussellSageFoundation,2006,p.20.
2.Ibid,p.163
3.JusticePolicyInstitute,http://www.justicepolicy.org/About1.html.
4.JusticePolicyCenter,“TheDangersofDetention:TheImpactofIncarceratingYouthinDetentionandOtherSecureFacilities,”p.4,http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/06-11_rep_dangersofdetention_jj.pdf.
5.ibid,p.6.
6.JuvenileJusticeInformationExchange,“KeyIssues,”http://jjie.org/hub/community-based-alternatives/key-issues/.
7.U.S.DepartmentofJustice,OfficeofJusticePrograms,OfficeofJuvenileJusticeandDelinquencyPrevention,“HighlightsFromPathwaystoDesistance:ALongitudinalStudyofSeriousAdolescentOffenders,”p.1,https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/230971.pdf.
8.JusticePolicyInstitute,p.8.
9.Grisso,John,JohnD.andCatherineT.MacArthurFoundation,ResearchNetworkonAdolescentDevelopmentandJuvenileJustice,“DoubleJeopardy:AdolescentOffenderswithMentalDisorders,”p.1.
10.Aizer,AnnaandJosephJ.Doyle,Jr.“JuvenileIncarceration,HumanCapitalandFutureCrime:EvidencefromRandomly-AssignedJudges,”p.3,http://www.mit.edu/~jjdoyle/aizer_doyle_judges_06242013.pdf.
11.Freeman,RichardB.,NBERWORKINGPAPERSSERIES,“CrimeandtheEmploymentofDisadvantagedYouth,”p.11,https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6586657.pdf.
12.WestVirginiaCenteronBudgetandPolicy“ReformingYouthIncarcerationinWestVirginia:SaferCommunities,ReducedCosts,andaBetterFutureforTroubledYouth,”http://www.wvpolicy.org/reforming-youth-incarceration-in-west-virginia/
13.NationalCenterforJuvenileJustice,“SexofResidentsbyState,2015,”https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/ezacjrp/asp/State_Sex.asp?state=&topic=State_Sex&year=2015&percent=rate
14.TheAnnieE.CaseyFoundation,“YouthIncarcerationintheUnitedStates,”p.1,http://www.aecf.org/m/resourcedoc/aecf-YouthIncarcerationInfographic-2013.pdf.
15.ThePewCharitableTrusts,“WestVirginia’s2015JuvenileJusticeReform,”p.1,http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2016/05/west-virginias-2015-juvenile-justice-reform
16.WestVirginiaIntergovernmentalTaskForceonJuvenileJustice,“ReportoftheWestVirginiaIntergovernmentalTaskForceonJuvenileJustice,”p.6,
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http://www.governor.wv.gov/Documents/Final%20Report%20of%20the%20WV%20Intergovernmental%20Task%20Force%20on%20Juvenile%20Justice.pdf
17.Pew,p.3.
18.WestVirginiaIntergovernmentalTaskForce,p.13.
19.WestVirginiaCenteronBudgetandPolicy,op.cit.
20.WestVirginiaIntergovernmentalTaskForce.,p.5.
21.ibid.p.5.
22.AmericanCivilLibertiesUnionofWestVirginia,“TruancyReformIsJustTheBeginning,”http://acluwv.org/truancy-reform-isnt-the-end/.
23.U.S.DepartmentofJustice,CivilRightsDivision,lettertoGovernorTomblin,“Re:UnitedState’sInvestigationoftheWestVirginiaChildren’sMentalHealthSystemPursuanttotheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,”p.1,https://www.ada.gov/olmstead/documents/west_va_findings_ltr.pdf.
24.ibid.,p.2
25.ibid.,p.2,3.
26.MentalHealthMatters,WestVirginiaFacebookpage,https://www.facebook.com/pg/wvmh4kids/about/.
GraphicSources
WestVirginiaDivisionofJuvenileServicesdatafromWestVirginiaExecutiveBudgetFiscalYear2015.Volume2(BudgetOperatingDetail).P.446http://www.budget.wv.gov/executivebudget/archives/Doucments/VIIOD2015.pdf
“BetterReturnsforaSaferFlorida:AligningTaxpayerInvestmentsintheJuvenileJusticeSystemwithStrategiesProventoIncreasePublicSafety,”TheJamesMadisonInstitute,March2014.https://www.jamesmadison.org/library/doclib/BetterReturns2014.pdf
Sickmund,M.,Sladky,T.J.Kang,W.,andPuzzanchera,C.(2015)“EasyAccesstotheCensusofJuvenilesonResidentialPlacement.”http://www.ojjdp.gov.ojstatbb/ezacjrp
WashingtonStateInstituteforPublicPolicy,Benefit-CostResults,JuvenileJustice(UpdatedJune2016)http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/BenefitCost/Pdf/I/WSIPP_BenefitCost_JuvenileJustice
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