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IMPLEMENTATION OF HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICALCONTROL POINT (HACCP)
TO THE DAIRY INDUSTRY:CURRENT STATUS AND PERSPECTIVESD. K. SANDROU
a & I. S. ARVANITOYANNIS ba Laboratory of Food Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Department of Food Science andTechnology, School of
Agriculture , Aristotle University of Thessaloniki , Box
265,Thessaloniki, Hellas, 54006, Greeceb Laboratory of Food
Chemistry and Biochemistry, Department of Food Science
andTechnology, School of Agriculture , Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki , Box 265,Thessaloniki, Hellas, 54006, GreecePublished
online: 05 Mar 2007.
To cite this article: D. K. SANDROU & I. S. ARVANITOYANNIS
(2000) IMPLEMENTATION OF HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICALCONTROL POINT
(HACCP) TO THE DAIRY INDUSTRY: CURRENT STATUS AND PERSPECTIVES,
Food Reviews International, 16:1,77-111, DOI:
10.1081/FRI-100100283
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Food Rev. Int., 16(1), 77111 (2000)
IMPLEMENTATION OF HAZARD ANALYSISCRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP)
TOTHE DAIRY INDUSTRY: CURRENT STATUSAND PERSPECTIVES
D. K. SANDROU and I. S. ARVANITOYANNIS*Laboratory of Food
Chemistry and BiochemistryDepartment of Food Science and
TechnologySchool of Agriculture Box 265Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki54006 Thessaloniki, Hellas (Greece)
ABSTRACTThe dairy industry is confronted with new challenges
because of thecontinuously increasing complexity of the
ingredients/packaging mate-rials used and the technological
advances/processes employed. The cur-rent structural development of
the dairy industry means that any qualityfailures are bound to have
more widespread consequences than previ-ously. Consequently, the
role of preventive controls is becoming increas-ingly important.
Implementation of Hazard Analysis Critical ControlPoint (HACCP) by
the dairy industry is anticipated to enhance consumerconfidence in
its products and reduce the existing barriers in interna-tional
trade. This review discusses the implementation of HACCP
prin-ciples throughout the production and distribution chain of
milk and dairyproducts.
KEY WORDS: HACCP; Hazard analysis; Critical control point;
Dairyindustry; Milk; Milk products
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 1 30 31
998788. Fax: 1 30 31 998789. E-mail:[email protected]
77
Copyright 2000 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com
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78 SANDROU AND ARVANITOYANNIS
INTRODUCTION
Milk and dairy products have been implicated in main human
diseases such as tuber-culosis because milk has always been
considered one of the most perishable fooditems (ICMSF, 1988). The
structural development of the dairy industry in most coun-tries,
including the geographical expansion of milk products manufactured
by largeproduction units, means that any quality failure will
probably have more widespreadconsequences than previously (Burgess
et al., 1994).
Results of the WHO surveillance program (WHO, 1992) indicate
that the numberof causative agents of food-borne diseases continues
to increase. End product testinghas been for many decades the most
widely used tool to ensure food safety. However,there is a growing
awareness that end product testing cannot by itself ensure
thesafety of food (Heeschen, 1997). The best way to achieve disease
reduction is throughimplementation of the preventive system of
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point(HACCP) from production to
consumption of dairy products (Roberts, 1995).
However, prior to HACCP implementation, it was proved to be
advantageouswhen several prerequisite programs such as Total
Quality Management (TQM), Sta-tistical Process Control (SPQ),
Just-in-Time (JIT), ISO 9000/ASQ 9000 and BS5750, and Good
Manufacturing Practice (GMP) had already been in place
(Hubbard,1996; Gould, 1994). TQM is a comprehensive approach to
improving competitive-ness, effectiveness, and flexibility through
planning, organizing, and understandingeach activity, and involving
each individual at each level. Total quality results ineffective
leadership (upper management) through commitment to constant
improve-ment, a right first time philosophy, training people to
understand customer-suppliedrelationships, managing systems,
processes, and teamwork improvement, modernsupervision and
training, and continuous education. The basis for the TQM
modelimplementation resides on changes/improvement in culture,
communication, andcommitment thus leading to enhancement of
customer-supplied relationship (Oak-land, 1993; Ishikawa, 1989). It
is vital for the company to communicate to any exter-nal supplier
the purchasing organization policy on the quality of incoming
goodsand services. Suppliers who incorporate a quality management
system of ISO 9000/ASQ 9000 series or BS 5750 or SPC into their
operations will be selected. JIT is aprogram directed toward
ensuring that the right quantities are purchased or producedat the
right time and that there is no waste, or in other words, high
quality, low cost,minimum lead times and high flexibility
(Hutchins, 1985; Sarv, 1992). The methodsto be adopted in order to
reach these goals will comprise: TQM, focus on design,plant and
equipment layout, set-up time reduction, lot or batch size
reduction, work-in-progress and/or buffer stock reduction, and
flexible workforce. In 1997, the Inter-national Organization for
Standardization (ISO) launched the ISO 9000 series whichhad many
similarities to the ASQ 9000 and was based upon the earlier
developedBS 5750. The ISO 9000/ASQ 9000 requirements include:
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IMPLEMENTATION OF HACCP TO DAIRY INDUSTRY 79
Management responsibility (quality policy, organization chart,
responsibilities);Quality system (quality plan and manual,
operators skills and training);Quality control procedures,
inspections, and checks;Contract review [customer requirements
(quality and delivery date), differences be-
tween order/quotation];Design control (plan R&D,
verification and identification of design outputs,
changes);Document control (quality and departmental
manuals/service, list of approved sup-
pliers, purchasing specification, international/national
standards);Purchasing (objective selection of subcontractors based
on evidence/assessments);Identification/Traceability (from
purchased materials to finished products);Process control
(description of process/equipment);Checking/Inspecting incoming
materials/services/equipment;Non-conforming products (documented
system);Corrective action (failures, complaints from customers to
suppliers);Quality records (to demonstrate compliance with own
requirements);Quality system audits and reviews (internal,
external);Training (identifying and reviewing training needs,
carrying them, and keeping rec-
ords);Servicing (adequate resources, regular
service);Statistical Techniques (Implementation of SPC)
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) are an indispensable part of
every foodquality system. They contain detailed requirements for
avoiding the occurrence ofmishappenings in the following areas
(Hubbard, 1996; Gould, 1994):Personnel (disease control,
cleanliness, education, training, supervision);Plant and Grounds
(storage and maintenance of equipment and materials, waste dis-
posal, appropriate building construction for ventilation,
cleaning, lighting);Sanitary operations (special precautions for
toxic agents, pest control, food contact
surfaces);Sanitary facilities and Control (water supply, toilet
facilities, sewage and waste dis-
posal);Equipment and Utensils (design, materials, and
workmanship should be cleanable);Processes and Control (sanitation
in incoming materials, transporting, segregation,
manufacturing, packaging, and storing)HACCP is an
internationally recognized process control system to assess
hazards
and to establish safety control systems that focus on prevention
(checking of CCPs)rather than relying on end product testing
(Heeschen, 1997). Appropriate qualitativeand quantitative sampling
aimed at getting a representative sample is a prerequisitefor
excluding a typical source of analytical error (Leenheer, 1993). It
provides plant
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80 SANDROU AND ARVANITOYANNIS
management with specific controls and advice on how to operate
their productionprocess at these points (Manis, 1995). Control is
proactive since remedial actionsare taken in advance and deviations
can be detected in time in order to take theappropriate steps
aiming at reestablishing control (Notermans and Mead, 1996).HACCP
can be characterized as a hierarchical control system and should be
regu-larly reviewed to make the necessary changes if any
modifications of the process/product are required (Dijkers et al.,
1995; Mortimore and Wallace, 1995).
There are seven HACCP principles that permit a systematic
approach to dairyplant:
Hazard analysis associated with every step, raw material to
consumption of the productCCP identification to control all hazards
[microbiological (severe, moderate with
potential for wide dissemination and moderate with limited
dissemination), physi-cal (extraneous material such as metal,
glass, plastic, wood, etc.), and chemical(drug residues,
pesticizers identified, toxins)
Limits for preventionMonitoring needsCorrective actions to be
taken if monitoring identifies variation from established
limitsEffective record keepingProcedures to verify that HACCP is
working
HACCP is a 12-step process that incorporates the above mentioned
seven HACCPprinciples. In addition, management consent and team
selection must be obtained,the dairy food and distribution method
should be described as completely as possible,the intended use and
intended users should be identified, a flow diagram of the prod-uct
developed and verified, and a mechanism established for evaluation
and revisionfor a HACCP plan once implemented. The dairy industry
presents two distinguishingfeatures; its main raw material is a
single, primary agricultural product which remainsbasically
unchanged despite the various processes it goes through for
controllingseveral potential microbiological hazards (van
Schothorst and Kleiss, 1994). Byadopting a national or
international standard of good dairy practices for the produc-tion
of milk, many worries concerning potential chemical and microbial
residuesleaving the production unit can be alleviated through
documentation and education(Cullor, 1997). Of particular importance
for the quality of raw milk is that dairyproducers and
veterinarians can implement rapid testing assays as part of the
on-farm HACCP programs in order to determine whether the critical
limits for potentialfood-borne drug and chemical residues and
infectious agents have been exceeded(Gardner, 1997; Bluthgen and
Heeschen, 1997a; Bluthgen and Heeschen, 1997b;Darling et al.,
1974).
This article will discuss the application of HACCP principles
throughout the pro-duction and distribution chain of milk, cheese,
yogurt, ice cream, cream, and butter.
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IMPLEMENTATION OF HACCP TO DAIRY INDUSTRY 81
Furthermore, a brief discussion of the current status and
perspectives of the dairyindustry will be given.
CURRENT STATUS OF HACCP IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRYProduction of
Pasteurized Milk
Pasteurized milk is the largest selling milk in most
industrialized countries becausethe consumption of raw milk carries
the risk of infection by milk-borne pathogens,especially Salmonella
(Small and Sharp, 1979) and Campylobacter (Heeschen, 1996;Potter et
al., 1983; Summer, 1996). The International Dairy Federation has
definedpasteurization as, A process applied to a product with the
object of minimizingpossible health hazards arising from pathogenic
microorganisms associated withmilk, by heat treatment, which is
consistent with minimal chemical, physical andsensory changes in
the product (Varnam and Sutherland, 1996; EEC 92/46, 1992;EEC
93/43, 1993; Mossel, 1981). However, in some countries, farms are
still allowedto sell raw milk for household use. In the UK and
several other countries, bottledraw milk can be directly delivered
to customers provided that milk-producing cowshave been attested
free from tuberculosis and brucellosis (Mossel et al., 1995).
The flow diagram for the manufacture of pasteurized milk is
shown in Figure 1and the critical control points are indicated. Raw
milk is a magnificent medium forthe growth of microorganisms which
can be derived from the udder, the environment,
Figure 1. Flow diagram for the manufacture of pasteurized milk
(Dijkers et al., 1995).
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82 SANDROU AND ARVANITOYANNIS
the milk handling equipment, and the personnel (Mossel et al.,
1995). Escherichiacoli, Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium
bovis, Streptococcus agalactiae, Str.dysgalactiae, and Str. uberis
(Hahn, 1996) may cause under certain circumstancesmastitis, leading
to significant economic losses (Elbers et al., 1998; Barkema et
al.,1998). In winter months, feed and bedding are the main sources
of thermoduricspoilage organisms, while milk handling equipment is
the major source of Gram-negative, psychrotrophic spoilage
bacteria. Employees suffering clinical symptomsof infection and
feces may contaminate milk with Campylobacter and Salmo-nella.
In previous years, tuberculosis (Mossel et al., 1995) and
brucellosis (Romero etal., 1995) caused by Mycobacterium bovis or
M. tuberculosis and Brucella abortus,Br. melitensis or Br. suis
were of major concern (Mossel et al., 1995). Cattle andsubsequently
raw milk may be infected with Aeromonas, Campylobacter (Potter
etal., 1983), Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes
(Rocourt and Bille,1997; Santillan et al., 1997), Yersinia
enterocolitica (Walker and Gilmour, 1986)and Coxiella burnetii
(Mossel et al., 1995) from a number of sources such as non-potable
water, pastures, feces, air, animals purchased from other herds,
and buildings.Both milk composition and high temperatures support
the growth of spoilage bacte-ria, such as Enterococcus,
Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Bacillus and members ofthe
Enterobacteriaceae, despite the presence of anti-microbial systems
in milk. Attemperatures above 7 C, the increase in Gram-negative
psychrotrophic bacteria, es-pecially Pseudomonas and Alcaligenes,
and production of lipolytic or proteolyticenzymes is rapid thus
causing deleterious changes in milk and dairy products (Var-nam and
Sutherland, 1996).
Antibiotics (Dasenbrock and LaCourse, 1998), mycotoxins (van
Egmont et al.,1997), radioactive material, agricultural chemicals
(Bluthgen and Heeschen, 1997b),polychlorinated biphenyls (Bluthgen
et al., 1997), and poisonous plants may entermilk through
intra-mammary therapy and through transfer from the feed or the
envi-ronment. These substances may cause strong allergic reactions,
carcinogenesis andstomach irritation to the consumer and they may
adversely affect the technology ofdairy products (Troutt et al.,
1995).
In conclusion, milk should only be accepted at the dairy plant
when obtained fromanimals which:
Are not suffering from tuberculosis and brucellosis (Romero et
al., 1995);Are free from contagious diseases (Heeschen, 1996;
Troutt et al., 1995);Are not suffering from clinical mastitis
(Mossel et al., 1995);Have not be treated with antibiotics unless
milk has been obtained after expiration
of the retention period following veterinary treatment (Troutt
et al., 1995);Are subjected to proper supervision and support from
relevant authorities (Tschumi,
1997);Does not suffer from infections or tissue damages of the
udder (Burgess et al., 1994)
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To ensure that milk-producing animals meet these standards and
that their milk isof the expected high quality, adherence to good
husbandry practices is essential(Heeschen, 1996; Leenheer, 1993).
Pastures should be free of harmful substances,animal manure, and
sewage sludge, while the supplied water should preferably beof
potable quality. In order to avoid spread of infections within the
herd, good hy-gienic status of animals should be maintained and
quarantine of any incoming stockis necessary (Troutt et al., 1995).
Scrupulous dairy hygiene can reduce the levels ofpsychrotrophs and
thermodurics to the order of 35 3 103 cfus ml21 (van den
Berg,1986). Total colony counts in raw milk within the range 12 3
105 can be easilyreached as well (Mossel et al., 1995). Cleaning
the udder and the teats with appro-priate antiseptics before and
after milking can minimize the hazards of tissue damageand
infections during milking (Burgess et al., 1994). Farmers should be
educated tomake the best use of antibiotics, conform to hygienic
rules and avoid handling milkduring sickness (Mossel and Grun,
1971). Appropriate design and construction ofmilk handling
equipment should reduce the risks of contamination of raw milk,
whileits thorough cleaning and disinfection are necessary before
use (ICMSF, 1998). Inrecent years, improved standards of housing
and use of separate milking parlors havefurther reduced the risks
of raw milk contamination. After milking, rapid cooling ofmilk to
below 4 C within 4 h should follow, on-farm storage time should be
limited,and temperature abuse should be avoided (Dijkers et al.,
1995). As part of the on-farm HACCP programs, cost-effective,
accurate, and reproducible tests that can de-termine the status of
cows, milk and dairy environment are required (Reybroeck,1996). For
infections and residues of low prevalence, testing strategies that
are highlyspecific can help minimize false-positive results and
excessive costs to the dairyindustry (Gardner, 1997). In the
nearest future, on-farm procedures and in particularimplementation
of HACCP (Troutt et al., 1995) that can monitor the presence
ofemerging and reemerging human pathogens will definitely need to
be established(Cullor, 1997).
When raw milk is pumped to the transfer tanker, an automatic
pump stoppingabove 6 C should be used and this temperature should
not be exceeded during trans-portation (Dijkers et al., 1995).
Transportation time should be as short as possible,avoiding any
unnecessary delays. Moreover, milk tankers should be cleaned
anddisinfected at least daily, should be regularly inspected and
maintained, and shouldnot be used for transport of any other
materials in order to prevent microbiologicalor chemical
recontamination of milk (Burgess et al., 1994). The tanker driver
shouldnot suffer from infections, should conform to hygienic rules,
and should not haveaccess to stables in order to avoid
contamination of milk with pathogens of humanorigin.
Milk tankers should be cleaned and disinfected after
discharging. Dischargingareas should have adequate drainage and
should be easily rinsed to avoid accumula-tion of water and raw
milk residues. Milk should be conveyed from the tanker intothe
dairy building in closed hose or pipe systems. On receipt, raw milk
should be
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84 SANDROU AND ARVANITOYANNIS
subjected to the following controls by analytical laboratories
performed accordingto Good Laboratory Practice (Broderick, 1993)
for quality assessment:measurement of pH value and of titratable
acidity;tests for sediment and antibiotic residues;measurement of
temperature, which should not exceed 10 C;determination of its
microbiological quality through validated rapid
methods;determination of its composition;tests to ensure that milk
has not been adulterated;somatic cell count
If milk is pasteurized within 4 h from the time of reception, it
should be immediatelycooled and kept refrigerated at a temperature
below 6 C to prevent the growth ofpathogens. If holding time is 34
days, the temperature should be kept below 3 Cand for 4 days a
temperature of 2 C or below is required (ICMSF, 1988). To extendthe
storage time of raw milk, thermization, cooling or addition of
lactoperoxidaseor hydrogen peroxide is suggested (Varnam and
Sutherland, 1996). Mixing storedraw milk with newly received raw
milk should be strictly avoided and storage tanksshould be cleaned
and disinfected prior to their filling with fresh raw milk
(Burgesset al., 1994).
Standardization of fat to the specific concentration desired and
size reduction offat globules to minimize creaming should always
precede pasteurization. Homog-enizers can be incorporated in the
pasteurizer and operate near pasteurization temper-ature, allowing
the use of lower pressures and reducing microbiological
contamina-tion. Visual inspection and microbiological tests should
be used to verify the correctapplication of CIP and pressure
settings should be periodically checked.
The next major step is pasteurization, the purpose of which is
to increase productshelf-life and render raw milk safe by
eliminating the hazards caused by the presenceof heat sensitive
pathogenic microorganisms (van Schothorst and Kleiss, 1994;
Jer-vis, 1994) The requirements for the successful operation of
High Temperature ShortTime (HTST) pasteurization for commercially
used are: Application of correct thermal process by means of:
an automatic safety system which prevents extreme temperatures
(too low/high),a long, thin holding tube to minimize running period
(Farrall, 1973),an automatic flow diversion device which ensures
flow control and assurance (Dijk-
ers et al., 1995); Prevention of cross-contamination within
pasteurizer by correct design of the
equipment and proper operating conditions; Cleanability of
pasteurizer which can be achieved through:
use of the suitable type of stainless steel,
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IMPLEMENTATION OF HACCP TO DAIRY INDUSTRY 85
correct design of the equipment to allow access to all of its
parts during cleaning,proper training and motivation of personnel
(ICMSF, 1988); Limitation of fouling by minimizing temperature
difference between heating me-
dium and milk; Economic operation by using plate heat exchangers
of large surface area and
through regeneration (Varnam and Sutherland, 1996)In order to
verify that milk has been correctly pasteurized thermograph
recordsshould be examined, while an alkaline phosphatase test can
be additionally usedfor verifying whether pasteurization is
adequate or whether milk has been cross-contaminated by raw milk
(Harding, 1991). The possible sources of cross-contamina-tion of
pasteurized milk are shown in Figure 2 (Burgess et al., 1994).
Post-heatingrecontamination will turn pasteurized milk sour and
sometimes even cause entericinfections (Mossel et al., 1995). It
was previously claimed that the risks from recon-taminated heated
products may be even greater than those from raw food becauseof the
absence of a competing flora (Kraft et al., 1976). The sources on
the rightside of Figure 2 are external to the factory and stand for
items from which the factoryshould be protected, while the sources
on the left side are those that originate frominside the factory
and should be subjected to strict control programs. Air and
peopleare shown in the center because they are potential
contamination sources both insideand outside the factory (Burgess
et al., 1994; Simonsen et al., 1987). Of particularimportance to
the prevention of cross-contamination is the proper design and
opera-tion of the equipment and the distinction between the areas,
the equipment, and theCIP system used for raw and pasteurized milk
(Mortimore and Wallace, 1995).
After pasteurization, milk should be rapidly cooled down to 4.5
C. A temperaturerise to over 5 C results in an alarm and if it
cannot be stopped, the process shouldbe stopped at a temperature
above 6 C (Dijkers et al., 1995). Although GMPs includethe
necessary maintenance of the equipment, leaks in the barrier
between milk andcooling fluid may eventually occur. To control the
hazard of recontamination ofpasteurized milk, a slight
over-pressure on the side of milk is exerted (van Schothorstand
Kleiss, 1994).
Figure 2. Possible sources of cross contamination of pasteurized
milk (Burgess et al., 1994).
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86 SANDROU AND ARVANITOYANNIS
Packaged pasteurized milk is stored in refrigerating plants for
24 h at most, socontrol is just a matter of correct planning.
Refrigerating plants should (IDF GroupD14/44, 1995):be carefully
dimensioned;have automatic defrosters;achieve equal distribution
and circulation of cold air;have adequate refrigerating
capacity;provide sufficient ventilation and airing
Packaging of pasteurized milk prevents any microbiological,
chemical, and physicalcontamination during storage, transport, and
distribution provided that package in-tegrity is maintained
(Jervis, 1994). Packages should be filled to the
predeterminedvolume and seals should be carefully examined to
prevent leakage and contamination(Smolander et al., 1997). Glass
bottles should be either visually inspected or exam-ined by an
automatic photoelectric cell device to ensure that they are
adequatelycleaned and sanitized, while the quality assurance system
of the supplier of the plas-tic-coated cardboard containers should
be periodically audited to ensure their satis-factory
bacteriological quality (Varnam and Sutherland, 1996; Graves et
al., 1998).Packaged pasteurized milk is stored in refrigerating
plants for 24 h at most andcontrol is just a matter of correct
planning. Refrigerating plants should be carefullydimensioned, have
adequate refrigerating capacity and automatic defrosters, and
suf-ficient ventilation and airing and circulation of cold air (IDF
Group D14/44, 1995).
During cold storage, air temperature should be controlled by an
automatic controlloop in order to avoid rise in temperature over 6
C. For the same purpose, vehiclesused for the distribution of milk
should have mechanical compressor units. Bothretailers and
consumers should put milk into coolers and apply the first-in
first-out(FIFO) management. Photodegradation of milk during storage
is usually attributedto light transmittance (photooxidation),
oxygen permeability of the packaging mate-rial as well as the
storage temperature (Bosset et al., 1994). Since many
nutrientscontained in milk are sensitive to light, i.e., vitamins
A, B6, B12, D, and K, tocopherol,tryptophan, b -carotene, and
unsaturated fatty acids, it is advisable to use opaque orstrong
light scattering packaging materials (Shipe et al., 1978).
Effective inspectionby public health inspectors plays an important
monitoring role in the case of retailers,but cannot be applied to
consumers (Dijkers et al., 1995).
Production of Ultra High Temperature (UHT) Milk
UHT milk, in contrast to pasteurized milk, has extended shelf
life at ambient temper-atures, since the applied thermal process is
capable of inactivating vegetative micro-organisms and spores.
Although UHT eliminates almost all psychrotrophic organ-
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isms, the latter frequently produce lipases and proteases, which
manage to survivebecause of their thermo-resistance. Survival of
these enzymes is likely to lead torancidity and induce gelation of
milk (Adams and Brawley, 1981; Keogh and Pet-tingill, 1982). UHT
production requires the application and maintenance of
sterileconditions from sterilization until aseptic packaging. The
flow diagram for the pro-duction of UHT milk is shown in Figure 3.
For the quality and safety aspects ofraw milk apply what have
already been described for pasteurized milk.
UHT heating can be carried out by using either an indirect or
direct method. Bothof them require the use of flow diversion
devices and recording thermographs, similarto pasteurization. In
the indirect method, milk is treated in tube or plate heat
ex-changers and high operating pressures are employed to avoid milk
boiling at hightemperatures. In direct heating, milk is preheated
by a regenerative heat exchangerand then heated up to 140 C by
mixing milk with superheated steam, either by injec-tion or
infusion. Flash cooling is the last stage of direct heating and has
three techno-logical objectives (Varnam and Sutherland,
1996):reduction of thermal damage;removal of water to restore milk
to its original composition;removal of low molecular weight
volatile compounds to improve product quality
Direct heated UHT milk is considered to be of higher quality
than indirectly heatedUHT milk because the former is held for
shorter times at higher temperatures thanthe latter. The critical
aspects of UHT heat treatment are the flow rate, the pressure
Figure 3. Flow diagram for production of UHT milk in semi-rigid
containers (ICMSF, 1988).
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and the temperature of milk and heating medium, the correct
functioning of flowdiversion valve and the cleanliness and
sterility of the equipment prior to the steriliza-tion treatment
(ICMSF, 1988). Pasteurization is a CCP because it greatly
increasesrefrigerated shelf-life. Fouling is also a significant
problem in indirect plants, sinceit affects product quality and the
economic operation of the plant. Deposits of milkon heat exchange
surfaces can be minimized by reducing the temperature
differencebetween heating medium and milk and by processing good
quality milk, the pHvalue of which should be over 6.6 (Varnam and
Sutherland, 1996).
Homogenization of milk is essential in order to avoid the
occurrence of fat separa-tion and hardening during storage.
Sterility of the homogenizer is critical to preventcontamination of
direct heated milk and it must be designed and operated accordingto
aseptic principles. Homogenization pressure and single or double
stage operationof the homogenizer should also be considered.
Cooling of UHT milk to room temper-ature is performed in plate or
tube heat exchangers. The equipment should be prester-ilized,
pinholes free and should have been suitably designed for aseptic
operationand sufficient overpressure on the sterile side to prevent
any recontamination of UHTmilk (ICMSF, 1988).
Sterilized milk is finally filled under aseptic conditions into
presterilized flexiblecontainers (Holdsworth, 1992). Aseptic
filling machines should be installed in a cleanarea, separated from
other areas of the plant to minimize contamination of the
equip-ment (David, 1992). Airflow, pressure, and relative humidity
should be constantlykept under control. Packaging material and air
or gases used for flushing packs shouldbe sterilized. The
efficiency of packs and air sterilization should be verified
withchallenge tests and the integrity of seals with non-destructive
tests (Floros and Gna-nasekharan, 1992), dye tests, or
microbiological challenge tests. Bacillus stearother-mophilus is
commonly used as a challenge organism for milk sterilization, while
thechoice of challenge organism for packaging material
sterilization depends on themethod used for sterilization.
Personnel should conform to hygienic rules and followmanufacturers
instructions for control of the aseptic filling equipment.
A determining factor of quality end product (Scott and
Bloomfield, 1990; Holds-worth, 1992), which should not be
overlooked, is the maintenance of sterile condi-tions downstream of
sterilization. Sterility can be achieved by circulating hot
waterthrough the plant and by ensuring that the parts of the
equipment in contact withmilk reach a temperature of 130 C and have
been properly designed (Varnam andSutherland, 1996). The quality of
the end product can be verified by means of properstatistical
testing schemes (Broderick, 1993; Wagstaffe, 1993). Although, in
theory,it is possible to sample even 100% of the production,
usually the number of packsbeing tested is reduced down to 0.01% of
packs in a batch. After the incubationperiod, packs are examined
for swelling or coagulation, while destructive samplingmay reveal
sensory defects. In cases of doubt, microbiological examinations
and pHdetermination may also be carried out (ICMSF, 1988).
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Production of Spray Dried Milk
Since 1950, there have been 17 major food poisoning outbreaks
due to milk powders.Two of them were caused by staphylococcal
toxins and the rest, by Salmonella spp.(Shapton and Shapton, 1994).
A simplified procedure of spray dried milk manufac-ture is shown in
Figure 4. Raw milk should be of good microbiological quality
andstored at low temperatures for limited time periods (Mossel et
al., 1995). Standardiza-tion of milk should be conducted prior to
pasteurization to avoid cross-contaminationbetween raw and
pasteurized milk (Mossel et al., 1995). Temperature and holdingtime
of milk and operation of CIP should be controlled to prevent
mesophilic bacteriafrom growing and psychrophiles from producing
heat-stable enzymes (Garcia Arn-esto and Sutherland, 1997; Adams
and Brawley, 1981; Keogh and Pettingill, 1982).Prior to
pasteurization, milk should also be clarified to remove undesired
matter.Hygienic design and operation of the equipment, frequent
disposal of sludge, andcleaning intervals of 36 h can be applied to
minimize any potential microbiologicalhazards (ICMSF, 1988).
Pasteurization should be carried out prior to concentration,
since there is no flowdiversion device for underheated milk in
evaporators. During pasteurization, appro-priate operating
conditions should be maintained and recontamination of
pasteurizedmilk should be prevented (EHEDG, 1992), as has already
been described. Conden-sation is usually carried out by
evaporation, although reverse osmosis/ultrafiltrationor freeze
concentration may be applied. Since operating conditions allow the
growth
Figure 4. Flow diagram for production of spray dried milk
(ICMSF, 1988).
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of thermophiles at certain stages of the evaporation and growth
of Staphylococcusaureus in the final concentrate, the holding
temperature before drying should beabove 55 C and holding time
should be less than 4 h (Shapton and Shapton, 1994).The evaporator
should be equipped with appropriate instrumentation to
monitortemperature, vacuum, and product concentration. Employment
of experienced andskilled staff is necessary at all times and
cleaning and sanitizing treatments shouldbe implemented at regular
intervals. Homogenization should be conducted at a tem-perature of
70 C to prevent the growth of both mesophilic organisms (Hammer
etal., 1996) and thermophiles. The homogenizer should be regularly
cleaned, sanitizedand even dismantled if deemed so, to minimize the
probability of growth of meso-philes in wet residues (Hammer et
al., 1996).
Concentrated milk enters the spray dryer through the atomizer
and the viscosityof the milk feed affects the properties of the
dried milk. Air within the drying cham-ber should comply with the
following requirements:
Filtered to remove dust particles (Carminati, 1996). The air
filtration system shouldbe of sufficient capacity and regularly
maintained (Shapton and Shapton, 1994).
Good microbiological quality and even distribution within the
chamber to avoid theformation of moisture pockets.
Unfiltered air from adjacent areas contaminated with Salmonella
should not enterthe drying chamber. Slight overpressure of the air
within the chamber can preventthe entrance of unfiltered air
(ICMSF, 1988).
Relative humidity, entrance temperature, exit temperature, and
movement of the airshould be constantly monitored (Mossel, 1975).
The microbiological monitoringof air is essential and should be
carried out by collecting the microorganisms byone of the following
procedures (Mossel et al., 1995): absorption in a rich
infusionbroth (Thorne et al., 1992) and direct isolation on a
specific medium using a slitsampler (Quinn et al., 1980).
Production of standard quality dried milk requires continuous
control of milk dropletsize, temperature, and speed of circulating
air. Precautions should be taken to preventcontamination of dried
milk from raw milk, as well as to avoid growth of
pathogenicorganisms in concentrated milk before drying. The various
areas of the plant shouldbe separated as much as possible,
especially the wet side of the plant from thepowder side to prevent
cross-contamination (Varnam and Sutherland, 1996). Thedryer should
be properly designed to allow dry cleaning and when water is used
itsdesign should prevent accumulation of moisture. A strict control
should be imposedon the personnel movement and employees should
change clothes and shoes andwash their hands when enter the spray
drying area (Scott and Bloomfield, 1990).Hot powder should be
cooled with filtered air of high microbiological quality toavoid
recontamination of the powder and the equipment should be always
kept dryto prevent the growth of microorganisms (ICMSF, 1988).
Moisture content of theend product should be measured to validate
that the specified level is achieved, since
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localized high moisture content in milk powder allows mold
growth and aflatoxinproduction (Shapton and Shapton, 1994; Richard
et al., 1975). The sampling method-ology depends on the sample size
and that microbial distribution is not homogeneousin milk
powder.
Milk powder is transported to the filling station and is exposed
to some extent toenvironmental air. The manufacturing area
environment, plant, and equipment shouldbe properly designed,
maintained, and cleaned according to good manufacturing
anddistribution practices (GMDPs) (Espy, 1994). To verify that the
Quality Assuranceprogram applies effective control, microbiological
monitoring of environmental, andend-product samples with special
reference to Salmonella are required. Packagingmaterial should be
hygienically manufactured and should be properly stored to ex-clude
pests and dust (Mossel et al., 1995). Packaging should provide the
consumerwith sufficient information for safe storage and product
reconstitution (Scott et al.,1982).
Manufacture of Plain Yogurt or with Fruit/Nut Puree
Yogurt is the most popular fermented milk product because of its
extended shelflife and properties that contribute to the promotion
of health. The quality of yogurtdepends on the type of raw material
used, on the manufacturing procedure employedand on the proper
functioning of the process equipment and process line (Rasic
andKurmann, 1978). The flow diagram for yogurt manufacture with
added fruit or nutpuree is shown in Figure 5. All stages upstream
of cooling of heated milk shouldcomply with the requirements that
have already been described for pasteurized milk.Stages requiring
special attention and consideration during milk treatment are
stan-dardization, homogenization, and the addition of stabilizer.
These processes improvethe texture and mouth-feel, decrease
susceptibility to syneresis, and reduce noduleformation. Trained
and experienced personnel should supervise standardization
andchemical analysis should be performed to ensure that legal
requirements or consumerpreferences are met. Homogenization
pressure should be constantly monitored andstabilizers should be
purchased from approved suppliers meeting an accurate and upto date
agreed specification.
Starter culture should have the following properties
(Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, 1993):consist of Lactobacillus delbrueckii
subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus salivarius
subsp. thermophilus in ratio of 1:1;be bacteriophage and
contaminating bacteria free;grow fast and start acid production
within 30 minutes of inoculation to cause rapid
drop in pH value;produce volatile flavor compounds and
substances for preventing the growth of an-
tagonists, such as bacteriocins, nisin, and acetaldehyde.
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Figure 5. Flow diagram for the production of yogurt with fruit
or nut puree (Shapton and Shapton,1994).
Well-trained employees should perform starter inoculation under
hygienic conditionsin milk, which is penicillin free and
sufficiently heated and rapidly cooled at a tem-perature of 43 C
(Tamine and Robinson, 1985). Starter culture is usually added
at2.53% thus permitting the completion of fermentation within 3 h.
Throughout fer-mentation, temperature and acidity should be
constantly measured (Rasic and Kur-mann, 1978).
Post-fermentation treatment of yogurt involves cooling, filling,
and packaging.Cooling rate and temperature should be monitored in
order to prevent syneresis ofthe end product. During handling,
excessive agitation and shear stress of yogurt mustbe avoided
because they can lead to reduction in viscosity and leakage of free
whey(Varnam and Sutherland, 1996). After cooling, filling should
follow immediatelyand, at this stage, fruit or nut puree should be
added and evenly distributed in theyogurt. Fruit puree prevents the
growth of pathogens because of its low pH value,but allows
mycotoxin production. The applied heat treatment can destroy
yeasts,spoilage organisms, and vegetative pathogens with the
exception of spores of Clos-tridium botulinum. However, the low-pH
value of 4.7 (Vasavada and White, 1979)prevents growth of Cl.
botulinum and toxin production and cooling of puree inhibitsgrowth
of survived microorganisms. Nut puree may carry toxins and
pathogens ifa botulinum process of Fo 5 3 is not applied and the
puree is held at ambient tempera-
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tures. Heat resistant aflatoxins may be present in puree if nuts
became moist becauseof improper conditions of harvesting and
storage. In order to control the quality ofthe puree, the following
measures should be taken (Shapton and Shapton, 1994):
Regular auditing of suppliers to ensure their compliance with
the product specifica-tions and HACCP implementation;
Statement of heat treatment protocol and puree formulation
according to the supplier;Certificate of heat treatment and
container integrity for each batch;Monitoring for aflatoxins in
nuts before puree production.Yogurt is finally packaged in plastic
pots capped with metal foil or plastic and stored
at low temperatures for a short time. To prolong the storage
life of yogurt, asepticproduction lines and cultures with weak
after-acidification ability can be used(Rasic and Kurmann,
1978).
Manufacture of Cream and Butter
Cream consists of a concentration of milk fat in milk with the
fat mainly in formof globules and constituting the basis for butter
production. Synoptical flow diagramsfor the manufacture of cream
and butter are summarized in Figures 6 and 7. Rawmilk should be of
the same quality that is required for pasteurized milk and
shouldcomply with some additional requirements decisive to the
quality of the end product(Kosinski, 1996; Mossel et al., 1995).
Efficient separation requires the process of
Figure 6. Flow diagram for the production of pasteurized cream
(Kosmidou and Arvanitoyannis,1998).
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Figure 7. Basic process for the manufacture of butter (Varnam
and Sutherland, 1996).
milk within a short time from receipt and exclusion of air
during pumping of milkby means of suitably designed equipment
(Kosikowski and Mistry, 1997).
Prior to separation, it is essential that milk is heated to 55 C
to inactivate naturallipases of milk that may cause rancidity. To
achieve the desired fat content of creamduring standardization,
determination of the fat content of whole milk is first requiredand
then control of the flow of cream and skimmed milk in the separator
by meansof special valves should be applied (Muir and Kjaerbye,
1996). The accuracy ofthis method depends on the calibration of
flow meters, the standardized operatingconditions, and the
experience and training of personnel. When composition of milkor
operating conditions fluctuate, measurement of density is essential
to the buildup of automatic control systems to maintain constant
fat content in cream (Varnamand Sutherland, 1996).
During pasteurization of cream in tubular or plate heat
exchangers, steam pressure,product flow rate and viscosity, and
absence of fouling should be constantly con-trolled (Hinrichs and
Kessler, 1996). A flow diversion valve should be fitted in the
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pasteurization plant to ensure that the specified pasteurization
temperature of creamis reached. At regular intervals, the
pasteurization unit, including homogenizer,should be cleaned and
sterilized according to the instructions of the manufacturer(ICMSF,
1988). Homogenization is a CCP only if it is applied after heating
becauseit involves the hazard of milk recontamination (Kosinski,
1996). Cooling shouldfollow immediately after heat treatment to
prevent growth of heat resistant organismsand cooling equipment
should be properly designed, maintained, and disinfected(Kosmidou
and Arvanitoyannis, 1998).
Filling and packaging of cream should occur at a temperature
below 7 C in anarea separated from the rest of the plant (Eyer et
al., 1996; Taylor, 1975; Marcy andMossel, 1984). Temperature and
filtration of air in the filling area should be con-trolled to
prevent microbial contamination of cream (Carminati, 1996). Pumping
ofcooled cream should be minimized and equipment should be properly
designed andmaintained to avoid physical damage of cream (Varnam
and Sutherland, 1996; Hin-richs and Kessler, 1996). Personnel
hygiene and good handling practices are impor-tant for preventing
inoculation of cream with undesirable microorganisms (Gerats,1987).
Detailed methods and frequency of cleaning and tests for cleaning
efficiencyshould be clearly specified (Blackwell, 1969). Upon
receipt, packaging materialshould be visually tested for integrity
and cleanness and stored in accordance withmanufacturers
specifications (Eyer et al., 1996). Packages should be labeled
KeepRefrigerated, properly coded, and include a use by date and the
cream composi-tion. Distribution and storage of cream should be
carried out under refrigerationtemperatures, should not be
prolonged, and the first infirst out (FIFO) managementshould be
applied (Muir and Kjaerbye, 1996).
To produce a high quality butter, it is essential to ensure
correct treatment ofcream after separation since the temperature at
which this process is carried outenhances microbiological growth
(Woolfschoon, 1984). Heating of cream by directsteam injection in
combination with vacuum deodorization should be avoided be-cause it
causes high fat losses in buttermilk and deterioration of butter
flavor (Varnamand Sutherland, 1996). Mixing of different quality
creams should also be avoidedsince it can barely wipe out the
defects of the used raw materials (Kosinski, 1996).
Aging consists of formation of a certain ratio of solid : liquid
triglycerides thusinfluencing the consistency of the final product;
the shape and the size of fat crystals,the losses of fat in
buttermilk, and the performance of churning (Zerfiridis, 1996).To
determine the correct method of aging the composition of fat, the
season of theyear, the iodine value, and the refractive index
should be considered. The optimumtemperaturetime combination and
cooling rate should be applied with respect tothe fat content of
cream and the melting and crystallization properties of fat
(Muir,1996).
Cream is ripened by use of lactic cultures, such as Lactococcus
lactis, Lc. crem-oris, Lc. diacetylactis, Leuconostoc citrovorum,
Leuc. mesenteroides, and Leuc.cremoris (Litopoulou-Tzanetaki,
1993). Starter culture is usually added at 4% for
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developing the characteristic flavor of the product, for
restraining the growth of pro-teolytic and lipolytic
microorganisms, and for reducing the intensity of potentialflavor
defects (Kosikowski and Mistry, 1997). Lactic cultures should be
able to growfast, produce 1.52 mg/kg diacetyl, lower pH value at
4.75, and complete the fer-mentation within 1418 h. During
ripening, cream temperature should be maintainedat 17 C, acidity
and diacetyl level should be constantly monitored, and cream
shouldbe slowly stirred (Hinrichs and Kessler, 1996).
Churning and working result in the conversion of cream to
butter. The main factorsthat affect the efficiency of these
operations and should be controlled are:
The size of fat globules;The fat content, the acidity, and the
viscosity of cream;The operating temperature;The type, the rotation
speed, the fullness, and the size of the buttermaker.
Churn hygiene can be substantially improved by replacing the
construction materialwith stainless steel (Wolfschoon, 1984).
During these operations, butter salting, anddrainage of buttermilk
should also be carried out. Usage of the correct salt
(NaCl)concentration and its even distribution throughout butter can
contribute to the shelflife extension. Salt is the only
preservative used and is also used to improve butterflavor. Sodium
chloride should definitely be obtained from suppliers who conform
tonecessary regulatory and microbiological specifications in order
to prevent microbialcontamination of butter (Burgess et al., 1994).
Insufficient drainage of buttermilkcan lead to excessive fat losses
and to potential microbial spoilage of the end product.Before
leaving the churn, butter should be compact with homogeneous and
waxytexture and should have the required moisture content. Water
content can be deter-mined either with dielectric instruments or
with near-infrared analysis (Varnam andSutherland, 1996) and can be
affected by the following factors (Jooste, 1974):concentration of
unsatured fatty acids in cream;aging of cream;churning and working
temperature;rotation speed of the buttermaker.
Packaging should protect butter from chemical, microbiological,
and mechanical al-terations and should provide the consumer with a
product of premium quality. Pack-aging material varies with respect
to size of the pack and should be obtained fromsuppliers
implementing a HACCP system and being frequently audited.
Packagingmaterial should be water-resistant, should not allow
moisture loss, should be lightand oxygen impermeable, should not
enhance mold growth, and should not migrateto the butter compounds
thus altering the organoleptic characteristics and the hy-gienic
condition of the product (Kosmidou and Arvanitoyannis, 1998). After
packag-
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ing, butter should be quickly cooled down to temperatures of -18
C for preservationand then stored in areas with controlled
temperature and humidity of air and withgood air-filtration system
(Jensen et al., 1983). Rework of butter should be performedto the
correct extent and the performance of employed equipment should be
moni-tored. Distribution and sale of butter at low temperatures is
essential for the safepreservation of butter and for prolonging
shelf life.
A common quality defect of butter is the development of
rancidity and bitterness.It is usually caused by heat resistant
lypolitic enzymes produced by Pseudomonasfluorenscens and Ps. fragi
(Mossel et al., 1995). To prevent this defect, raw milkshould be
stored at refrigeration temperatures, strict hygienic conditions
should bemaintained during manufacture, and salt and moisture
should be evenly distributedthroughout butter
(Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, 1993; Kosinski, 1996). Finally,
anothercommon problem is fat oxidation which is related to copper
presence and to the useof unpasteurized cream (Wolfschoon, 1984;
Barnes and Edwards, 1992). In general,the introduction of
pasteurization for milk and cream managed to reduce the healthrisks
from butter. However, health risks are likely to occur when butter
is importedfrom areas not applying pasteurization or where severe
recontamination is possible,e.g., L. monocytogenes. It is advisable
to keep the pH # 4 in order to minimize thelikelihood of growth of
E. coli and L. monocytogenes (Abbar and Mohamed, 1987;Massa et al.,
1990).
Manufacture of Ice Cream
Ice cream and other whipped frozen dairy desserts are foams made
up of air cellssurrounded by a partially frozen emulsion (Huang and
Platt, 1995). Ice cream con-sists mainly of water, fat, and milk
solidsnon-fat, in combination with sugars,
emul-sifiers-stabilizers, colorings, flavorings, and fruits or
nuts. The flow diagram for themanufacture of ice cream is
synoptically shown in Figure 8. Whole fresh milk isthe most
suitable source of fat and solidsnon-fat, although low acidity
cream andspray dried skim milk powder are also necessary to
accomplish the typical composi-tion of ice cream. All initial
ingredients should be obtained from sources that complywith current
legislation and should be regularly tested for their quality.
Hermeticpackaging, correct storage conditions and, in some cases,
heat treatment can maintainthe majority of their hygienic and
physicochemical properties (Holdsworth, 1992).
The common procedure for mix preparation is to first add the
liquid ingredientsto the mix vat or the pasteurizer, then the dry
solids and after the mix has reachedthe temperature of 49 C, to add
the sugar (Shapton and Shapton, 1994). Using thecorrect quantities
of the ingredients necessitates calibrated measuring equipment
andusing well-trained employees. Dry ingredients should be fully
dispersed and all mate-rials should be dissolved before
pasteurization temperature is reached (Varnam and
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Figure 8. Simplified HACCP flow chart for the production of a
simple ice cream (Kosmidou andArvanitoyannis, 1998).
Sutherland, 1996). Homogenization breaks up and disperses fat
globules, preventingfat separation and churning (Fletcher, 1997).
The main benefits of homogenizationare:
ice cream becomes uniform with smooth and creamy texture;aging
of mix can be shortened;reduction of stabilizer concentration.
At the beginning of each production run, the homogenizer should
be inspectedfor cleanness and disinfection to ensure that the mix
will not be heavily contaminated.
Since even during pasteurization, ice cream protects
microorganisms from de-struction, the American Public Health
Association (APHA) suggested that theminimum temperature/time
treatment of ice cream should be 70 C 3 30 min or80 C 3 25 sec
(Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, 1993). The addition of nisin to ice cream
hasbeen suggested in an attempt to minimize the survival of
Listeria monocytogenes. Infact, the presence of nisin in the ice
cream was shown to result in significant reductionin the cell
population and, in particular, in the 3%-fat ice cream stored for
morethan 3 months at -18 C (Dean and Zottola, 1996). Heat should be
evenly transferredthroughout the mix and properly calibrated
thermometers should constantly monitorthe pasteurization
temperature. Fouling of heat exchangers is also a serious
concern,but it can be minimized by adopting optimum cleaning
procedures and by preventingthe incorporation of excessive air into
the mix (Visser et al., 1997). Rapid cooling
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at temperatures below 5 C should follow pasteurization,
otherwise the viscosity ofmix can increase considerably and melting
of the ice cream will not be uniform(Zerfiridis, 1996). Low
temperatures prevent the growth of microorganisms that cansurvive
the pasteurization. Tempering usually lasts for 24 h at low
temperatures andresults in solidification of fat, stabilization of
water, hydration of proteins, and in-crease in viscosity. Texture
and structure become smooth and both resistance tomelting and
whipping capacity are improved. Temperature and mixing period
shouldbe monitored to ensure that they are maintained below the
predetermined limits. Thefunctions of freezing consist of freezing
a portion of the water contained in the mixand incorporating air
into the mix (Shapton and Shapton, 1994). To ensure
adequatefreezing of the mix, the suitable type of freezer should be
selected and its properand safe operation should be maintained. Ice
cream should be transferred to thehardening room immediately after
freezing where the appropriate combinationof temperature/time
should be applied. Rapid hardening of ice cream is importantfor two
reasons; first to prevent melting and formation of large ice
crystals duringrefreezing and second to improve the sensory
properties (e.g., texture and palatabil-ity) of the ice cream.
Packaging materials should be obtained from reputable suppliers
and should beselected according to the intended product use and
storage time. Films, foils, lami-nates, and paper should be
selected in terms of their preventing moisture losses andtheir
adequate flexibility to withstand the volume expansion of the ice
cream (Bossetet al., 1994). Storage temperature should vary within
the range -20 C to -25 C. Tem-perature fluctuations must be avoided
since they can lead to migration and accumula-tion of water and to
the formation of large crystals on refreezing (Varnam and
Suther-land, 1996). GMP should be applied to prevent infestation of
insects and rodents inthe freezing rooms, to control the humidity
and the microbiological quality of theair to avoid corrosion on
surfaces (Shapton and Shapton, 1994), and to prevent icecream
shrinkage due to changes in altitude, temperature or pressure, heat
shock,small ice crystals, and improper blending (Dubey and White,
1997).
Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese
Cheddar is one of the most important varieties of hard cheeses
and the traditionalprocess for making Cheddar cheese is outlined in
Figure 9. Salmonella (Hedberg etal., 1992), Listeria monocytogenes
(Burow et al., 1996), and Escherichia coli (Mosselet al., 1995) are
considered to be high risk threats to the cheese industry,
whileStaphylococcus aureus (Tatini et al., 1971)is considered a low
risk threat becausegrowth and toxin production in cheese are
suppressed by using appropriate startercultures and employing
acidity control (Johnson et al., 1990a). The following pro-cesses
have been suggested in order to minimize pathogen numbers in cheese
(John-son et al., 1990b):
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100 SANDROU AND ARVANITOYANNIS
Figure 9. Flow diagram for production of Cheddar cheese
(Kosikowski and Mistry, 1997).
Mastitis control by application of stricter regulatory programs
(HACCP) and incen-tives for quality payment of raw milk (Abdul and
Awaz, 1997; Mossel et al.,1995);
Reduction of farm environmental contamination;Cooling and
thermization of raw milk (Heeschen, 1996);Bactofugation and
microfiltration of raw milk (Langeveld, 1972);Heat treatment of raw
milk. The National Cheese Institute has recommended that
the minimum heat treatment of milk for cheesemaking should be
64.4 C 3 16 sor equivalent with adequate process control (Johnson
et al., 1990a);
Lactic cultures, bacteriocins, hydrogen peroxide, nitrate salts,
and carbon dioxidecan be used as milk additives (Mehanna et al.,
1998);
Alteration of the compositional properties of cheese;Exposure to
high hydrostatic pressure (Hayakawa et al., 1994; Knorr, 1995).
The performed tests at raw milk receipt to ensure satisfactory
quality of cheese-making milk consist of controlling (Wolfschoon,
1984): a) total count, b) somaticcells, c) spore-forming bacteria,
d) antibiotic residues, e) temperature, f) acidity andpH, and g)
casein:fat ratio, which should be 0.690.71 for cheddar and can
beachieved with standardization.
After pasteurization, milk is cooled down to 30 C and lactic
culture of Lactococ-cus lactis or Lc. cremoris is inoculated. The
activity of starter culture should bedetermined before use and it
should be able to start acid production within 3045min. Starter
culture should also exhibit stability for aging (Haque et al.,
1997) and
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Figure 10. Flow diagram for Feta cheese production (Mauropoulos
and Arvanitoyannis, 1999).
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102 SANDROU AND ARVANITOYANNIS
be free of bacteriophages (Canteri, 1997; Chopin, 1997). The
lactic culture is impor-tant to cheddar manufacture because
(Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, 1993):It causes sufficient acidification to
inhibit growth of pathogens and to improve the
texture and consistency of cheese;It contributes to the
formation of the typical Cheddar flavor by optimizing the pH
and Eh conditions for aroma initiating chemical reactions and by
providing precur-sors for volatile compounds;
It facilitates the formation of curd by rennet, affects the
degree of syneresis and thequantity of rennet retained by the
curd.
Cheese vats should be cleaned and disinfected before starting
production and theequipment should be checked for detergent or
sanitizer residues because the lattercan inhibit starter activity
(ICMSF, 1988). When acid development begins, rennetshould be added
for coagulum formation. The rennet should be obtained from
reputa-ble suppliers and added at the correct concentration.
Excessive dosage of rennet isrelated to the bitter flavor in cheese
since this enzyme has proteolytic activity oncaseins (Wolfschoon,
1984). Temperature of 41 C, pH of 5.7, and Ca12 presencewere shown
to be the optimum conditions for rennet activity (Zerfiridis,
1994).
Heating at 38 C leads to curd shrinkage and to whey release and
it should beterminated when the titratable acidity of whey reaches
0.140.16% (ICMSF, 1988).The subsequent procedures of draining and
texturization should be performed byexperienced personnel at the
correct time, to the proper extent, and at the
appropriatetemperature (Varnam and Sutherland, 1996). The equipment
should be well main-tained and disinfected to avoid both damaging
and contamination of the curd (IDF,1997; Parmentier, 1997). It
should be stressed that throughout cheese manufacturepH, acidity,
moisture content, and consistency of the product should be
constantlymonitored to verify that that all stages are carried out
correctly. Salting affects ripen-ing, rind formation, flavor
development, and preservation of cheese. Salt (NaCl)should be
obtained from certified suppliers, should be of the suitable grade
and purity,and should be evenly distributed in the curd to avoid
discoloration of Cheddar. Saltconcentration should not exceed 2%,
unless acidity development is either too rapidor too slow
(Zerfiridis, 1994). Pressing completes the whey removal and
contributesto curd compaction. Pressure should be gradually applied
and not exceed 1.7 atm.Vacuum packaging in plastic films or cryovac
and cooling of Cheddar should followpressing to avoid deformation
of the blocks. Efficiency of the applied vacuum, sealintegrity, and
potential packaging damage should be checked to prevent mold
growthand spoilage (Mathlouthi et al., 1994). Aging usually lasts
for 612 months at atemperature of 410 C, contributing to the
development of the required organolepticcharacteristics and
destruction of contaminating pathogens. If the pH of the
freshproduct is not 5.25.3, it is possible that the fermentation
has failed and the productshould be checked for Salmonella and
Staphylococcus aureus (ICMSF, 1988). Ched-dar should be stored and
distributed at refrigerating temperatures and the first in
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first out management should be applied. Packages should remain
undamaged andprotected from mold growth to extend shelf life of the
product.
Manufacture of Feta Cheese
Feta is a traditional Greek cheese and representative of the
white soft cheeses thatare ripened and kept in brine (Anifantakis,
1991a; Abou-Donia, 1991; Tamine andKirkegaard, 1991). The
distinguishing characteristics of Feta are the creamy and
richflavor, the soft texture with some irregular small mechanical
openings, and the whitecolor and the rectangular shape (Zerfiridis,
1994; Tsotsanis, 1996).
Moisture content and minimum fat in dry matter of Feta should be
5256% and43%, respectively (Abd El-Salam et al., 1993; Vastardis
and Anifantakis, 1992;Greek Codex of Foods and Drinks, 1998).
All stages upstream of cooling of heated milk should comply with
the prescribedrequirements for pasteurized milk except for a few
differences. It should be stressedthat the performed controls at
the receipt of raw milk are (Mauropoulos and Arvani-toyannis,
1999): 1) acidity, 2) aerobic mesophilic count, 3) freezing point,
and 4)antibiotic and metabolite residues. The used sheep milk for
the production of goodquality Feta should have lower acidity than
0.23% and pH higher than 6.55 (Anifan-takis, 1991b). Sheep milk
should also be standardized to a fat and casein content of5.8% and
4.6%, respectively (Greek Codex of Foods and Drinks, 1998).
The lactic cultures used for Feta are Lactobacillus
bulgaricusStreptococcus ther-mophilus (1:1) (Pappas and Zerfiridis,
1989), Lactobacillus bulgaricusLactococcuslactis (3:1), and
Lactobacillus caseiLactococcus lactis (1:1) (Abd El-Salam et
al.,1993). Starter culture should be inoculated at 1% and should be
left at 3234 C for1530 min (milk ripening). The activity of the
lactic culture should be verified bymonitoring the acidity
development in milk. Contamination with bacteriophages canalter the
activity of the culture, while phage inhibitory media for starter
growth canbe used to minimize the hazard of bacteriophages (Cogan
and Hill, 1993). Prior torennet addition, the acidity of milk
should be measured in order to control the quan-tity of rennet and
the temperature of milk (Mehanna et al., 1998).
Dry-salting of Feta requires the use of corn-size granular salt,
which is slowlydissolved and contributes to the drainage of the
curd (Anifantakis, 1991a and 1991b).Salt should be evenly
distributed in the mass of cheese. Within the first 24 h,
salt-in-moisture should be 2.5% and pH 5.2 to ensure the safe
preservation and normalripening of Feta (Pappas et al., 1996;
Mehanna et al., 1998). During salting, Fetashould also be protected
from flies because they lay their eggs on the cheese surfacecausing
its spoilage within a few days (Zerfiridis, 1994). Further ripening
is com-pleted at 5 C after 2 months (Tsotsanis, 1996). Ripening
usually lasts for two weeksat 16 C and 85% relative humidity and is
crucial to the development of the character-istic physicochemical
and organoleptic properties of Feta. Ripening rooms should
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be separated from the rest of the plant, be equipped with air
filtration system andthoroughly cleaned (Mauropoulos and
Arvanitoyannis, 1999). By the end of the firstripening stage the pH
should be 4.04.6 because lower values result in moistureloss,
acidic taste, and limited compactness, while higher values lead to
reduced shelflife (Anifantakis, 1991a).
Packaging of Feta is traditionally carried out in barrels,
although nowadays tinsare mostly preferred. Tins are filled with 6%
brine to cover the surface of the cheese,are hermetically sealed,
and transferred to the refrigerator. Other types of conven-tional
wrapping for soft cheeses can consist of waxed paper board (both
sides)/regenerated cellulose or high density polyethylene (HDPE) or
polyethylene tereph-thalate (PET) coated with hydrosorbent coating
(Mathlouthi et al., 1994). Feta shouldnot be packaged and cooled
unless it has reached a pH value of at least 4.6, otherwisethe
cheese will convert into a soft, creamy mass similar to mud.
Moreover, the de-struction of pathogens, such as coliforms,
Salmonella, and Brucella is not feasibleduring ripening. Killing of
Mycobacterium requires adequate pasteurization of milkand is not
affected by pH value or salt concentration in cheese (Hammer et
al.,1998). In the refrigerator, tins can swell if temperature
exceeds 5 C or psychrotrophscontinue cheese fermentation. To
prevent the swelling of tins, the temperature shouldbe constantly
monitored and a small, easily covered hole should be made at
thesurface of the tins to release the produced gases. The relative
humidity in the refriger-ator should also be controlled to prevent
tin rusting. Feta is safe for consumptiononly after 2 months
ripening at 5 C and the first infirst out procedure should
beapplied.
PERSPECTIVES
Several recent literature searches attempted by authors
(Mortimore and Wallace,1995; Mossel et al., 1995; Harrigan and
Park, 1991) have shown that despite theimpressively recorded
progress regarding the reduction in incidences of microbialdiseases
transmitted by food, food poisoning continues to be a visible and
verylikely hazard. However, such a situation is both unethical and
unacceptable becauseit could easily be restricted if not avoided by
adopting HACCP and GMDPs (Mosselet al., 1995; Roberts, 1995;
Leenheer, 1993). Most of the reported incidents are dueto to a
synergistic action of several factors such as deficiencies in small
catering andfood manufacturing companies, failure to control
diseases transmitted by meat/dairyproducts, and lack/failure of the
public to actively participate and to motivate boththemselves to
adopt hygienic practices (treating, cooking, and storing foods)
andgovernmental agencies to intervene via stricter legislation.
Although ISO 9001/2implementation (Bolton, 1997) or other quality
assurance system (Ishikawa, 1989)in conjunction with HACCP have
managed to bring down the number of incidents,further work is
urgently required (Tauxe, 1991; Lin et al., 1988a and b).
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Many retailing companies have already realized the importance of
being providedwith goods manufactured by companies implementing the
HACCP. Consequently,the retailing companies consider as a
prerequisite the HACCP implementation bytheir suppliers. This seems
to be a convincing and promising way to persuade allthe involved
parties (raw material producer, manufacturer, retailer, and
consumer)to adhere to HACCP and GMDPs. The consumer should
understand that althoughthe so-called zero-defect food production
is rather a non-realistic and illusory ap-proach, it is up to him
to minimize the hazards originating from cross-contaminationand
inappropriate storage. In fact, EEC favors the HACCP implementation
by theEEC companies (EEC 93/43, 1993). Furthermore, the widespread
use of refrigeratedpasteurized foods of extended durability
(REPFED) meals has shown the importanceof strict temperature
control both for pasteurization and thereafter (storage,
distribu-tion). The financial factor (high hospitalization cost) is
likely to play the most impor-tant role for motivating the
government towards a legislation that companies shouldcomply with
regarding the implementation of quality and safety assurance
systems.
In general, there is great potential for further implementation
of HACCP in con-junction with a quality assurance system (ISO
9001/2) for medium-small size foodcompanies. Introduction of
Environmental Management System (EMS) and ISO14000 will be the
basis for shielding the food production companies from
environ-mental disasters.
ABBREVIATIONS
ASQ: American Standards Quality Control 9000BS 5750: British
Standards 5750EMS: Environmental Management SystemGMDP: Good
Manufacturing and Distribution PracticeGMP: Good Manufacturing
PracticesHACCP: Hazard Analysis Critical Control PointICMSF:
International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for
FoodsIDF: International Dairy FederationISO: International
Organization for StandardizationJIT: Just-in-timeSPC: Statistical
Process ControlTQM: Total Quality ManagementWHO: World Health
Organization
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Professor G. Zerfiridis for his
useful and pertinentsuggestions.
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