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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.

Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.

Quazi, H.A, Koh, M.H, Huang, Q., and Khoo, J.W.

Nanyang Business School, NTU, Singapore

ABSTRACT

To balance the work and non-work roles of employees, many organizations have responded by implementing work-life programs (e.g., flexi-time, child care facilities, parental leave, eldercare etc) in return for improved satisfaction and performance and lower turnover. Literature reveals lack of such studies on Supply Chain Management (SCM) organizations. Further, no such study has been reported in the context of South East Asian region. We have therefore, decided to study the impact of work-life initiatives on employee behaviour in Supply Chain Management (SCM) organizations operating in Singapore.

Singapore houses the world’s busiest port and largest shipment hub, with 21 of the 25 largest third-party logistics companies in the world. According to the 2007 World Bank Report, Singapore was ranked as one of the leading logistics hubs in the world. Further, the Singapore government has paid substantial attention on Work-Life harmony in the country. In view of this, it makes good sense to examine the impact of Work-Life balance (WLB) initiatives on various employee outcomes i.e., affective organisational commitment (AOC), job satisfaction (JS) and employee turnover intentions (ETI) in the SCM organizations operating in Singapore. In addition to this, the possible moderating effect of perceived supervisory support (PSS) on the usage of Work-Life programmes and turnover intentions of employees are also examined. Three categories of Work-Life initiatives namely, flexible work arrangements (FWAs), leave benefits (LB) and employee support schemes (ESS) are also analysed to examine the possible impact of these specific W-L initiatives on the employee outcomes.

A questionnaire based survey was conducted to collect necessary data from a number of participating SCM organizations. Two hundred seventy one (271) completed questionnaires were received from employees of different job positions.

Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were carried out for the various constructs. Results of hierarchical regression showed that both perceived availability and utilisation of Work-Life initiatives were positively related to job satisfaction (B=.12; p=.04 and B=.21; p=.01 respectively) and negatively related to turnover intentions (B=-.15; p=.01 and B=-.21; p=.01 respectively). In contrast, AOC was found to be significantly related to only the usage of Work-Life programme (B=.21; p=.00). Significant relationships were also found between the usage of FWAs and AOC (B=.41; p=.02), job satisfaction (B=.56; p=.00) as well as turnover intentions (B=-.52; p=.02). Usage of leave benefits (LBs) demonstrated significant relationship with AOC (B=.25; p=.02) but not with job satisfaction and turnover intentions.

Although some of the findings of this study on SCM organizations in Singapore are in line with those of Casper & Buffardi, 2004; Perry-Smith & Blum, 2000 and others ( i.e., the impact of work-life initiatives is positively associated with employee outcomes) but some are not.

INTRODUCTION

In today’s global competitive environment organization’s performance becomes increasingly intertwined with the well-being of its employees. Employees with less worry in their personal lives are more likely to be committed and engaged at the workplace, which in turn enhances the company’s performance, resulting in a win-win situation by aligning both corporate and employee objectives (MOM, 2007). Since 2000 Singapore has taken various initiatives to motivate organizations to be aware of the potential benefits of adopting work-life (W-L) initiatives. For example, in 2000 a Tripartite Committee (comprising of government, unions, employer, employee and business association representatives) was formed. In 2004 the Work-Life Works! (WoW!) Fund was created to encourage employers to introduce Work-Life measures at the workplace by defraying costs incurred. MOM works in close collaboration with the Employer Alliance, a network of corporations committed to enabling Work-Life integration in organisations, to generate buy-in amongst CEOs and business leaders. MOM also initiated a series of promotional activities, including the Work-Life Conference, which brought together the government, HR practitioners and union representatives to discuss current Work-Life trends and promote the adoption of these practices.

The significance of the present study on the nature and extent of W-L practices is reflected in the fact that Singapore houses the world’s busiest port and largest shipment hub, with 21 of the 25 largest third-party logistics companies in the world. It was ranked as the leading logistics hub above major players such as Netherlands, Germany, China and Japan (World Bank report, 2007). For this, much can be accredited to Singapore’s impressive capabilities, particularly its excellent connectivity and world-class infrastructure.

The logistics and supply chain sector itself employs about 200,000 people, and contributes approximately 9% to the nation’s GDP, forming an integral part of Singapore’s economy (Cited from Biederman, D., 2009[footnoteRef:1]). [1: Journal of Commerce (retrieved from: http://www.joc-digital.com/joc/breakbulk20091/?pg=22)]

Work in the SCM industry is fast-paced, dynamic and global where “products must move… and most jobs need the physical support of employees as goods are stored in the warehouse”. Services are often offered 7 days a week, if not 24 hours a day, thus the Work-Life balance (WLB) proposition has to be modified to fit the employees’ nature of work. A survey has shown that almost half of logistics and supply chain professionals worldwide are not satisfied with their current employer, among which nearly 10% are not satisfied in terms of WLB. Interestingly, the proportion of employees who are dissatisfied with their employer is significantly higher in Asia (55%) than in Europe (31%) and the Americas (37%) (Europhia Consulting, 2007). The same research also reported that WLB is one of the top three (i.e., ‘inspiring leadership’, ‘training/coaching’ W-L balance) important organizational attributes in attracting and retaining logistics professionals. Further, it has also been reported that globally, two-thirds of SCM professionals find their average workload higher than that of their colleagues in other industries and as such, WLB may have an influence on employee satisfaction and should be carefully considered by SCM organizations. Provision of WLB programmes can be a used as a competitive advantage that would allow companies to become an ‘employer of choice’ in this industry. The present study aims to shed some lights on the nature and extent of W-L benefit practices and their impacts on employee outcomes in the SCM industry in Singapore (Anderson, Britt and Favre, 1997).

Besides the abstract and the introductory section presented above, this paper is organized in eight major sections- literature and hypotheses, methods, results, discussions, practical implications, limitations, suggestions for future research and conclusions.

LITERATURE AND HYPOTHESES

Competition for talent and shortage of skilled workers has prompted employers to implement Work-Life initiatives as a means to attract, retain and engage workers (Russell, 2002). WLB is associated with equilibrium and an overall sense of harmony in life (Clarke et al., 2004 and Frone, 2003). On the other hand, The Work Foundation (2005) view balance as having control over when, where and how one does his work, leading to the enjoyment of an optimal quality of life. The central focus of this research will be on three most commonly adopted Work-Life initiatives by organisations in Singapore i.e., flexible work arrangements (FWAs), leave benefits, and employee support schemes (ESS).

Role theory illustrates the effects of perceived Supervisory support (PSS) on employee outcomes by emphasising interactions between leaders (i.e. supervisors) and subordinates in a work unit [Yeh, 2005]. The author argues that to increase employee commitment, organisations should focus on the ‘affective’ component by improving the quality of leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships. The emotional attachment associated with affective commitment characterises the employer-employee relationship such that employees remain with the organisation because they want to. When their needs and expectations are met, employees tend to develop stronger affective attachment to the organisation than those whose wants were not met [Meyer, Allen and Smith, 1993]. It is argued that the use of Work-Life initiatives satisfy certain needs of employees, thereby enhancing their well-being, which ultimately contributes to the positive evaluation of one’s commitment and attachment to his or her organisation.

Social Exchange Theory, on the other hand, explains how successful relationships can be modelled using attraction, communication, expectation formation and norm development, to induce and maintain commitment [Gundlach, Achrol and Mentzer, 1995]. Specifically, the influence of Work-Life benefits on the organisation-employee social exchange is most likely to be evidenced in their aggregate use, perceived availability and value. On the whole, positive relationships with the organization can help generate favourable outcomes such as organisational commitment, faster career progression, job satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviours.

Work-Life Initiatives

Recent studies conducted in Singapore have examined the impacts of WLB-related benefits on employee outcomes such as turnover and organisational commitment. Ang et al.’s [2005] study of an F&B firm established that employees who find Work-Life benefits useful and valuable, and who receive support from their supervisors and top management, are more engaged and fulfilled in their work. In turn, they are less likely to quit or be absent from the job. Other studies have also shown the association of Work-Life benefits with employee outcomes such as job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Grover and Crooker, 1995; Gonyea, 1993; Greenberger et al., 1989 and Asadullah and Fernandez, 2008). Research also reveals that WLB practices contribute to increased affective commitment and decreased turnover intentions among all employees (Grover and Crooker, 1995). In fact, the mere availability of Work-Life programmes appears to produce similar work-related attitudes, regardless of whether benefits are utilised at work (Nelson et al., 1990; Scandura and Lankau, 1997).

H1 (a): Employees’ perceived availability of Work-Life programmes will have a significant positive relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job Satisfaction, and negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.

H1(b): Employee utilisation of Work-Life Programmes will have a significant positive relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job Satisfaction, and negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.

Flexible Work Arrangements (FWAs)

Common FWAs include flexible working hours (flex-time), telecommuting permanent part-time work, job-sharing, compressed workweek, and annualised hours. In the past, FWAs have primarily been offered as exceptions to the ‘‘ideal workers’’ [Meiksins and Whalley, 2002]. However, such arrangements are now viewed as a business imperative to achieve strategic priorities such as higher employee productivity, job satisfaction, and lower absenteeism [Baltes et al., 1999].

The European Foundation [2007] reported a positive relationship between work time flexibility and job satisfaction. Specifically, Spanish and Finnish employees who had more flexibility in adapting their working hours to match their personal needs are more satisfied than those without such options.

Work-schedule flexibility has also been associated with organisational attachment, in terms of increased organisational commitment and reduced turnover intentions [Aryee, Luk and Stone, 1998]. Casper and Harris [2008] also reported positive relationship between usage of schedule flexibility and AOC.

H2: Employee utilisation of Flexible Work Arrangements will have a significant positive relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job Satisfaction, and negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.

Leave Benefits

Leave benefits such as Annual Leave, Sick Leave, Maternity Leave, Childcare Leave and Unpaid Infant Care Leave are covered under the There is no statutory requirement for Marriage, Paternity or Compassionate Leave, Employment Act (Singapore Statutes, 2010).Eldercare, Emergency, Study/Exam Leave or Sabbatical Leave. Such leaves are granted depending on the employment contract or mutual agreement between employer and employee.

Results from a study of firms in Singapore confirmed that employers generally experienced lower voluntary turnover when employees received more generous annual leave entitlement [Ang et al, 2005]. A recent study reported that child rearing, paternity, and parental leaves also contributed to AOC and reduced turnover intentions [Casper and Harris, 2008].

H3: Employee utilisation of Leave Benefits will have a significant positive relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job Satisfaction, and a negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.

Utilization of Employee Support Schemes

Literature suggests that employees who benefited from childcare, referral services and other family-friendly practices, reported higher levels of AOC [Grover and Crooker, 1995, Grant, Dutton and Rosso, 2008; Mohamed, Taylor and Ahmad, 2006]. A study by the Federal Occupational Health on the benefits of employee Assistance programs (EAPs) found that such programs help organisations achieve business goals by reducing turnover, increased productivity and lowered absenteeism (Stieber,1999). Further, research suggests that access to services such as information and referrals, and financing of child/elder-care, have an effect on employees’ intentions to leave (Batt and Valcour, 2003).

H4: Utilisation of Employee Support Schemes will have a significant positive relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job Satisfaction, and negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.

Perceived Importance of Work-Life Programmes

Individuals react differently on the usage of Work-Life initiatives according to their value systems. For instance, single employees would not reciprocate the availability of any childcare benefit as it has no use to them. Employees are likely to vary their perception of benefit plan usefulness according to which benefits can best help them personally and professionally, as well as in dealing with their family obligations. Researchers have reported mixed findings on the relationship between Perceived Importance of Work-Life Programmes and employee outcomes. For example, Lambert (2000) found perceived benefit usefulness to be positively correlated with organisational behaviours. Weathington and Tetrick (2000) reported that benefit importance has an indirect relationship with employee affective commitment. Williams et al. (2006) and Lee, Singhapakdi and Too (2008) reported a negative relationship between perceived importance of Work-Life benefits and turnover intentions. However, Haar and Spell (2004) failed to find any positive relationships between the perceived value of six specific work-family practices and either normative, affective, or continuance commitment. Similarly Blau et al. (2001) found no significant relationships between the variables.

H5: The relationship between employee utilisation of Work-Life programmes with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment, (b) Job Satisfaction and (c) Turnover Intentions will be moderated by their perceived importance of the programmes.

Perceived Supervisor Support (PSS)

PSS is defined as “employees’ self-developed views concerning the degree to which supervisors value their contributions and care about their well-being” (Eisenberger et al., 2002). Some authors have reported positive association between the relationship between PSS and AOC and negative association with turnover intentions. For example, Dawley, Andrews and Bucklew (2008) have reported positive relationship between PSS and AOC and Thompson, Beauvias and Lyness (1999) reported work-family benefit availability and supportive work - family culture positively related to AOC, and negatively related to intensions to leave the organization. There is also evidence that the impact of WLB practices is moderated by managerial support (Beauregard and Henry, 2009). It is important to note that the degree to which Work-Life programmes are actually available to the individual employees depends on the immediate manager/supervisor. For example, alternative work arrangements will not yield benefits unless the lower-level manager/supervisor is willing to support them (Powell and Mainiero, 1999). In addition, implementation of such arrangements may cause employee resentment if individual managers/supervisors are inconsistent in their decision rules when approving requests [Raabe and Beehr, 2003]. This suggests that managers/supervisors can influence employee outcomes, such that the perceived support from managers appears to strengthen organisational commitment and lower turnover intentions (O’Neill et al., 2009). Therefore, we postulate that-

H6: The relationship between employee ‘usage of Work-Life programmes’ and (a) Affective Organisational Commitment, (b) Job Satisfaction and (c) Turnover Intentions will be moderated by ‘perceived supervisor support’.

METHODS

Sample and Procedures

Based on the literature a questionnaire was designed to collect necessary data to test the hypotheses. Item statements for the constructs were selected from the relevant scales developed by other researchers (refer to Table 1 below). Items were also carefully amended to ensure appropriateness in the context of SCM environments.

The questionnaire was then pilot testes for content validity and clarity of the items by 20 subject experts working in the SCM industry and the questionnaire was amended based on the feedback received.

Considering the large percentage of Mandarin speaking employees working in the local industries, a dual-language (i.e. English and Mandarin) questionnaire was designed. Organisations were approached to participate in the study through e-mail invites, cold calls, company visits and personal contacts. The study sample included employees from various levels of the participating organizations both in the office and/or operational departments. Respondents’ confidentiality was emphasised to encourage their honest response to the survey. In total, 384 questionnaires were distributed (in the form of softcopy, hardcopy, or an online survey) to all the participating organisations and 271 usable ones were returned for a response rate of 71%.

Figure 1: Proposed Model

Impact of Work-Life Programs on Employee Outcomes in Supply Chain Management Organizations

(PIWLI)Independent Variables (IVs) DVs

(AOC) (Perceived availabilityof W-L InitiativesUsage of W-L InitiativesFlexible Work Arrangements (FWAs)Leave BenefitsEmployee Support Scheme (ESS)Perceived Importance of W-L Initiatives (PIWLI)Perceived Supervisory support (PSS))

( JS)

(TOI)

(PSS)Legends:

AOC: Affective Organizational Commitment

JS: Job Satisfaction

TOI: Turnover Intensions

DVs: Dependent Variables

Moderator variable

Measures:

Dependent Variables:

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction was assessed using the Michigan Organisational Assessment Questionnaire, job-satisfaction subscale (MOAQ-JSS) (Bowling and Hammond, 2008; α = .84). Respondents rated on a five-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree. The following two items were taken from this scale: (1) “In general, I am satisfied with my job.”, and (2) “In general, I like working here”. Three other items were extracted from Bacharach, Bamberger and Conley (1999; α = .88), and Brayfield and Rothe [1951; α = .87]. Table 1 below shows the sources of the measurement items of various constructs.

Affective Organisational Commitment

We used a five-item scale selected from the “Affective Commitment” subscale developed by Allen and Meyer (1990; α = .87)[footnoteRef:2]. Some of the selected items are: “I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career in this company.” and “I really feel as if my company’s problems are my own.” Respondents used a five-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree, and 5= strongly agree)[footnoteRef:3]. [2: Selected only five items from the eight item scale. ] [3: Instead of the original seven-point scale 5-point scale was used to fit this study. ]

Employee Turnover Intentions

Three items from the Michigan Organisational Assessment Questionnaire (MOAQ) were used to measure employees’ turnover intentions, reliability of the scale was 0.81 [Cammann et al., 1979]. This scale has been used by other researchers with various occupational samples and was reported to have high internal consistency. The item “Given a choice, I will still want to work for this company[footnoteRef:4]”. A higher score represents higher intentions to leave the organisation. [4: This item was slightly rephrased]

Independent Variables

Work-life benefits

This study examined widely-use Work-Life benefits categorised under Flexible Work Arrangements (FWAs), Leave Benefits and Employee Support Scheme (ESS) (Goodstein, 1994; Ingram and Simons, 1995; Osterman, 1995). When necessary, items were reworded to make it appropriate for the local context. Respondents were asked to provide information on the availability and usage of Work-Life benefits in their respective companies. PSS is also included in the list of independent variables as moderator variables always function as independent variables (Barron and Kenny, 1986)

Moderator Variable

Perceived Supervisor Support (PSS)

A six-item scale was put together from Anderson, Coffey and Byerly [2002] to measure PSS. Respondents reported on a five-point Likert scale[footnoteRef:5]. One of the items used is: “My supervisor really cares about the effects that work demands have on my personal and family life.” [5: Although the authors used a four-point scale, we decided to use five-point scale for standardisation purpose.]

Control Variables

Employee demographics were controlled i.e., gender (male= 1, female=0), age, marital status (1=single and married=2, divorced=3), salary, and number of dependants. Information on salary range and level of education were also gathered. Age, salary range and level of education were measured by five point interval scale.

Table 1: Sources of the Measurement Items

Constructs

Sources of measurement items

Cronbach’s Alpha

Range of W-L Programs

Ingram & Simons, 1995; Osterman 1995; Goodstein, 1994

N/A

Job Satisfaction (JS)

MOAQ-JSS; Bowling and Hammond, 2008

0.84

Bacharach, Bamberger and Conley 1991

0.88-0.91

Brayfield and Rother, 1951

0.87

Affective Organizational Commitment (AOC)

Allen & Meyer, 1990

Buchanan, 1974

0.87

0.86

Employee Turnover Intentions (ETI)

MOAQ (Cammann et. al., 1979

0.81

Perceived Supervisor Support (PSS)

Anderson, Coffey and Byerly, 2002

0.89

Validity Assessment

Given that the measures used were pre-validated, assessment of their psychometric property was possible via confirmatory factor analysis[footnoteRef:6] using Lisrel 8.80 [Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993]. The initial measurement model was created by loading each manifest variable with its theoretical latent variable. [6: In order to mitigate potential for misspecification, exploratory factor analysis was subsequently conducted via Principal Axis Factoring with Promax rotation for each scale separately (a non full-information model). Extraction of factors via Kaiser criterion, scree plot, and interpretability of pattern structure corroborates the factor structure obtained in CFA for each latent variable.]

The initial model fitted the data poorly (RMSEA: 0.141) with one Heywood case. This problem was rectified after dropping items 1 and 3 for Affective Organisational Commitment and items 1 and 2 of Job Satisfaction, yielding the final measurement model. Despite a significant chi-square of 266.18 (df=84), the corresponding fit statistics (RMSEA= .086 [.074 - .098], CFI= .97, SRMR= .052, and NNFI= .96) suggests a moderate to good fit [Hu and Bentler, 1999] of the model to the data with a power of .998 [MacCallum, Browne, et al. 1996, Preacher & Coffman, 2006], thereby supporting the use of this data for subsequent analysis.

Reliability Analysis

Reliability analysis determines the extent to which each test procedure yields the same results on repeated trials [Carmines and Zeller, 1979]. Cronbach’s alpha of the four scales, after item deletion, ranges from .67 to .87, which meets the .60 minimum proposed by Nunnally and Berstein [1994]. These scales are thus suitable for hypothesis testing as illustrated in Table 2 below:

Table 2: Internal Consistency of the Various Constructs

Variables

Cronbach’s Alpha (after deletion of items)

Job satisfaction

0.848

Affective Organization Commitment

0.703

Turnover Intentions

0.665

Perceived Supervisory support

0.869

RESULTS

Table 3 presents the means, standard deviations and correlation matrix for the key variables, together with the control variables. It is observed that 19 out of 22 of the correlations for the study variables are significant at the .01 or .05 levels in the expected direction. Usage of Work-Life programmes is significantly correlated to job satisfaction (r=.23), AOC (r=.26) and turnover intentions (r=-.22). Similarly, availability of Work-Life programmes is significantly correlated with AOC (r=.201), job satisfaction, (r=.195) and turnover intentions (r= -.204). In addition, correlations of PSS with usage of Work-Life programmes (r=.184), AOC (r=.606), job satisfaction (r=.727) and turnover intentions (r=-.512) were also significantly correlated at p<.01 level. However, perceived importance of Work-Life programmes is not significantly correlated with both availability and usage of Work-Life programmes and is therefore, excluded from further analysis.

Usage of FWAs is significantly correlated with AOC (r=.22), job satisfaction (r=.24) and turnover intentions (r=-.22) at p< .01. Likewise, ESS utilisation showed significant correlations with AOC (r=.14), job satisfaction (r=.14) and turnover intentions (r=-.13) at p< .05. Leave benefits utilisation, is correlated with AOC (r=.17; p< .01) and turnover intentions (r=-.13; p< .05).

Table 3: Zero-order correlations with mean and

standard deviations of the variables

Variables

Mean

SD

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

1. Usage of W-L program.

1.70

1.79

2.Availability of W-L program

3.95

2.33

.574**

3.Importance of W-L program

42.76

10.82

.046

.084

4.FWA utilization

.45

.70

.464**

.396

.048

5.Leave benefits Utilization

.87

1.18

.831**

.333**

.024

.094

6.ESS Utilization

.37

.75

.645**

.473**

.024

.025

.330**

7.AOC

10.94

2.02

2.60**

.201**

.074

.219**

.174**

.139*

8.Turnover Intention

7.94

2.16

-.223**

-.204**

.12

-.215**

-.127*

-.129*

-.586**

-

9.Job satisfaction

10.93

2.16

.228**

.195**

.014

.236**

.114

.142

.744**

.691**

10.PSS

20.88

4.19

.184**

.195**

.07

.230**

.067

.115

.606**

.512**

.727**

11.Gender

.54

.5

-024

-.075

-124*

-.207**

.102

-.023

-.11

.073

-129*

.163**

12.Age

2.61

.96

.236**

.065

-135*

.167**

.158**

.166**

.220**

-187**

.213**

.117

-.198**

13.Marital Status

1.65

.58

.243**

.178**

-.001

.222**

.195**

.072

.224**

-.229**

.215**

.153*

-.209**

.461**

14.Education

2.19

1.02

-.064

.111

.142*

.085

-140*

-.021

.045

.03

.036

.046

-.159**

-.063

-.101

15.Salary

1.99

1.04

.180**

.296**

.105

.345**

-.013

.135*

.270**

-.118

.178**

.154*

-.249**

.368**

.282**

.362**

16.No. of dependants

2.03

.81

.196**

.077

.038

.069

.195**

.10

.190**

-.088

.116

.015

.162**

.286**

.426**

-.071

.159**

** Correlation is significant at .01 level 9two tailed test)

* Correlation is significant at .05 level (two tail test)

Tests of Hypothesis:

We used hierarchical moderated multiple regression analysis (Aiken & West, 1991) to test our hypotheses and examined the interactive effects of supervisory support with the dependent variables. In step 1, we entered the control variables (i.e., gender, marital status, number of dependent children and salary). In Step 2, the independent variables were entered. Finally, in step 3 we entered the two way interactions between each of the independent variables. All predictors were centred, i.e., subtracted from the mean as recommended by Akin and West (1991). These steps were examined for each of the three employee outcomes. To facilitate interpretation of significant interactions, we plotted the sample slopes from the respective regression models, when applicable.

We examined and reported the change in R2 to examine whether the predictor variables contributed to the prediction of each of the outcome variables over and above the previous steps. Standardized beta weights for the final regression equation, which indicate the relative importance of the predictor variables after accounting for the effects of controls and other variables in the equation are also reported (Tay & Quazi, 2010).

We predicted in Hypotheses 1(a) that perceived availability of Work-Life programmes would be positively related to AOC and job satisfaction, and negatively to employee turnover intentions. From the regression analysis it is observed that the relationships of the above variable with job satisfaction and turnover intentions were statistically significant in the hypothesised direction (B=.12; p=.04 and B= -.15; p=.01 respectively). However, the hypothesised relationship of availability of W-L programs with AOC was not significant (B=.09; p=.08).

Hypothesis 1 (b) predicted that employee usage of Work-Life programmes would have significant relationships with all the three outcome variables. As predicted, statistically significant relationships were found, providing strong support for all the three outcome variables (B=.21; p=.00, B=.21; p=.01 and B=-.21; p=.01 respectively).

In Hypotheses 2, we posited positive relationships between usage of FWAs with AOC and job satisfaction, and a negative relationship with turnover intentions. As hypothesized, strong support was found for all the three outcome variables (B=.41; p=.02, B=.56; p=.00 and B= -.52; p=.01 respectively).

Regarding Hypothesis 3, support was also found for the positive relationship between leave benefits usage and AOC (B=.25; p=.02), however, the predicted positive relationships with job satisfaction and the negative relationship with turnover intentions were not significant.

In hypothesis 4, the relationships between usage of ESS and the outcome variables were not significant with any of the three outcome variables (i.e., with AOC; B=.16; p=.37: with job satisfaction; B=.26; p=.16; and with turnover intentions; B=-.27; p=.15).

In hypothesis 5, we predicted that the relationship between the utilization of W-L programs with the three outcome variables will be moderated by the perceived supervisor support. Regression analysis indicates that PSS exerted significant moderating effects on only employee turnover intentions (R2 = .012) and not on AOC or job satisfaction.

Figure 2 shows the graphical representation of the sample slopes. It shows that the association of usages of work-life program to turnover intensions was stronger when PSS was high (steeper slope at -.211). However, when supervisor support is moderate (i.e., medium) turnover intensions was not as strong (slope: -.084) as in the case of high PSS. Interestingly, a positive slope for turnover intentions was noticed when the supervisor support was low.

Figure 2: Moderator Interaction Plot

DISCUSSIONS

This study explored to understand how availability and usage of WLB initiatives may impact employee outcomes in the SCM organizations operating in Singapore. It also examined the impact of interaction effect of supervisor support with the levels of usage of work-life programs. This study builds on previous studies that found that the impact of the availability and usage of work-life programs on the employee outcomes (i.e., AOC, Job satisfaction and turnover intensions) are moderated by the level of perceived supervisor support. Although hypotheses were developed based on the literature, some of the findings of this study were not in agreement with it.

Key findings of this study showed that perceived availability and usage of Work-Life programmes, along with supportive supervisors, generally led to employees with lower turnover intentions. Hypotheses 1 (a) predicted significant positive relationships between perceived availability of Work-Life programs with AOC and job satisfaction and negative relationship with turnover intensions. While this predicted relationship was found to be true with job satisfaction (in line with Thomas & Ganster, 1995; Grover and Crooker, 1995) and turnover intensions (consistent with Allen, 2001) but not with AOC. This could be due to the interplay of other possible antecedents of AOC such as relationships with co-workers, organisational justice (Meyer and Allen, 1997) and leadership (Brown, 2003). This implies that in the case of SCM industry mere availability of Work-Life programmes may not sufficiently elicit feelings of affection towards the organisation (Allen, 2001).

In line with the prediction of hypothesis 1(b), significant relationships were found on the utilisation of Work-Life programmes on all three study variables i.e. AOC, job satisfaction and employee turnover intentions, which are in line with those of Greenberger et al. (1989) and Beauregard and Henry (2009).

Similarly, usage of FWAs was found to be associated with higher AOC and job satisfaction, as well as with lower turnover intentions (Hypothesis 2). These results are in line with those of Allen (2001), who found that flexible benefits were positively related to job satisfaction and negatively related to turnover intentions. Casper and Harris (2008) also reported that employees who used more FWAs demonstrated higher affective commitment to the organization.

According to hypothesis 3, utilization of leave benefits should be significantly correlated with AOC, Job satisfaction and turnover intensions. However, results only showed correlation with AOC but not with the other two predicted variables. Possible Reason could be that in Singapore leave benefits are mostly covered under The Employment Act (2010), and employees may treat these policies as an entitlement (Wellner, 2004) rather than for enabling WLB and as such may not necessarily act as a factor affecting their level of job satisfaction and the decision to stay or leave the organisation. Further, child/elder-care leaves appear less crucial as with Singaporeans’ growing affluence, hiring of domestic helpers to care for dependants at home has become popular and prevalent (Yeoh and Huang, 1995).

In hypothesis 4, non-significant relationship was found between utilisation of ESS with all the three outcome variables. This probably can be explained by the fact that majority (45%) of our respondents were relatively young (24-34 years old) and to them career prospects and mobility may be more important than stability. Therefore, we suspect that given the range of family oriented ESS used in this study, utilisation of such benefits may not necessarily influence their decision regarding AOC and turnover.

No support for the predicted moderating role of PSS was found on the relationship between Work-Life programmes utilisation with AOC and job satisfaction (Hypothesis 6). This contradicts prior research findings that employees who perceived support from their supervisor generally felt more affectively committed (Norris-Watts and Levy, 2004; Scandura and Lankau, 1997) and satisfied at work (Thomas and Ganster, 1995). A plausible explanation could be that job satisfaction and AOC are general attitudes intrinsically developed as a result of factors other than solely PSS provided to employees of the SCM organizations in achieving WLB. Further, often time some employees of this industry may feel that the level of PSS received is enough while others may not feel that way (Saari and Judge, 2004). However, as predicted in the same hypothesis, usage of Work-Life programmes on turnover intentions would be moderated by PSS, was supported. A tentative explanation is that actual usage of formal family-friendly initiatives is determined on a case-by-case basis, giving managers discretion in these matters (Friedman and Johnson, 1997; Powell and Mainiero, 1999). In fact, findings by Powell and Mainiero indicate that the manager’s response to an employee request for alternative work arrangement may depend on his or her personal beliefs or past experiences with balancing work and family. Thus, amount of support from individual managers may vary even when Work-Life initiatives are provided on a formal basis, thereby influencing both employee decisions to utilize family-friendly benefits and to remain in the organization (Thompson et al., 1999).

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Particularly for the SCM industry, attention had generally been given on the “hard” aspects, i.e. financial and operational issues (Cullen, Johnson and Sakano, 2000). The “soft” side, i.e. human aspects, of the business have received relatively less attention. Hence, this study adds value in exploring the Work-Life scene in this industry in Singapore. Since successful management ensures a balanced focus on both hard and soft aspects of their organizations (Cullen, Johnson and Sakano, 2000), this exploratory study has identified some areas where the management of SCM organizations may pay more attention. .

Results from this study provide some specific points of consideration for managers in this industry. Specifically, a crucial intermediate linkage such as the supportive behaviour of supervisors towards the provision of Work-Life programmes and its effects on reduced voluntary turnover has been highlighted. As previously mentioned, the organisation can capitalise on the benefits of Work-Life programmes if supervisors are able to empathise with employees’ usage of such programmes (Powell and Mainiero, 1999).

Managers could look into providing an innovative combination of ESS and leave benefits beyond that of mandatory stipulations. Specifically, a large number of respondents in this study have rated high (4-5) on the importance of staff wellness programmes, study/examination, paid maternity and childcare leaves, a consistent trend across age groups, marital status or number of dependants, suggesting the attractiveness of such benefits to employees. For instance, as Singaporeans becoming more health-conscious[footnoteRef:7], companies may consider providing yoga classes or health-talks (e.g. food and nutrition, stress management) as employees and employers alike can benefit from the adoption of a healthy lifestyle e.g. lower absenteeism due to work-related stressors. [7: The Nielsen Company, (3 March 2009). Findings from a recent global online study on vitamins and dietary supplements consumption by The Nielsen Company, found that Singapore’s population are health-conscious or simply do not adhere to sensible eating habit. Retrieved from: http://www.acnielsen.com.sg/site/20090304.htm]

LIMITATIONS

Despite its practical contributions, our study was constrained by time and data limitations. First, Work-Life programmes may have longer-term benefits which can only be examined by longitudinal studies to determine the causal direction of relationships involved.

Larger proportion of respondents (71%) holding deskbound jobs as compared to those with less deskbound jobs may also limit the representativeness of the Work-Life profile between these two groups of employees in this industry. Additionally, employees 45 years old or above made up only 17% of the sample. This may undermine the importance of certain Work-Life initiatives, suitable for this group of employees. Finally, a possible concern lies with results being inflated by common method variance (Doty and Glick, 1998; Podsakoff et al., 2003), as data was solely collected from surveys. Thus, as the core variables were self-reported, the relationships may have been inflated as respondents tend to respond in socially-desirable ways (Donaldson and Grant-Vallone, 2002). This concern is particularly acute in the case of turnover intentions because many of the items are sensitive in nature. In view of the above mentioned limitations, the results of this study should be used with caution.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

An agenda for future research could be to compare the SCM industry practices regarding W-L balance initiatives against the other industries. Findings of such studies might help the managers of SCM organizations better gauge the effectiveness of Work-Life programmes in their industry.

Future research can also explore the financial impacts of Work-Life programmes on SCM organisations. A large-scale empirical study conducted by Ang et al. [2005] on the relationships between Work-Life practices and firm performance in Singapore showed that employee turnover is costly and implementing Work-Life initiatives is an effective business strategy that Singapore firms can use to reduce voluntary employee turnover. Incorporating such analytical data into the business case would facilitate higher organisational buy-in.

Other moderating and mediating variables such as gender differences and perceived organisational support may also be explored. The former is highlighted by Rothbard (2001) who indicates that strong differences exist in the way males and females experience Work-Life interface and multiple role engagement.

Lastly, given that PSS is an important factor that needs to be present for effective usage of Work-Life benefits and the reciprocal employee outcomes, it would be worthwhile to explore what organisational-level variables (e.g. policies regarding selection and training of supervisors) might filter down to the individual level and result in greater perceived support by employees. For example, supervisory development programmes that train supervisors to recognise and appreciate Work-Life harmony may be one such effective strategy.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite its limitations, this study has made several tentative contributions to the literature in WLB issues. Firstly, it extends the findings of the previous studies which have generally not focused on a particular industry. This study has thus initiated a new direction for Work-Life research by specifically examining the Work-Life practices in the SCM industry.

Findings of this study have also highlighted implications of implementing Work-Life programmes for SCM managers in the local context. The study also underscores the impact of PSS on the effective implementation of these programmes. Specifically, supportive supervisors play an important role in influencing turnover intentions among users of Work-Life programmes. Some of the W-L initiatives appeared more impactful than others, For instance, it is found that employees in the SCM industry value leave benefits, and would feel more affectively committed as a result from its utilisation.

This study is a first step in putting the spotlight on a specific industry. It is possibly one of the first in initiating a focus on the SCM industry that plays an integral part of almost every business but has received less attention regarding work-life balance.

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