Crimi n al Justiceand B e h a vior ht t p : / / c j b . s a gep u b. c o m T h e C r i m i n al P r o fi l i n g I l l u si o n : Wh at ' s B eh i n d t h e S mo ke an d M i rror s? B ren t S n o o k, R i ch ard M . Cull e n , Craig B en n ell, P a u l J. Ta yl or a n d P aul G e n dre a u C r i m in a l Just i cea n d Be h av i o r 20 08 ; 35 ; 12 57 D O I: 10. 117 7/ 009 38 548 08 321528 T h e o n li n e ve rsion o f t h i s articl e ca n b e f o u n d at: h ttp: / /cjb.sa g e p u b . c o m / cg i / co n t e n t / a b st r a ct / 3 5 /1 0 / 1 2 5 7 P u b l i sh e d b y: h t t p : / / w w w. sa g e p u b l i ca ti o ns. co m O n b e h a l f o f : I n t e rnati o n a l A ss o ciati o n f or C o rr e ctio n a l a n d F o r e nsi c P syc h o l o g y A d d i t i o n al se r vi ce s an d i n f or m at i on f o r C r i mi n al Ju st i ce an d B eh avi o r can b e f o u n d a t : E m a i l A l er t s: h t t p : / / cj b .sa g e p u b . co m / cg i / a l e rts S ub sc r i p t i o n s: h tt p : / / cj b . sa g e p u b . co m / subscri p t i o n s R ep ri n t s : h tt p : / / w w w . sa g e p u b . co m / j o u rn a l sR e p rin t s. n a v P ermi ss i o ns: h ttp:/ / w w w . sa g e p u b . co m / j o u r n a lsPer m issio n s.n a v C i t atio n s h tt p : / / cj b . sa g e p u b . co m / cgi/ co n t e n t/r e f s/ 3 5 / 1 0 / 1 2 5 7
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Har"a#) 67894 Hi!1s 5 Sales) :;;90.6 This $ra!i!e is bei#+ *ili<e& b, $%li!e a+e#!iesar%*#& he %rl& &es$ie #% !%"$elli#+ s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e ha i is reliable) (ali&) %r *sef*l
/S#%%1) Eas%%&) Ge#&rea*) G%++i#) 5 C*lle#) :;;=0. This &is$ari, beee# he *se a#&he la!1 %f e"$iri!al s*$$%r lea&s %#e % !%#si&er he 2*esi%# >h, &% $e%$le belie(e CP%r1s &es$ie he la!1 %f e(i&e#!e? >e e-$lai# his !ri"i#al $r%fili#+ ill*si%# i# er"s %f he#a*re %f he i#f%r"ai%# ab%* CP ha is $rese#e& % he $e%$le a#& h%
AUTHORS’ NOTE" We thank Insector John C! "ouse for his insi#htful comments on drafts of this article!
Suort for the research reorted in this article was rovided to the first author $y the Natural Sciences and
%n#ineerin# &esearch Council of Canada! Corresondence concernin# this article should $e addressed to Brent Snook' (sycholo#y )eartment' Science Buildin#' Memorial University of Newfoundland' St! John*s'
O*r ari!le is &i(i&e& i#% fi(e se!i%#s. irs) e %*li#e !*rre# 1#%le&+e %f CP e!h3#i2*es) hefre2*e#!, ih hi!h CP is *se& i# !ri"i#al i#(esi+ai%#s) a#& he e-e# % hi!h $%li!e %ffi!ersa#& "e#al healh $r%fessi%#als $er!ei(e CP as a (al*able %%l. Se!%#&) e ar+*e ha CP has #%
basis i# s!ie#ifi! he%r, a#& has "ea+er e"$iri!al s*$$%r as a# i#(es3i+ai(e %%l. The hir& a#&
f%*rh se!i%#s are &e(%e& % a !%#si&erai%# %f h% he &is!re$3a#!, "a, ha(e arise# beee# hela!1 %f e(i&e#!e s*$$%ri#+ CP $ra!i!es a#& beliefs ab%* is effe!i(e#ess. S$e!ifi!all,) i# hehir& se!i%#) e &is!*ss s%"e %f he a,s ha i#f%r"a3i%# ab%* CP is &is%re& as i is !%#(e,e&.I# he f%*rh se!i%#) e &is!*ss s%"e !%+#ii(e e#&e#!ies ha are *sef*l f%r lear#i#+ a#&reas%#i#+ b* a$$ear % ha(e le& $%li!e %ffi!ers) $r%3filers) a#& he res %f *s % f%r" a# ill*s%r,
belief ab%* CP. ifh) e !%#!l*&e b, ar+*i#+ ha CP sh%*l& #% be *se& as a# i#(esi+ai(e %%l*#il i re!ei(es a&e2*ae s!ie#ifi! s*$$%r.
THE CRIMINAL PROFILING EN#IRONMENT
C%#sr*!i#+ a $r%file %f a# *#1#%# !ri"i#al ,$i!all, i#(%l(es hree sa+es /Hi!1s 5 Sales):;;94 H%"a# 5 Ke##e&,) 67780. P%li!e %ffi!ers !%lle! !ri"e s!e#e &aa /e.+.) $h%%+ra$hs)&ee!i(e re$%rs) a#& a*%$s, res*ls0. These &aa are he# f%rar&e& % a $r%3filer h% "a1es $re&i!i%#s ab%* he $ers%#ali,) beha(i%ral) a#& &e"%+ra$hi! !hara!er3isi!s %f he li1el,!ri"i#al. These $re&i!i%#s are he# re$%re& % he i#(esi+ai#+ %ffi!ers. I# $ri#!i$le) CP&iffers lile fr%" ha s%3!alle& $s,!hi! &ee!i(es alle+e&l, &% i# hel$3i#+ la e#f%r!e"e#a+e#!ies !a!h !ri"i#als %r fi#& "issi#+ $ers%#s /see L,%#s 5 Tr*<<i) 67764 Ni!1ell) 6774O'Keeffe 5 Alis%#) :;;;4 >ise"a#) >es) 5 Se""a#) 67790.
As he $re(ale#!e %f CP has i#!rease&) here has bee# a si"*la#e%*s i#!rease i# he (%l*"e%f $*blishe& liera*re a&&ressi#+ he $ra!i!e. %r e-a"$le) i# a re!e# 2*a#iai(e re(ie %f6; CP ari!les) i as f%*#& ha he #*"ber %f $*blishe& CP ari!les has i#!rease& fr%" ari!les beee# 67=9 a#& 678;) % 7 beee# 6786 a#& 678) 6; beee# 6789 a#& 677;) ::
beee# 6776 a#& 677) 9 beee# 6779 a#& :;;;) := beee# :;;6 a#& :;;) a#& 6 i#:;;9 /S#%%1) Eas%%&) e al.) :;;=4 see als% D%&e#) Be##ell) 5 Bl%%"fiel&) :;;=0.M%re%(er) he a*h%rs %f "a#, %f hese ari!les $r%"%e CP as a *sef*l i#(esi+ai(e %%l.
The res*ls %f S#%%1) Eas%%&) e al.'s /:;;=0 e-a"i#ai%# a!!%r&e& ell ih he (iese-$resse& b, a si+#ifi!a# #*"ber %f $%li!e %ffi!ers a#& "e#al healh $r%fessi%#als. These(ies ere i&e#ifie& fr%" s*r(e,s ab%* heher %r #% CP a&(i!e is (al*able. I# he earli3ess*r(e,) D%*+las /as !ie& i# Pi#i<<%%) 6780 f%*#& ha s%l(i#+ !ases as arib*e& % CPa&(i!e i# 9 %f he 67: i#sa#!es here BI $r%fili#+ as re2*ese&. Si"ilarl,) Ja!1s%#) (a#K%$$e#) a#& Herbri#1 /6770 f%*#& ha fi(e %* %f si- s*r(e,e& $%li!e %ffi!ers i# he
Neherla#&s re$%re& s%"e &e+ree %f *sef*l#ess f%r a&(i!e +i(e# b, a# BI rai#e& $r%filer.Li1eise) C%$s%# /6770 f%*#& ha 8:.9 %f a sa"$le %f 68 $%li!e %ffi!ers i# he U#ie&Ki#+&%" !lai"e& ha CP as %$erai%#all, *sef*l a#& 7:. re$%re& ha he, %*l& see1CP a&(i!e a+ai#. C%#sise# ih hese res*ls) Tra+er a#& Breser /:;;60 sh%e& ha a si+3#ifi!a# $%ri%# %f $%li!e %ffi!ers i# he U#ie& Saes belie(e ha CP has (al*e. i#all,)T%rres) B%!!a!!i#i) a#& Miller's /:;;90 re!e# s*r(e, %f 7: f%re#si! "e#al healh $r%fessi%#3als i#&i!ae& ha 89 belie(e ha CP is a *sef*l la e#f%r!e"e# %%l.
THE LAC$ OF A SCIENTIFIC BASIS TO CRIMINAL PROFILING
Ha(i#+ esablishe& ha CP is i# i&es$rea& *se a#& ha $e%$le +e#erall, belie(e ha CP%r1s) e #% $rese# a !rii!al re(ie %f he CP liera*re. This re(ie re(eals he bl*#reali, ha /a0 "%s %f he ,$%l%+ies *se& % !reae !ri"i#al $r%files are i# fa! false ,$%l%3+ies) /b0 he "a%ri, %f CP a$$r%a!hes are base& %# a# %*&ae& he%r, %f $ers%#ali, hala!1s e"$iri!al s*$$%r) a#& /!0 here is #% !%"$elli#+ e(i&e#!e ha $re&i!i%#s "a&e b, $r%fessi%#al $r%filers are si+#ifi!a#l, "%re a!!*rae ha# h%se "a&e b, #%#$r%filers.
ARE COMMONL% USE& PROFILING T%POLOGIES ACTUALL% FALSE T%POLOGIES!
C*rre# $r%fili#+ $ra!i!es ,$i!all, i#(%l(e s%"e ,$e %f !lassifi!ai%# s,se") %r ,$%l3%+,) hi!h is *se& % !ae+%ri<e b%h !ri"e s!e#e beha(i%rs a#& %ffe#&er ba!1+r%*#&!har3a!erisi!s. B, far he "%s r%*i#el, *se& ,$%l%+, is he BI's %r+a#i<e& &is%r+a#i<e& &i!h%%",) hi!h as &e(el%$e& fr%" i#er(ies ih %ffe#&ers /Ressler)B*r+ess) D%*+las) Har"a#) 5 D'A+%si#%) 67890. The ass*"$i%#s *#&erl,i#+ his,$%l%+, are ha /a0 %ffe#ses !a# be !ae+%ri<e& as %r+a#i<e& /e.+.) ell $la##e&0 %r&is%r+a#i<e& /e.+.) *#$la##e&0 base& %# he beha(i%rs $rese# a a !ri"e s!e#e) /b0%ffe#&ers !a# be !ae+%3ri<e& as %r+a#i<e& /e.+.) hi+h f*#!i%#i#+0 %r &is%r+a#i<e& /e.+.)l% f*#!i%#i#+0 base& %# he ba!1+r%*#& !hara!erisi!s %f he %ffe#&er) a#& /!0 here is a!%rres$%#&e#!e beee# %ffe#ses a#& %ffe#&ers /i.e.) %r+a#i<e& %ffe#&ers !%""i
Alh%*+h he %r+a#i<e&&is%r+a#i<e& ,$%l%+, has bee# he &ri(i#+ f%r!e behi#& CP $ra!i!es ar%*#& he %rl& f%r "a#, ,ears) i has %#l, re!e#l, bee# he s*be! %f
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r%e& fr%" resear!h %# ra$e a#& refi#e& %# he basis %f Ke$$el's e-$erie#!es as a h%"i!i&ei#(esi+a%r) faile& % fi#& a#, e(i&e#!e s*$$%ri#+ he h,$%hesis ha %ffe#ses %r %ffe#&ers!%*l& be !ae+%ri<e& as $%erasseri(e) $%erreass*ra#!e) a#+errealia%r,) a#& a#+ere-!iai%#. As ih he %r+a#i<e&&is%r+a#i<e& &i!h%%",) he !re&ibili, %f Ke$$el a#&>aler's ,$%l%+, !%lla$ses *#&er e"$iri!al s!r*i#,.
Ne(erheless) here are si+#s ha $r%+ress is bei#+ "a&e. Se(eral i#&i(i&*als areae"$i#+ % &e(el%$ CP !lassifi!ai%# s,se"s a#& are +%i#+ hr%*+h he se$s re2*ire&% (ali&ae h%se s,se"s /e.+.) H11#e#) Li#&%f) 5 Sa#illa) :;;4 K%!sis) :;;94 Salfai):;;;0. Ohers are a1i#+ a b%%"3*$ a$$r%a!h % $r%fili#+ b, i&e#if,i#+ i#&i(i&*al
beha(i%r%ffe#&er ass%!iai%#s a#& he !%#&ii%# i# hi!h hese ill arise /e.+.) G%%&ill5 Alis%#) :;;=0. H%e(er) his resear!h is i# is i#fa#!, a#& he ,$%l%+ies e"er+i#+ aresill #% *se& i&el, i# CP !ir!les. U#f%r*#ael,) ha r%le is !*rre#l, a1e# *$ b, !lassi3fi!ai%# s,se"s ha are #% lar+el, s*$$%re& b, $s,!h%l%+i!al s!ie#!e.
IS CP BASE& ON AN EMPIRICALL% SUPPORTE& THEOR%!
I# a si"ilar a, % he !lassi! rai he%r, ha as $%$*lar i# $ers%#ali, $s,!h%l%+, *$*#il he lae 679;s /Mis!hel) 67980) he "a%ri, %f CP a$$r%a!hes /e.+.) he %r+a#i<e&&is%r+a#i<e& &i!h%%",0 ass*"e ha !ri"i#al beha(i%r is &eer"i#e& b, *#&erl,i#+
&is$%3sii%#s ihi# %ffe#&ers ha "a1e he" beha(e i# a $ari!*lar a, /e.+.) s+ar&)67784 Ba&!%!1) 677=4 B%%#) 677=4 Ca#er) 6774 D%*+las e al.) 677:0. The ass*"$i%#sha e"er+e fr%" his he%r, are f*#&a"e#al % CP /Alis%#) Be##ell) M%1r%s) 5Or"er%&) :;;:4 >%%&ha"s 5 T%,e) :;;=0. %r e-a"$le) he he%r, lea&s % heass*"$i%# ha %ffe#&ers ill e-hibi si"ilar beha(i%rs a!r%ss heir %ffe#ses as rais)(ers*s si*ai%#al fa!3%rs) are he &eer"i#a#s %f beha(i%r. Perha$s "%re i"$%ra# f%rhe $ra!i!e %f CP) he he%r, als% s*++ess ha %ffe#&ers ill &is$la, si"ilar beha(i%rs i#heir !ri"es a#& i# %her as$e!s %f heir li(es /e.+.) i#er$ers%#al relai%#shi$s0.
H% (ali& are hese ass*"$i%#s? I is %*r !%#e#i%# ha rai3base& "%&els %f $r%fil3i#+are f*#&a"e#all, flae&. Cri"i#al $r%filers &% #% see" % ha(e re!%+#i<e& ha a !%#3se#s*s be+a# % e"er+e i# he $s,!h%l%+i!al liera*re s%"e ; ,ears a+% ha % rel, %#rais %r $ers%#ali, &is$%sii%#s as he $ri"ar, e-$la#ai%# f%r beha(i%r as a seri%*s
"is3a1e. Si*ai%#al fa!%rs !%#rib*e as "*!h as $ers%#ali, &is$%sii%#s % he $re&i!i%# %f beha(i%r /B%ers) 67=4 Mis!hel) 67980. This is e2*all, r*e he# $re&i!i#+ !ri"i#al beha(i%r /Alis%# e al.) :;;:4 A#&res 5 B%#a) :;;94 Be##ell 5Ca#er) :;;:4 Ge#&rea*) S"ih) 5 re#!h) :;;94 >%%&ha"s 5 T%,e) :;;=0.
This i"$%ra#!e %f si*ai%#al fa!%rs is a$$are# he# %#e a!*all, !%#si&ers he e"$ir3i!alresear!h i# he $r%fili#+ &%"ai#. %r e-a"$le) s%"e s*&ies re$%r ha %ffe#&ers e-hibi areas%#able &e+ree %f !%#sise#!, a!r%ss heir !ri"es) b* ,$i!all, his is %#l, f%*#& f%r as$e!ifi! s*bse %f beha(i%r. I# Be##ell a#& Ca#er's /:;;:0 s*&, %f serial !%"3"er!ial b*r+lar,) (er, l% le(els %f !%#sise#!, ere %bser(e& f%r beha(i%rs relae& % ie"s s%le#
CAN PROFESSIONAL PROFILERS MA$E ACCURATE PRE&ICTIONS!
D%*+las e al. /67890 sae& ha The $r%!ess *se& b, a# i#(esi+ai(e $r%filer i# &e(el3%$i#+ a !ri"i#al $r%file is 2*ie si"ilar % ha *se& b, !li#i!ia#s % "a1e a &ia+#%sis a#&rea"e# $la# . . . I#(esi+a%rs ra&ii%#all, ha(e lear#e& $r%fili#+ hr%*+h brai#s%r"i#+) i#*ii%#) a#& e&*!ae& +*ess%r1 /$. ;0. This !li#i!all, base& $r%!essis re"i#is!e# %f $s,!h%a#al,i! a$$r%a!hes % hera$, here "e#al healh $r%fessi%#als
&ia+#%se heir !lie#s hr%*+h s*be!i(e i#er$reai%#s a#& *#s*$$%re& "eh%&s/Daes) 677=0. E"$iri!al resear!h has sh%# ha !li#i!al e-$erie#!e has a li"ie& effe!%# he a!!*ra!, %f $s,!h%l%+iss' a#& $s,!hiariss' *&+"e#s a!r%ss a ra#+e %f as1s/e.+.) Garb) 67784 Garb 5 B%,le) :;;4 Meehl) 677=0. I# a&&ii%#) a*s a#& Qis1i#/67880 f%*#& l% i#ra3a#& i#er!li#i!ia# !%#sise#!, i# *&+"e#s %f "e#al healh sa*sa#& ar+*e& ha he# !li#i!ia#s' $re&i!i%#s are !%"$are& a+ai#s %be!i(el,&eer"i#able har& &aa heir err%r rae %fe# e-!ee&s heir a!!*ra!, rae.
A si"ilar re#& e-iss ihi# he CP &%"ai#) here #e+li+ible 2*a#iai(e &iffere#!es ha(e bee# f%*#& beee# he $re&i!i(e abili, %f $r%fessi%#al $r%filers a#& #%#$r%filers. The a!!*3
ra!, %f $r%filer $re&i!i%#s has bee# ese& b, !%"$ari#+ he $erf%r"a#!e %f he s%3!alle& $r%fessi%#al $r%filers ih ha %f he #%#$r%filer +r%*$s i# "%!1 $r%fili#+ s!e#ari%s /K%!sis):;;b4 K%!sis) Ha,es) 5 Iri#) :;;:4 K%!sis) Iri#) Ha,es) 5 N*##) :;;;4 Pi#i<<%% 5i#1el) 677;0. I# a ,$i!al e-$eri"e#) $r%filers a#& #%#$r%filer +r%*$s are as1e& % re(ie&eails %f a s%l(e& !ri"e /%r !ri"e series0 a#& he# "a1e $re&i!i%#s ab%* he li1el, %ffe#&er(ia a "*li$le !h%i!e 2*esi%##aire. Pre&i!i%#s are ,$i!all, &i(i&e& i#% f%*r !ae+%ries!%+#ii(e $r%!esses) $h,si!al arib*es) %ffe#se beha(i%rs) a#& s%!ial his%r,habis /heres*ls fr%" hese f%*r !ae+%ries are als% !%"bi#e& % f%r" a# %(erall $r%file $erf%r"a#!e"eas*re0. The a!!*ra!, %f he $re&i!i%#s is !he!1e& a+ai#s he a!*al $er$era%r's !hara!3erisi!s. Be!a*se %f a la!1 %f !lear a+ree"e# %# h% sh%*l& be !%#si&ere& a $r%filer) S#%%1)
Eas%%&) e al. /:;;=0 !%#&*!e& % "ea3a#al,ses %f hese s*&ies.
The firs a#al,sis !%"$are& he $re&i!i(e a!!*ra!, %f a +r%*$ %f self3labele& $r%filers a#&e-$erie#!e& i#(esi+a%rs a+ai#s #%#$r%filers /e.+.) !%lle+e s*&e#s a#& $s,!h%l%+iss0. The $r%filersi#(esi+a%rs ere "%re a!!*rae ha# #%#$%li!e $ers%##el %# a# %(erall "eas*re %f $r%file a!!*ra!, /r = .:0 a#& %# he $h,si!al arib*e !ae+%r, /r = .6;0. I# !%#ras) he $re3&i!i(e a!!*ra!, %f he $r%filersi#(esi+a%rs as "ar+i#all, %rse %r #% beer ha# he #%#3 $r%filers he# i !a"e % $re&i!i%#s %f !%+#ii(e $r%!esses /r = .;90) %ffe#se beha(i%rs /r =
.;;0) a#& s%!ial his%r,habis /r = .;70. >ih res$e! % all !%"$aris%#s) as he 7 !%#fi3
&e#!e i#er(als /CI0 ab%* he $%i# esi"aes ere i&e /e.+.) % % fi(e i"es he li"i %f .6;0) a#& %fe# i#!l*&e& ;) he esi"aes %f he effe! si<es ere &ee"e& i"$re!ise.
I# he se!%#& a#al,sis) he e-$erie#!e& i#(esi+a%rs ere i#!l*&e& i# he #%#$r%filer +r%*$.I# his a#al,sis) he res*ls fa(%re& he $r%filers a!r%ss all he f%*r $re&i!%r !ae+%ries) b*a+ai# he 7 CI ere *#a!!e$abl, i&e. The bes res*l !a"e he# he %(erall $r%file as!%#si&ere& /r = .:) 7 CI = .6; % .0. E(e# if %#e ass*"es ha his %$i"isi! res*l !%*l&
i# his a#al,sis are ell 1#%# i# he !ri"i#%l%+i!al liera*re /e.+.) he li1elih%%& ha a ser3ial %ffe#&er ill be %f a $ari!*lar a+e) ha(e $ari!*lar !%#(i!i%#s) s*ffer s*bsa#!e ab*se $r%ble"s) e!.0. This "ea#s) i# %*r (ie) ha a#, $%li!e $r%fessi%#al ih a +%%& 1#%le&+e%f he !ri"i#%l%+i!al liera*re sh%*l& be able % a!hie(e his le(el %f s*!!ess si"$l, b, rel,3
i#+ %# base rae i#f%r"ai%#. I# %her %r&s) s*!!ess i# CP "a, #% be base& %# s$e!iali<e&1#%le&+e %f he $e!*liariies a#& i&i%s,#!rasies f%*#& a a +i(e# !ri"e s!e#e.
I# s*") here is #% !%"$elli#+ s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e % s*$$%r he $%sii(e (ie %f CP ha&%"i#aes $%$*lar %$i#i%#. ar fr%" !*i#+ e&+e s!ie#!e) CP a$$r%a!hes are base& %#,$%l%+ies ha la!1 e"$iri!al s*$$%r a#& are %fe# base& %# a# %*&ae& *#&ersa#&i#+ %fh*"a# beha(i%r. I# a&&ii%#) $r%fessi%#al $r%filers %fe# $r%&*!e $re&i!i%#s ha are #%si+#ifi!a#l, "%re a!!*rae ha# #%#$r%filers. Gi(e# his sae %f affairs) %#e "i+h %#&erh, $%li!e %ffi!ers !%#i#*e % re2*es he assisa#!e %f $r%filers. >hereas s%"e $%li!e%ffi!ers re$%r *si#+ CP be!a*se he, belie(e ha i %r1s /e.+.) C%$s%#) 6774 Ja!1s%# e al.)
6774 Pi#i<<%%) 6780) here are li1el, %her %ffi!ers h% *se CP b* &% #% belie(e ha i%r1s. >e s*s$e! ha s%"e %f hese %ffi!ers "i+h *se CP be!a*se he, belie(e /%r arei#sr*!e&0 ha i is heir &*, % *se all a(ailable i#(esi+ai(e e!h#i2*es. Ohers "a, belie(eha he, ha(e #%hi#+ % l%se i# seei#+ ha a $r%filer !a# %ffer % a# i#(esi+ai%#. I is #%1#%#) h%e(er) heher CP is hel$f*l %r har"f*l % $%li!e i#(esi+ai%#s.
As $%sii(e beliefs ab%* he (ali&i, a#& reliabili, %f CP are #% s*$$%re& b, e"$iri3!ale(i&e#!e) he res %f his ari!le is &e(%e& % e-$lai#i#+ h, $e%$le "i+h belie(e ha CP%r1s. >e a&&ress ei+h reas%#s ha !a# e-$lai# h, !ri"i#al $r%filers) he $%li!e) a#&he $*bli! "i+h belie(e CP %r1s i# he abse#!e %f s!ie#ifi! s*$$%r. These reas%#s are
&i(i&e& i#% % !ae+%ries The firs f%*r are ele"e#s %f he "essa+e ha $e%$le re!ei(eab%* CP a#& he se!%#& f%*r relae % h*"a# !%+#ii%#. These reas%#s are #eiher e-ha*s3i(e #%r "**all, e-!l*si(e.
THE MESSAGE
Resear!h sh%s ha se!%#& ha#& 1#%le&+e) s*!h as ha a!2*ire& fr%" he "e&ia) %fe# &%es#% refle! he a!*al sae %f affairs /S$r%) 67790. Th*s) *#less $e%$le a&%$ a !rii!ala$$r%a!h % i#f%r"ai%# !%#s*"$i%#) heir *&+"e#s ab%* he (iabili, %f $ra!i!es li1e CP
!a# be !%#a"i#ae& b, he i#a!!*rae %r biase& i#f%r"ai%# ha is bei#+ !%#(e,e&/Sa#%(i!h) 677:0. The f%ll%i#+ are he f%*r as$e!s %f i#f%r"ai%# fr%" he CP e#(ir%#3"e# /i.e.) "essa+es ab%* CP0 ha ha(e he $%e#ial % !%#(i#!e $e%$le ha CP %r1s.
THE POWER OF N = '
Pers%#al s%ries ab%* e-!e$i%#al i#!i&e#s a#& e-$erie#!es !a# be (er, se&*!i(e be!a*se he, are !%#!ree) (i(i&) a#& "e"%rable /B%r+i&a 5 Nisbe) 67==4 Sa#%(i!h)677:0. H%e(er) heir se&*!i(e#ess has #% relai%# % heir !re&ibili,. A !%r#ers%#e %fhe s!ie#ifi! "eh%& is ha !%#!l*si%#s sh%*l& #% be &ra# fr%" a#e!&%es ha ha(e #%a, %f bei#+ re$li!ae& %r *#&ers%%& i# a a, ha $er"is +e#erali<ai%# /ear%#) :;;4>alls%#) 6780. Ye be!a*se a#e!&%es h%l& a$$eal i# heir !%#!ree e-a"$le a#& be!a*se"%s $e%$le are #% rai#e& % see1 %be!i(e fa!s a#& reliable e(i&e#!e /Carr%ll) :;;4Gil%(i!h) 67764 Sa+a#) 67794 Sher"er) :;;0) $e%$le "a, a*%"ai!all, all%i#f%r"ai%# %bai#e& fr%" a#e!&%es % f%r" he f%*#&ai%# %f heir beliefs.
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U#f%r*#ael,) "a#, $*blishe& a!!%*#s %f CP rel, %# a#e!&%al e(i&e#!e % ill*srae h% hee!h#i2*e is *sef*l i# !a!hi#+ !ri"i#als /e.+.) Ca#er) 6774 C%%1 5 Hi#"a#) 67770. S#%%1)Eas%%&) e al. /:;;=0) f%r e-a"$le) f%*#& ha 9; %f he 6; CP ari!les he, re(iee&*se& a leas %#e a#e!&%e as a s%*r!e %f 1#%le&+e. The "%s (i(i& a#& i&el, !ie& a#e!&%e
is *#&%*be&l, ha %f Ne Y%r1's Ma& B%"ber) Ge%r+e Mees1, /Br*ssel) 67980. I# heirae"$s % !a!h he b%"ber) i#(esi+a%rs re2*ese& he assisa#!e %f $s,!hiaris Ja"es A.Br*ssel % $r%file he !ri"i#al. A"%#+ %her hi#+s) Br*ssel /67980 re$%re&l, $re&i!e& hahe b%"ber as a re+*lar "a#) %f %r&i#ar, fashi%#s) h% as f%r3ei+# b%r# a#& ae#&e&!h*r!h re+*larl,) a#& ha he %*l& be eari#+ a b*%#e& &%*ble3brease& s*i he#a$$rehe#&e& b, a*h%riies. I is %fe# re$%re& ha Br*ssel !%rre!l, $re&i!e& a #*"ber %ffa!%rs s*!h as Mees1,'s &e"ea#%r) s%!ial a!i(iies) healh !%#&i3i%#) a#& e(e# he &%*ble3 brease& s*i. H%e(er) !erai# &eails %f his !ase are ,$i!all, %(erl%%1e& he# i is&is!*sse& i# CP a!!%*#s. %r e-a"$le) rarel, is i "e#i%#e& ha Br*ssel's $r%file as $*blishe& i# 5he New 6ork 5imes &*ri#+ he i#(esi+ai%# /693,ear) 6790 a#& ha Mees1,
as a!1#%le&+e& as f%ll%i#+ he "e&ia re$%rs /Ber+er) 67=b0) h*s %$e#i#+ *$ he $%ssibili, ha Mees1, !%#s!i%*sl, %r *#!%#s!i%*sl, alere& his beha(i%r base& %# ha heha& rea&. I# a&&ii%#) he $r%file &i& #% a!*all, s%l(e he !ase as is !%""%#l, i"$lie&/K%!sis) :;;a0. I#f%r"ai%# f%*#& %# &is+r*#le& e"$l%,ees i# $ers%##el files le&i#(esi+a%rs % i#2*ire ab%* Mees1, /Ber+er) 67=a0.
Of !%*rse) i is #% he *se %f !ase s*&ies $er se ha #e!essaril, biases $e%$le's (ies %f CP.Raher) i is he a, !ase s*&ies are *se& b, a&(%!aes %f CP ha !a# res*l i# $r%ble"s. %re-a"$le) #earl, e(er, $*blishe& !ase s*&, e ha(e !%"e a!r%ss re$%rs a s*!!ess s%r,)here a $r%filer $r%(i&e& a# a!!*rae $r%file ha hel$e& res%l(e a &iffi!*l !ri"i#al i#(esi+a3
i%#. Ma#, %f hese !ase s*&ies ha(e e-re"el, se&*!i(e 2*aliies) s*!h as h%se hi+hli+he& b, he Ma& B%"ber &es!ri$i%# $r%(i&e& ab%(e /e.+.) e-re"el, s$e!ifi! a#& see"i#+l, a!!*3rae $re&i!i%#s) hi!h are "a&e ih a!!ess % (er, li"ie& i#f%r"ai%#0. I# sh%r) here is #%ele"e# %f bala#!e i# he $rese#ai%# %f !ase s*&ies) &es$ie he fa! ha "*!h !%*l& belear#e& fr%" !ases here CP as e"$l%,e& *#s*!!essf*ll,. U#&er s*!h biase& !%#&ii%#s i is#% &iffi!*l % see h, "a#, $e%$le %*l& belie(e ha CP %r1s. The, si"$l, +e#erali<efr%" he "a#, s*!!ess s%ries he, rea& % he fiel& %f CP "%re +e#erall,.
REPETITION OF THE MESSAGE THAT PROFILING WOR$S
E"$iri!al resear!h sh%s ha he li1elih%%& %f a# i#&i(i&*al's a+reei#+ ih a "essa+e+e#erall, i#!reases as he "essa+e is re$eae& /Ca!i%$$% 5 Pe,) 67=70. Th*s) re$eai#+he "essa+e ha CP is a# effe!i(e i#(esi+ai(e %%l "a, !%#rib*e % he CP ill*si%#. I#a&&ii%# % re$eae& "essa+es ha CP %r1s) $e%$le are %fe# %l& ha "%re a#& "%re $e%$le are be!%"i#+ rai#e& i# CP. %r e-a"$le) %#e $r%$%#e# %f $r%fili#+ sae& haAs "%re a#& "%re $ers%##el be!%"e rai#e& a#& e-$erie#!e& i# he a$$li!ai%# %f hei#(es3i+ai(e e!h#i2*e %f CP) "%re a+e#!ies ill belie(e i# is *se /Da(is) 6777) $.:70. Re$eae& s*++esi%#s ha $%li!e %ffi!ers see1 CP i#$* f%r i#(esi+ai%#s be!a*sehe, fi#& i hel$f*l !a# als% $ers*a&e $e%$le ha CP is (iable /K%!sis) :;;a0.
I is #% *#!%""%# % rea& sae"e#s esif,i#+ % he (al*e %f CP) s*!h as !ri"i#al $ers%#ali, $r%fili#+ has bee# *se& b, la e#f%r!e"e# a+e#!ies ih s*!!ess i# "a#, areas/D%*+las 5 B*r+ess) 6789) $. 70) "%re a#& "%re !ases are bei#+ s*!!essf*ll, a#a3l,<e&) a#&!ri"i#al $r%files are bei#+ !%#sr*!e& ih re"ar1able a!!*ra!, /De$*e) 6789) $. 0) a#&$r%fili#+ has $r%(e# i"e a#& i"e a+ai# % be a (al*able i#(esi+ai(e %%l
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i# he arse#al %f %&a,'s "%&er# la e#f%r!e"e# !a&re /Da(is) 6777) $. :70. Alh%*+hs*!h esi"%#ials "a, $r%(i&e a# *#!rii!al rea&er ih he i"$ressi%# ha CP %r1s) he*#f%r*#ae reali, is ha he (ali&i, %f s*!h esi"%#ials has ,e % be e"$iri!all, s*$3 $%re&) a#& he, are a# i#a&e2*ae basis f%r a belief. M%re i"$%ra#l,) as hi+hli+he&
ab%(e) s*!h sae"e#s fail % !%rres$%#& % resear!h ha has e-a"i#e& he $re&i!i(eabil3i, %f $r%filers /S#%%1) Eas%%&) e al.) :;;=0.
INAPPROPRIATE RELIANCE ON CORRECT PRE&ICTIONS
Pr%filers !a# !reae he i"$ressi%# ha heir ra&e is (iable b, %(ere"$hasi<i#+ heir !%rre! $re&i!i%#s /e.+.) Ca#er) 6774 D%*+las 5 Olsha1er) 6774 M!Crar, 5 Ra"sla#&) :;;0 a#& b, !%#&*!i#+ s*&ies ha %#l, "eas*re a!!*ra!, as he #*"ber %f !%rre! $re3&i!i%#s raherha# he $r%$%ri%# %f !%rre! $re&i!i%#s /K%!sis) :;;b4 K%!sis e al.) :;;:4 K%!sis e al.):;;;4 Pi#i<<%% 5 i#1el) 677;0. >he# all he #e!essar, a#& $eri#e# i#f%r"ai%# is #%
A# ari!le b, D%*+las e al. /67890 ill*sraes #i!el, h% !%rre! $re&i!i%#s are a!!e#3*ae& % $r%"%e he belief ha CP is be#efi!ial. D%*+las a#& his !%llea+*es $rese#e& a $r%file ha $re&i!e& :7 !ri"i#al !hara!erisi!s) b* he# &is!*ssi#+ he a!!*ra!, %f he $r%file) he a*h%rs e"$hasi<e& *s he 66 !%rre! $re&i!i%#s /6; his a#& 6 !%rre! ree!3
i%#0. >ih s%"e eff%r) %#e !a# !%lle! all he e(i&e#!e ha is #e!essar, /a#& sh%*l& ha(e bee# $rese#e&0 f%r a rea&er % s*ffi!ie#l, assess he (ali&i, %f ha $r%file. If here ere66 !%rre! $re&i!i%#s /his a#& !%rre! ree!i%#s0) he# here ere 68 i#!%rre! $re&i!i%#s /false alar"s a#& "isses0. The $r%file as %#l, 8 a!!*rae Be!a*se $r%filers f%!*s heir ae#i%# %# heir s*!!esses) he, /a#& $%e#iall, he !%#s*"ers %fheir $r%files0 a$$ear % %(erarib*e he !a*sali, %f s%l(e& !ases % heir CP $re&i!i%#s/Lassier) Geers) M*#hall) Pl%*<3S#,&er) 5 Breie#be!her) :;;:0. I sh%*l& #% be%(erl%%1e& ha i#!%rre! $re&i!3i%#s ha(e he $%e#ial % "islea& a# i#(esi+ai%#.
THE M%TH OF PROFILING E(PERTS
E-$ers are $e%$le h% ha(e $r%fessi%#al !%"$ee#!e i# a s$e!iali<e& area) *s*all, a!2*ire&i# he !%*rse %f e-e#si(e he%rei!al a#& $ra!i!al rai#i#+ /K*r<3Mil!1e 5 Gi+ere#<er) :;;0.Be!a*se %f his) $e%$le %fe# a!!e$ i#f%r"ai%# ha is !%""*#i!ae& % he" b, a$$are#a*h%ri, fi+*res %r e-$ers as bei#+ !%rre! /B%!h#er 5 I#s1%) 67994 Mil+ra") 6790. Thishas bee# referre& % i# he liera*re as he *se %f a# e-$erise he*risi! /i.e.) ha e-$ers'sae"e#s !a# be r*se&4 Rei"er) Maa) 5 S%e!1li#) :;;0. E(i&e#!e f%r *sa+e %f hee-$erise he*risi! is alrea&, a(ailable i# he CP &%"ai#. %r e-a"$le) $%li!e %ffi!ers (iei#+a $r%file rae i as "%re a!!*rae he# he $r%&*!i%# %f he $r%file is arib3*e& % a# e-$erraher ha# a #%#e-$er /K%!sis 5 Ha,es) :;;4 K%!sis 5 Heller) :;;0.
E-$ers i# a !ri"i#al i#(esi+ai(e !%#e- %*+h % $r%(i&e he $%li!e ih s$e!iali<e&s1ills %r 1#%le&+e be,%#& ha %f he %r&i#ar, $%li!e %ffi!er /G*&%#ss%# 5 C%$s%#)677=0. S%"e $r%filers !lai" ha he, $%ssess a!!*"*lae& is&%") i#(esi+ai(e a#& beha(i%ral s!ie#!e e-$erie#!e) a#& rai#i#+ a#&%r 1#%le&+e %f ab#%r"al beha(i%r ha
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Oher ha# he $%ssessi%# %f s$e!iali<e& s1ills %r 1#%le&+e) $r%filers "i+h als% be(iee& as e-$ers be!a*se he, ha(e esifie& as e-$er i#esses i# !%*r /M!Ca##)
677:0. Le+al s!h%lars) h%e(er) ha(e bee# 2*i!1 % !halle#+e his #%i%# be!a*se CP is#% a +e#3erall, a!!e$e& s!ie#ifi! e!h#i2*e) is #% reliable) !a##% $r%(e he +*il %f he&efe#&a#) a#& &%es #% $r%(i&e e-$la#ai%#s ha are %*si&e he #%r"al *#&ersa#&i#+ %f he *r, /Or"er%&) 6779a) 6779b4 Risi#+er 5 L%%$) :;;:0. M%re%(er) $r%file3base&e(i&e#!e has) %# %!!asi%#) bee# f%*#& *#a!!e$able b, he !%*rs be!a*se i is has bee#!%#si&ere& *#1 s!ie#!e /e.+.) State v. +ortin) 67770. Als% !halle#+i#+ he e-$er $r%filerlabel is he la!1 %f !%#se#s*s ab%* h% !a# be a $r%filer a#& a +e#erall, a!!e$e&
re+*la%r, b%&, ha $r%3(i&es $r%fessi%#al $r%fili#+ &esi+#ai%#s.
THE MIN&
Pe%$le belie(e all 1i#&s %f sra#+e hi#+s ha are *#!%rr%b%rae& b, s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e.Pres!ie# e-a"$les i#!l*&e he %!!*rre#!e %f alie# ab&*!i%#s) he h% ha#& $he#%"e#%#i# bas1eball) rei#!ar#ai%#) re"%e (iei#+) a#& he ",si!al $%er %f he E+,$ia# $,ra3"i&s /Gil%(i!h) 67764 Hi#es) 67884 @,se) 677=0. Resear!hers ha(e s$e# a +rea &eal %fi"e i#(esi+ai#+ h% a#& h, $e%$le "i+h belie(e i# *#$r%(e# hi#+s. A!!%r&i#+ %Sher"er /:;;:0) a !%#se#s*s a"%#+ "a#, %f hese s!ie#iss is ha he h*"a# "i#&e(%l(e& % i&e#if, $aer#s a"%#+ e#(ir%#"e#al %!!*rre#!es) a $r%!ess ha is belie(e&
% ha(e bee# a&a$i(e f%r he s$e!ies) b* hi!h !a# lea& % he i&e#ifi!ai%# %f"ea#i#+less $aer#s. The i&e#ifi!ai%# %f "ea#i#+less $aer#s !a# e-$lai# % a !erai#&e+ree h, $e%$le "i+h belie(e ha hi#+s s*!h as $s,!hi! $re&i!i%#s) $as3lifere+ressi%#s) a#& CP $re&i!i%#s are (ali&. N%e ha i is #% %*r !%#e#i%# i# his ari!le% !lai" ha hese beliefs are irrai%#al. Beliefs are "erel, a $r%&*! %f $r%!essi#+i#f%r"ai%# fr%" he e#(i3r%#"e#. >he# he i#f%r"ai%# is b%+*s) s% ill be he belief.%*r as$e!s %f h*"a# !%+3#ii%# ha !%#rib*e % he CP ill*si%# are &is!*sse& bel%.
J*&+"e# a#& &e!isi%#3"a1i#+ resear!h /e.+.) Gil%(i!h) 67764 M,ers) :;;:0 s*++ess ha $r%filers "i+h assi+# "%re $ers%#al res$%#sibili, % i#(esi+ai(e s*!!ess ha# %i#(esi+ai(e fail*re /i.e.) self3ser(i#+ bias0 a#& be "%re !%#fi&e# i# heir abili, % "a1ea!!*rae $re&i!i%#s ha# he, sh%*l& be /i.e.) %(er!%#fi&e#!e0. I# a&&ii%#) $r%filers a#& he $*bli! "a, arib*e $er!ei(e& s*!!esses % he $r%filer's abiliies a#& &is!%*# he i"$%r3a#!e%f he $%li!e %ffi!ers' !%#rib*i%# /i.e.) f*#&a"e#al arib*i%# err%r0. *rher"%re) $r%filers) $%li!e %ffi!ers) a#& he $*bli! "i+h be s*s!e$ible % "is$er!ei(i#+ a $r%filer's !%"$ee#!e if
he, e(al*ae he a!!*ra!, %f a $r%file afer he a$$rehe#si%# %f he !ri"i#al /i.e.) hi#&si+h bias0) %r $er!ei(e a relai%#shi$ beee# a $r%filer's $re&i!i%#s a#& he res3%l*i%# %f a !asehere %#e &%es #% e-is /i.e.) ill*s%r, !%rrelai%#0.
Afer3he3fa! reas%#i#+ is %#e $ari!*larl, +%%& e-a"$le %f h% #a*ral reas%#i#+ !a# lea& %he &ee!i%# %f "ea#i#+less $aer#s /Carr%ll) :;;4 Gil%(i!h) 67764 P%$e 5 @as2*e<) :;;4Sa+a#) 67794 Sher"er) :;;:0. Ma#, e(e#s f%ll% se2*e#ial $aer#s ih%* bei#+ !a*sall,relae&4 after this &%es #% #e!essaril, "ea# $ecause of this. I# s%"e !ases) !ri"i#al $r%filesa$$ear % be he $ri"ar, !a*se %f he s*!!essf*l res%l*i%# %f a# i#(esi+ai%# si"$l, be!a*sea $r%file as %bai#e& bef%re he !ase as s%l(e& /e.+.) C%$s%#) 6774 Te#e#) 67874 >ils%#)
Li#!%l#) 5 K%!sis) 677=0. I "i+h be he !ase ha $e%$le belie(e i# CP &*e % he i#abili, %&isi#+*ish beee# "ea#i#+f*l a#& "ea#i#+less $aer#s.
A *bi2*i%*s !%+#ii(e e#&e#!, ha "a, als% e-$lai# h, $r%filers) la e#f%r!e"e#%ffi!ers) a#& he res %f *s belie(e i# he (era!i, a#& $re&i!i(e (ali&i, %f CP is !%#fir"a3i%# bias. C%#fir"ai%# bias i#(%l(es l%%1i#+ f%r) %fe# *#!%#s!i%*sl,) e(i&e#!e ha !%#3fir"s a#e-isi#+ belief a#& i+#%ri#+ %r fileri#+ %* e(i&e#!e ha &is!%#fir"s ha belief /Ni!1ers%#)67784 Sher"er) :;;0. This ,$e %f !%+#ii(e e#&e#!, has bee# sh%# % affe! +e#eral $*bli!a#& s!ie#iss ali1e a#&) a!!%r&i#+ % Sher"er) is he "%s $%erf*l %f all !%+3#ii(e biasesha %$eraes % !%#fir" a#& *sif, "a#, eir& beliefs. He has ar+*e& ha $s,3!hi!s)
f%r*#eellers) $al" rea&ers) a#& asr%l%+ers all &e$e#& %# !%#fir"ai%# bias % !%#(i#!e $e%$le %f heir abiliies. S$e!ifi!all,) he belie(es ha elli#+ he !lie# ha % e-$e! i# hef**re /a %#e3si&e& e(e# i#sea& %f a %3si&e& e(e#0 !a*ses he !lie# % #%i!e he%!!*rre#!e %f a $re&i!e& e(e# b* i+#%re %r filer %* he #%#%!!*rre#!e %f a $re3&i!e&e(e#. B, e-e#si%#) i %*l& #% be s*r$risi#+ % &is!%(er ha !%#fir"ai%# bias $la,s a r%lei# he f%r"ai%#) a#& &efe#se) %f $%sii(e beliefs re+ar&i#+ CP. >e s*s$e! ha here "a, be ae#&e#!, f%r h%se h% ha(e f%r"e& a $%sii(e belief ab%* $r%fili#+ % l%%1 f%r %r re"e"ber!%#fir"a%r, e(i&e#!e /e.+.) !%rre! $re&i!i%#s %r s*!!essf*l a#e!&%es) hi!h are %fe#e(i&e# i# he liera*re a#& $%$*lar "e&ia0 ha s*$$%rs heir belief ha $r%3fili#+ %r1s a#&% i+#%re a#&%r f%r+e !%#ra&i!%r, e(i&e#!e /e.+.) i#!%rre! $re&i!i%#s %r *#s*!!essf*la#e!&%es) hi!h are rarel, $rese#e& i# he liera*re %r $%$*lar "e&ia0.
FIN&ING MEANING IN AMBIGUOUS INFORMATION
Cli#i!al a#& $ers%#ali, resear!h has !%#sise#l, &e"%#srae& ha $e%$le are i#!li#e& %a!!e$ a"bi+*%*s) (a+*e) a#& +e#eral sae"e#s as a!!*rae &es!ri$i%#s %f heir %#
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!aref*ll, e(al*ae he !%#se2*e#!es %f e(er,hi#+ he, ha(e %bser(e& /Si"%#) 677;0.Belie(i#+ hi#+s hr%*+h i"iai%# is he %*!%"e %f b%*#&e& h*"a# rai%#ali, i# a !%"3 $le- %rl& /Si"%#) 677;0) b* he !%#se2*e#!e %f *#!rii!al a!!e$a#!e %f i&eas is ha $e%$le s%"ei"es a!!e$ *#hel$f*l i#f%r"ai%#.
P%li!e %ffi!ers "a, belie(e CP is a (ali& i#(esi+ai(e e!h#i2*e be!a*se he, %bser(e %her $%li!e %ffi!ers *si#+ i a#& a!!e$ "essa+es $r%"%i#+ is effe!i(e#ess. S*$$%r f%r his ar+*3"e# !%"es fr%" he res*ls %f a s*r(e, b, Ja!1s%# e al. /6770. The, f%*#& ha $%li!e %ffi3!ers h% *se& CP lear#e& ab%* i hr%*+h i#f%r"al $%li!i#+ #e%r1s ihi# heir $%li!e f%r!ea#& !%#a! ih !%llea+*es h% $%ssesse& 1#%le&+e ab%* CP. Oher a,s b, hi!h%ffi!ers lear# ab%* CP are hr%*+h le!*res) ari!les i# $%li!e $*bli!ai%#s) a#& e!h#i!alrai#i#+ a $%li!e a!a&e"ies a#& !%lle+es /Ja!1s%# 5 Be1eria#) 677=0. As e ha(e alrea&,&es!ribe&) "%s %f hese i#f%r"ai%# s%*r!es $rese# CP as a (iable i#(esi+ai(e %%l.
Relae& % i"iai%# is he $he#%"e#%# %f s%!ial !%#a+i%#. S%!ial !%#a+i%# resear!hs*++ess ha $e%$le ill a&%$ %hers' beliefs afer %bser(i#+ beha(i%r ha a$$eare& % %r1.%r e-a"$le) s*i!i&e %fe# %!!*rs i# !l*sers a#& is heref%re h%*+h % be !%#a3+i%*s /Sa!1):;;;0. A!!%r&i#+ % G%*l&) Ja"ies%#) a#& R%"er /:;;0) fi!i%#al a#& #%#3fi!i%#al $%rra,als %f s*i!i&e "a, "a1e a1i#+ %#e's %# life a$$ear as a# effe!i(e %%l f%r a!hie(i#+ $ers%#al +ai#. S%!ial !%#a+i%# has als% bee# &%!*"e#e& f%r s*!h $he#%"3e#a as b*r#%*a"%#+ ea!hers /Ba11er 5 S!ha*feli) :;;;0) (i%le#!e a#& a++ressi%# /Ber1%i< 5 Ma!a*la,)67=64 G%l&sei#) Ar#%l&) 5 R%se#ber+) :;;60) "iliar, !%*$s /Li 5 Th%"$s%#) 67=0) "%%&/Ne*"a## 5 Sra!1) :;;;0) a#& s!ra!hi#+ i# Ja$a#ese "%#31e,s /Na1a,a"a) :;;0. Usi#+CP a#& belie(i#+ i %r1s is li1el, !%#a+i%*s as ell.
The i"$%ra#!e %f !%#a+i%# % a# a!!%*# %f h, CP is belie(e& % be a +%%& i&ea is e(i3&e#!e& b, #*"er%*s i#sa#!es %f $*bli! $%$*lari,. %r e-a"$le) a!!%r&i#+ % E++er /67770)he Ma& B%"ber !ase i+#ie& he #%i%# ha CP is a (iable %%l) b* i as &e(el%$"e#s "a&e b, he BI /e.+.) rai#i#+ $r%+ra"s) e-e#si(e $*bli!ai%#s) ele(isi%# a$$eara#!es0 ha le& %he ra$i& +r%h i# CP a!i(iies i# he U#ie& Saes. I# he U#ie& Ki#+&%") i a$$ears hahe a$$are# s*!!ess %f Da(i& Ca#er's $r%file i# he Raila, Ra$is !ase le& % a# *$s*r+e i# b%h he i#eres a#& *sa+e %f CP. %r i#sa#!e) C%$s%# /6770 f%*#& a ri$li#+ %f he #*"ber%f $r%file re2*ess i# he ,ear f%ll%i#+ ha !ase. Alh%*+h i "a, be &iffi!*l % assessheher CP !%#a+i%# e-iss) i is i#&is$*able ha here has bee# a sea&, rise) ih i#er"i3
e# &ra"ai! i#!reases) i# CP *se /e.+.) see C%$s%#) 677) f%r &aa fr%" he U#ie& Ki#+&%"0.This s*++ess ha b%h i"iai%# a#& s%!ial !%#a+i%# "a, be !%#rib*i#+ % he CP ill*si%#.
MISTA$ING FICTION FOR FACT
Pe%$le are $ari!*larl, ara!e& % $he#%"e#a ha a$$eal % fa#as, b, f%!*si#+ %# he $%ers ha %r&i#ar, $e%$le la!1 b* &esire /Sa+a#) 67790. Gree#) Br%!1) a#& Ka*f"a#/:;;0 assere& ha i#&i(i&*als +e#erall, a# % be e#erai#e& a#& e#& % see1 %* fi!3i%# raher ha# #%#fi!i%# % a!hie(e his e#erai#"e#. The, s*++es ha he "ai#reas%# $e%$le a$$ear % be ara!e& % he "e&ia is he &esire % es!a$e fr%" he real
%rl&. The, als% "ai#ai# ha $e%$le are s*s!e$ible % a&%$i#+ beliefs ab%* real %rl&e(e#s ha are e#irel, base& %# fi!i%#al a!!%*#s.
Be!a*se $e%$le are %fe# i#ri+*e& b, he !ri"i#al "i#&) CP a!i(iies e#& % +e#erae !%#3si&erable $*bli! fas!i#ai%#. This %bser(ai%# is e(i&e#!e& b, he #*"ber %f b%%1s) fil"s) a#&ele(isi%# $r%+ra"s ha &eal ih CP as ell as he re!e# +r%h i# !%lle+e a#& *#i(ersi,!%*rses ha a&&ress CP iss*es. Gr*bi# /6770 has als% s*++ese& ha CP a$$eals % fa#as,
be!a*se i !%#*res *$ he i"a+e %f he !erebral sle*h rel,i#+ s%lel, %# his a!*e $%ers %f%bser(ai%# a#& &e&*!i(e reas%#i#+ % i&e#if, a# el*si(e a#& "*!h feare& serial ra$is /$.:9:0. I#&ee&) s%"e resear!hers ha(e a!*all, arib*e&) %r a leas ass%!iae&) he %ri+i#s %fCP % fi!i%#al &ee!i(es s*!h as E&+ar Alla# P%e's C. A*+*se D*$i#) A+aha Chrisies's
Her!*le P%ir%) a#& Sir Arh*r C%#a# D%,le's Sherl%!1 H%l"es /Bla*) 6774 Ca"$bell) 67=94Ca#er) :;;;4 M!Ca##) 677:4 M*ller) :;;;0. The $r%fili#+ fa#as, is als% he res*l %f %*r#al3iss h% rie ab%* $r%filers ih ",si!al $%ers %f &e&*!i%#) hereb, i#!reasi#+ he $*bli!'s belief i# he (ali&i, %f a# *#$r%(e# i#(esi+ai(e "eh%& /Alis%# 5 Ca#er) 67770.
CONCLUSION
There is a +r%i#+ belief ha $r%filers !a# a!!*rael, a#& !%#sise#l, $re&i! a !ri"i3#al's !hara!erisi!s base& %# !ri"e s!e#e e(i&e#!e. This i#!rease& belief is e(i&e# fr%"he fa! ha CP is be!%"i#+ $re(ale# as a# i#(esi+ai(e e!h#i2*e) ha $%sii(e %$i#i%#s%f CP are bei#+ !%""*#i!ae& i# $*blishe& liera*re) a#& ha $%li!e %ffi!ers a#& "e#alhealh $r%fessi%#als s*$$%r he *se %f CP. >e !%#e#& ha his belief is ill*s%r, be!a*se a!rii!al a#al,sis %f resear!h %# CP sh%e& ha he fiel& la!1s he%rei!al +r%*#&i#+ a#&e"$iri!al s*$$%r. >e $r%$%se& ha belief i# s*!h a $se*&%s!ie#ifi! $ra!i!e is &*e % a#i#era!i%# beee# he "essa+e a#& he "i#&ha is) he i#era!i%# beee# he i#f%r3"ai%# ha $e%$le re!ei(e ab%* CP a#& he a, he, $r%!ess ha i#f%r"ai%#.
As CP has he $%e#ial % "islea& !ri"i#al i#(esi+a%rs) a#& hereb, eiher hi#&er he
a$$rehe#si%# %f +*il, !ri"i#als %r lea& % r%#+f*l !%#(i!i%#s) i is a $ra!i!e ha "*s be a$$r%a!he& !rii!all,. @ari%*s i#f%r"ai%# s%*r!es $rese# fi!i%#al %r #%#fi!i%#ala#e!3&%es i#(%l(i#+ he i#(al*able hel$ %f e-$er $r%filers i# s%l(i#+ seri%*s !ases. Thee-$er $r%filers *se $%s h%! a#al,sis %f a"bi+*%*s $re&i!i%#s % !reae he i"$ressi%#ha he, re&*!e& a &ee!i(e's *#!erai#, ab%* h% % $r%!ee& ih a# i#(esi+ai%# b, $r%(i&i#+ a si"$le s%l*i%# % a !%"$le- !ase. This has he $%e#ial %f +e#erai#+ arelia#!e %# a $r%!ess ha &%es #% a&(a#!e a# i#(esi+ai%#.
The belief ha CP %r1s is r%*bli#+ be!a*se %f he "ea+er s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e % s*$3 $%r he $ra!i!e. Ne(erheless) e a+ree ih Lilie#fel& /:;;0 ha here are a leas hree
reas%#s f%r resear!hers % !%#&*! $r%$er s!ie#ifi! e(al*ai%#s %f $ra!i!es ha !*rre#l,la!1 s!ie#ifi! s*$$%r. irs) CP "a, a!*all, %r1. As Lilie#fel& has ar+*e&) e-ra%r&i3#ar, !lai"s "a, be sh%# % !%#ai# a !%re %f r*h ha sh%*l& #% be a*%"ai!all, &is3"isse&. I# %*r %$i#i%#) he b*r&e# is %# $r%filers) h% "a1e e-ra%r&i#ar, !lai"s ab%*heir abiliies) % $r%(e heir %rh b, a!*all, $ari!i$ai#+ i# !%#r%lle& e-$eri"e#als*&3ies. Se!%#&) $e%$le &eser(e % ha(e a# a!!*rae (ie %f CP. C%#&*!i#+ a#&&isse"i#ai#+ s!ie#ifi! resear!h is he bes "eh%& % e#s*re ha his %!!*rs. Thir&) heeffe! %f CP %# $%li!e i#(esi+ai%#s is *#1#%#. Resear!h ill be able % &eer"i#e heseeffe!s) heher $%sii(e %r #e+ai(e. >e a#i!i$ae ha $%li!e %ffi!ers "i+h ar+*e hahe, &% #% ha(e i"e % ai f%r s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e fr%" CP resear!h be!a*se he, ha(e% *se s%"ehi#+ % assis he" i# heir i#(esi+ai%#s. S*!h a res$%#se is *sifie&) b*)a!!%r&i#+ % Lilie#fel&) i is li1el, % !a*se e#si%# beee# h%se h% are s1e$i!al ab%*CP a#& h%se h% belie(e ha CP !a# !%#rib*e % a# i#(esi+ai%#.
M%re ha# ; ,ears %f CP $ra!i!e ha(e $asse& ih%* "*!h ri+%r%*s s!ie#ifi! e(al*3ai%#.>e !%#e#& ha i is #% i"e % re"%(e he shr%*& %f se!re!, i# he CP fiel&) e(al3*ae i)
a#& $* he b*r&e# ba!1 %# $r%filers % $r%(e heir %rh. >e e-$l%re& he CP
ill*si%# ih he i#e#i%# %f $r%(i&i#+ a #a*ral e-$la#ai%# f%r a belief ha la!1s s!ie#3ifi! s*$$%r. The #e- l%+i!al se$ is % es he (ari%*s !lai"s ha e ha(e "a&e i# hisari!le. All !*rre#l, *#!%rr%b%rae& sae"e#s e ha(e "a&e are esable a#& falsifiable b, s!ie#ifi! resear!h. U#il his %!!*rs) e a&(%!ae ha rea&ers a$$r%a!h CP) a#& e(e#
%*r ari!le) ih a !rii!al "i#&.
NOTES
Alh%*+h he s!%$e %f !ri"i#al $r%fili#+ /CP0 $ra!i!e #% +%es be,%#& his %ri+i#al &efi#ii%# % i#!l*&e a&(i!e %#i#er(ie srae+ies) "e&ia srae+ies) $ri%rii<i#+ res%*r!es) sae"e# a#al,sis) a#& s% %#) e belie(e ha $re&i!i#+%ffe#&er !hara!erisi!s re"ai#s he $ri"ar, +%al %f CP. All %f his a&&ii%#al a&(i!e is &e$e#&e# %# he ,$e %f $ers%# hahe $r%3filer belie(es !%""ie& he !ri"e. S%"e CP a&(%!aes ill #% &%*b ar+*e ha here are #eer a$$r%a!hes % $r%fili#+ ha are base& %# e"$iri!al s!ie#!e /%r ha he fiel& has "%(e& %#0. H%e(er) resear!h &e"%#srai#+ h% hese#e a$$r%a!hes are s*$eri%r % e-isi#+ $r%fili#+ "eh%&s) %r &aa ill*srai#+ heir i"$r%(e& $re&i!i(e (ali&i,) is#%#e-ise# /see Hi!1s 5 Sales) :;;9) f%r a si"ilar (ie0. Alh%*+h s%"e "a, !%#si&er +e%+ra$hi! $r%fili#+ as a# i#e+ral $ar %f !ri"i#al $r%fili#+) i is be,%#& he s!%$e %f he !*rre# ari!le.
These % ,$es are #% #e!essaril, "**all, e-!l*si(e.
Alh%*+h !re&i "*s be +i(e# % Ri!har& K%!sis f%r !%lle!i#+ &aa ha are s*iable f%r a "ea3a#al,sis) ha resear!h /e.+.)K%!sis) :;;b) :;;b4 K%!sis) Ha,es) 5 Iri#) :;;:4 K%!sis) Iri#) Ha,es) 5 N*##) :;;;0 has bee# !rii!i<e& f%r a ra#+e%f "eh%&%l%+i!al a#& !%#!e$*al li"iai%#s s*!h as he *se %f "*li$le !h%i!e 2*esi%##aires) (ariai%# i# he le#+h %fi"e +i(e# % $ari!i$a#s % !%"$lee he e-$eri"e#) a#& a++re+ai#+ &aa % fa(%r he e-$eri"e#al +r%*$ /see Be##ell)J%#es) Ta,l%r) 5 S#%%1) :;;90.
There is a# e-isi#+ re+*la%r, b%&,) he I#er#ai%#al Cri"i#al I#(esi+ai(e A#al,sis ell%shi$ /ICIA0) hi!h rai#s a#&a!!re&is $r%filers. H%e(er) his %r+a#i<ai%# has ,e % +ai# i&es$rea& a!!e$a#!e ihi# he $r%fili#+ a#& resear!h!%""*#iies.
Alis%#) L. J.) Be##ell) C.) M%1r%s) A.) 5 Or"er%&) D. /:;;:0. The $ers%#ali, $ara&%- i# %ffe#&er $r%fili#+ A he%rei!alre(ie %f he $r%!esses i#(%l(e& i# &eri(i#+ ba!1+r%*#& !hara!erisi!s fr%" !ri"e s!e#e a!i%#s. (sycholo#y' (u$lic (olicy' and Law' 7) 6636.
Alis%#) L. J.) 5 Ca#er) D. @. /67770. Pr%fessi%#al) le+al) a#& ehi!al iss*es i# %ffe#&er $r%fili#+. I# D. @. Ca#er 5 L. J.Alis%# /E&s.0) (rofilin# in olicy and ractice /$$. :630. Al&ersh%) UK Ash+ae.
Alis%#) L. J.) S"ih) M. D.) Eas"a#) O.) 5 Rai#b%) L. /:;;0. T%*l"i#'s $hil%s%$h, %f ar+*"e# a#& is rele(a#!e %%ffe#&er $r%fili#+. (sycholo#y' Crime and Law' 0) 6=368.
Alis%#) L. J.) S"ih) M. D.) 5 M%r+a#) K. /:;;0. I#er$rei#+ he a!!*ra!, %f %ffe#&er $r%files. (sycholo#y' Crime and
Law' 0) 68367.
A#&res) D. A.) 5 B%#a) J. /:;;90. (sycholo#y of criminal conduct . Ci#!i##ai) OH A#&ers%#.
A#&res) D. A.) B%#a) J.) 5 >%r"ih) J. S. /:;;90. The re!e# $as a#& #ear f**re %f ris1 a#&%r #ee& assess"e#. Crime
8 )elin9uency' :;) =3:=.
s+ar&) U. /67780. Se&ish e-$erie#!es i# %ffe#&er $r%fili#+ a#& e(al*ai%# %f s%"e as$e!s %f a !ase %f "*r&er a#& ab&*!3i%# i# Ger"a#,. I# Case A#al,sis U#i /BKA0) Method of case analysis3 ,n international symosium /$$. 6:36;0.>eisba&e#) Ger"a#, B*#&es1ri"i#ala" Kri"i#alisis!hes I#si*.
A*l) R. L.) Jr.) 5 Reese) J. T. /678;0. A $s,!h%l%+i!al assess"e# %f !ri"e $r%fili#+. +BI Law %nforcement Bulletin' <0) ::3
:. Ba&!%!1) R. /677=0. De(el%$"e#al a#& !li#i!al iss*es i# relai%# % %ffe#&i#+ i# he i#&i(i&*al. I# J. L. Ja!1s%# 5
D. B. Be1eria# /E&s.0) =ffender rofilin#3 5heory' research' and ractice /$$. 73:0. Chi!heser) UK >ile,.
Ba11er) A. B.) 5 S!ha*feli) >. B. /:;;;0. B*r#%* !%#a+i%# $r%!esses a"%#+ ea!hers. Journal of ,lied Social (sycholo#y' .>) ::873:;8.
Bar%l) C. R. /67790. P%li!e $s,!h%l%+, The#) #%) a#& be,%#&. Criminal Justice and Behavior' ;.) =;387.
Bae"a#) A. L.) 5 Salfai) C. G. /:;;=0. A# e-a"i#ai%# %f beha(i%ral !%#sise#!, *si#+ i#&i(i&*al beha(i%rs %r +r%*$s %f beha(i%rs i# serial h%"i!i&e. Behavioral Sciences 8 the Law' ;:) :=3.
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>i1i#) G. /6779) A$ril ::0. H% he BI $ai#s $%rrais %f he #ai%#s "%s a#e&. U!S! News 8 World &eort' -;>) :.>%%&ha"s) J.) 5 T%,e) K. /:;;=0. A# e"$iri!al es %f he ass*"$i%#s %f !ase li#1a+e a#& %ffe#&er $r%fili#+ ih serial
!%""er!ial r%bberies. (sycholo#y' (u$lic (olicy' and Law' -.) 38.
Bent Snook ) PhD) is a# assisa# $r%fess%r i# he De$ar"e# %f Ps,!h%l%+, a#& &ire!%r %f he B%*#&e& Rai%#ali, a#&
he La Lab%ra%r, a Me"%rial U#i(ersi, %f Nef%*#&la#&. His resear!h i#(%l(es he s*&, %f b%*#&e& rai%#ali, a#&he la. He als% resear!hes he *se a#& "is*se %f $s,!h%l%+i!all, base& i#(esi+ai(e $ra!i!es) +e%+ra$hi!al $r%fili#+)%ffe#&er s$aial &e!isi%# "a1i#+) a#& $se*&%s!ie#!e i# he !ri"i#al *si!e s,se".
Ri)had M* C+,,en is i# he fi#al se"eser %f his MS! a#& a "e"ber %f he B%*#&e& Rai%#ali, a#& La Lab%ra%r, a Me"%rial U#i(ersi,. I# a&&ii%# % he e(al*ai%# %f !ri"i#al $r%fili#+) his resear!h has f%!*se& lar+el, %# he rai%#ali,&ebae a#& is !%#se2*e#!es f%r le+al &e!isi%# "a1i#+. His hesis i#(%l(es a# e-a"i#ai%# %f he ass*"$i%# ha he fiel&%f s%!ial $s,!h%l%+, has $ai#e& a# *#fa(%rable $i!*re %f h*"a# rai%#ali,.
Cai- Benne,,) Ph&) is a# ass%!iae $r%fess%r i# he De$ar"e# %f Ps,!h%l%+, a Carle%# U#i(ersi,) Ca#a&a) here heals% a!s as &ire!%r %f he P%li!e Resear!h Lab. His resear!h i#eress i#!l*&e he e-a"i#ai%# %f $s,!h%l%+i!all, base&i#(esi+a3i(e e!h#i2*es) s*!h as !ri"i#al a#& +e%+ra$hi! $r%fili#+) he *ili, %f si+#al &ee!i%# "%&els f%r i"$r%(i#+ $%li!e &e!i3si%# "a1i#+) a#& he a$$li!ai%# %f !%+#ii(e l%a& he%r, % $%li!e rai#i#+.
Pa+, .* Ta/,o0 PhD) is a se#i%r le!*rer i# f%re#si! $s,!h%l%+, a La#!aser U#i(ersi,) U#ie& Ki#+&%") here he &ire!s heDe$ar"e# %f Ps,!h%l%+,'s $%s+ra&*aes i# i#(esi+ai(e e-$erise. His resear!h e-a"i#es se#se "a1i#+ a#& srae+i! !h%i!e i#!risis e#(ir%#"e#s) $ari!*larl, i# relai%# % #e+%iai%#) here he a#& his !%llab%ra%rs ha(e a&&resse& iss*es s*!h as "essa+efra"i#+ a#& effe!i(e $ers*asi%# a!r%ss !*l*res. M%re &eails a$$ear a h$.la#!s.a!.*1saffa,l%r$
Pa+, Gendea+0 OC) PhD) is a $r%fess%r e"eri*s a U#i(ersi, %f Ne Br*#si!1) Sai# J%h#) Ca#a&a) a#& a (isii#+
s!h%lar) Di(isi%# %f Cri"i#al J*si!e) U#i(ersi, %f Ci#!i##ai) Ohi%. His resear!h i#(%l(es he $re&i!i%# a#& rea"e# %f!ri"i#al beha(i%r) he effe!s %f $ris%# life) "ea3a#al,i! iss*es) a#& he assess"e# %f effe! si<es.
Criminal Justice and Behavior CJBD is $lease& % %ffer he %$$%r*#i, % ear# !%#i#*i#+ e&*!ai%# !re&is %#li#e f%r hisari!le. Please f%ll% he a!!ess i#sr*!i%#s bel%. The !%s is 7 $er *#i) a#& a !re&i !ar& #*"ber is re2*ire& f%r $a,"e#.
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If ,%* are #% a "e"ber %f he IACP a#& ,%*r i#si*i%# &%es #% s*bs!ribe % CJB) i#&i(i&*al ari!les /a#& !%rres$%#&i#+es li#1s ihi# he ari!les0 are a(ailable %# a $a,3$er3(ie basis b, (isii#+ h$!b.sa+e$*b.!%". H%e(er) "e"bershi$i# he IACP $r%(i&es ,%* ih *#li"ie& a!!ess % CJB a#& "a#, a&&ii%#al "e"bershi$ be#efis Lear# "%re ab%*
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