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CroCodiles:
Guardians of the Gateways
Salima Ikram
I am a crocodile immersed in dread,1 I am a crocodile who takes
by robbery, I am the
great and mighty ish-like being who is in the Bitter Lakes, I am
the Lord of those who bow down in Letopolis .
Book of Going Forth by Day, Chapter 88
If one visits the famous Caf el-Fishawy in Cairo, one might
notice, among the more conventional objects of interior decoration
such as mirrors and chandeliers, a large
stuffed crocodile suspended over the doorway.2 This is not a
unique phenomenon:
there are other houses in Cairo and many more in Upper Egypt,
especially between Aswan and
Luxor, that boast crocodiles over their doors, or above the
entrance to a hara, or neighborhood.
In Cairo, the builders of a nineteenth century house even went
so far as to carve a limestone
crocodile into the lintel over the main entrance.3
These crocodiles (from kroke meaning pebble and drilos meaning
worm, describing the
animals skin), both real and imitation, are intended to have an
apotropaic function: placed
above the door they avert the evil eye and safeguard the houses
residents. They are also
believed to attract wealth and good luck (Ikram 1999). Now, with
the dearth of crocodiles below the Aswan Dam, Nile Monitors (varun
or Varanus niloticus, amphibious lizards) have
taken the place of the former. The custom of using crocodiles
(or now varuns) as guardians
of the doorway appears to be unique to Egypt.4 Is it possible
that this practice of placing a
1 Oneofmyirstclasses I tookwithKentWeekswhen Iwasagraduate
studentwasaboutanimalsand the rolethey played in Egyptian
iconography. I affectionately offer this article on a possible
interpretation of an ancient
EgyptiantraditionthathasmetamorphosedandcontinuestolourishinmodernEgypttoKentinmemoryofthatclass,fromthestudentWhoJustWouldNotGoAway.Someoftheresearchforthisarticlewascarriedoutonoff-daysfromworkatKV5,andproitedgreatlyfromlivelydiscussionswithSusanaboutthemeaningof"over-doorornaments".
2 The crocodile has been moved inside in 2007, but sometimes is
exhibited outside still.
3
ThehouseislocatedatNumber5,DarbelTablawy,intheGamaliyyadistrictofCairo.ItwaskindlybroughttomyattentionbyN.WarnerwhomIwouldliketothankforbringingthisandtheHeliopolitanobeliskstorytomyattention.N.WalschaertsandY.el-Shazlyassistedmewithresearchonthisarticle,andIamgratefultothemboth.4
ThisauthorhasnotfoundthispracticeinothercountriesoftheNearEast,andonlyafewexamplesfromtheSudan,alargepartofwhichwasgreatlyinluencedbyancientEgyptiancustomsandculture.
85
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S. Ikram
CASAE 42
crocodile above the door has its roots in ancient Egyptian
beliefs and traditions? And if so, what
other ancient Egyptian vestiges can be found in the role of
crocodiles in modern Egypt? One
obvious correlation is the modern Egyptian word for the
crocodile itself: the Arabic timsaah is
derived from the ancient Egyptian ms, or at least from the same
root.The Nile Crocodile, Crocodilis niloticus, is indigenous to the
Nile River and has been found
throughout theNileValleyfromprehistoric timesuntil
thenineteenthcentury. Thisanimalwas socloselyassociatedwithEgypt,
that in theRomanPeriodcrocodilesanddate-palms,generally represented
together, but occasionally separately, were used as the symbol for
Egypt,5 just as theShe-Wolf symbolizedRome. Thenumbers of
crocodiles in theDelta started todecrease in the 1700s, and, by the
end of the 1800s, their numbers had been seriously reduced
by hunting and the press of humanity. The crocodile population
was then concentrated in
Upper Egypt from the area of Luxor south. A traveler who visited
Egypt in the 1790s reports:
"itwassaidthatthecrocodileshadakingwhoresidesnearEsna.Hehasearsbutnotail,anddoesnoharm"(Browne
1799: 140). The last crocodile sighting to be reported in the Delta
wasin1753,althoughsmallspecimenswerefoundinandaboveCairothroughthenineteenthcentury
(anderson 1898: 11-12). Apparently itwas believed by "the country
people...that[crocodiles do not go north beyond Cairo] due to the
Nilometer which, they believe, contains
a talisman. Theactual reason is thevastboat-trafic" (antes 1800:
46). According to the
Egyptians,theareaofCairowasprotectedagainstcrocodilesinavarietyofways.IbnJubayrmentions
that the Giza plateau was adorned by marble crocodiles, which
served to protect the
banks of the Nile for three miles above and below them
(Broadhurst1951:7),whileinthetenth century, according to the
traveler al-Muqaddisi, it was believed that obelisks erectedaround
Cairo served an apotropaic purpose and were inscribed with spells
against crocodiles
(Bachre 1969: 11).The last large crocodiles were hunted in Aswan
in the 1890s, before they started their retreat
tobelowthecataracts,coincidentwiththeconstructionoftheirstAswanDam.In1891thestuffed
skin of a crocodile used to hang over the door of the quarters of
one of the British
oficers inAswan (anderson 1898: 12). Occasional rare crocodile
sightings above Aswan
havebeenreportedasrecentlyasAugust,1960,whenaivemetrelongcrocodilewascapturedat
Asyut.6However,withtheconstructionoftheAswanHighDaminthe1960sthecrocodilepopulation
was restricted to Lake Nasser and areas further south, where they
now proliferate.
Crocodiles are one of the oldest vertebrates found on this
planet. They are covered with a
thick scaly armor that has, in modern times, been coveted for
shoes, handbags, and luggage.
Their length varies from 22 centimetres (newborns) up to 6
metres; their weight depends on
their size and diet, and can vary between 272 to 910 kilograms
(Grenard 1991). Males are largerthanfemales.
Thefemalealwaysmanagestobuildanestforhereggs,some3x2.55 Mosaics and
paintings of this period frequently employ this combination when
alluding to Egypt, as can be seen in
theNiloticmosaicintheTempleofFortunaatPalestrina,datingtotheirstcenturyBC.ThiscontinuesintheCopticandByzantinePeriods,with
thecrocodileanddate-palmsymbolisingEgyptand theNile
(e.g.CopticMuseum,
Cairo 7211).
6
ThisincidentwaskindlyrelatedtomebyS.KoraieminMarch2000;hewaswitnesstothecaptureofthebeast.
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metres in area
(alderton1998:81,85),7safelyabovetheloodzone,anaccomplishmentthatwas
frequently remarked on in antiquity (saId 1973;
PlInyVIII.xxxvii;Brunner-traut 1980:
791-801).BecauseofthistheancientEgyptians,aswellastheGreeksandRomans(PlInyVIII:xxxvii),
thought that crocodiles could magically foretell the height of the
inundation. It takes
thirty minutes for the mother to lay her eggs in the nest, after
which she moves away to guard
them closely. Crocodile egg clutches vary in number from
eighteen to eighty eggs, thereby
givingrisetotheideaofthecrocodilesfertility.Thelengthofacrocodilespenis--nearlyuptoametre--alsosupportstheideaofthecrocodilebeinganexceptionallyvirile/fertileanimal.Perhaps
theanimals" fertilitygave rise to thebelief
thatcrocodilesplacedabovedoorwaysbring wealth to a home. In
Utterance 317 of the Pyramid Texts (Faulkner1969:99),theKingturns
into a crocodile and steals wives: a tribute to the animals great
sexual potency. Crocodile
eggs take between two to three months to hatch during which time
they are prey to hyena,
mongoose, and the Nile monitor (alderton 1998: 82). This is
ironic, as the Nile monitor, in manycontemporary folk-beliefs has
replaced the crocodiledue to the formers availability.Once hatched
the infant crocodiles rest on the back of their mother for parts of
the day, safe
fromcatish,otters, turtles, andNilemonitors. Amummiiedcrocodile,
probably from theFayum, now in the British Museum, had its (rather
large) babies placed on its back, just as in
life(EA38562);indeed,severalexamplesofcrocodileswithyoungontheirbackcomefromthe
Fayum
(BaGnanI1952).Inothercases,crocodilesgentlyplacetheiryoungintheirmouthandtransportthemthusforsafety;amummiiedcrocodilenowintheEgyptianMuseumwasfound
with babies in its mouth (CG 29628).
TheNilecrocodilecanliveuptoiftyyearsofageormore(alderton1998:50);somecrocodiles
have lived to 110 years in captivity. Generally these reptiles are
slow moving and
spendagreatdealoftimelyingimmobileonasandbankorsemi-submergedinrivers.Theyoften
spend the night in the water, and clamber up to a sandbank with the
rising of the sun,
where they bask with their mouth open, only to submerge
themselves again at nightfall. This
habit led to their becoming associated with the sun god by the
ancient Egyptians. Aspects of
theirphysicalappearancemightalsohavecontributedtotheidentiicationofthecrocodilewiththesun:thearmor,orupper-skinofcrocodilesismadeupofscutesorosteodermsthat
trapheat, and look like dotted sun bursts around a central ridge;
the spikes on their tails are also
slightly reminiscent of sun rays; the crocodiles yellow eyes
shine brightly at night, providing
tiny suns in the dark; and the sunlight playing upon crocodile
scales as it basks often shimmers
and imparts a golden hue to the animal, further emphasizing its
solar nature. Also, when these
animals emerges from the water they open their mouth to the sun
in order to help regulate their
temperatureno doubt the gaping reddish maw of the animal,
delineated by sharp, pointy teeth
7
Eggstakeabout85daystohatchandtherearegenerallyanequalorsemi-equalratioofmalestofemales.Acuriousfeatureofcrocodileeggsisthatthetemperaturecaninluencethesexofthebaby:eggsthathavebeenkeptat32Cdegrees
or more tend to be male
(lynne2006:51).Sexualmaturityisreachedataboutthreeyearswhentheanimalsmeasure
an average of two metres (lynne 2006: 201). Many votive crocodile
mummies are of approximately this length or less; presumably they
were culled prior to arriving at sexual maturity as they are less
biddable (and larger)
thereafter.
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S. Ikram
CASAE 42
were reminiscent of the sun and its rays. Perhaps the reason
that the word kmm, or darkness uses the hieroglyph sign of a
fragment of crocodile skin alludes not only to the dark hue of
the
crocodiles hide, but also to the time that these animals spend
in the dark and murky depths
of the Nile. Despite their deceptive sloth, crocodiles can
gallop up to 18 kph in short bursts
when chasing their prey (alderton 1998: 66). Crocodiles have
excellent night vision, as well as good day vision, both above and
below water, as, when underwater, the crocodiles eyes are
protected by transparent nictating membranes, or second eyelids
(alderton1998:55).Theyalsoenjoyakeensenseofsmellandacutehearing(theirearsarecoveredbylapswhentheanimal
is submerged), all of which help them to hunt successfully.
Crocodilesenjoyawell-deservedreputationforferocity.Theyareequippedwithainesetofteeth(64-68teethintotal)thatarereplacedthroughouttheirlifetime.Theteethareverystrong
and sharp, and at the tip of the snout they interlock, permitting
the animal to grasp its
preywithfatalconsequences:"Alargecrocodilecanexertacrushingforceequivalentto13tonnes"(alderton1998:56).Thecrocodiledispatchesitspreybyseizingitirmlywithitssharpteeth,andthenplungingdeepintothewatertodrownit.Whenfeeding,crocodilesclampontoalargepieceoftheirvictimslesh,and,iftheycannotpullitoffthecorpseimmediately,spinaroundrapidly,untilthemeatbreaksawayfromthebody.Crocodilesdonotchewlesh;they
swallow it whole. Luckily for their victims, crocodiles do not need
to eat too regularly.
They can survive for several months without regular feeding
(some have been reported to
survive for almost two years between meals) as they can live off
their body fat, which is stored
in their tail.
Mammals form the mainstay of the crocodilian diet, with reptiles
and ish
following.Crocodileseatbuffalo,antelopes,ish,birdsandhumanswithpleasure.EvennowthereareoccasionalreportsofcrocodileskillingchildrenandadultishermenintheareasouthoftheHighDam.ItisinterestingtonotethatinlaterperiodsofEgyptianhistory,peoplewhohadbeeneatenorattackedbycrocodilesachievedasemi-divinestatus(Brunner-traut1980:791-801;
lloyd 1976, 1988: 307ff). The reasons for this are unclear; perhaps
it has something to do with the crocodiles association with a solar
divinity, or perhaps because the crocodile was
a sacred animal in certain areas of Egypt?
Crocodiles hunt solo and in groups, particularly if the kill is
large. They patiently lie in wait
for their prey in the water, and then silently ambush them,
pulling them into the water to drown.
The crocodiles strength and skill in hunting was often remarked
upon in ancient Egypt. They
arecommonlydepictedontombwallsoftheOldKingdomastheylieinwaitforunsuspectingcattleaSethianformofthecrocodile(harPur1987:igs.68,189,190,192,193,211).ThemajorityofthesescenesarefoundintheMemphitecemeteriesoftheFifthandSixthDynasty,andareespeciallywellillustratedintheSixthDynastytombsoftheTeticemetery.Herdsmenholdouttheirhandswiththeforeingerextendedandproclaimspellstowardoffthesebeasts.ThetombofAnkhmahoratSaqqaracontainssuchaspell:"Othisherdsman,live,yourfaceagainst
that aquatic (crocodile) that is on the water so that these ones do
not go to that aquatic
(crocodile),hebeingasablindofhead.Liethyfaceagainsthimverymuch".Thecaptionin
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frontoftherearboatprovidesthetitleforthescene,"khesef
meseh",orrepellingthecrocodile(rItner1993:227-30;Badawy 1978: 17).
In the tomb of Ti, the inscription is more explicit and reads
"toward off death" (rItner 1993: 227). Spells for repelling
crocodiles are alsofound inmagical andotherpapyri
(e.g.BMEA9997,BMEA10059andBMEA10042),including theBookof theDead
(e.g.Spells31,32),and theCofinTexts (Spells586,424,342). A
particularly evocative example of Chapter 31 of the Book of the
Dead: Repulsing
the crocodile which comes to carry away the magical spells from
a man in the Underworld, is
accompanied 1610by a vignette featuring a man brandishing a
knife in front of three crocodiles
(P. BM EA10471, Book of the Dead of Nakht). The power of the
crocodile is so strong that in
thespellitisnotmentionedbyname,and"aquatic"isdeterminedbyareed.Clearlythisgreatbeast
was feared.
Even in the Coptic era there are tales of how the power of faith
and divine intervention saved
people from ravening crocodiles. Abba Bes (a particularly
appropriate name for a conqueror
of such creatures) rid his area of ravaging crocodiles and
hippopotami through prayer (russell 1980: 66), while other monks
managed to save themselves from attacking crocodiles through
prayerandfaith(Ward 1975: 46;
reGnault1985:1046,1294,1610).Nodoubtstoriesofthedefeat of
crocodiles at the hands of the faithful continued on throughout the
19th century.8
The only other riverine animal that can challenge the crocodile
is the hippopotamus
(Hippopotamus
amphibius).Generallythesetworiverinepowersco-existrelativelypeacefully.However,
this peacemay be shatteredwhen cows have recently calved and the
crocodilesattempt to seize the newborn calves (e.g. in the tomb of
Idut at Saqqara). The mothers,equipped with enormous canine teeth
that can crush a crocodile and kill it, may retaliate. This
isillustratedinseveralMemphitetombreliefsdatingtotheOldKingdom,mostnotablyinthetombsofMereruka,Kagemni,Ti,andMekhu.
As they were so much a part of the environment and frequently a
threat to the dwellers
oftheNileValley,crocodileshaveplayedasigniicantroleinthecultureofEgyptfromtheearliest
times. Crocodile bones have been found in the middens of
Predynastic settlements
of Merimde, Omari, and Maadi (Boessneck 1988: 109), indicating
that they were a source of
foodfortheearlydwellersoftheNileValley.Herodotus,theifthcenturyBCIonianhistorian,alsoclaimed
that the inhabitantsofElephantineate theleshofcrocodiles
(II:69),whileJ.Anderson,thenaturalist,reportsthattheywereeatenbytheSudaneseandcertainAfricantribesmainly
for their aphrodisiacal properties (1898: 18).
Crocodiles, or parts thereof, were also commonly used in ancient
Egyptian medicines, and
arestillused insomefolk-medicines today. For
legpains,crampsandstiffnessP.Ram.Vlists crocodile oil as a curative
ingredient; crocodile oil and fat is also recommended for pains
andstiffnessinotherpartsofthebody(P.RamesseumV,andEbers656[BardInet1995:472-73]).
It is also suggested that, when crocodile fat is rubbed into the
scalp of a bald or balding
person,thehairwillbeencouragedtogrow(Eb.465[BardInet1995:318]).Crocodiledungwas
used as part of the cure for river blindness, caused by the
parasitic roundworm Onchocerca
8 I am grateful to R. Bagnall and E. Bolman who assisted greatly
in my quest for these references.
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S. Ikram
CASAE 42
(Eb. 344 and others
[BardInet1995:304]).Thereferencestocrocodilesinwardingspellsas:blind
one, or requests that it be blind in order to protect the herds and
men that were crossing
might be related to this belief. Crocodile dung was also used to
test pregnancy in women (P.
Ram.IV,C,Kahun21[BardInet1995:441,444]). Burning dung was also
used to fumigate men, and crocodile blood was used possibly as a
remedy for snakebite (P. Brooklyn, Remedy
90c
[BardInet1995:418;543]).ThehealersoftheGraeco-Romanperiodadoptedmanyofthese
ancient Egyptian cures, and added to them. Pliny writes that
crocodile teeth worn on the
right arm act as amulets; that fever patients or those with
pains in their joints should be rubbed
with crocodile fat; the ashes created from burning crocodile
skin mixed with vinegar have an
anaesthetizing effect; crocodile blood when boiled is a cure for
a chronic cough, lumbago,
and sciatica (PlInyBookXXVIII:107-113).
Crocodilescouldcertainlyactasguardiansofpeoples health.
The image of the crocodile was also used in a peculiar way in
healing practices during the
laterperiodsofEgyptianhistory(DynastyXXVItotheirstcenturyADorlater,withafewexamplesdatingasearlyasDynastyXVIII(rItner
1993: 106; rItner 1989; Jacquet-Gordon 1965-1966: 54-64;kakosy
1999). The stelae of Horus-on-the-Crocodiles, also known
ascippi,showHorus,carvedinveryhighrelief,facingforward,andstandingonthebackoftwocrocodiles,thusshowinghisdominanceovertheseiercecreatures.Ineitherhandhegrasps(andsometimes
throttles or inverts, thus emphasizing his power over them) a
mixture of dangerous
animalsincludinglions,oryx,scorpionsandsnakes.HisheadissurmountedbyanapotropaicBes
head, and other protective divinities. The top, sides, and back of
this stela are covered with
incised inscriptions that are cures for stings and bites from
all the animals featured on the stela.
These stelae could safeguard the donor after their dedication.
They could also play a part in a
ritual where liquid, poured over the stela to absorb the magic
from the spells and images carved
upon it, was consumed,9 which conferred magical protection to
the drinker against attacks by
the various vicious animals that are shown on the stela. A
variant on this theme can be seen on
apectoralintheHildesheimPelizaeusMuseum(No.5922).ThepectoralshowsthegodShedinashrine,witharrowsinaquiver.Heholdsantelopes,gazelles,andsnakes,andstandsontwocrocodilesinthesamemannerasHorus-on-the-crocodiles.Presumablythewearerofthispiecewould
be protected from all these potentially harmful animals, most of
all the crocodile.
CrocodilescontinuedaspartofthemateriamedicainArabtimes.Inal-BirunisBook
on Pharmacy and Materia Medica, crocodile fat is used in
conjunction with poppy seeds against
the bites of venomous animals, the faeces are used to help
cataracts and other eye diseases, and
the kidneys are considered aphrodisiacs (saId 1973: 93). The use
of crocodile dung for eye
diseasesdeinitelyappearstostemfromancientEgyptianpractices.ThethirteenthcenturyArabdoctor,al-Bahdadi,basinghisresearchonthatofAristotle,wrote,theliverofthecrocodilefurnishes
a powerful aphrodisiac: but its kidneys and its fat which they
recover produce the
same effect with more energy. Iron will not pierce its skin.
From its cervical vertebrae to the
9 The modern Egyptian tasset el khadda work on this
principle.
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tail is only a single bone: for this reason, when it is reversed
on its back it cannot return by
itself (al-BaGhdadI 1204/1964:93).Even today attarin
(herbalists) and magicians use crocodiles and their by-products
in
remediesandincantations. In1934J.
WalkerpublishedabookonEgyptianfolkmedicinein which he listed the
following uses for crocodiles: the nails were burnt with incense
for
blackmagic,thepaws/feetandentireanimalwereregardedasapotropaicamulets,theskinwassometimes
used for writing spells upon, certain bones and hunks of skin were
used as amulets
in Nubia, and the penis was used, in a powdered form, for
virility. Interviews conducted with
the
attarininMayof1999indicatedthatmanyoftheuseslistedbyWalkercontinuetoday.10
Crocodile fat is used for rheumatism and other joint pains, just as
it was in ancient Egypt. The
animals claws are sometimes still used in black magic, as are
its teeth. Portions of, or entire
pawsandskinareusedasprotectiveamuletsinNubiaandSudan.Similarly,inMadagascar,theMerina
people wear charms (mohara) made from crocodile teeth (real or
modeled) that protect
them from crocodiles, or express and transfer the power of the
animal to the wearer and the
Thonga tribe in Zululand uses crocodile fat in medicines,
particularly apotropaic concoctions
that are meant to guard against lightning as well as more
general types of illness (lynne 2006:
50).Thewholeanimalplacedoverthedoorwayguardsahouse.Clawsaremixedwithincense,andonacertainWednesday(thedayofEvil),atacertainhour,withacertaincombinationofstars,canbeusedtosummonupthekingoftheJinnswhowillgrantoneseverywish.Somepeopleinterviewedthoughtthatcrocodileteethcanalsobeusedforthisspell.Anunspeciiedbone
in the left hind leg is also used to write spells upon as it is
supposed to be particularly
powerful.
The most prized and frequently utilised portion of a crocodile
is its penis that is ground up
andmixedwithhoney(10ggroundmemberto0.5kghoney).Thisremedyistakenregularlyover
a prescribed period of time (this varies depending upon the doctor
and the case) to make
a man virile. In fact, a certain brand of honey on sale in Egypt
today sports a crocodile on its
label.CertainlytheancientEgyptiansassociatedthecrocodilewithvirility,andcalledSobek,lord
of semen (BrovarskI 1984: 998). Thus the importance of crocodiles
in folk medicine and belief continues today, though their limited
availability will probably contribute to the ultimate
demise of these beliefs and uses.
The ancient Egyptians represented crocodiles in many different
contexts, each with its own
meaning,bothpositiveandnegative.ThecrocodileisthemanifestationofthegodSobek,agod
associated with a good inundation and, consequently, fertility.
Perhaps this is why, in the
OldKingdom,heissometimesdepictedcrownedwithanaquaticplant(BrovarskI
1984: 996). The ancient Egyptians believed that a large number of
crocodiles in the river heralded a good
inundation. Perhaps this belief continued into the modern
period. Thus, the placement of a
crocodileaboveonesdoor,especiallyinagriculturalareas,insuredgoodloodsandwealthtothe
homeowner in the form of a rich harvest
10S.IkramandY.el-Shazly,Interviewswithattarin in Cairo,
(1999).
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S. Ikram
CASAE 42
Crocodiles(andSobek)werealsoassociatedwithotherdivinitiessuchasRe,Khepri,Shu,Tefnut,
Seth, and his crocodilian sonMaga (Brunner-traut 1980:
791-801;wIlson 1997: 180ff). Certainly, from the later periods of
Egyptian history, and perhaps as early as the
Eighteenth dynasty, images of crocodiles with falcon heads are
known. Perhaps the crocodiles
association with solar deities and resurrection is due to its
habit of emerging from the water
and opening its mouth to the sun when it appears, and then
sinking into the depths again at
nightfall, and being reborn the next day.11
Also,hymnsaddressedtoSobek-Reinvokehimasa protector of Osiris, and
therefore the dead
(Bucher1928:5).SomescholarshavealsoputforwardthesuggestionthatcrocodilesareassociatedwithHorusastheycanspendalongtimeunderwater,
and would have been capable of looking for the body parts of
Osiris, which had
beenscatteredthroughoutEgyptandintheNilebySeth(vernus1998:72-73).
Onecouldextend that metaphor and say that these fearsome beasts can
also be said to aid and protect
thedead,whoarehailedasOsirisaftertheOldKingdom.TheambivalentwayinwhichtheEgyptiansviewed
thecrocodile is especiallyapparent in theGraeco-Romanperiodwhen
itwas both used as a protective emblem and one that was dangerous
and needed subjugation. A
carvedlimestoneimageofasphinxwhichhasacrocodileprotrudingfromitschest(CG27574)underlies
the more positive aspects of crocodiles and their relationship with
solar deities (edGar
1903:59,pl.xxviii),ascanbeseeninthetempleofKomOmbo.Thisisalsoapparentinthehawkheadedandcrocodilebodied"sphinx"statuesthatdatefromthelaterperiodsofEgyptianhistory,andareevenillustratedonstelaededicatedtoSobekduringthisperiod(e.g.CG27575[edGar1903:59,pl.xxviii]).
Conversely, some texts, addressed to Re, relate to the
protection from attacks by crocodiles,
who, in
thiscaseisassociatedwiththeevilaspectsofSeth(alsoseeBrunner-traut
1980: 791-801;wIlson 1997: 180ff;
leItz1999:35),andalsoSethsson,Maga.12 Crocodiles are
alsoshownbeingvanquishedbyHorusinthecippistelae.ItsassociationwithSethreferstothe
more chaotic aspects of its character, as well as to the time that
it spends underwater in
darkness.ItsSethianaspectscanbeseenwhenitisbeingspearedbyHorusatEdfu13
and also
11 Amenhotep III, in particular, exploited the crocodiles solar
association as is seen in the dyad showing the king
togetherwithSobek(LuxorMuseumJ155),andthecrocodiliansphinxesthatformedapartofthedecorationofhisfunerarytempleinThebes.HealsofoundedtheSobektempleatDamansha(ancientSemenu),atemplethatenjoyeda
great deal of popularity in the 18th and 19th dynasties (ex votos
and portions of the temple are on display in the
KomOmboCrocodileMuseumfrom2010).Also,itappearsthatthemummyofRamessesIIIwascoveredbyalinenshroud
cut and painted to resemble a crocodile that would magically
protect the mummy. It is, however, possible that
this shroud might actually have been intended to resemble
Anubis, but the tail is very crocodile like, as are the ears.
However, itsstateofconservationmakesanaccurate
identiicationdificult.Unfortunately
theshroud,currentlyinRoom52oftheCairoMuseum,hasnoseparatemuseumnumber,andlittleisknownaboutit;
thenumberofRamesses IIIs mummy is CG 61083. As an interesting
aside, Ramesses III appears to have been keen on healing
statuesaswell.Onequartzitestatue,featuresthePharaohhimself(JE69771;drIoton1939:57-89)witheitheragoddess
or queen beside him, and is inscribed with spells and requests to
guard against various ills. In this instance,
thepharaohisactingasHorus.IwouldliketothankDr.L.Kakosyforbringingthisstatuetomyattention.
12Inthe"LegendoftheWingedDiskSethsconfederatesareturnedintoanimalsasdiscussedbyrItner
(1993:
160).13TherehasbeensomespeculationthatthecrocodilemightalsobeassociatedwiththeevildragonofSt.GeorgeastheimageryofHoruskillingSethissosimilar.
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at Dendera (wIlson 1997). The ambiguous nature of the animal
itself, comfortable both on land and in the water, parallels this
dichotomy of good and evil.
This dichotomy is often expressed in ancient Egyptian literary
texts. In the Instructions
fromPapyrusInsingerweind:(19thinstruction,line15)Thereistheevilmanwhoiscalmlikea
crocodile in water (lIchtheIm 1980: 204); (23rd instruction, line
14) ...he is merciless like the crocodile
(lIchtheIm1980:208);and(23rdinstruction,line15)Onecannotremovethepoisonof
the crocodile, the snake, or the evil man (lIchtheIm 1980: 208).
From the "Instructionof Ptahhotep": "But where the crocodile enters
hatred arises" (lIchtheIm 1975: 68). TheInstruction for King
Merykare adopts a similar theme for the cunning but slightly
cowardly (at
leastinEgyptianmilitaryandroyalrhetoric)Asiatic:LothemiserableAsiaticightssincethetimeofHorus,notconqueringnorbeingconquered,Hedoesnotannouncethedayofcombat,like
a thief who darts about a group... The Asiatic is a crocodile on
its shore, it snatches from
alonelyroad,Itcannotseizefromapopuloustown(Lichtheim2006a:103-04).Onamorepositivenote,in"AMorningHymntoKhnum",thegodisinvokedascrocodile-kingandGreatcrocodile
(lIchtheIm1980:110-11),andin"ThePoeticalStelaofThutmoseIII",thekingiscomparedtoacrocodile,"masterofterrorinthewater,unapproached"(lIchtheIm
1976: 37), a frightening comparison, but one that was very good for
the ancient Egyptians, and bad for their
enemies.Indeed,infunerarycontextscrocodilesaretheagentsofpursuitofevil-doers,andthebringers
of justice (eyre 1976: 106).
Asadeity,thecrocodileisfoundinbothtwo-andthree-dimensional
representations and in several temples. Crocodile deities were most
common in the Fayum and the Thebaid, notably
thesiteofKomOmboandtheneighboringnecropolisofel-Shatb,althoughothersitesintheThebaidhavebeenfoundtohouseseveralmummiiedcrocodiles,anda
temple toSobekissuspectedontheWestBank(kockelmann 2009).
Herodotusdescribesthecareandupkeepofasacredcrocodile:itsearsareadornedwithgoldenearrings,itwearsbraceletsonitsfore-paws,it
is fed with bread and meat, and when it dies it is embalmed and
buried with great pomp and
circumstance
(herodotusII:69).Strabodescribessimilarcrocodilesthatarefedoncakes,andwinemixedwithhoney(VIII:XVII).
CrocodilesfeatureinpaintedandapplieddecorationonPre-andEarlyDynasticpottery,perhaps
just as simple decoration or for as yet undetermined ritual reasons
(e.g. the Naqada I
bowlwithappliqudcrocodilesintheCairoMuseum,JE38384).Smalligurinesandamuletsin
the shape of crocodiles and made out of many materials are found
throughout the course
ofEgyptianhistory.Petriefoundsomeespeciallyinelymodeledcrocodilesinapre-Twelfthdynasty
context
(PetrIe1896:5).Forthemostparttheyappeartobeapotropaic:theywereused
to repel attackbycrocodiles. Somescholarsbelieve that theprotection
from
thegodSobekwasonlyinvokedbyamuletsclearlyintheformofthegod:crocodileswearingcrowns,sun-discs,orbyamuletsintheformofamanwithacrocodileshead,ratherthanbyimagesofthe
animal itself (andrews1994:26-27;36-37).
Crocodiles also feature on magic wands of the Middle Kingdom,
presumably in anapotropaic role
(Brunner-traut1980).IntheOldKingdomtombofPetty,GizaSouthEast
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94
S. Ikram
CASAE 42
(GSE)1923,inthecemeteryoftheworkmenatGiza,despoilersofthetombarethreatenedwithbeing
attacked by a crocodile (hawass 2004). Crocodiles with knives,
representing demons
orgeni,guardtheunderworld,especiallyshownfromtheNewKingdomonward.CrocodilesandsnakesguardthetiredeveningSunGodashesetsinthetombofRamessesVI.
Inthe"Bookof theCaves", fourcrocodiles riseoutof theearthat sunrise
toaccompany thesun.Crocodiles are part of the composite creature
Ammit, the devourer of the Underworld, as well
as, sometimes, part of the protective and nurturing Taweret.
Thus, it is apparent that crocodiles,
like other animals in ancient Egypt, have both good and evil
manifestations, and are used to
represent both chaos (evil aspect) and maat (positive or good
aspect) depending on the context
inwhich theyareportrayed.
Similarly,hippopotami(male)aregenerallyshownasSethianand
destructive, while the females of the species are associated with
Taweret. Perhaps the
amphibious nature of both crocodiles and hippopotami contribute
to this duality?
It is also interesting to note that crocodile skin was used as
armor in the Roman Period, as
isillustratedbysuchasuitnowintheBritishMuseum(EA5473).Perhapsitwasnotjustusedbecause
of its toughness, but because of the belief in the protective and
apotropaic properties
ofcrocodiles,aswellasabeliefinsympatheticmagic,withthewearertakingontheiercenessof
the crocodile. Another notable point is that the door of one of the
three Churches in the
MonasteryofAbuSefein,inOldCairo,"wasplatedwithcrocodilescales,andpartofitliesnowinthenarthexofthechurch,thoughscarcelyashredofthescalesremains"(Butler
1884: 76).14 The reason for this is not known; perhaps the
crocodile skin was purely decorative,
although it is more likely that it had a protective and
apotropaic function.15 The doors of other Coptic churches and
monasteries are often covered with a dense concentration of studs
that
give the appearance of crocodile hideperhaps these take the idea
of the skin one step further?
Certainly crocodile skin is quite sturdy, and would afford
further protection to a wooden door,
and was used to line the doors of forts, citadels and
strongholds (surIano 1949: chapter 81; warner 2006: legend 28).
It seems that, aside from their continued use in folk medicine
from antiquity to the present
day,crocodileshavemaintainedtheirpositioninEgyptianfolk-cultureasguardians,whichiswhy
they are placed over doorways. Although crocodiles are dangerous
animals, they often
serve as protectors, a belief that might be based in the mother
crocodiles vigilant protection
ofhernest.AmmitguardstheFieldsofReedsagainstevilinterlopers,crocodile-headedgeniguard
the gates of the Underworld, and crocodiles protect the person of
the sun god. The
king,metaphoricallyacrocodile,guardedEgypt,andmorepractically,SetiIstockedthemoataroundthefortressofSilehwithcrocodiles,whoactedasitsguardians.Inthesameway,inthe"TaleofTwoBrothers",Batawasprotectedfromtheunjustwrathofhisolderbrother,Anubis,byabodyofwaterilledwithcrocodiles.SupposedlyKingMeneswassavedfromhishuntingdogs
by riding on the back of a crocodile across Lake Moeris to safety
(dIodorus LXXXIX:
14 I would like to thank Dr. E. Bolman for bringing this
reference to my attention.15 It is possible that many other Coptic
church doors were similarly clad, but this knowledge is now lost to
us.
AlthoughthemaindoorofDeirel-Abyad,nearSohag,isnotcoveredwithcrocodilehide,itiscoveredwithverycloselysettogetherbroad-headedmetalnailsthatgivetheimpressionofacrocodileshide.
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CroCodIleS: GuardIanS of the GatewayS
2010
115),andatPhilae temple,acrocodile isshowncarrying
themummyofOsirison itsback(kakosy1980:801-11). Evenin
theCopticperiodstoriesofcrocodilescarryingpeopleontheirbacksareattested,suchasthetaleofAbbaHellewhousedthepoorbeastasaferry,beforecommanding
it to die (russell
1980:90-91).Thus,forthehome-ownerwhoplacesacrocodileabove his door
(or perhaps even covers the door with its skin), the crocodile is
tame or subdued,
whileforanyoneapproachingwithevilintention,thecrocodileiswildandierce.Ifthehouseowner
was responsible for killing the crocodile, it is a mark of his
strength and virility, and as
such,thecrocodile-trophyshowsthattheownerofthehouseiswellabletoprotecthisown.InGourna
there was one house that had two large Nile Monitors over the door
that the owner had
killed.Heregardedthesebothastrophies,aswellasapotropaicprotectorsofhishome(Ikram
1999). The animals fearsome aspect with scaley back and fearsome
teeth might also aid in
scaring away the evil intentioned. Crocodiles protect not only
against evil, whether human or
supernatural,butalsoagainsttheveryphysicaldangeroflooddamage.
Crocodilesalwaysknow where to build their nests so that they are
safe from the inundation, thus, especially in
UpperEgyptianvillages(especiallyprior to theconstructionof
theHighDam),acrocodileabove thedoorwaymightavert thewatersof
theloodfromdemolishing thehouse.
WhencrocodileswerecommonintheNileValley,itmayalsohaveservedtoprotecttheinmatesofthe
house from being carried off by crocodiles. Thus, it is possible
that although the reasons
why crocodiles are guardians might have been forgotten, the
Egyptians continue to use them
apotropaically above their doors as protectors of their
homes.
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a varun guarding a door on luxor's west bank (photo h.
alexander)