IJEE Oct 2009 Issue

ISSN 0974-5904 October 2009

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering Indexed in Chemical Abstracts – CAS Ref. No.: 172238

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International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

The International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering (IJEE) is a referred Journal

focusing on Earth sciences and Engineering with emphasis on earth sciences and

engineering. Applications of interdisciplinary topics such as engineering geology, geo-

instrumentation, geotechnical and geo-environmental engineering, mining engineering, rock

engineering, blasting engineering, petroleum engineering, off shore and marine geo-

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geochemical engineering, environmental engineering. Specific topics covered include earth

sciences and engineering applications, RS, GIS, GPS applications in earth sciences and

engineering, geo-hazards such as earthquakes, tsunami, landslides, debris flows and

subsidence, rock/soil improvements and development of models validations using field and

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Advisory Committee:

Dr. Paul M. Santi Professor of Geology and Geological Engineering CSM, USA

Dr. Choon Sunwoo Director, Korea Institute of Geo-Sciencesand Mineral Sources, Daejon, South Korea

Dr. S. D. Sivasubramanium School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom (UK)

Dr. Ganesh R. Joshi University of the Ryukyus Okinawa, JAPAN

Dr. Hyung Sik Yang Geosystem Engineering Chonnam National University Gwangju, Republic of Korea

Dr. L. De Girolamo School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom (UK)

Dr. Hsin-Yu Shan National Chiao Tung University Hsinchu City, Taiwan

Dr. G. Compton School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom

Dr. George. A. Buckley School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom (UK)

Dr. Christoph Ufer Institute of Bio-Chemistry Universitätsklinikum Charité Monbijoustr, Berlin, Germany

Dr. Sandeep Sancheti Director, National Institute of Technology, NIT - Karnataka, Surathkal, Karnataka, INDIA

Dr. Y. Venkateswara Rao Director, National Institute of Technology, NIT - Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

Dr. Deepak Vidyarthi Executive Director Retd. NMDC Limited Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA

Dr. K. R. Narshima Murthy Deputy General Manager Retd. Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA

Dr. K. Uma Maheshwar Rao Professor, Mining Engineering IIT Kharagpur, West-Bengal, INDIA

Dr. R. P. Singh Professor, Department of Bio-Technology, IIT-Roorkee Uttarakhand, INDIA

Dr. K. Lalkishore Professor and Rector Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd, A.P., INDIA

Dr. E. Saibaba Reddy Professor and Registrar Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd, A.P., INDIA

Dr. I. V. Murali Krishna Director Retd., Institute of Science & Technology JNTU, Hyd, A.P., INDIA

Dr. Vara Prasad Reddy Dy Director, Academic Staff College, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, A.P., INDIA

Dr. M. Panduranga Rao Chairman, New Science Degree & PG College, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

Dr. Krishna Pramanik National Institute of Technology, NIT Rourkela, Rourkela, Orissa, INDIA

Dr. R. Pavanaguru Professor of Geology Retd., Osmania University Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA

Dr. Sanjay N. Talbar Professor and Registrar Shri Guru Gobind Singhji Institute of Engineering, Nanded, INDIA

Dr. P. Appala Naidu Officer on Special Duty Retd. JNTU, Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA

Dr. N. Vidyavathi Head, Department of Bio-Technology, NMAMIT, Nitte, Karnataka, INDIA

Dr. P. V. V. V. Prasad Rao HOD, Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, A.P, INDIA

Dr. Gurtek Singh Gill Professor of Geology Punjab University Chandigarh, Punjab, INDIA

Dr. M. M. M. Sarcar Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Andhra University, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

Dr. P. V. Ramesh Babu Regional Director, SCR AMD, Hyderabad

Dr. H. P. Sharma University Department of Botany, Ranchi University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, INDIA

Dr. Y. Mallikarjuna Reddy Nalanda Institute of Engineering and Technology, Guntur District Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

Dr. E. V. Krishna Rao L.B.R. College of Engineering Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

Dr. N. Rajkumar New Horizon College of Engineering Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA

Dr. R. Rajesh Bharathiar University Combatore, Tamil Nadu, INDIA

Dr. P. Sreenivas Sarma HOD, Dept. of Civil Engg. Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, INDIA

Executive Committee:

HEAD QUARTERS

PRESIDENT

Prof. K. Laxminarayana Project Director Retd. DRDL, DRDO, Hyd, A.P., INDIA

VICE-PRESIDENT

Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Professor of Geology NIT-Karnataka, INDIA

SECRETARY GENERAL

Mr. P. Nikhil Prakash National Institute of Information Technology – NIIT, A.P., INDIA

TREASURER

Mr. T. Prakash Raju National Institute of Information Technology – NIIT, A.P., INDIA

JOINT SECRETARY

Mr. V. Sainath Chary Asst. Prof, Shaaz College of Engg. & Tech, Hyd., A.P., INDIA

UK COUNCIL

CHAIRMAN

Dr. S.D. Sivasubramanium Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom

VICE-CHAIRMAN

Dr. L. De Girolamo Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom

SECRETARY

Dr. George. A. Buckley Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom

INDIA COUNCIL

CHAIRMAN

Dr. Trilok N. Singh IIT-Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, Maharashtra, INDIA

VICE-CHAIRMAN

Dr. Shamsher Bhardur Singh BITS Pilani, Rajasthan, INDIA

SECRETARY

Dr. R. Pradeep Kumar IIIT Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

MAHARASHTRA SECTION

CHAIRMAN

Dr. R. K. Bajpai Scientist ‘F’, Bhabha Atomic

Research Centre (BARC),

Maharashtra, INDIA

VICE-CHAIRMAN

Shri. Amit Kumar Verma Project Scientist, IIT Bombay

Maharashtra, INDIA

SECRETARY

Dr. N. R. Thote

Head, Dept. of Mining Engg. NIT-Nagpur, Maharashtra

JOINT SECRETARY

Mr. Vikaram Vishal Monash Research Fellow IIT-Bombay, Maharashtra

JHARKHAND SECTION

CHAIRMAN

Dr. Bijay Singh Ranchi University, Ranchi Jharkhand, INDIA

VICE - CHAIRMAN

Dr. G. Kumar BIT, Sindri, Dhanbad Jharkhand, INDIA

SECRETARY

Dr. Nitish Priyadarshi DST-Young Scientist, D. Sc. Scholar, Ranchi University Ranchi, Jharkhand, INDIA

JOINT SECRETARY

Mr. Pradeep Kumar Oraon Rajeev Gandhi National Fellow (UGC), Ranchi University, Jharkhand, INDIA

ANDHRA PRADESH SECTION

CHAIRMAN

Dr. A. G. S. Reddy Hydro-geologist Central Ground Water Development Board (Govt. of India), Hyd, A.P., INDIA

SECRETARY

Mr. Raju. A Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd., A.P., INDIA

RAJASTHAN SECTION

CHAIRMAN

Dr. Manoj Khandelwal Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Rajasthan, INDIA

VICE – CHAIRMAN

Dr. A. S. Sheoran Head, Department of Mining Engineering, Jai Narayan Vyas University, Rajasthan, INDIA

SECRETARY

Shri. P. K. Sharma Geologist (Jr) Geological Survey of India Jaipur, Rajasthan, INDIA

JOINT SECRETARY

Mr. Ankush Saxena Final Year B.E. (Mining) Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Rajasthan, INDIA

HYDERABAD SUB-SECTION

CHAIRMAN

Mr. Pramod Kumar Sravan Dept. of CSE, Acharya Nagarjuna University (CDE) Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

VICE-CHAIRMAN

Mr. Hafeez Basha. R Dept. of CSE, Acharya Nagarjuna University (CDE) Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

SECRETARY

Mr. Chandrahas Roy AP State Co-ordinator, Centre for Electronics Development and Information Technology (CEDIT) Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA

JOINT SECRETARY

Mr. B. Srinivas Reddy Senior Technical Assistant National Informatics Centre (NIC), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

INDEX

Volume 02 October 2009 No.5

EDITORIAL NOTE

Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design

By SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH

RESEARCH PAPERS

Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in

Garhwal Himalaya, India

By VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY

389-395

Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine

Dinajpur, Bangladesh

By CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED

396-402

Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of

Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India

By A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA

403-415

Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin – A

Review

By SMITA S. SWAIN

416-423

Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a

Horizontal Plate Breakwater

By SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S

424-432

Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment

By ANAND V. SHIVAPUR, B. VENKATESH and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI

433-440

Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance

Concrete

By M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA

441-449

Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of High

Strength Concrete

By K. CHINNARAJU, K. SUBRAMANIAN AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR

450-457

Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting

in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells

By MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M

458-466

BOOK REVIEW

Geological Remote Sensing

Review by S. VISWANATHAN and G. VENKATA RAMAN

i - ii

News and Notes

Solid Waste Management and Engineered Landfills

Nuclear Minerals - Uranium

Discovery of water molecules in the polar regions of the moon

Forthcoming seminars/ symposiums/ technical meets

ii – ii

iii – iv

iv – v

vi - x


ISSN 0974-5904 CAS Ref. No.: 172238

Volume 2, No. 5, October 2009

Innovations in Composite Materials and

Structural Design

SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH

Group leader of Civil Engineering Group

Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan-333031, India

E-mail: [email protected]

In general, civil engineering plays a vital part in human civilization. Construction of roads,

dams, buildings, bridges and other important infrastructures are always crucial. Critical

problems arise during design and construction with the presence of earthquake and other

natural calamities. The advances in the field of concrete, structural and geotechnical

engineering are enormous over many decades. Ultra High Strength Fiber Reinforced

Concrete, Self Consolidated Concrete, High Performance Concrete and most importantly

Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) are some of the newly developed concretes and

/ or composites for special infrastructure. Concrete structures started using fiber based

reinforcements in the place of steel reinforcements for higher durability and ductility. A

special issue of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering (IJEE) and CURIE

Journal will publish selected peer reviewed papers presented in International Conference on

Advances in Concrete, Structural and Geotechnical Engineering (ACSGE 2009) held during

Oct 25th to 27th, 2009 at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India.

This editorial note presents recent progress in advanced composite materials used for

sustainable infrastructure construction and fiber-composite industry and the themes of the

ACSGE 2009 which effectively covers these recent advances in associated fields.

Multilayer CFRP Prestressing Technology

Advantages such as high strength to weight ratio and non-corrodible characteristics made

advance composite materials as potential construction materials in recent past. Prestressing

techniques are widely accepted for the higher load carrying capacity and aesthetic

appearance of the structures. However, prestressing steel tendons were facing durability

concerns over time. Non-metallic Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) can overcome

such durability concerns. Further, CFRP materials can be used as externally tensioned FRP

tendons. Prestressing applications of FRP materials involve highly fundamental designs and

executions. Moreover, both FRP and concrete are brittle in nature and when it comes to

prestressed concrete structures, ductility becomes a point of concern. Early days

investigations on utilization of FRP materials concluded that the FRP reinforced beams have

shown less ductile failure. Introduction of multilayer prestressed tendons for bridge girders

has shown bright and innovative design approaches to achieve higher ductility and possible

constructions. In this method of design, the bridge girders are prestressed with CFRP

tendons in vertically distributed multiple layers. The multilayer prestressing pattern is

consisting of pre-tensioning of bonded tendons and post-tensioning of external un-bonded

tendons. The theoretical design philosophy of multilayer tendon prestressed bridge girders

are based on balanced ratio which classifies the beams into under and over-reinforced

sections. The combination of pre-tensioned and post-tensioned tendons will increase the

load carrying capacity and ductility significantly due to progressive failure mechanism. The

multilayer CFRP prestressing technology has been successfully employed in the construction

of Bridge Street Bridge, Southfield, Michigan, USA.

Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design

Editorial Note

Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC)

In general, yielding behavior of structural steel provides enough ductility to reinforced

concrete structures over normal loadings. But during earthquake excitation and heavy

impact loading conditions every structure undergoes large deformations. Hence, these

structures need more inherent ductility to withstand the failure load and prolong the service

life. The ductile detailing of reinforcement helps in preventing concrete from its brittle

cracking behavior. Above mentioned serious ductility related concerns can be solved to a

better extent by using ductile concrete materials such as Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete

(SIFCON), Slurry Infiltrated Mat Concrete (SIMCON), Polyethylene Engineered Cementitious

Composite (PE-ECC) and Polyvinyl Alcohol Engineered Cementitious Composite (PVA-ECC) in

structural constructions. Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) is cement based high

ductile composite material. All these high performance cement composite materials show a

unique behavior ‘pseudo tensile strain hardening’ which is directly related to ductility of the

structures. Among these innovative composites, SIFCON and SIMCON use steel fibers to

reinforce cement matrix, however, the steel fiber poses durability concerns. The use of PE-

ECC and PVA-ECC consisting of polymeric fibers eliminates the durability concerns to the

greater extent. Applications of ECC are much more beneficial to brittle concrete structures

reinforced with FRP materials. Typically, PE-ECC and PVA-ECC use short discontinuous

arbitrarily oriented Polyethylene (PE) and Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers, respectively to

reinforce cement matrix with typical fiber volume fraction of 1.5-3%. In uni-axial tension

and bending, both of these composites exhibit pseudo-tensile strain hardening which

improves multipurpose performances. In uni-axial loading, ECC shows ultra-high tensile

strain capacity (3%-7%), with multiple microcracks during the inelastic deformation.

Typically ECC is cast using cement, sand, water, polymeric fiber and plasticizer. However, to

reduce the cost and to increase the material greenness fly-ash can be added by replacing

cement upto 60%. It is natural that the pseudo-tensile strain hardening behavior of ECC will

increase the moment carrying capacity of the beam section. Thus, it requires innovative

design approaches which can directly relate the micromechanical parameters to structural

analysis, design and construction. The ECC can be used as a primary construction material

at plastic hinges and beam-column joints. Moreover, ECC can be very useful for

rehabilitation of deficient structures with enhanced ductility.

Postbuckling Response and Failure of Symmetric Laminated Plates with Square

Cutouts under Uni-axial Compression

Composite laminates can sustain a much higher load after the occurrence of localized

damage such as matrix cracking, fiber breaks or delamination. Due to practical

requirements cutouts are often required in composite structural panels, such as in wing

spars and cover panels of aircraft structures and bridge decks to provide access for

hydraulic lines, electrical lines, fuel lines, damage inspection, and to reduce the overall

weight of the aircraft. The presence of these cutouts forms free edges in the composite

laminates, which in turn cause high interlaminar stresses leading to loss of stiffness and

premature failure of laminates due to onset of delamination Therefore, stability, overall

strength, and failure characteristics of composite panels with cutouts are some of the

important parameters for an improved design of structures fabricated with laminated

panels. A recent investigation is conducted by the author on the effects of rectangular

cutout size, cutout aspect ratio and location of cutout on pre-buckling and postbuckling

responses, failure loads and failure characteristics of (+45/-45/0/90)2s, (+45/-45)4s and

(0/90)4s laminates with square/rectangular cutouts under uni-axial compression. In

addition, the effects of edge boundary conditions on buckling and failure loads and

maximum transverse deflection associated with failure loads for a (+45/-45/0/90)2s quasi-

isotropic laminate with and without cutout have also been investigated. In these

investigations, the 3-D Tsai-Hill criterion is used to predict the failure of a lamina while the

SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH

Editorial Note

onset of delamination is predicted by the inter-laminar failure criterion. In addition, the

effects of boundary conditions on buckling load, failure loads, failure modes and maximum

transverse deflection for a (+45/-45/0/90)2s laminate with and without cutout have also

been predicted. It is concluded that square laminates with small square cutouts have more

postbuckling strength than without cutout, irrespective of boundary conditions. Also, it has

been observed that the location of cutout in the practical structural laminates has significant

effect on the pre buckling and postbuckling strength, modes of failure and general failure

characteristics. Thus, it is imperative for all designers and structural analysts to use and

incorporate the latest developments in materials technology (especially composites) and

design approaches for economical and efficient design of composites structures in general

and high performance concrete structures with and without FRP (fiber-reinforced polymer)

reinforcements in particular.

Furthermore, the expansions in contemporary infrastructure depend mainly on the

technological developments in the concrete science, structural and geotechnical

engineering. Many problems in structural and geotechnical engineering are looked upon,

solved and extended for use in the context of soil-structure interaction, construction,

structural materials and geometry, and other uncertainties. Therefore, there is always a

need for the researchers and the practising engineers working in the broad field of concrete

technology, structural and geotechnical engineering, to keep abreast of the latest trends

and developments in these fields with the aim of updating their analytical and practical

skills. Hence, Civil Engineering Group of Birla Institute of Science and Technology

(commonly known as BITS), Pilani is organizing an International Conference on

Advances in Concrete, Structural and Geotechnical Engineering (ACSGE 2009) to

be held during Oct 25th to 27th, 2009 at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani,

Rajasthan, India.

The main themes of this International conference covering the above aspects and objectives

of the conference are as follows:

• Advanced composite materials

• Composite structures

• Concrete Technology

• Low Cost Housing

• Sustainability of construction, design

and management

• Rehabilitation/Retrofitting of

structures

• Offshore structures, Bridge

Structures

• Structural Design and Low Cost

Housing

• Retaining structures

• Seismology and Ground motion

studies

• Soil - structure interaction

• Geohazards - Liquefaction,

microzonation, landslides, etc

• Geotechnical instrumentation

• Ground improvement techniques,

soft soil stabilization, slope

stabilization

• Geosynthetics – Materials and

applications

• Geoenvironmental Engineering

• Numerical modeling – Geomechanics

and under ground structures

• Applications of FEM, Nano

Technology in Civil Engineering

To conclude, the author wants to emphasize the association of various office bearers and

editorial board of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering (CAFET-

INNOVA Technical Society,) without that the organization of this event has not been so

effective. Moreover, the various technical contributions from eminent experts of the fields

related to innovative materials and structures, and infrastructures will give immense exposure

and opportunity to young scientists to enrich their technical knowledge and know-how of the

latest developments in analysis and design aspects of innovative structures. The author hopes

that all delegates and resource scientists will have wonderful time at BITS Pilani, Rajasthan,

India and also wishes a grand success of ACSGE 2009 with co-operation of one and all

participating in the conference.

389 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395

#02020501 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard

Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India

VIVEK KUMAR SINGH* and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY**

*Jharkhand Space Applications Center, Department of Information Technology,

Govt. of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India

**Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, ISRO, Department of Space, Dehradun

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract: Landslides are a major geological hazard in Garhwal Himalayas, since they are widespread dynamic processes that cause damage, and even loss of life, every year. Development of urban areas, Highway construction and expanded land use in Garhwal Himalaya mountain regions has increased the incidence of landslide disasters. The enormous damage caused by landslides can be reduced by means of monitoring systems used for mitigation strategies. Monitoring systems help to forecast the evolution of an area, analyze the kinematics and geometry of failures, and define the history of a failed slope. Conventional monitoring techniques, such as inclinometers, extensometers or GPS provide information on accessible points throughout landslide areas. Space borne or ground-based synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry has been shown to be an effective complementary tool for landslide monitoring.

The present study illustrates some current and potential uses of satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) for landslide assessment in Garhwal Himalaya.

Keywords: Landslide, InSAR, DInSAR, DEM, Himalaya

Introduction:

The Himalayas are undergoing constant rupturing in the thrust belt zone in the Garhwal Himalayas, due to which earthquake and mass movement activity is triggered. These processes of mass movement and landslides have been constantly modifying the landscape. Landslides are one of 'the indicators of the geomorphological modifications taking place in this active and fragile terrain. InSAR techniques can be applied to detect and measure ground deformation, provided that the topographic phase contribution is removed from a sufficiently long time span interferogram in which interferometric phase surface displacement is recorded. This involves the generation and subtraction of the so-called synthetic interferogram, and leads to Differential SAR Interferometry (DInSAR). It can be done either by exploiting an a priori DEM (two-pass technique) or by using a Tandem or short temporal baseline “topographic” Interferogram (three-pass and four-pass techniques, with or without phase

unwrapping of the “topographic” Interferogram (Zebker et al., 1994b; Massonnet et al., 1996).

SAR Interferometry exploits the differences in phase between two complex SAR images. With space-borne systems the two SAR images are acquired at different times and with different viewing angles in order to retrieve a three-dimensional model of the scene imaged, or if there are any, the ground deformations that occurred over the elapsed time. Data acquired by SAR systems can provide 3D terrain models and be used to assist in regional scale investigations, e.g. aimed at evaluation of susceptibility of slopes to failure. Under favorable environmental conditions, the innovative Permanent Scatterers (PS) technique, which overcomes several limitations of conventional SAR differential interferometry (DInSAR) applications in landslide studies, is suitable for monitoring slope deformations with mill metric precision.

390 Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in


International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395

The proposed study is being carried out in the Alaknanda river catchment in Garhwal Himalayas, Uttarakhand, India. The study area lies in the Chamoli district of Garhwal Himalaya, covering places like and Badrinath, Lambagarh, Joshimath, Patal Ganga, Langsi, Tangani, Pakhi, Pipalkoti, Birahi, Nijmula, Chamoli, Gopeshwar, Mandal, Maithana and Nandprayag of Chamoli district (figure1). The catchment receives heavy precipitation between July and September. Landslides here are an outcome of the intrinsic geology, adverse natural topography, i.e., steep slopes in talus accumulation, weathered rocks and soils, and man-made modification of these fragile slopes. The inherently unstable slopes frequently fail during rainstorms, often with catastrophic consequences.

Geological Setup:

The Garhwal Himalaya is located at the western end of the central Himalaya in the northern India and is situated in a seismic gap along the Main Central thrust that separates the lesser Himalaya to the South from the Greater Himalaya to the North (Valdiya, 1988). Physiographically the area around Chamoli shows a matured topography which has undergone rejuvenation resulting in a combination of highly dissected topography with valleys showing vertical walls and scarps in the lower parts and gently sloping concave hill tops in the upper wider parts. The area is drained by the river Alaknanda and its tributaries, viz. Patal Ganga, Garur Ganga & Birahi Ganga.

Geologically, the area is transected by Grahwal Lesser Himalaya and the Central Crystallines, which are separated along the Main Central Thrust. Main Central Thrust (MCT) thrust locally strikes NW-SE and dips 15-200 N. the Quartzites are well exposed at Chamoli and extended 2-3 km to the northeast and are replaced by limestone and Slate sequences of the Pipalkoti Window. The present study area consists mainly of the alternate bands of Slate and Dolomite which is also known as Carbonate suite of Chamoli (figure 2). The Carbonate suite of Chamoli consists of alternating sequence of Slates and Dolostones and massive dolostone that forms the doubly plunging, Pipalkoti anticline. It is thrust over by the thick Quartzites of Gulabkoti and the Chinka formations, which in their own turn are thrust upon by the Central crystallines along the main central Thrust.

391 VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY


Figure.2 Regional Geological Map of the Study Area (after Valdiya 1980)

Structural Features:

The area is traversed by majors thrust zones viz. the vaikrita, MCT (Jutogh-Almora-Munsiari) and Bhatwari (=chail= Ramgarh) thrusts. The thrust sheets have been eroded to expose tcetonics windows,(e.g Chamoli, Pipalkoti windows) and klippe (Nandprayag klippe is the NW continuation of Baijnath Ascot klippe). In the epicentral region,west of chamoli between Nandakini and Alaknanda, thrust sheets are repeated in a complex schuppen zone. Two mega lineaments (i.e Haldwani- Karanprayag trending NW-SE and Najibabad- Chamoli- Pipalkoti lineament trending NE-SW (Virdi, 1979) also traverse this region and their intersection with major thrusts in the area may have reactivated them, leading to the generation of swarms- type aftershock activity.

Methodology:

The present study illustrates some current and potential uses of satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar interferometry (InSAR) for landslide assessment in Garhwal Himalaya. ERS data were used for the InSAR analysis. In order to select a set of suitable scenes a thorough baseline analysis of all ERS-1 and ERS-2 ascending scenes acquired over the location of Garhwal Himalaya during summer between 1996 and 1999 was performed.

It was of interest to find as many data pairs as possible during that time period, yet keep the perpendicular baselines below 100 m, thus reducing contributions of topography on differential phase values. Ascending orbit was chosen so the look direction (right) would correspond with the aspect of the slope. Seven scenes were finally selected for this initial reconnaissance study, which yielded five data pairs with perpendicular baselines below 100 m.




The interferometric DEM used was generated from an ERS tandem pair of 11/12 April 1996 & 21/22 September 1998 (figure 3). Geocoding and elevation values were refined using ground control points taken from 1:25,000 scale topographic maps and points collected through DGPS

survey. All data pairs with baselines below 100 m were processed to geocoded vertical elevation change maps using the software package Sarscape 3.2. Fig. 3 & 4 provides an overview of the processing steps involved, as they are implemented in the software.

Figure. 3 Surface movement detection due to landslides using InSAR

Figure.4 Differential interferogram generation using ERS 1 & 2 data



The study of the spatial and temporal evolution of the surface motion can help in the understanding the influence of the parameters controlling slow landslides (some centimetres per week over several years). A multiyear trend of velocity variation may be superposed on seasonal meteorological variation, and on episodic events. A multitemporal and multiscale study is required to decipher the signature of different causes. Kinematic studies are usually realized by techniques measuring punctual displacements (levelling, lasermeter, GPS), which may not be very suitable to reveal spatial heterogeneities of mass movements. Remote sensing techniques can help in landslide studies.

In particular, SAR interferometry is a powerful tool, providing an image representing the motion with a centimetric precision and with a decametric resolution (Massonet et al., 1993). This technique has already proven its capability to detect and to map surface displacements caused by different natural and anthropic phenomena such as earthquake (Massonet et al., 1993; Zebker et. al. 1994). Despite some severe limitations (high vegetation density leading to decorrelation, high variation of topography, high deformation rate leading to loss of coherence, the capability of SAR interferometry to detect movement fields in landslide areas has been demonstrated (Fruneau et al., 1996; Carnec et al., 1996; Rott et al., 1999; Vietmeier et al., 1999).

Figure.5 Interferogram generated from ERS 1 & 2 data of 21 & 22 September 1998




Figure.6 (A) & (B) Ellipsoidal Flattened Interferogram (21&22Sep1998) of Enlarged areas

Figure.7 (A) & (B) DEM Flattened Interferogram (21&22Sep1998) of Enlarged areas

Results & Discussions:

The initial result has shown that SAR textural and interferometric techniques can assist in the understanding of landslide processes, post-failure mechanism and mobility. Study demonstrate that InSAR images (11/12 April 1996/ 21/22 September

1998), show evidence of motion at different locations of landslide in the study area (figure 5, 6, 7 & 8). The InSAR pairs with small baselines provide more accurate results. This suggests that InSAR techniques can be used to supplement field monitoring techniques on active landslides.

Figure.8 Landslide movements past Gauna Tal on east as observed on ERS 1 & 2

Interferogram (Geocoded) and ETM image.



Acknowledgement:

Authors acknowledge the contribution and help provided by Dr. V. K. Dadhwal, Dean IIRS, Dehradun and Prof R.C. Lakhera, Head, Geosciences Division IIRS, Dehradun

References:

[1] Carnec, C., Massonnet, D., King, C., (1996) Two examples of the application of SAR interferometry to sites of small extent - Geophysical Research Letters, vol 23-pp. 3579–3582.

[2] Fruneau, B., Achache, J., Delacourt,

C., (1996) Observation and Modeling of the Saint-Etienne-de-Tinée Landslide Using SAR Interferometry- Tectonophysics vol 265-pp. 181–190.

[3] Vietmeier, J., Wagner, W. and Dikau,

R. (1999) Monitoring moderate slope movements (landslides) in the southern French Alps using differential SAR interferometry, Fringe 1999

[4] Massonnet, D., Rossi, M., Carmona,

C., Adragna, F., Peltzer, G., Feigl, K., Rabaute, T., (1993) The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by Radar Interferometry. Nature vol 364-pp. 138–142.

[5] Massonnet, D., Vadon, H., Rossi, M.,

(1996) Reduction of the need for phase unwrapping in Radar Interferometry. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing vol.34-pp. 489–497.

[6] Rott, H., Scheuchl, B., Siegel, A.,

Grasemann, B., (1999) Monitoring very slow slope movements by means of SAR interferometry: a case study from a mass waste above a reservoir in the Ötztal Alps, Austria. Geophysical Research Letters vol.26-pp.1629–1632.

[7] Valdiya K.S. (1980) Geology of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India.

[8] Valdiya K.S. (1988): Geology and natural environment of Nainital Hills Himalaya, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India

[9] Virdi, N. S. (1979) Status of the Chail

Formation vis-à-vis Jutogh-Chail relationship in Himachal Lesser Himalaya. Himalayan Geology, vol.9-pp. 111-125.

[10] Zebker, H.A.,Werner, C.L.,

Rosen, P.A., Hensley, S., (1994) Accuracy of topographic maps derived from ERS-1 Interferometric Radar. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing vol. 32 (4)-pp.823–836.

[11] Zebker, H.A., Rosen, P.A.,

Goldstein, R.M., Gabriel, A.,Werner, C.L., (1994b) On the derivation of coseismic displacement fields using Differential Radar Interferometry: the Landers earthquake. Journal of Geophysical Research vol.99 (B10)-pp. 19617–19634.

396 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 396-402


Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal

Mine, Dinajpur, Bangladesh

CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN1, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA1, M. FARHAD HOWLADAR2 and FARID AHMED1

1 Department of Geology & Mining, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi-6205, Bangladesh. 2 Dept. of Petroleum and Georesources Engineering, Shahjalal University of Science and

Technology, Sylhet-3114, Bangladesh.

Email:[email protected]

Abstract: As a part of the evaluation of long wall caving mechanism of the 1101 coal face

of the Barapukuria coal mine (BCMC), Barapukuria, Parbatipur, Dinajpur district,

Bangladesh. Analysis of horizontal strain and subsidence that would be expected at the

ground surface over long wall coal face was performed. To extract coal from Barapukuria

Coal Mining Company (BCMC) using the method of Inclined Slicing Roof Caving Long Wall

Mining along the Strike, and the sequence of slices mining from top to bottom order. Mining

of 1101 coal face initiates caving from the lowest strata in the immediate roof and

propagates upward into the Gondwana Formation and up to the base of lower Dupi Tila and

finally reaches up to the surface. NBC (England, 1975) method, it is estimated that at

around 0.75 m ground subsidence may occur for the mining of 1st slice, and successively

for the mining of 5th slice the ground subsidence may 2.25 m occur, of which is relatively

difficult to control the ground response and a violent interaction effects may anticipated.

Filling process can not eliminate subsidence but reduce it if the operation is carried out to a

higher standard and to allow an increase in the percentage of recovery of the coal over the

caving mining methods. Again, such a high risk mining methods must be avoided because

its failure would seriously jeopardize any future mining prospects in the country.

Incorporation of this research work to the mine authority will facilitate guideline and provide

an integrated tool for future long wall planning and design of the mine.

Keywords: Barapukuria Coal Mine, Surface Subsidence, mining problems, slice mining

Introduction:

Coal mine of Barapukuria basin in Dinajpur

district, Bangladesh, enters into the coal

mining era for the first time. During 1984-

85 and 1986-87 field seasons Geological

survey of Bangladesh (GSB) drilled seven

boreholes in and around Barapukuria area

under Parbatipur Upozilla of Dinajpur

district, Bangladesh (Fig.1) and confirmed

the presence of 157 m thick Gondwana

sediment between the basement and

Tertiary sediments in the area. As the

country having no coal mining experience in

the past, BCMC is expected to bring about a

number of others mining related activities in

the country. Barapukuria coal mine is

promptly organized by the Jiangsu Coal

Geology Company, CMC, China, under the

direct supervision of Petrobangla,

Bangladesh, now trail basis production is

under processes, which is a modern and

large scale one with a production capacity of

1 million tones annually.

To be analyzed from an underground coal

mining as well as an environmental

standpoint, all surface effects of subsidence

associated with mining must be recognized.

The analysis of vertical displacement that

will impact of mining operations has often

been the primary focus of subsidence

investigations. This research work is

intended to provide primary focuses on the

impact of mining operations of 1101 long

wall face of BCMC operations, as a

consequence of direct surface effects. The

major components of subsidence that

influence its environmental impacts are

vertical displacement, horizontal

displacement, slope, horizontal strain, and

vertical curvature (SME, 1986). As BCMC is

the first step for Bangladesh entering into

the coal mining era. Hence very little

information is available concerning

subsidence prediction model, particularly the

stress-strain behavior of litho-stratigraphy

of Bangladesh, and the existing information

is not sufficient enough for a detail analysis

of subsidence model. For this, the empirical

Graphical method is used for the prediction

of surface subsidence as a consequence of

BCMP field condition.

397 Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine




Fig.1 Location map of the Barapukuria Coal

Mine area, Parbatipur Dinajpur District,

Bangladesh.

Geology of the Mining Area:

Bangladesh constitute the major part of

Bengal Basin, which is bounded by Arakan-

Yama Mega-anticlinorium in the east, by

Indian Shield in the west, by Shillong massif

in the north and open to the Bay of Bengal

to south as an active Foredeep. Within these

area, Barapukuria coal field located in the

Rangpur saddle of the Indian Platform (Bakr

et.al., 1996). The coal bearing Gondwana

intra-cratonic basins (graben and half-

graben) have been discovered in many

gravity lows within the basement of Rangpur

saddle and adjoining areas (Khan and

Rahman, 1992).

The general structure of the Barapukuria

Coal Mine area is a single syncline spreading

along N-S direction and cut by faults (CMC,

1994). Geologically, this basin area is a

plain land covered with Recent Alluvium and

Pleistocene Barind Clay Residuum. The

geologic succession of this basin has been

established on the basis of borehole data

(Guha, 1978). The sedimentary rocks of

Gondwana Group, Dupi Tila Formation,

Barind Clay Residuum, and Alluvium of the

Permian, Pliocene, Pleistocene and Recent

ages respectively were encountered in the

bore holes which lie on the Pre-cambrian

Basement Complex. A large gap in

sedimentary record is present in between

Gondwana Group and Dupi Tila Formation,

which are most probably happened due to

the erosional or non-depositional phase exit

during Triassic to Pliocene age (Khan and

Rahman, 1992).

Methods of Study:

The most comprehensive and widely used

empirical method of predicting subsidence

and surface strain profiles is that developed

by the National Coal Board, UK and reported

in the NCB’s subsidence Engineers hand

book (1975). This method is to represent

the effects of major factors by a series of

nomographs based on numerous movement

and deformation curves collected under

similar mining conditions and geological

setting. The method becomes more widely

used under a wide range of situations and it

is easiest and convenient to use. Although

this method is only and strictly applicable to

the UK, but it is not unusual to use the

method as a basis for preliminary

development work in other coal fields. As

such locally observed, information becomes

available, empirical models of subsidence

prediction for BCMC is more relevant to

NCB’s method to be developed. Hence it is

recognized that significant variation in the

predicted values for the subsidence and

strain profiles between the NCB and locally

derived BCMP prediction model may result,

but in absence of any local data the use of

NCB method can be considered to be

appropriate for the purpose of the study.

Again, the subsidence profile predicted by

this method usually appears within the

variation of ±10% of the actual field

measurement, (NCB, 1975; Peng, 1986).

The NCB prediction model is used in the

case of 1101coal face trail basis production

stage of BCMC under some limitations, like

the absence of available mining data and

obviously the practical condition of gob

forming process.

Subsidence Prediction of 1101 Coal

Face:

It is difficult or even impossible to

thoroughly measure the displacement of the

upper strata due to subsidence caused by

mining activity in the targeted coal horizon.

Most of the research on subsidence has

concentrated on surface movement of the

mine prone area. Theories or methods for

subsidence prediction, damage assessment

and prevention measures have been

established based on surface measurement.

However it is believed that the subsidence

phenomenon in any underground substance

is similar to that in the surface. Thus by

adapting the surface subsidence theory to

the upper seam in a multiple seam mining

environment, the location and extent of

tension and compression zone in the upper

roof strata can be predicted with acceptable

accuracy.

The BCMC now in trail basis production

mode and the 1101 coal face is going to be

prepared for the extraction of coal, and only

398 CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA

M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED



50 m of the long wall face is to be

developed. The overall geometric layout of

1101 face has a thickness of m = 2.5 m,

depth of seam or overburden, h = 250 m,

width of the long wall face, w = 103 m, rate

of advancing speed of shearer cutting 5

m/min, one cycle of cutting complete by

double drum shearer is 30~33 min. A brief

analysis of 1101 long wall coal face of the

BCMP, subsidence prediction assessment

was carried out by the empirical graphical

method (NCB, 1975), which is given below:

Calculated Sequences, Results and

discussions:

1. Limit angle and Subsidence development:

When the mined-out gob has reached the

critical size, the angle between the vertical

line at the face edge and the line connecting

the face edge to the movement basin, is the

angle of draw. Theoretically it varies from

15° to 45° (Allgaier, 1982) depending on

the location, size of opening, and the local

geology. Incase of BCMC, the limit angle or

angle of draw is assumed to be 35° from the

vertical plane (Wardell Armstrong, 1993)

Shown in Fig 2. According to Peng, 1984;

the limit of subsidence development is

approximately 0.7 h in front and 0.7 h

behind, a working face. From this point of

view, the influence of subsidence may

initiates by a circle of diameter of 175 m

from the edge of the Track gate and Belt

gate crosscut to the retreating direction of

the 1101 coal face upper strata.

Fig.2 Terminology for subsidence profile

above a single long wall coal face.

2. Maximum Possible Vertical Subsidence

(Smax)

Theoretically the maximum possible vertical

subsidences which can occur when complete

mineral extraction and subsequent roof

caving has taken place within the circle of

influence is 90% of the seam thickness. i.e.

S max = 0.9 m

3. Maximum Vertical Subsidence (S) in

Relation to the Width/Depth Ratio (w/h)

For a given width of the long wall face(w),

the maximum vertical subsidence (S)

decreases with increased seam depth (h)

and vice versa relationship. The value of S

can be calculated for subsidence profiles

from Fig.3.

Fig.3 Subsidence related to Width / Depth

ratios of 1101 coal extraction.

In the case of BCMP the extracted width of

the 1101 Coal face to be W=103 m,

thickness of coal seam, m=2.5 m and the

depth of over burden h = 250 m. The

calculated maximum or central subsidence,

as

m

S

=0.3, S =0.3×m, Or, S=0.75 m

4. Vertical Subsidence (s) away from the

Centre Point of the Working:

The vertical subsidence (s), distance X from

the centre of working may be expressed as:

s = K1× S

The coefficient K1 is plotted against various

values of X/L from Fig.4 for the construction

of details subsidence profile.

Fig.4 Vertical subsidence away from centre

point or critical axis of the mine working.

5. Horizontal Displacement (V)

The horizontal displacement (V) associated

with a vertical subsidence (s) at a distance X

from the critical axis is given by:

V = K2 × s

The coefficient K2 is plotted against X/L for

the values of w/h = 0.412 from Fig.5. Here





it is noted that, all final horizontal

displacements are moving towards the

central axis of the working face.

Fig.5 Horizontal Displacement away from

the centre point or critical axis of the face in

terms of width/depth of the extraction.

6. Horizontal Strain (± E)

Horizontal strain or change in unit length (±

E), can be derived from horizontal

displacement by considering two points at a

small distance apart, from Fig.6.

i.e. Strain (± E) = S dK2/L

The maximum strain is related to the

maximum subsidence and depth of

overburden of the rock mass. The

proportional constant K3 is determined from

fig.6, which is depending on the w/h of the

working face and it is different for both the

tensile and compressive strain.

Fig.6 Horizontal strain and slope at various

Width/Depth ratios of extraction.

From fig.6, it is estimated that K3 =0.8 for

compressive strain (+E) and K3 = 1.65 for

tensile strain (-E) in the prevailing condition

for the BCMC 1101 coal face ground surface.

7. Ground Slopes or Rotations (G)

Change in ground slope or rotation (G) can

be derived from vertical subsidence by

considering two points at a small distance

apart, fig.4.

ie. Rotation (Gmax) = Smax dK1/L

A more accurate estimate of maximum

rotation in a subsidence trough may be

obtained from the expression:

G = K3 S/h

Like subsidence and strain profile, the slope

profile may vary with the w/h of the

opening. The maximum slope is greatest for

an opening with w/h= 0.45 and decreases

with either an increasing or decreasing of

w/h (Peng, 1984). Now the coefficient K3 is

plotted against w/h from fig.6. it follows that

the maximum possible slope is given by:

Gmax = 2.75 Smax/ h

8. Subsidence Profile

The complete subsidence profile determined

from the graph, which can be expressed in a

table given below:

Table:1. Calculation sequence for the

determination of subsidence profile.

In table: 1. Row 1 lists the steps of the ratio

of local subsidence to maximum subsidence

(s/S) between 0 (Zero) for the subsidence

edge and 1 for the center point of the face.

The number and interval of steps of the

calculation sequence are arbitrary. Now

multiplying each step in row 1 by maximum

subsidence (S=0.75) to obtain row 2, which

is physically signify the local subsidence that

may happened in the upper strata of the

mining horizon of 1101 coal face.

For the determination of horizontal

displacement in Row 3 is calculated from

Appendix of NCB, 1975, the value X/L

(where, X is the distance from the center of

the face) is estimated for w/h=0.412. Then

multiplying each value of Row 3 by

overburden depth, h =250m to obtain the

actual distance from the center of the face

for Row 4. Basically, Row 2 lists the actual

subsidence for points listed in corresponding

columns of row 4. There by plotting the

predicted final subsidence profile, shown in

Figs. 7a.

9. Strain Profile

Like subsidence profile the strain profile can

be constructed, by maintaining the following

procedure. In Table-2 (appendix) listed the

computed value for a complete strain

profile. From rows 1 lists values of

horizontal strain e/E from Appendix of NCB,

1975, & row 2 is the product of K3 ×S/h

(where S=0.75, and h=250 m) by the

multiple fractions in row 1 to obtain row 2.

Where, K3 is the proportional constant.

Therefore Row 3 is derived by transferring

the distance interns of ‘h’ for W/h = 0.412

from Appendix of NCB, 1975. Basically, it is

the relative displacement of the upper strata

due to the mining of target horizon, of which

can be from the centre point of the workings

to the rib side of the face. Hence, it is

regarded as the empirical assumption of





which can not be determined in the practical

field condition. Now multiply row 3 by h=

250 m to obtain row 4 in terms of distance

from the center of the opening. By this way

the iteration of calculation sequence for

strain profile is completed. Now, the strain

profile is graphically presented by using the

value of row 2 and row 4, of which is the

final predicted strain profile for the

maximum subsidence of S=0.75 m, shown

in fig.8.

10. Final Subsidence Profile

As a part of the evaluation of long wall

caving mechanism of 1101 coal face of

BCMC, an analysis of horizontal strains and

subsidence that would be expected at the

ground surface over long wall coal face was

performed. This section of the report

provides a general discussion of subsidence

effects, the input parameters and NBC

empirical method used for this analysis, and

the predicted horizontal strains and

subsidence displacements obtained from

these analyses. The long wall coal mining is

designed to recover large blocks of coal and

left almost no coal prior to support the

surface. Historically long wall mining method

results in a larger area of subsidence

troughs than the conventional room-and-

pillar mining. Generally due to long wall

mining, vertical subsidence may occur on

the surface along the centerline of the face,

of which depends upon seam thickness,

overburden rock over the coal seam, and

the surface topographic features.

Mining induced surface subsidence

ultimately results damage to the surface

features and structures, and the magnitude

of damage depends on the forces (stress)

that propagate to the surface as the mine

roof collapses. These forces may include

stretching (tension), squeezing

(compression), and sinking of the ground

(vertical displacement). The effects of the

forces are measured and studied by

developing a subsidence profile, which

shows how subsidence would look on a

cross-section usually drawn at a right angle

to the long wall face advance. From the

constructed profile (Figs. 7a), it is shown

that the greatest amount of vertical

displacement may occur along the

lengthwise centerline of the 1101 long wall

coal face. The average vertical subsidence

may vary from 0.75 m at the center of the

face to 0.03 m at the edge of the face.

Subsidence basin may initiate at a distance

of 25m from the cross cut road way towards

the center line of the studied coal face,

where as the maximum vertical

displacement is calculated as 0.75 m from

the cross cut entry to the coal face at a

distance of 240 m. i.e. the subsidence

trough progressively decreases at a point

along the trough of the profile until the limit

of the affected surface area is reached.

Fig.7a Predicted subsidence Profile over

1101 Long wall face.

In the figure it shows that at the center of

the face, a maximum subsidence of 0.75 m

calculated with no measurable change in

slope. The same categories of subsidence

impact have already been observed in field

(Figs. 7b).

Fig.7b Evidence of subsidence around the

Barapukuria Coal Mine, Dinajpur,

Bangladesh.

Subsidence (vertical displacement)

decreased from the center of the face to the

edges. Inclination or curvature reached

maximum levels at approximate midpoints

between the centerline and the face edges.

The study also examined the horizontal

displacement created by the subsidence

event. Given that the ground sinks from less

than unity at the face edges to maximum at

its centerline, and the surface experienced

measurable horizontal movement. Fig 8

shows the horizontal displacement may

observe at the 1101 coal face projected

ground surface.





Fig.8 Horizontal Displacements over the

1101 Long wall coal face

At approximate midpoints between the

centerline and the face edges, horizontal

displacement found at its minimum value,

where as at the trough edge it shows the

maximum value of 24×10-4 m for single

coal face extraction. Surface features and

structures above the long wall face will

experience varying levels of stress and

subsequent deformation depending on

specific location above the face. Where as

the ground slope or rotation value represent

a negligible degree of changes of the

predicted profile over the coal face. Another

profile shows that both the horizontal and

the vertical forces of tension and

compression move in a wavelike motion

along the surface slightly ahead of the

advancing longwall face, provide a

schematic of this process depicts how the

surface is subjected to waves of stretching

(tension) and squeezing (compression) as

the longwall face passes. The advancing

wave creates a tensional force and then

changes to a compressional force, shown in

Fig.9.

Fig.9 Compression and tension due to

Movement of 1101 long wall coal face;

Profile parallel to the face.

This simplified model gives a prediction of

maximum subsidence expected along the

centerline of a panel. Tensile and

compressive stress-strain fields and vertical

and horizontal deformations develop at the

surface due to the collapse of the long wall

cavity. The purpose of the subsidence

analysis was to determine locations of

relative highs in surface horizontal tensile

and compressive strains at undermined

study sites for possible correlation to areas

of stressed location. Surface tensile strains

are more likely to cause damage than

surface compressive strains because of the

possibility of tearing of the ground surface

or shallow groundwater into surface cracks.

Again Professor Whittaker of Nottingham

University, U.K (1990) carried out a pre-

feasibility study for BCMC. In his report, it is

calculated that for mining of 1st slice the

maximum subsidence of about 0.60 m in

case of 2.5 m seam height, progressively

increasing the number of slices up to 6, the

resultant subsidence would be expected 3.6

m at the ground surface. Where as in this

research work it is calculated that after

extraction of 5th slice the ground surface

above the extracted coal face to be 3.75 m.

So it is commenced that the mine

authorities should take this analogical

comparison between the studies, as a

means of mine fate, unless a deadly event

may observe in the country’s first mining

industry.

Conclusion

The advancement of long wall face in the

coal seam, the support from the overlying

strata is detached and hence the original

equilibrium of these strata is disturbed. The

main concern relating to subsidence

occurrence at the ground surface of the

BCMC site is the development of subsidence

trough. From the calculation, it is estimated

that at around 0.75 m ground subsidence

may occur due to the mining of 1101 coal

face of BCMC. The mine design plan

expected that 5 slices will be mined out

through the course of mine life. From the

analysis, it is estimated that the rate of

subsidence is relatively large enough (0.75

m) in the case of 1st slice, where from

successively it may be assumed that after

mining 5th slice the rate of ground

subsidence may 2.25 m, of which is

relatively difficult to control the ground

response and a violent interaction effects

may anticipated. The development of

subsidence trough above multi slice long

wall face give rise to the generation of

fracture plane and opening of pre-existing

weakness planes between the mining

horizon and the surface. The generation of

fracture planes sufficient to intercept a

surface water body can give rise to forming

a direct flow path between the surface and

the mining horizon. Similarly a major fault

or the sedimentary dyke could be





sufficiently opened by undermining as to

allow water body to drain into the mine

workings below. Therefore it is

recommended to allow longer and more

productive coal face to be worked without

increasing the disturbance of the Gondwana

Formations above the mining horizon, and

without increasing the risk of inundation

from the Dupi Tila Formation. Again it is

mandatory for the mine authority to carry

out a detail study for the ground response

and expansion of the materials.

Reference:

[1] Allgaier FK (1982) Surface

Subsidence over long wall panels in

the western U.S., Proc., state –of-

the- art of ground control in long

wall mining and mining subsidence,

SME- AIME, September, pp199-210.

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M.M., Islam, M.K., Uddin, M.N.,

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Islam, M., Ali, M.W.,

Chowdhury,M.A., Mannan, K.H. and

Anam, A.N.M.H., (1996) Geology and

coal deposit of Barapukuria basin,

Dinajpur Districts, Bangladesh.

Records of Geological Survey of

Bangladesh, vol.8 part 1p36.

[3] CMC, February, (1994) Preliminary

Geology and Exploration Report of

Barapukuria Coal Mine, Bangladesh.

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Framework and oil and gas prospect

of Bangladesh. Proc., of 4th Annual

Conference, Bangladesh Geological

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[5] Khan, A.A and Rahman T. 1992. An

analysis of gravity and tectonic

evaluation of north-western part of

Bangladesh. Tectophysics, vol.-206,

p351-364.

[6] National Coal Board (1975)

Subsidence Engineers’ Handbook,”

Production Department, London,

U.K., 49 pp.

[7] Peng, S. (1986) Coal Mine Ground

Control, 2nd Edition, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 491 pp.

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Longwall Mining,” John Wiley & Sons,

Inc., NewYork, NY, 708 pp.

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of Mining, Metallurgy and

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Alternatie method of thick seam

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District, Bangladesh, Vol. 1 & 2,

Chapter 1 & 2.

Appendix:

Table: 1 Calculation sequence for the determination of subsidence profile.

Table: 2 Calculation sequence of predicting strain profile.




Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron

Formation of Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District,

Tamil Nadu, India

A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU*, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA

Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India

*E -mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Banded Iron formation (BIF) of Tirthamalai region is situated about 12 km north-

east of Harur in Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu state, India. The rocks of the area are

mainly consist of banded magnetite quartzite associated charnockite and gneiss. There are

four bands of iron formation (Banded Magnetite Quartzite; BMQ) occurred as in the hilly

terrain. It is essentially composed of quartz and magnetite with ferrous aluminosilicates.

Totally, 36 representative banded magnetite quartzite samples were collected from the

study region, in which 20 samples were analyzed for major, trace and REE. The results of

analyses show that the banded magnetite quartzites are mostly composed of SiO2 (average.

=47.71 wt %) and Fe2O3 (51 wt %). The Al2O3 and TiO2 contents are remarkably low,

suggesting that detrital components were starved during the deposition when iron-

formations occurred. Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 ternary diagram suggests that iron-formations in

study area are of Pre-Cambriannature. Plot of Chondrite-normalized (Ce/Sm)CN vs.

(La/Sm)CN for banded magnetite quartzites show that these are clastic metasediments.

The plot of trace elements of Co+Cu+Ni vs. ΣREE content shows that the rocks of study

region differ from the hydrothermal field. Elemental ratio plots for Eu/Sm, Sm/Yb, and Y/Ho

show that 0.1% hydrothermal fluid and hydrogenic Fe-Mn crust field. The results of this

investigation, compared with other investigations of iron-formations of world led to the

following conclusions: The REE content and distribution patterns in the study area of iron-

formation have been significantly changed during diagenesis and metamorphism. The

positive europium anomaly of the iron formations can be used as an indicator for knowing

the presence or absence of oxygen in the atmosphere during the Precambrian times. The

ultimate source of material for the iron formations might have been derived from the oldest

continental crust. The banded magnetite quartzites of study region can be interpreted to

have been older than 3.2 Ga on the basis of evolution diagram of Eu/Eu* values normalized

to the average Eu/Eu* of oxide-facies.

Keywords: REE geochemistry; Tirthamalai region; magnetite quartzite; banded iron

formation (BIF); India.

Introduction:

Banded iron formations (BIF’s) are

deposited during the Pre-Cambrian, with the

majority of these rocks formed in between

~3.8 and 1 billion years (Ga). These

formations occur in Tirthamalai, Godumalai,

Tattayangarpettai, Vellalakundam and

Kanjamalai regions of Tamil Nadu state,

India. (King and Foote, 1864; Holland,

1893; Dubey and Karunakaran, 1943;

Krishanan and Aiyangar, 1944; Saravanan,

1969; and Ramanathan, 1972); Saravanan,

1969; and Anjaneya Sastry et al. 1970)

considered these iron ores have resulted

from metamorphism of the originally

existing ferruginous sediments enriched in

silica. This study presents the rare earth

element geochemistry of iron formation of

Tirthamalai region. The distribution of Rare-

Earth Elements (REEs) in Pre-Cambrian iron-

formations (IFs) provides valuable insight

into the composition of contemporaneous

seawater and evolution of the atmosphere,-

hydrosphere-lithosphere system. The

general consensus is that the rocks are of

sedimentary origin, which have been

404 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai,

Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India



subjected to a fairly degree of

metamorphism (Gole and Klein 1981; Morris

1985). The effects of post-depositional

process (diagenesis, metamorphism, surface

weathering) have been studied based on

primary REE and Y in BIF by Bau (1993) and

Bau and Dulski (1996). Also, several

researchers have attempted to derive the

evolution of the BIF deposits in equilibrium

with normal seawater (Fryer, 1977; Fryer,

et al. 1979). There are few publications that

deal with REE geochemistry of BIFs

distributed within the granulite terrain of

India. Enormous amount of banded iron-

formations (BIFs) occurring mainly at the

Archaean and Proterozoic times that have

received worldwide attention from tectonic,

climatic, and environmental conditions

during the early history of the earth.

Although various models have been

proposed for the genesis of BIFs, the source

of FeO and SiO2 are highly debated (Cloud,

1973; Goodwin, 1973; Trendall and Morris,

1983; Holland, 1984; La Berge, 1986; Klein

and Beukes, 1989; Derry and Jacobsen,

1990; Gross, 1991; Khan et al. 1992;

Morris, 1993 and Khan and Naqvi, 1996). As

there is very limited work on the REE

chemistry of banded iron-formation of

granulite region of southern Peninsnsular

India, the present study is undertaken with

measurements of major, trace and REEs in

banded iron-formation of Tirthamalai.

Study Area and Geological Setting:

The study area is shown in Fig. 1 which is

abundant with banded iron ores. The

Tirthamalai and associated hills are

geographically the northern extension of the

Chitteri hills. The general trend of the hill and

the direction of strike of the rocks are in N-S

but, near the Ponnaiyar River the strike is more

nearly to NE direction. The average rainfall of

the study area is about 896 mm.

The area in and around of Tirthamalai forms a

part of the Archaean Peninsular complex that

has undergone high grade regional

metamorphism with folding, faulting and

shearing structures. The major rock types of

area are banded magnetite quartzite,

charnockites and epidote hornblende gneisses

(Figure 1). There are four bands of magnetite-

quartzite on this hill separated by charnockite

rocks. The first band is 3.21 Km long, with a

maximum width of 121.92 m occurs near the

Tirthamalai Temple which is situated in N-S

direction. A little east to this band, the second

band is seen in the peak 979 m, extending for

about 15.24 m thickness. The third band

appears to be an offshoot of the second one

and shows a maximum thickness of 30.48 m. A

kilometer south of Andiyur there is a fourth

short band on Tirthamalai hill. This area has

been investigated by the Geological Survey of

India in detail between 1961to 1963. The iron

ore of the hill is estimated with the reserves

more than 60 million tons with average iron

content of 38 to 40 %.

Materials and Methods:

About 60 magnetite quartzite samples were

collected from the study region, among which,

20 samples were collected from the first band,

15 samples were collected from 2nd band, 10

samples were collected from 3rd band and 15

samples were collected from the fourth band.

Twenty samples were selected for major, trace

and REE chemical analysis. All samples were

ground to a powder in a tungsten carbide

vessel. Chemical analyses were carried out at

Activation Laboratories (ACT-LABS), Canada.

The measurements were calibrated against

international reference materials namely TM1,

18; SY-3; FK-N; NIST 694, 696 and 1633b;

DNC 1; BIR 1 and GBW 07113 which were

analyzed routinely with each sample run.

Precision was better than 10% in all cases. The

accuracy for major element determination is

estimated between 1 and 5% except for TiO2

(±20%); and for minor elements, between 5

and 20%, except for determinations close to

detection limit, where the accuracy found to be

more variable; and for REE, better than 10%.

Results and discussion:

The concentrations of major elements are given

in Table 1.

Major elements:

The Fe2O3 and SiO2 contents of these

samples are considerably high (50-60 wt

%). All other major oxides like TiO2, CaO,

MgO, MnO, Na2O, and K2O are less than 0.1

wt % in the samples reflecting the

dominance of magnetite and quartzite. The

low values of Al2O3 and high TiO2 indicate

405 A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH

K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA



that contribution of high amount of clastic

contaminent (Evers and Morris 1981). To

distinguish the iron formations of post Pre-

Cambrian BIF from Pre-Cambrian BIF, the

ternary plot of Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 (Govett

1966) has been plotted. The samples of

study area fall within the Pre-Cambrian field

(Fig. 2) and thus, the iron formation of the

study area belongs to Pre-Cambrian age.

The average major element concentrations

of the Tirthamalai region are compared with

other BIFs of Kanjamalai, Godumalai,

Superior Lake and Quartz Magnetite of Isua

iron formation (Rajendran 1995; Rajendran

et al. 2007; Dymek and Klein, 1981; Gross

and Macleod, 1980) and given in Table 2

and Fig. 3. It can be observed that the iron

formations of study area are similar to other

banded iron formations of the world.

Trace Elements:

Average concentration of Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni,

Cu and Zn are compared with the

normalized average crustal abundance of

the earth (Shaw, 1980; Table 4)

concentration of trace elements in

Tirthamalai iron formations are less than

that of the average crust and tend to

increase in relative depletion with

decreasing atomic number viz. Sc and V

exhibit relative depletion; Cr and Co are

within 10 % average crust; and Zn, Cu and

Ni are enriched similar to crust. When the

average concentrations of transition metals

in the Tirthamalai banded magnetite

quartzite samples are compared to average

Isua iron-formations (Fig. 4; Table 4), the

BIFs of Tirthamalai area are similar to those

of Isua. Chromium, Ni and Zn are strongly

enriched but Sc, V, Co and Cu are strongly

depleted. In order to know the source for

silica in the early Archaean BIF and banded

magnetite quartzs of Tirthamalai area, the

data are compared with other iron

formations using (Ge/Si) ratio of the 2.3 Ga

old Hamersley BIF of W. Australia (Hamade

et al. 2003). The relationship between Ge/Si

ratios and silica content of the banded

magnetite quartz are given Table. 3 and

shown in Fig. 5. The results show that the

decrease of Ge/Si (molar ratio) is similar to

the product of clastic aluminous

metasediments. Thus, the formations of the

study area are similar to meta-sedimentary

type (Saravanan, 1969) and Anjaneya

Sastry et.al, 1970).

Rare Earth Elements:

The REEs are characterized by low to

medium Σ REEs, ranging from 4.16 to 13.21

ppm. The abundances of these elements are

similar to that of Isua magnetite iron

formation (Dymek and Klein 1988).

Chondrite- normalized rare-earth element

patterns for the Tirthamalai banded

magnetite quartzite (Fig. 6) show relative

depletion light REE, flat trend of HREE,

positive Eu anomalies and negative Ce

anomalies. When the sums of REEs are

plotted against Co+Cu+Ni (Fig. 7), the

samples of study area fall closer to the field

of hydrothermal deposits (Bonnot-Courtois

(1981). When the normalized average REE

values of Tirthamalai iron-formation samples

are compared with Godumalai, Kanjamalai

and Isua iron formations [Table 6 and Fig.

8], the Isua and Tirthamalai iron formations

are roughly similar but differ Kanjamalai,

Godumalai iron formations. However, all the

patterns are in similar trend of the banded

iron formations of the Pre-Cambrians. Rare

earth elements and Y abundances (Table 5

and Table 2) of the Tirthamalai iron-

formation are generally similar with other

iron formations particularly and that of Isua

formation (Bolhar et al., 2004). Cerium

anomaly data suggest that (Fig. 9) quartz

magnetite iron formations of Isua, clastic-

metasediments, amphibolites and

Tirthamalai are depleted in Ce suggesting

meta-sedimentary origin (Fryer 1983,

Dymek and Klein 1988). Plot of chondrite

normalized Sm/Yb and Eu/Eu* to the

banded magnetite of Tirthamalai shows that

the similar characters that observed

elsewhere Kuruman and Penge IFs (Bau and

Dulski, 1996; Fig. 10). The exhibited Eu

anomalies >1 and enriched LREEs (Bau and

Moller, 1993) suggest the characteristics of

the continental crust.

The two component mixing calculations [Bau

and Dulski, 1999; Alibo and Nozaki, 1999;

Fig. 11 a, b, c] of the banded magnetite

quartzites provide further constraints on

their origin. The plots Y/Ho vs. Eu/Sm and

Eu/Sm vs Sm/Yb ratios show that all the





samples of the study area are away from

the field of hydrothermal fluids (>3500C,

Bau and Dulski, 1999) and seawater (<500

m Alibo and Nazaki, 1999) but close to

hydrogenetic Fe - Mn crusts (Bau et al.

1996). Plot of Sm/Yb vs. Y/Ho shows that

the samples of the study area falls away to

the ratios mixing of hydrothermal fluids. All

of these interpretations suggest that BIF of

Tirthamalai is similar to those of Kuruman

and Isua iron formations. The component

mixing model [Ce/Ce*CN] vs.[Pr/Pr*CN],

Bolhar et al. 2005; (Fig. 12) also indicate

that Tirthamalai formations are similar to

Kuruman and Penge iron formation

suggesting that these are differ from those

of hydrothermal fluids and seawater. The

plot of Tirthamalai banded magnetite

quartzites on a discrimination diagram, with

respect to Ce anomalies, we note that CeCN

of all samples do not display positive

anomalies.

Crustal contamination could have a

considerable effect on the primary

composition of hydrogenous sediments. The

diagram of Eu/Eu*CN vs. Pr/Sm CN (Fig.

13) to demarcate the crustal contamination

in the samples in the study area. From the

Fig. 14, it can be observed that the crustal

contamination can be ruled out for

Panorama jasper iron-formation because

Archaean shales and volcanic tuffs are

generally devoid of significant positive Eu

anomalies (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) in

contrast to the samples of Tirthamalai iron

formations and show systematic trend of

crustal contamination. An evolution

diagram (Sreeniva and Murakami, 2005) for

Tirthamalai iron-formation (Fig.15), the

Tirthamalai banded magnetite quartzites

show positive normalized Eu anomalies and

fall within the 3.5 Ga age group.

Conclusions:

The study area forms a part of the great

Archaean Peninsular complex having

intensive high grade regional

metamorphism. Geochemically, the major

oxides of iron formations of Tirthamalai

region signify chemical precipitates and low

concentrations of ferromagnesian trace

elements characteristic of metasediments.

Plot of data on Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 diagram

suggests clastic chemical similarity of other

Pre-Cambrian iron formation of the world.

Molar ratios of Ge/Si, show characteristics

of metasediments but poor in hydrothermal

characteristics.

The chondrite normalized REE patterns of

the banded iron formation, well defined

positive Eu anomaly and depleted LREE with

respect to MREE and flat HREE are salient

features of the study area. Two and three

components mixing ratio models indicate

that all the rocks appear to have very poor

in hydrothermal and seawater sources. On

the other hand, characteristic of Fe-Mn

crust. The enrichment of Ce indicates that

supergene oxidation process was high

during Archaean period. The positive

Eu/Eu* anomalies of magnetite quartzite of

study area normalized to the average

Eu/Eu* of oxide-facies of BIFs of Hamersley

falls within the >3.5 Ga that confirms Pre-

Cambrian age. Finally, it is concluded that

the banded magnetite quartzite derived

form weathering of continental land mass

that interpreted for Isua and Kuruman

Penge iron formation.

Acknowledgement:

The authors are thankful to Actlab, Canada

for providing results of chemical analyses of

samples by ICP-MS. The financial support

and facilities provided by University Grants

Commission (UGC-RGNF F16-6/6/SA II),

and Department of Science and Technology,

Projects – GEMIORD (SR/FTP/ES-01/2000)

and SPECSIGNS (NRDMS/11/1153/06), New

Delhi, for that we are grateful.

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Fig.1 Geology and location

map of the study area





Table.1 Major element data for banded magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai region

(all values in wt %)

Table.2 Comparison of major elements of

banded magnetite quartzite of study area

with other parts of the world.

Average Tirthamalai iron formation (oxide

facies), N=20 (this study).

Average Godumalai iron-formation

(Rajendran et al, (2007)

Average Kanjamalai iron-formation

(Rajendran, 1995)

Average Lake superior silicate facies iron-

formation from North America (Gross and

Macleod, 1980)

Average Quartz-Magnetite IF (10 analyses)

Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)

Fig.2 Plot of the Tirthamalai iron-formation

in the Precambrian field of SiO2 - Al2O3 -

Fe2O3 (after Govett, 1966)

Fig.3 Average major elements of

Tirthamalai iro formations are compared

with Godumalai and Kanjamalai (Rajendran

et al 1995) and Isua iron-formations (Gole

and Klein 1981).





Table.3 Trace element data of iron ores of Tirthamalai region (all values in ppm)

Table.4 Concentrations of trace elements compared to other

1 2 3 4

Sc 1.05 0.33 0.15 0.05

V 7.4 4.5 0.13 0.08

Cr 20 7 0.54 0.19

Co 2.2 4.1 0.16 0.29

Ni 21.5 28.5 1.08 1.43

Cu 13 7.6 0.76 0.45

Zn 30 41.4 0.55 0.75

Average ferromagnesian trace element Tirthamalai region

Average ferromagnesian trace element Isua (Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)

Average ferromagnesian Tirthamalai region/Shaw (1980)

Average ferromagnesian trace element Isua/Shaw (1980)





Table.5 Rare earth elements of banded magnetite iron-formation of Tirthamalai region

Data normalizing using the Nakamura and Taylor and Mclennan (1984) Eu/Eu*=

(Eu/0.67Sm+0.33Tb)CN; Ce/Ce*= (Ce/0.5La+0.5Pr)CN; Pr=(Pr/0.5Ce+0.5Nd)CN;

G/Gd*=(Gd/2Tb-Dy)CN

Table.6 Average REE data of banded magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai,

Godumalai, Kanjamalai and Isua regions and seawater,

1. Average REE of Tirthamalai region; 2. Average REE of Godumalai 3. Average REE of

Kanjamalai; 4. Average Isua; 5. North Atlantic Sea water, 600 m depth (converted from

values given as mol kg1; elderfield and Greaves, 1982); 6. Hydrothermal fluid, EPR at 210

N; average of 5 analyses (Michard et al., 1983); b Not analysed





Fig.5 Silica (wt%) vs. Ge/Si ratio. All the

samples are falls in decrease of molar ratio

characteristics of clastic metasediments

(after Hamade et.al, 2003)

Fig.6 Co+Cu+Ni abundances vs. total REE

content (La+Ce+Nd+Sm+ Eu++Tb+Yb+Lu)

for analyses listed in Table.2. The field

labled hydrothermal deposits represents

data from the FAMOUS and Galapagos

areas, which are mostly green

muds/nontronite, whereas the field labeled

“metalliferous deep-sea sediment’

represents mostly DSDP samples from

eastern Pacific sites (see Bonnot-Courtois

(1981) for an extended discussion of these

data). The samples of Tirthamalai region are

poor in trace and total REE concentration

and not having the characteristics of

“hydrothermal or Metalliferous deep-sea

sediments”. Isua quartz magnetite iron-

formation represented by Dymek, R.F. and

Klein, C. (1988)

Fig. 7 The chondrite abundances are those

of Tirthamalai banded magnetite iron-

formation. Data used for these plots are

from Table 1.

Fig.8 Comparison of chondrite normalized

REEs with Kanjamalai, Godumalai

(Rajendran et. al 1995, 2007) and Isua

Dymek and Klein 1988) iron formations





Fig.. 9 Plot of chondrite-normalized

(Ce/Sm) vs. (La/Sm) in samples from the

Tirthamalai iron formation. The clastic

metasediments and amphibolites plot along

the SLA indicating no anomalous behavior

for Ce, whereas all the BIFs plot below this

line indicating that they possess negative Ce

anomalies (see text for discussion. (after

Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)

Fig. 10 Plot of Chondrite-normalized Sm/Yb

and Eu/Eu* for Tirthamalai IF, and including

data for 3.7 Ga Isua Ifs (Bolhar et al.,

2004), 2.5 Ga Kuruman and Penge Ifs (Bau

and Dulski, 1996), shallow (<500 m) Pacific

seawater (Alibo and Nozaki, 1999), and

high-T hydrothermal fluids (>3500C, Bau

and Dulski, 1999). Note break in horizontal

axis. Isua samplesw are those considered by

Bolhar et al, 2004) to reflect

contemporaneous seawater. The yellow

shaded area represents the range of values

for 62 pelites from the Pongola Supergroup

sampled by Wronkiewicz (1989), and

crossed square represents Post-Archean.

Average shale (PAAS, McLennan, 1989). The

Tirthamalai iron-formation exhibit Eu/Eu*

between that of the Isua and Kuruman Ifs,

yet display Sm/Yb values similar to

continental crust and lower than Mozaan

iron-formation. All iron formation samples

have significantly lower Sm/Yb and Eu/Eu*

than high-T hydrothermal fluids.

Fig. 11a Elemental ratio plots for data sets

presented in with two-component

conservative mixing line for Eu/Sm, Sm/Yb,

and Y/Ho. 11a, Y/Ho versus Eu/Sm,

showing a 0.1 % high-T hydrothermal

(>3500C, Bau and Dulski 1999) fluid

contribution to waters with shallow (<500

m) seawater. REY distributions (Alibo and

Nozaki, 1999) is sufficient to explain Eu/Sm

ratios in the Tirthamalai iron formation.

Fig. 11b Y/Ho versus Sm/Yb, indicating that

a significant higher contribution of

hydrothermal fluid in the Tirthamalai iron-

formation,





Fig. 11c Sm/Yb as a function of Eu/Sm

demonstrating that relatively smal (0.1%)

contributions of block smoker fluid can

model Sm/Yb and Eu/Sm behavior in the

Kuruman and Isua Ifs, but do not

adequately account for the relative

distribution of these elements in the

Tirthamalai iron-formation. (after Bau and

Dulski, 1999)

Fig. 12 Plot of Ce/Ce*CN

([Ce/(0.5La+0.5Pr]CN) Vs. Pr/Pr*CN

([Pr/0.5Ce+0.5Nd]CN) used to differentiate

between La and Ce anomalies in seawater-

derived sediments. In Tirthamalai banded

magnetite iron-formation samples lacking Ce

anomalies and positive La anomalies.

Jasper-siderite samples are distinct from

Holocene microbialites (Webb and Kamber,

2000), Devonian reefal carbonates

(Nothdurft et.al, 2004), late Archaean

Campbellrand stromatolites (Kamber and

Webb, 2001), early Archaen Strelley Pool

Chert stromatolites and early Archaean BIFs

from Greenland (Bolhar et al., 2004), Late-

Archaean BIFs from Transvall Group (Bau

and Dulski, 1996)

Figure 13 The Eu/Eu*CN versus Pr/Sm CN

ratio plot for Tirthamalai banded magnetite

quartz. All the samples fall within the crustal

contamination. Strong but discrete

correlation exist for jasper and siderite

samples defining distinct trends. The locus

of intersection is inferred to be an

approximation to Archaean seawater (i.e.

moderate positive Eu anomaly, depleted

LREE relative to MREE). The steep positive

array for jasper samples suggests mixing

between shallow seawater and a

hydrothermal fluid component with strongly

enriched Eu (i.e. high-T), while elevated

LREE/MREE with slightly decreasing Eu/Eu*

suggests contamination with terrigenenus

material. Composition of possible ambient

shallow seawater is approximated by

composition of strelley Pool chert

stromatolites. Compositions for modern

seawater and hydrothermal fluids. Data

sources Alibo and Nozaki, 1998; Bau and

Dulski, 1999; German and elderfield, 1989;

Bolhar et.al., 2004; Kamber and webb,

2001; Webb and Kamber, 2000). (after

Robert Bolhar et.al, 2005) (Low grade(

Magnetite))





Fig.14. Ce/Ce* vs. Pr/Pr* discrimination

diagram banded magnetite iron formation

samples of Tirthamalai region superimposed

with data from the other world iron

formation. The data from the Kuruman and

Penge iron-formations (Transvaal, South

Africa; Bau and Dulski, 1996). All the

banded magnetite iron-formation do not

display CeCN anomalies (they

predominantly plot in field IIA), Precambrian

iron-formation show negative Ce anomaly

compare to Early and Middle Paleoroterozoic

. This feature is interpreted to be result of

overall trend decreasing event at 3.5 Ga.

(discrimination diagram established by Bau

and Dulski (1996).

Fig.15. Chondrite normalized Eu/Eu*

anomalies (normalized to oxide-facies

Hamersley BIFs, Western Australia (Alibert

and McCulloch, 1993). The average

normalized Eu anomalies value of banded

magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai

region plotted with evolution diagram (data

in Table 5). All the samples fall within the

<3.5 field. These are indicated lacking of

oxidation process in the Archaean time.

(after Sreenivas and Murakami, 2005).




Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-

Noamundi Basin – A Review

SMITA S. SWAIN Department of Geology and Geophysics, IIT Kharagpur, West Bengal-721302

Email: [email protected]

Abstract: The pear-shaped epicontinental Kolhan basin lie unconformably over the

Singhbhum granite in the east and has a faulted contact with the Iron Ore Group in the

west. Structurally it represents a dome and basin. The basin has four lithostratigraphic units

- Kolhan conglomerate, Kolhan sandstone, Kolhan limestone and Kolhan shale. The

sandstones are composed of sub-litharenite to quartz arenite. Two broad lithofacies have

been found in sandstones - hummocky cross stratified sandstone facies and planar cross

stratified sandstone facies. The sediments were deposited in embayed shallow marine

environment / tidal flat environment.

Key words: Basin, Kolhan, Singhbhum, Structure.

Introduction:

The Singhbhum craton in eastern India is

mainly composed of Archean granitoids

forming the nucleus rimmed by a

Proterozoic mobile belt to the north and east

(Saha, 1994). Towards the western part of

the Singhbhum granite the Kolhan Group of

sediments are preserved as a linear belt

covering an area of 800 sq.km, first

recognized by Dunn (1940). The Kolhan

Group of rocks represents one of the least

studied basins in the Singhbhum-Orissa–

Iron Ore craton. The Kolhan Group is

preserved as linear belt extending for 80-

100 km with an average width of 10-12 km

revealing deposition of Kolhan sediments in

narrow and elongated troughs. The Kolhan

Group is similar in many respects with

Manganese-bearing Wyllies Poort Formation

of 1.8-1.96Ga of Soutpansberg Group,

Northeast Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa

suggesting a possible Indo-African

connection during the Neo-Archean age

(Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, 2004).

The Kolhan Group lying unconformably

above the Singhbhum granite is bounded by

the Jagannathpur lavas on the southeast

and south and the Iron Ore Group on the

west. The western contact of the basin is

faulted against the Iron Ore Group. Saha

(1994) has divided the Kolhan Group of

sediments into four detached sub-basins -

Chaibasa-Noamundi basin, Chamakpur-

Keonjhargarh basin, Mankarchua basin and

Sarapalli-Kamakhyanagar basin. The

geological and tectonic setting of the Kolhan

Groups in Singhbhum Iron ore craton is

shown in Fig. 1 (Saha, 1994).

Chaibasa-Noamundi basin:

The main basin extends in NNW-SSE

direction for about 60km from Noamundi

(850 28′ – 220 09′) in the south to Chaibasa

(850 48’ – 220 33’) in the north with a

maximum width of about 12km

(Mahadevan, 2002). The metasedimentary

rocks comprising of basal conglomerate,

sandstone, limestone and phyllitic shale lie

unconformably over the Singhbhum granite

in the east and partly over, folded and

thrust-faulted, Iron-Ore Group to the west.

The geological map of the Chaibasa-

Noamundi basin is well documented by

Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969 (Fig. 2).

Geology of the area:

The Chaibasa-Noamundi sub basin

represents a shallow pear-shaped

epicontinental basin (Chatterjee and

Bhattacharya, 1969) with a low westerly 5-

10° dip. The sediments have undergone

gentle tectonic deformation and very low

grade metamorphism. Some works have

been done on various aspects of

sedimentology, lithology, structure,

stratigraphy and depositional settings by

Ray and Bose (1959, 1964), Saha (1948a,

417 Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin – A Review



1948b), Chatterjee and Bhattacharya

(1969), Mukhopadhyay et al., (2006),

Bandopadhyay and Sengupta (2004),

Chakraborty et al.(2005), Bhattacharya and

Chatterjee (1964). The main basin

comprises of a sequence of basal

conglomerate, sandstone, limestone and

shale. The shale succession in its basal part

often laterally grade to calcareous shale and

encloses lenticular bodies of limestone,

interbedded limestone-shale sequence and

thin interval of manganese oxide

interbedded with shale. Recently the whole

rock Rb/Sr dating gives a maximum 1531

My for the Kolhan shale. But according to

Saha (1994) this age may be the

approximate age of metamorphism. The

actual date of deposition may be ~ 2000

Ma.

Stratigraphy and Structure of the basin:

The type area of Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin

represents a sequence of basal

conglomerate, sandstone, impersistent

limestone and phyllitic shale with general

westerly dip. The maximum thickness of this

formation is about 100m. The thin

sandstone overlain by thick shale represents

an asymmetry in vertical basin-fill

architecture. The

basin is characterized by a dome and basin

structure, locally passing into a dome-in-

dome structure on small to intermediate

scale (Ray and Bose, 1964). The Kolhan

stratigraphy is best visualized in the section

along the river Gumua Gara near village

Rajanka (22° 26’, 85° 44’) (Chatterjee and

Bhattacharya, 1969).

There is a general variation of thickness of

Kolhan basin, attributed to the basement

structure, but a gradual increase in

stratigraphic thickness of the deposit

towards west and north indicate a

deepening of the basin towards west. This is

supported by the longitudinal and transverse

sections as recorded by Chatterjee and

Bhattacharya, 1969 (Fig.3). As suggested by

many workers, tectonically Kolhan Basin

represents an epicontinental basin whose

NNE-SSW alignment is controlled by the

trend of the older Iron Ore Group

synclinorium which also run in the same

direction in South Singhbhum and parallel to

the Eastern Ghat strike. The very low dip of

the Kolhan near the granite contact and with

a progressive increase to the west away

from the granite is characteristic (Fig.2).

The incompetent shale has developed

cleavages as a result of the deformation and

is more disturbed towards the west

(Bhattacharya and Chatterjee, 1964). As stated by Ray and Bose (1959, 1964),

the basin was involved in a triaxial

deformation, due to oblique stress acting on

a small thickness of strata against a rigid

basement. The eastern part of this basin is

characterized by shallow belt of sandstone-

conglomerate-limestone and has a rolling

dome and basin structure of 1-100m across

in diameter. The structures are diastrophic

in origin and pass into areas of enechelon

brachy anticline and brachy syncline (Ray

and Bose, 1964). To the west of the belt,

the shales have a homoclinal dip that

progressively steepens further westwards

and abut against a thrust fault (Iron Ore

Group boundary).

Lithofacies and Environment:

The lithofacies association represents a

varied lithological provenance, which

includes a rudaceous, calcareous and

argillaceous facies within a few tens of

meters of thickness. Regional distribution

patterns of lithofacies indicate the

transgressive nature of the deposits.

Detailed studies of facies characteristics and

lithotypes have been carried out in the

Chaibasa–Noamundi basin (Saha, 1994;

Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969; Singh,

1998; Mahadevan, 2002; Bandopadhyay

and Sengupta, 2004) which established four

lihounits:

• Kolhan shale

• Kolhan limestone

• Kolhan sandstone

• Kolhan conglomerate

418 SMITA S. SWAIN



Kolhan conglomerate:

It occupies the basal portion of the lithologic

section. The conglomerate is thin

impersistent, and becomes more oligomictic

to the south with chert and jasper pebbles.

In the northern part of the basin the

conglomerate is polymict with quartz and

granite pebbles. According to Chatterjee and

Bhattacharya (1969), these conglomerates

are mostly submature to immature, devoid

of structures, with a sandy matrix more or

less very similar to the overlying sandstone.

Ferric oxides and argillaceous matter is

often preserved in this sequence. The

individual pebbles are mostly elliptical,

disorganized, and vary considerably in size,

the maximum being 6.5 cm. along the long

axis. The conglomerates occur as (a)

crudely stratified with tabular bed geometry

(b) massive sheets with wavy upper

bounding surfaces. The first category is

poorly sorted, matrix supported, non-graded

in nature and are interbedded with cross

stratified coarse / pebbly arkose. The

interbedded crudely stratified poorly sorted

conglomerate are likely to be products of

sheet floods along steep slopes and were

deposited under fluvial environment. The

massive conglomerate is poorly sorted and

exhibit matrix supported character and are

products of debris flow. The conglomerates

with gently undulating wavy mega-ripple

geometry imply that they were deposited in

wave dominated foreshore –shore face

depositional settings. The debris flow

conglomerates and intebedded cross–

stratified arkosic deposits are typical of a

gravelly alluvial fan-braided plain at

tectonically active semiarid basin margins

(Nemec and Steel, 1984; Collinson, 1996).

Kolhan sandstone:

The conglomerate grades upward to

medium-fine grained arenite –sub-lithic

arenite sandstone, 15-20m in thickness. In

this litho-facies plane-bedded sandstones

are interbedded with minor thin beds and

lenses of conglomerates, pebbly sandstones

and thin and impersistent layers of shale.

The sandstones are typically red and purple

in color, rich in ferric oxide and mostly

consist of quartz arenite and sub-lithic

arenite. Sedimentary structures in the

Kolhan sandstone enable distinction of plane

bedded and cross-bedded, both planar and

trough types (Bandopadhyay and Sengupta,

2004). Framework quartz amounting 77%

on average and the matrix less than 15%

characterizes the petrography of the quartz

arenite sandstone. Feldspars amounting to

10% of the framework detritus are mostly

orthoclase, a few are microcline and albite is

virtually absent. Lithic clasts except shale

and rounded chert grains are absent. The

framework grains are poor to moderately

well sorted, angular, subrounded and

occasionally well rounded and have syntectic

quartz overgrowths occupying the

framework interstices. These sandstones can

be divided into two facies - hummocky

sandstone bodies (hummocky cross

stratification - HCS) and planar to cross

stratified sandstones (Fig. 4) (wavy planar

beds of Mukhopadhyay et al., 2006). The

field photographs of different sedimentary

structures like wavy sandstone facies, planar

stratified sandstone facies which includes

sheet sandstone and rhythmic sandstone

units, ripple laminated sandstone and cross

stratified sandstone facies around Chaibasa

are shown in Fig. 4.

In the first category, the sandstone bodies

are fine grained (0.2 mm) and continuous in

the outcrop scale. The bed geometry and

internal sedimentary structures of these

sandstones however vary considerably. The

sandstone bodies show an overall

hummocky topography formed either by

preservation of the bedform morphology

(passive variety) or developed through

erosion of substrate as indicated by

truncation of bedding plane (active variety;

Harms et al.,1975). Present either as single

bed (up to 0.2 m thick) or as amalgamated

beds (up to 1.4 m thick), the hummocky

cross stratifications (HCS) constitutes the

swelling parts of these sandstone bodies.

Also large wavy ripples are seen in the

contact of the two layers with wavelength

varies 3-40 cm and height varies 0.5-10 cm.

Individual bed of HCS are up to 0.4 m thick

and are composed of lamina sets that are

usually 6-15 cm thick (maximum 20 cm).

Internally, the hummocky cross




stratifications are either aggradational or

originate from laminae draping shallow and

very low angle truncation, basically

characterized by erosional lower bounding

surfaces dipping mostly less than 10°. In

the latter case, the sandstones are well

sorted coarse sandstone which represents

the alternation between two units, plane

lamination and chevron cross-stratification

(the typical v-shaped stratification with

straight ridge, where the v’s closes in down

current direction). Sandstone beds in this

facies tend to be sheet like with constant

bed thickness along the strike. The chevron

cross-stratification is present in coset (avg.

thickness 8-10 cm). Paleocurrent azimuth

obtained from this cross-stratification

reveals bimodal E-WSW pattern. On bedding

planes there is a rare preservation of

straight crested near symmetric ripple like

forms, whose wavelength and amplitudes

are 6.2 cm and 0.5 cm respectively

(Chakraborty, et al., 2005).

Both wavy and chevron cross–

stratification shows the dominance of

oscillatory flow. The broad ripple like forms

with straight and occasionally bifurcated

crests and high wavelength–amplitude ratio

possibly replicate shore parallel swash ripple

or antidunes, commonly present in wave

dominated shoreface. Chevron cross

stratification in this facies are interpreted as

products of fair weather wave ripples and

provide indication for E – WSW

palaeoshoreline orientation. The hummocky

sandstone bodies are overlain by cross

stratified bodies which are then capped by

tens of cm thick thin bedded rippled fine

sandstones. Recurrent development of this

stacked, shallowing upward facies

succession possibly resulted from repeated

progradation of the shore line, alternating

with abrupt transgression. (Dalabehera and

Das, 2007).

Kolhan Limestone:

The Kolhan limestone (thickness <20m)

exhibits variation in color, texture, structure,

composition. The limestone in its lower part

show a color variation from white-pale grey

pale pink-pale green with argillaceous

matrix. Besides calcite, the limestone

constitutes quartz, chlorite, opaque ores,

very rarely other carbonates and

argillaceous matrix. It is believed that the

lower limestone horizon is the result of

chemical precipitation in shallow warm sea

water. The upper horizon which is extremely

variable in thickness represents a

metasomatic rock, formed by low

temperature replacement of the overlying

phyllitic shale by lime bearing solutions

derived from the primary carbonate layer

(Saha, 1948). The absence of interbedded

resedimented deposits led Mukhopadhyay et

al. (2006) to suggest a gently dipping

homoclinal ramp depositional setting

(beyond the zone of coarse clastic

sedimentation) for these limestones. But

Bandopadhyay and Sengupta (2004) opines

that the limestones have deposited in near

shore lagoonal environment because of the

presence of high content of manganese,

phosphorous and sodium.

Kolhan Shale:

The end phase of sedimentation is

represented by a monotonous reddish brown

thin bedded shale unit (Jetia Shale, Singh

1998), 100m thick. Mukhopadhyay et al.

(2006) reported this shale to be devoid of

any siliciclastic / carbonate components

coarser than mud and therefore, suggest a

deepwater outer ramp/shelf to basin

depositional environment. On the other

hand Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, (2004)

believes this shale to be calcareous towards

its basal part and contains laterally

impersistent layers and lensoid bodies of

limestone and interbedded sequences of

limestone and shale/calcareous shale. At

places, manganese oxide is present at the

contact of shale and sandstone (Dunn,

1940). Presence of fine laminations in

individual beds, fine grain size and absence

of tide or storm generated structure led

Bandopdhayay and Sengupta (2004) to

suggest an extremely low energy calm

environment for the deposition of the shale

from suspension load.

Such an interpretation together with

lateral facies variations in basal part of the

shale supports a lacustrine setting. Within

the siliciclastic lake basin, development of

fault controlled local topographic lows

coupled with changes in chemistry of the

420 SMITA S. SWAIN



lake water possibly prompted the deposition

of carbonate mud at the total exclusion of

fine siliciclastics, resulting in the formation

of lenticular units of limestone. The

association of the shale with fluvial deposits

(Picard and High, 1981; Elmore et al., 1989)

is a basis for suggesting a lacustrine setting

for the shale.

Conclusion:

Various workers have carried out

sedimentological studies in Chaibasa-

Noamundi basin. According to Saha (1994),

the Kolhan basin represents an intracratonic

marine basin within the Singhbhum – Orissa

Iron Ore craton. Depending upon the source

area and other environmental conditions,

the lithology of the basin varies.

Petrography and geochemistry of Kolhan

sediments by Bandopadhyay and Sengupta

(2004) suggest passive margin tectonic

setting, an intensely weathered low-relief

provannce dominantly composed of

granitiod rocks and a warm and humid

palaeoclimate. Mukhopadhyay et al. (2006)

are of the opinion that the Kolhan sediments

have deposited in a deep water cratonic

depositional setting beyond the reach of

coarser detritus. The basin represents an

event of major transgression and relative

sea level rise. Petrofacies analysis

(Dalabehera and Das, 2007) is suggestive of

sediments in the Chaibasa and Noamundi

basin was derived from various acid plutonic

rocks and the Iron Ore Group. These

sandstones are quite mature and fall in the

terrestrial recycled zone. The hummocky

cross stratification and planar cross

stratification are the two dominant

sedimentary structures indicative of

sediment deposition in shallow marine

environment / tidal flat environment

(Chakraborty et al., 2005). The main basin

has undergone a phase of extension. During

this phase, the eastern side of the Iron Ore

synclinorium was faulted giving rise to a half

graben structure, which leads to the

sedimentation (Panda and Das, 2007).

Sedimentological study by Chatterjee and

Bhattacharya, 1969 the basin to be an

embayment from a geosyncline. The basin is

characterized by transgressive a marine

deposit which usually depicts a medium to

low energy environment.

Acknowledgements:

The author acknowledges the help,

cooperation and constant guidance extended

by her supervisor Prof. Subashis Das. The

author is highly grateful to the Head of the

Department of Geology and Geophysics IIT

Kharagpur for providing necessary facilities

to carry out the present investigation.

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(2006) Depositional setting of the

Kolhan Group: its implications for the

development of a Meso to

Neoproterozoic deep-water basin on

the South Indian Craton-South

African Journal of Geology, pp.183-

192.

[12] Nemec, W., Steel, R.J (1984)

Alluvial and coastal conglomerates:

their significant features and some

comments on gravelly mass flow

deposits. In: Koster, H.E., Steel, R.J.

(Eds.), Sedimentology of gravels and

conglomerates: Canadian Society of

Petroleum Geologists Memoir, Vol 10,

pp.1-31

[13] Panda, M., Das, S (2007) The

Kolhan Basin-A Riview. Vistas in

Geological Research U.U Spl. Publ. in

Geology, Vol 6-pp. 50-57.

[14] Picard, M.D., High, L.R (1981)

Physical stratigraphy of ancient

lacustrine deposits in recent and

ancient non-marine depositional

environments: models for

exploration-SEPM. Special

Publication, Vol 31-pp. 233-259.

[15] Ray, S., Bose, M.K (1959)

Fold patterns in the Kolhan

formation-46th Indian Sci. Congr.

Proc., pt. III, 202pp.

[16] Ray, S., Bose, M. K. (1964)

Unique fold pattern in shallow basin-

Rept. 22nd Session, Internationla

Geological Congress, Vol 4-pp.163-

170.

[17] Saha, A.K (1948a) A study of

limestone near Chaibasa. Geol. Min.

Met. Soc. India, Quart. Jour., Vol 20-

pp.49-58.

[18] Saha, A.K (1948b) The Kolhan

Series-Iron –Ore Series boundary to

the west and southwest of Chaibasa,

Bihar- Science and Culture, Vol 14-

pp.77-79.

[19] Saha, A. K (1994) Crustal

evolution of Singhbhum-North

Orissa. Eastern India- Memoir

Geological Society of India, Vol 27-

338 pp.

[20] Singh, S.P. (1998)

Precambrian stratigraphy of Bihar-An

overview. In: B. S. Paliwal, (Ed.),

The Precambrian, Scientific Publ.,

Jodhpur, pp. 376-408

422 SMITA S. SWAIN



Fig.1 Map of the Singhbhum craton showing the distribution of Kolhan Group in Singhbhum

Iron-Ore craton (Saha, 1994)

Fig.2 Geological map of the Chaibasa-Noamundi basin (modified after Chatterjee and

Bhattacharya, 1969)




Fig.3 Schematic cross sections showing the distribution of the lithofacies in the Precambrian

Kolhan basin (Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969)

Fig.4 a) Ripple laminated sandstone facies (b) alternation of sandstone and shale units

(rhythmic sandstone facies) (c) cross-bedded sandstone facies (d) sheet sandstone facies

from Rajanbasa village (Hammer for scale)




Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic

Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater

SUBBA RAO1, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL2, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE3 AND PRASHANTH S.4 Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology

Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar, D. K. District, Karnataka, India, Pin 575025. E-mail:1- [email protected], 2- [email protected], 3- [email protected], 4- [email protected]

Abstract: Employing submerged breakwaters for inducing wave breaking is a well adopted

technique in many places to provide partial protection from waves. They permit exchange of

surface water but obstruct the movement of a major portion of the sediments. Plate

breakwater can also be used to induce wave breaking and dissipate wave energy. It has the

advantages of low interference with current and sediment transport while saving substantial

quantity of material. It permits exchange of surface and subsurface water and hence,

suitable for ecologically sensitive region. The paper explains the physical model studies to

evaluate the transmission, reflection and loss coefficients and wave forces on a thin

submerged horizontal plate breakwater at varying wave climate and plate submergence. It

is observed that effectiveness of horizontal plate breakwater increases with deep water

wave steepness and relative depth but decreases with plate submergence. The study shows

that the breakwater consisting of a single horizontal plate is effective for attenuating short

waves with a transmission of less than 60% for waves steeper than 0.005 when the

submergence ratio is less than 0.33.

Key words: Plate breakwater; submergence; wave transmission; reflection; wave

attenuation wave force

1. Introduction:

Breakwaters are structures constructed to

protect the shore from the destructive action

of waves and to create a calm lagoon to

facilitate various port activities. The major

ports need high protection whereas the

minor harbours can be permitted to have

some amount of wave activity. There are

tourist places and recreational and water

sporting areas and aquaculture location

which need some wave activity throughout

the year for their successful operations. In

such cases, submerged breakwaters which

will reduce the wave activity to the desired

limit and provide partial protection is a

natural choice. Submerged breakwaters with

or without the core are used worldwide for

coastal protection. They are efficient at

sites where tidal fluctuation is moderate.

They are economical as they require smaller

armour stones when compared to the

conventional breakwater. They are

environmental friendly as they allow

exchange of surface water.

However the submerged breakwaters

obstruct the currents and cause settlement

of most of the sediment transported, which

in turn increase the tendency of erosion on

the downstream side. The structures need

strong foundation soil which may not be

available at all the locations. Their

economical viability depends on the

availability of armour stones in the nearby

quarries. Alternative types of breakwaters

are being investigated universally to

economise the utilisation of construction

materials and to provide eco-friendly

solution to coastal engineering problems

(Subba Rao et al., 1999).

1.1 Concept of plate breakwater:

Ocean waves are surface water phenomena.

Most of the wave energy is concentrated in

the surface region. Hence the wave activity

in an area can be controlled by providing

obstruction in the surface region. The

particle orbits which are circular in deep

water condition and elliptical in shallow

water region can get modified by the plate

interference. Investigations show that fixed

425 Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a




horizontal plate kept at surface or slightly

below the surface can attenuate the wave

energy primarily by inducing wave breaking

and by turbulence and friction.

1.2 Literature Review:

Dattatri et al. (1978) studied hydraulic

behaviour of various shapes of submerged

breakwaters and observed that the incident

wave steepness has an important influence

on wave breaking. The waves near critical

steepness may be induced to break by the

submerged breakwater. The relative depth

(d/L, where d is the depth of water, L is the

wave length at the site) shown significant

influence in wave transmission for relative

depth of submergence (ds/d, where ds is

the depth of top of breakwater from still

water level) values in between 0 to 0.2

A general solution for the problem of wave

scattering on a fixed horizontal plate was

attempted by Patarapanich (1984). The long

wave solution for surface plate and

submerged plate was extended to obtain the

hydrodynamic forces and overturning

moments exerted on the plate. The

dimensionless vertical force on the surface

plate (Fy/ρgaB) = 1 (where Fy is the

vertical component of force, ρ is the specific

weight of water, ‘a’ is the wave amplitude,

and B is the length of breakwater) in shallow

water region and it reduced to a value in

between 0.75 to 0.5 depending on the

relative width (B/L). The maximum

dimensionless force decreased with increase

of submergence. Normalised force did not

show significant variation with respect to the

relative depth (d/L) in shallow water but it

decreased with increase of d/L in

intermediate water depth.

Cheong and Patarapanich (1992) have

attempted to derive analytically the

reflection and transmission coefficients of

double plate. Experiments were also

conducted using random waves on

breakwater consisting of a leeward surface

plate and a submerged seaward plate. The

width of plate and the longitudinal distance

between the plates was kept as 1.0 m. It

was observed that the transmission was

least when the relative submergence of the

plate (ds/d) was about 0.10 to 0.20 and the

corresponding transmission coefficient is in

between 0.3 to 0.5.

Experimental investigations on fixed

horizontal plate in deep water conditions

revealed that minimum transmission of

waves occurred when the fixed plate is kept

at the still water level, but the loss of energy

was maximum when the plate was slightly

below the still water level with ds/d = 0.06

(Neelamani and Reddy, 1992).

Wang and Shen (1999) conducted

mathematical model analyses to evaluate

the performance of multiple-plate

breakwater. The reflection and transmission

coefficients have shown increasing and

decreasing patterns with increase of B/L.

The minimum value of Kt was when B/L is

0.32. The ratio of depth of submergence of

first plate to the total depth (ds/d)

influenced the reflection coefficient (Kr). The

optimum results were when ds/d = 0.25. It

was found that the Kr and Kt depend on

plate length, submergence of top plate,

relative water depth (d/L) and the gap

between the plates.

A twin plate breakwater system consisting of

a horizontal surface plate and an identical

submerged plate just below the surface

plate was investigated analytically based on

linear potential wave theory. Kt values

reduced with increase of relative

submergence (d/L) for all plate spacing.

Optimum s/d = 0.23 for which the Kt value

was in between 0.55 to 0.75. The

performance of twin plate system was better

than that of the single plate breakwater

(Usha and Gayatri 2005).

Physical model study on a single surface

plate and twin plate barriers with regular

and random waves shown that reflection

increases and transmission decreases

corresponding to the increase of B/L ratio.

Twin plate acted just like a single plate

when the spacing was 0.04. The reflection

increased by 20 to 30% when the s/d

increased to 0.4. The value of Kt showed

oscillatory nature with increase of s/d. The

transmission coefficient was minimum (Kt =

0.60) for s/d = 0.12 compared to (Kt =

0.76) for a single surface plate (Neelamani

and Gayathri, 2006).

426 SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S



Multiple-layer breakwater consisting of

several horizontal plates was investigated

using physical model (Wang et al., 2006).

The transmission coefficient decreased with

increase of relative width. Kt is below 0.5

when B/L > 0.25. When the B/L is below 0.2

the reflection increased with B/L but when

B/L > 0.2, Kr does not increase evidently.

With the increase of wave steepness (H/L),

Kr increased and Kt decreased. The Kt and Kr

were not significantly influenced by the

relative gap (s/H) of the plates.

Shirlal et al. (2007) have suggested possible

use of submerged reef for coastal protection

as it reduces the wave energy in the leeward

side and produces turbulence and hence

reduces the silt accumulation behind the

structure. It is shown that submerged reef

can be designed with B/d ratio of 0.67 to

1.33, h/d ratio > 0.675 and X/d ratio in

between 6.25 to 8.33, for which Kt < 0.6.

The study of available literature shows that

the horizontal plate can attenuate some of

the wave energy. It has potential to be used

as a costal protection measure at sites with

low tidal variation. Most of the previous

works were carried out using a thick and

long plate. The present study was conducted

to find the effectiveness of a thin short plate

and to examine the influence of various

parameters on Kt, Kr, Kl and wave force.

2 Oblectives:

The objectives of the investigation were to

study the transmission, reflection and loss

coefficients and the forces acting on a

breakwater consisting of a fixed horizontal

plate acted upon by monochromatic waves

in varying water depth and relative

submergence.

3 Experimental Procedures:

3.1 Wave flume:

Fig.1a. shows the two-dimensional wave

flume in which physical model studies of the

submerged plate breakwater were

conducted. The flume is 50m long, 0.71m

wide and 1.1m deep and has a smooth

concrete bed for a length of 42m with a 6m

long wave-generating chamber at one end

and a beach of 1V:10H slope consisting of

rubble stones at other end. The flume is

provided with a bottom-hinged flap-type

wave generator. The wave generator is

operated by an 11 kW, 1450 rpm induction

motor which can rotate at 0–155 rpm and is

regulated by an inverter drive (0–50 Hz).

The system can generate regular waves with

wave height ranging from 0.02 to 0.24m

and wave periods ranging from 0.8 to 4s at

a maximum water depth of 0.5 m.

3.2 Data Acquisition:

Capacitance-type wave probes along with

amplification units were used for data

acquisition. Four such probes were used

during the experimental work, three for

acquiring incident and reflected wave

characteristics (Hi and Hr) and one for

transmitted wave characteristics (Ht) as

shown in Fig. 1a. The spacing between

probes was kept near to one third of the

wave length to ensure the accuracy. The

signals from wave probes were verified

online during the experimentation and

recorded by the computer through the data

acquisition system. These were then

processed for separating the incident and

reflected components using a programme

based on the method developed by Issacson

(1991).

3.3 Model:

Model of plate breakwater was constructed

using smooth steel plate of 3.0mm

thickness. It was supported by steel flats

from the top which provide stability against

oscillation. The plate was maintained

horizontal at the required depth of

submergence using adjustable screws at the

top of the supporting structure as depicted

in Fig. 1a. The load cells for measuring

wave forces were connected to the

supporting frame as shown in Fig. 1b. The

plate and the frame were connected to the

supporting frame by using two pairs of

hinged links. The system has one degree of

freedom which is in the vertical direction. A

load cell connected to the frame measures

the vertical load acting on the plate and also

makes the system fully rigid. A similar

arrangement is done for measuring

horizontal load also. The vertical and

horizontal loads were measured separately.





The system along with the load cells has

been calibrated for the range of force that is

expected to be acting on the plate

breakwater for sufficient accuracy.

3.4 Calibration of experimental set-up:

The wave flume was filled with ordinary tap

water to the required depth (d) of 0.5m.

Regular waves of height (Hi) of 0.05m,

0.10m, and 0.15m with varying periods (T)

of 1.0s, 1.6s and 2.2s were generated. The

flume was calibrated to produce the incident

waves of different combinations of wave

height and wave periods before starting the

experiment. Combinations that produced the

secondary waves in the flume were not

considered for the experiments. During the

experiment, the waves were recorded by the

probes which were calibrated at the

beginning and at the end of the test runs.

The incident wave heights are recorded

using the first three probes and transmitted

wave heights were measured using the

fourth probe. Incident and transmitted wave

heights were also measured manually to

crosscheck the instrumental data.

3.5 Computation of non-dimensional

wave parameters:

Non dimensional parameters such as

Transmission coefficient (Kt), Reflection

coefficient (Kr), coefficient of loss (Kl) are

calculated from the incident, reflected and

transmitted wave heights.

(1)

(2)

(3)

Where

Hi is the incident wave height,

Ht is the transmitted wave height,

Hr is the reflected wave height.

The horizontal and vertical forces measured

using load cells. The non-dimensional

parameters such as normalised horizontal

forces|| Fx and normalised vertical forces

|| Fyare calculated.

Where

gaBFxFx ρ/|||| = (4)

gaBFyFy ρ/|||| = (5)

|| Fx= the maximum horizontal force acting

on the plate

|| Fy= the maximum vertical force acting on

the plate

ρ = specific gravity of water,

a = wave amplitude,

B = width of plate,

g = acceleration due to gravity.

3.6 Variables involved and their range:

Fig 2 shows the sketch explaining the

variables used in the study. The primary

variables and their range in the

experimental programme and the non

dimensional parameters derived for the

study are given in Table 1 and Table 2

below.

Table.1 Variables and their selected range

for the experimental investigation

Variables Range

Wave period 1.0 - 2.2 sc

Wave height 5 -15 cm

Water depth 30 -50 cm

Depth of

submergence

of top edge/

free board

0 -15 cm

Length of

plate

50 cm




Table.2 Non dimensional parameters and

their range for the experimental

investigation

Non

dimensional

parameters

Range

Deep water wave

steepness

parameter

(H0/gT2)

0.001 to

0.016

Relative depth at

site (d/L)

0.08 to 0.35

Relative

submergence of

plate (ds/Hi)

0.0 to 3.0

Submergence

ratio (ds/d)

0.0 to 0.50

4 Results and Discussion:

The experiment was carried out for plate

length of 0.50m and for the entire range of

other parameters. The incident, reflected

and transmitted wave heights were recorded

using wave probes. The horizontal forces

acting on the plate were measured by using

load cells connected to the frame. Graphs

are plotted for Kt, Kr, Kl against various non

dimensional parameters such as d/L, H0/gT2,

ds/Hi, ds/d. Variation of normalised vertical

force is also plotted against relative depth.

Major observations are presented below.

4.1 Variation of transmission coefficient

(Kt):

The most important parameter of the study

is the transmission coefficient. For

submerged breakwater, Kt generally

decreases with increase of wave steepness

and relative depth. Plate breakwaters also

found to exhibit similar trend. Submerged

breakwaters are generally designed for a

transmission coefficient of 0.6. The detailed

analyses are given below.

4.1.1 Influence of deep water wave

steepness (H0/gT2):

Fig 3 illustrates the best fit line for variation

of Kt with H0/gT2 for different ranges of

ds/d=0, 0.1 to 0.2, 0.25 to 0.33, and 0.38

to0.50. It is observed that for the entire

range of experiments Kt decreases with

increase in H0/gT2. It drops from 0.80 to

0.30 (63%) for ds/d=0, from 0.83 to 0.30

(64%) for ds/d=0.1 to 0.2, from 0.85 to

0.42 (51%) for ds/d=0.25 to 0.33and from

0.87 to 0.48 (45%) for ds/d=0.38 to 0.50.

For ds/d from 0 to 0.33, the value of Kt is

below 0.6 for value of H0/gT2 > 5×10-3 for

all depths. Small amplitude wave theory

shows that the particle velocity decreases

with the level of particle below still water

surface and the velocity at the top 1/3 of

water depth is considerably higher than that

of the lower layers. Horizontal plate when

placed in the top 1/3 portion offers higher

intensity of interaction with water particles,

which reduces their speed due to friction.

This causes the waves with steepness higher

than 5x10-3 to break and reduces the

transmission coefficient below 0.6. The

influence of horizontal plate is less when

ds/d>0.33 or when H0/gT2 < 5x10-3 since

the particle velocity is low and the waves

are relatively in stable condition.

4.1.2 Influence of relative depth (d/L):

Fig 4 shows the best fit line for variation of

Kt with d/L. The value of Kt is varying from

0.29 to 0.88 for the entire range of the

experiment. The general trend shows that Kt

decreases as d/L increases. This is because

the wave activity is more predominant in the

surface region as d/L increases. The highest

values of Kt is for ds/Hi = 3.0 for which the

trend line varies from 0.85 to 0.58 as d/L

varies from 0.08 to 0.33. The lowest value

of Kt is from 0.83 to 0.29 observed when

ds/Hi = 0.5. In this case the plate is

situated where the particle velocity is high

and it will be in contact with water even

when the trough of the wave passes the

plate, thereby ensuring full time contact and

maximum interaction of plate with water.

In the cases where the relative plate

submergence ds/Hi = 0, 0.33, 0.50, 0.67

and 1.0, the trend lines are very close to

each other with highest values of Kt around

0.8 at d/L = 0.08 and low values of Kt

around 0.29 to 0.42 at d/L = 0.33. Trend

lines of ds/Hi = 1.5 varies from 0.86 to 0.5

and that of ds/Hi = 2.0 varies from 0.87 to

0.54 respectively. The plate breakwater with

ds/Hi ≤1.0 can be used where d/L > 0.17

since Kt is < 0.6.





Fig 5 shows variation of Kt with d/L for a

horizontal plate fixed at still water level. Kt

decreases from 0.83 to 0.31 as d/L

increases from 0.08 to 0.33. The results of

other investigators from their physical and

mathematical model studies are compared

with those of the present study. The

present results converge well with that of

the physical model study of Gayathri (2003)

for d/L > 0.15. For smaller ranges of d/L

varying from 0.08 to 0.15, results of the

present study fall between those of Gayathri

(2003) and mathematical models of Usha

and Gayathri (2005) and Patarapanich

(1984). It is noticed that the mathematical

models tend to predict conservative values

of Kt. This may be because they do no take

in to account of the loss of energy due to

friction and turbulence during the wave

transmission across the breakwater, as

concluded by Usha and Gayathri (2005).

4.2 Variation of reflection coefficient

(Kr):

Some of the energy of the incident waves is

reflected by the submerged structure. The

reflection depends on the submergence ratio

and the wave parameters. Rubble mound

structures are reported to have low

reflection and vertical wall structures have

high reflection. Horizontal plate also shows

low reflection similar to conventional

structures. Influence of various parameters

is discussed below.


steepness (H0/gT2)

Fig 6 shows variation of Kr with H0/gT2. The

reflection coefficient is in between 0.05 to

0.33 for the entire range of the study.

Variation of Kr with respect to H0/gT2 for any

particular ds/d value is negligible for all ds/d

values. The values of Kr is maximum for

plate close to the still water level ie. ds/d =

0.1 to 0.2, The values of Kr for a plate at

still water level is also very close to this.

This is found to be matching with the

observation of Neelamani and Reddy (1992)

who had reported maximum reflection when

the plate is at the surface. The reflection

decreases with increase of ds/d.


Fig 7 shows that Kr is between 0.05 and

0.33 for the entire range of d/L and ds/Hi.

The reflection is maximum when ds/Hi =

0.33 and minimum when ds/Hi = 1.5. For

ds/Hi = 0.5, Kr shows very little variation

with d/L and the maximum value of is about

0.20. The study shows that a non specific

relationship exists between ds/Hi and d/L

with Kr. The wave reflection from the thin

plate may be mainly because the horizontal

plate forms a rigid boundary which does not

permit the free vertical motion of the

particle. The water particles rebound from

the bottom of the plate and causes waves

which propagates in both seaward and lee

ward directions. The seaward component is

recorded as reflected wave. The values are

near to that found by Nallayarasu et al.

(1994) who reported Kr variation from 0 to

0.15 for ds/d = 0.5. Cheong and

Patarapanich (1992) found Kr varying in

between 0.3 to 0.5 using experimental

study. Their values are higher than that of

the present study probably because of they

used thicker (12 mm) and longer (1.0 m)

plate.

4.3 Variation of coefficient of loss (Kl):

Effectiveness of a breakwater is to be

judged by the portion of the energy it

dissipates through friction, turbulence and

wave breaking. High value of loss coefficient

and low value of Kr is desirable. It is found

that there is considerable loss of energy,

which emphasises the importance of

physical model study since most of the

mathematical models neglect the energy

loss.


steepness (H0/gT2):

The variation of Kl with H0/gT2 for various

values of ds/d is depicted in Fig 8. General

trend of Kl is to increase with H0/gT2 up to a

value of H0/gT2 = 0.011, after which Kl does

not increase significantly. Kl increases from

0.0.56 to 0.96 (71%), 0.58 to 0.96 (65%),

0.54 to 0.89(65%) and 0.50 to 0.85 (70%)

for ds/d = 0, 0.1 to 0.2, 0.25 to 0.33 and

0.38 to 0.50 respectively as H0/gT2

increases from 0.001 to 0.011. It can be




seen that the loss is almost same for ds/d 0

to 0.2.


Kl varies with d/L as shown in Fig 9. General

trend of Kl is to increase sharply as d/L

increases from 0.08 to 0.25 and moderately

there after. Maximum Kl varies from 0.6 to

0.93 for ds/Hi = 0.5, which corresponds to

the minimum values of Kt. The minimum

values of Kl observed is in between 0.50 to

0.8 for ds/Hi = 3.0. The minimum values of

Kl are found to be in good agreement with

that of Cheong and Patarapanich (1992)

who reported variation from 0.4 to 0.8.

4.4 Variation of normalised forces:

Horizontal and vertical forces are measured

during the experiments. The horizontal

force is found close to zero and hence

negligible in comparison with the vertical

force. Similar observations were made by

Nallayarasu et .al. (1994). The variation of

normalised vertical force with d/L for various

ds/d are shown in Fig.10. The maximum

value is about 0.58 and the minimum is

about 0.15. |Fy| increased sharply while d/L

increased from 0.08 to 0.23 and there was

no significant increase thereafter. The

increase of force due to increase of d/L may

be due to the fact that the wave energy is

concentrated more near the surface in the

case of deep water waves. The force on the

plate is maximum when ds/d = 0.1 to 0.2. It

decreases when the plate is at the surface

and also when it moves further down. Lower

force observed at the surface level is

because of the water force acting only on

the bottom side. The decrease of force as

submergence increases is quite expected

since the particle velocity decreases with the

depth.

5 Summary of Observations:

The observations made during the physical

model study can be summarised as

presented below.

• Kt decreases with increase of H0/gT2

and d/L for the range of experimental

values considered in the present

study.

• Kt is below 0.6 for H0/gT2 > 0.005 for

ds/d ≤ 0.33.

• Kt is below 0.6 for d/L > 0.17 for

ds/Hi ≤1.0.

• Lowest value of Kt is when ds/Hi =

0.5.

• Lowest values of Kt does not

correspond to the highest values of

Kr

• Kr does not depend on H0/gT2 and

d/L significantly.

• Kl increases with increase of H0/gT2

and d/L for the present range of

experimental values

• Wave force increases with d/L and

decreases with submergence,

however the highest force is when

the plate is just below the surface the

surface.

6 Conclusions:

Physical model study has been conducted

using the wave to analyse the

characteristics of wave propagation over a

horizontal thin submerged horizontal plate

using monochromatic waves in a laboratory

flume. Our results are found in agreement

with other authors reasonably. It is found

that horizontal plate of length 0.50 is

effective in breaking high waves and it

transmits only about 60% of the wave

heights for H0/gT2 > 0.005 when ds/d<=

0.33 and for d/L > 0.17 when ds/Hi ≤ 1.0.

This encouraging result prompts the

horizontal plate breakwater as a structural

measure to control the harsh wave climate.

7 References:

[1] Cheong H. F. and Patarapanich M.

(1992) Reflection and transmission of

random waves by a horizontal

double-plate breakwater, Coastal

Engineering (18) 63 –82.

[2] Dattatri J. (1978) Analysis of regular

and irregular waves and performance

characteristics of submerged

breakwaters, Ph. D Thesis,

Department of Civil Engineering, IIT

Madras.

[3] Gayathri, T., (2003) Wave interaction

with twin-plate breakwater,





Department of Ocean Engineering.

MS Thesis IIT, Madras.

[4] Issacson M., Measurement of regular

wave reflection (1991), Jr.

Waterways Port, Coastal, and Ocean

Engg.(117) 553 –569

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1829—1839.







Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir

and its Catchment

ANAND V. SHIVAPUR*, B. VENKATESH** and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI*** * Department of Civil Engineering, SDM College of Engineering and Technology,

Dharwad – 580 002, Karnataka, India

** Hard Rock Regional Centre, National Institute of Hydrology, Hanuman Nagar,

Belgaum – 590 001, Karnataka, India

*** Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,

Srinivasnagar – 575 025, India

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract: The Neersagar watershed is about 200 km2, which is west flowing river situated

in plains of Western Ghats on eastern side in Karnataka State. In the present study Soil

conservation Service (SCS) model has been used to estimate the yield from the watershed.

This method involves various types of information related to vegetation, Hydrologic Soil

Group and antecedent moisture condition of watershed. GIS software was used for the

rectification of soil and land use map and also to derive SCS Curve Number (CN) for study

area. The SCS model was then applied to estimate the yield values of watershed. The

estimated annual yield of the tank is 0.4MCM. The results generated using SCS-CN and by

monthly water balance method have been then compared. The accuracy of SCS-CN method

is higher than the other method; therefore, we can use this method as an alternate method

for estimating the yield from any watershed in this region.

Key words: antecedent moisture condition; soil conservation services; curve number;

land use; yield.

Introduction:

Water scarcity is among the main

problems to be faced by many societies and

the world in the 21st century. Water scarcity

causes enormous problems for the

populations and societies. The available

water is not sufficient for the production of

food and for alleviating hunger and poverty

in the regions, where quite often the

population growth is larger than the

capability for sustainable use of the natural

resources. In regions of water scarcity, the

water resources are probably already

degraded or subjected to processes of

degradation in both quantity and quality,

which adds to the shortage of water. Under

these conditions, societies face very large

problems when a drought occurs or when

man-made shortages are created. However,

the concept of water availability based on

indicators driver from the renewable water

resources divided by the total populations

should be taken with great care.

The water availability of any region depends

on its climate and then on the topography

and geology. Its sufficiency depends on the

demand placed on it. In semi-arid, arid and

dry sub-humid regions affected by water

scarcity, the processes leading to the water

scarcity have specific characteristics, quite

different from those of humid or temperate

areas. It is important to underline these

characteristics that act strongly upon the

availability of water and its management.

Most of these areas that are likely to be

affected by water scarcity have similar

factors that make up the identity of their

ecosystem and particularly the functioning

of the water cycle. These common features

are to be found in the climate, the rainfall

regime, the conditions of surface runoff and

soil infiltration, and in the replenishment

regime of deep and surface aquifers. Of

equal importance to the above, are also

some non-physical processes that may lead

to water scarcity such as population growth,

mismanagement of resources and climate

change.

In the present study, an attempt has been

made to understand the water availability in

434 Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment



the Neersagar reservoir, which is a main

source of domestic water supply to the twin

cities of Hubli-Dharwad in Karnataka State.

Of late, it has been felt that, the yield of the

reservoir has been depleted due to

anthropogenic interference and watershed

developmental activities such as water and

soil conservation structures are the main

reasons. Initially, the reservoir was

designed to store 9MGD of water, but at

present it provides only 3 MGD, hence the

scarcity (shortage) of water for the people

of these cities. Keeping this in view, it is

planned to study the water yield of the

catchment by SCS method.

Since 1950’s the SCS has been applying to

relate the amount of surface runoff from

rainfall to soil cover complexes. The

underlying theory of the SCS-CN procedure

is that runoff can be related to soil cover

complexes and rainfall through a parameter

known as a Curve Number (CN). The

physical processes involved are; that before

runoff can occur, rainfall must exceed the

infiltration capacity of the soil and any initial

abstractions in the watershed that is runoff

begins after some rainfall has accumulated,

and then becomes asymptotic to a 45

degree line. The SCS-CN procedure is a

lumped approach to rainfall-runoff, in that it

does not consider time in the calculations:

there is an input value of rainfall and an

output value of runoff (Hawkins, 1978). The

SCS method was applied to the small

watersheds of the order of 10-50 ha. Ponce

(1989) writes that “its indiscriminate use for

catchments in excess of 250 km2,…. without

catchment subdivision is generally not

recommended. The runoff curve number

was originally developed by SCS for use in

midsize rural watersheds… therefore its

extension to large basins requires

considerable judgment” However, Johnson

(1998), investigated the applicability of SCS

method for the catchment more the 25000

ha for a reasonable estimate of the daily

flows. Mishra, et.al., (2005) have

incorporated the antecedent moisture

condition to compute the direct runoff. The

results indicates that, the estimates are

reasonable even for the catchments of the

higher order (i.e., >300 km2). The various

studies reported that the estimates obtained

through the SCS are with an higher accuracy

of 98% for shorter interval (may be event

based at sub-hourly intervals). However, at

the daily time steps, the estimates are with

an accuracy between 80-90% (Mishra et.al.,

2005). In the present study, an attempt is

made to compute the runoff from a

watershed of the order of 200 km2, by sub-

dividing the watershed on basis of land

cover type for computing the storage and

curve number.

Study Area:

The study area (Fig.1) falls under the basin

of river Bedti in Dharwad district, Karnataka

state. Geographical area of the catchment is

181.84 sq.km and it is located between

latitude 15° 26′40″ and longitude 74°54′30″.

The elevation of the catchment is about

674.1 MSL. The climate is characterised by

average maximum temperature of 37° C and

minimum of 14° C., the humidity of the

region lies in the range of 65% to 89%. The

catchment receives rainfall mainly from

southwest monsoon (June to Sept). The

average rainfall of the catchment is 700

mm. The soil type found in the catchment is

moderately well drained with coarser

textures. The major portion of the

catchment is under cultivation (75%) and

scrub (13%). The forest cover is about 10

%.

435 ANAND V. SHIVAPUR, B. VENKATESH and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI



Methodology:

One of the major activities in applied

hydrology is the estimation of storm event

(i.e, runoff) from ungauged small

watersheds. Such estimates are often

required in the engineering design of small

hydraulic structures. Soil Conservation

Service (SCS) Curve Number Method has

proven to be very successful tool for the

derivation of runoff from small catchment.

Curve number is a dimensionless co-efficient

which reflects hydrologic soil group, land

cover type and antecedent moisture

conditions. The modifications suggested by

the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India

(1972) to suit Indian condition are included

in the study. A brief account of the SCS

method adopted for the present study is

given below.

The fundamental hypotheses of SCS method

are Runoff starts after the initial abstraction,

Ia, has been satisfied.

The ratio of actual retention of rainfall to

potential maximum retention ‘S’ is equal to

the ratio of direct runoff to rainfall minus

initial abstraction.

The initial abstraction Ia is related to S as

Ia= aS with the value of ‘a’ being a function

of antecedent moisture condition (AMC) and

type of soil. For Indian conditions, the

relationship between runoff depth R (in mm)

and rainfall P (in mm) in a rainfall event in a

catchment is given as (Mishra et.al.,2005,

Chandramohan, et.al., 2007)

( )( )SP

SPR

9.0

1.02

+

−= (1)

Where 25425400

−=CN

S (2)

In which CN is a coefficient called Curve

Number

This equation is for black soils and AMC of

type II and III.

The curve number CN is a relative measure

of retention of water by a given soil-

vegetation-land use (SVL) complex and

takes on values from zero to hundred.

For black soils having AMC of type I and for

all other soil types having AMC of types I, II

and III the above equation is modified as

( )( )SP

SPR

7.0

3.02

+

−= (3)

If P is less than 0.1S in above equation or

less than 0.3S, then the runoff is taken as

zero.

The curve number mainly depends on soil

type, land use and antecedent moisture

conditions. The first two can be obtained by

field survey, while the third parameter refers

to the moisture content present in the soil at

any given time. The AMC values intended to

reflect the effect of infiltration on both the

volume and rate of runoff. The following

relationships may be used to compute the

Curve Number for any AMC conditions

knowing Curve Number for AMC type II, the

relationship are

)(058.010

)(2.4)(

IICN

IICNICN

−= (4)

)(13.010

)(23)(

IICN

IICNIIICN

+= (5)

Data Preparation and Analysis:

To undertake the study of estimating the

runoff by SCS method, the model requires

the daily data pertaining to rainfall of the

stations, which are within the catchment

area. The soil map, land use map and slope

map.

Derivation of Slope Map for the Study

Area:

The slope map was derived using the

contours of the catchment area, which are

taken from the survey of India toposheet at

the scale of 1:50,000. The density of

contours on the maps can be used for

preparing the slope map that gives various

groups or categories of slopes. For the study

area following categories of slopes (Fig. 2)

are derived (Table 1).




Table.1 Percentage area under each slope

category

Slope

Category

Area

(Km2)

% of

Area

1 29.95 16.5

2 52.19 28.8

3 30.48 16.81

4 18.28 10

5 25.78 14.2

6 18.81 10.3

7 2.65 1.4

From the above table, it can be inferred that

the major part (62%) of the catchment area

lies in the slope category 1 to 3, which

means the catchment is gently sloping. The

area under steep category is only 12%,

which is negligible. Hence the major part of

the catchment is unfavorable for runoff

generation.

Hydrological Soil Groups:

Soil properties influence the process of

generation of runoff form rainfall and they

must be considered. When runoff from

individual storms is the major concern, the

properties can be represented by hydrologic

parameters. Only those soil properties are

considered that influences the minimum rate

of infiltration, which are obtained from a

bare soil after prolonged wetting. The

influencing factors for minimum rate of

infiltration are seasonal depth of high water

table, prolonged wetting and depth up to

very slowly permeable layer.

The parameter, which indicates the runoff

potential of the soil, is the qualitative basis

of the classification. The classification is

broad but the groups can be divided into

sub-groups whenever such a refinement is

justified. In the current case, the soil map of

Karnataka prepared by the National Bureau

of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS &

LUP, 1988). The land use map is then

superimposed over the catchment area to

know the extent of each hydrologic soil

group present in the respective area. The

hydrologic soil groups identified in the study

area are tabulated in the Table 2. The B, C

and D hydrological soil groups include

factors that produce higher amounts of

runoff in the basin. The runoff potential map

was prepared based on the soil groups

identified in the basin (Fig.3)




Table.2 Hydrological soil groups

Soil

Group

Area

(Km2)

% of Area

B 96.91 53.3

C 72.35 39.79

D 6.74 3.7

Tank 5.82

Land Use and Land Cover:

Land use and land cover broadly denotes,

everything the land is being put to use, as

expressed in the vegetation and other

human interventions, covering the land

surface. Land use pattern generally reflects

the extent of resources utilisation and

indicate the productivity of the area.

Therefore, various land use and land cover

category is very important for the resources

management.

For the present use, the catchment land use

pattern was taken from the toposheets that

are surveyed in the year 1985 and these

data were verified and updated using the

recent maps developed by the Karnataka

State Remote Sensing Agency. The

categories identified were forest area, scrub

land and crop land (Fig.4). The area under

each category is shown in Table 3.

Table.3 Land use pattern

Category Area

(Km2)

% of

Area

Forest 17.37 9.55

Scrub 22.5 12.4

Crop 136.15 74.87

Tank 5.82

The major portion of the catchment falls in

the category of crop land. However, the

percentage areas under different land use

category are subjected to the correction as

we had used the data of recent years, since

the catchment is subjected to significant

development activities and therefore, the

changes in the areas of all the categories of

land use.

Rainfall Analysis:

Most of the hydrologic problems require

knowledge of the average depth of rainfall

over the catchment area. In the present

study, Theissen polygon method was used

for computing areal average depth of

precipitation. (weight station data based on

relative area represented by each station.

This is done trivially using Natural

Neighbor interpolation)

The catchment is being gauged for rainfall at

three locations namely, Mugad, Dharwad

and Dhummawad. As mentioned above, the

Theissen’s network was constructed and the

respective areas of influence were obtained

and the same is presented in Table 4. The

estimated average rainfall over the

catchment is tabulated in Table.7

Table 4. Theissen’s method

Raingauge

Station

Area

(Km2)

% of

Area

Mugad 80.07 44

Dharwad 40.81 22

Dhummawad 60.95 34

Results and Analysis:

The runoff curve number procedure for

runoff determination, as described by the

SCS, uses rainfall data, watershed

characteristics in order to estimate the

maximum runoff. The runoff curve number,




CN, for the drainage area is determined for

average soil-land cover complex and soil

moisture conditions. The CN parameter

varies between 0 and 100 and is a function

of the dominant soil type, infiltration

behavior of the soil, vegetative cover,

antecedent soil moisture content and land

use. Guidelines for the determination are

documented in USDA-SCS, 1972 which also

presents criteria for discrete partitioning of

soil moisture between wet conditions with

high runoff potential AMC, III., average

conditions with high runoff potential AMC-II

and dry conditions with low runoff potential

AMC-I. This partitioning suggests that the

rainfall-runoff relationship is discrete,

implying sudden shifts in CN with

corresponding quantum jumps in calculated

runoff. In reality, CN varies continuously

with soil moisture and thus has continuous

values instead of only three. Therefore, the

accuracy of runoff simulation can be

improved considerably by using soil

moisture accounting procedure to estimate

S for each storm. It is often needed to use

local runoff data when they are available to

estimate correct CN values. Long runoff

records are needed because the classic

method for deriving CN from measured

runoff data (USDA, SCS, 1972). Thus, a

method for determining CN from limited

rainfall-runoff record is desirable (Hauser &

Jones, 1991b; Woodward, 1991). However,

Hauser and Jones (1991b) found the median

of curve numbers derived from field data

pairs for short records estimated the curve

number close to that of SCS method in the

Western Great Plains.

In the present study, the catchment is not

gauged for the discharge, however, the

rainfall amount are being gauged at three

locations. Also, the soil and land use maps

which were prepared as explained in the

previous section were used. Later on, these

layers (such as soil, land use layer) were

superimposed one on the other to identify

the land use under different soil type

classification. The classified land use groups

are tabulated in the Table 5 below.

The Curve Number for the above said class

was derived by assuming the AMC-II as the

other two AMC conditions represents the

extreme conditions of the catchment. It is

reported that, AMC-II conditions would

estimates the runoff under any given

situation (Yoo, et al, 1993). As the study

area fall under the transition zone of sub-

humid to semi-arid region, the AMC-II

condition would a better option to use. Using

the AMC-II situation, the curve number for

different classes is arrived and the average

curve number for the catchment is

presented in Table 6.

Table.5 Area under different soil type

Land

Use Area under soil

type (Km2)

Area

(Km2)

B C D

Forest 4.2 10.07 3.09 17.37

Scrub 10.31 12.19 Nil 22.50

Crop 82.4 50.09 3.65 136.14

Tank 5.8

Table.6 CN for different land use and land

cover

Land use

classification

Area

(Km2)

CN Area *

CN

Forest (Open)

B 4.2 44 184.8

C 10.7 60 604.2

D 3.09 64 197.89

Scrub land

B 10.31 47 484.57

C 12.19 64 780.16

Crop Land

B 82.4 86 7086.4

C 50.09 90 4508.1

D 3.65 93 339.45

Tank 5.81 100 581

Average CN=81

Maximum retention, S=75.82

The runoffs were calculated using the

derived CN and S values for AMC-II for the

areal average rainfall observed in the

catchment for 20 year. The estimated

runoff values with respect to the rainfall

values are given in the Table 7.




Table.7 Estimated Runoff for Neersagar

using the Curve Number

Arial Average

Rainfall

(mm)

Estimated runoff

(mm)

(SCS method)

753.33 89.18

1220.86 280.49

1125.81 208.04

910.23 125.57

638.59 98.47

775.91 213.71

957.35 221.54

783.8 194.18

737.81 103.4

827.26 127.12

973.6 172.57

600.52 92.18

851.73 124.74

Determination of Yield:

The yield of the reservoir was estimated

using the observed monthly average water

level in the reservoir and the monthly

average runoff. The losses such as

evaporation and seepage were considered.

The estimated yield of the reservoir is given

in the Table 8.

Correlation between Runoff and

Rainfall:

Runoff coefficient represents the integrated

effect of the catchment losses and hence

depends upon the nature of the surface,

surface slope and rainfall intensity. The

relationship between the rainfall and the

resulting runoff is quite complex and is

influenced by a most of factors relating the

catchment and climate. Further, there is the

problem of paucity of data which forces one

to adopt simple correlations for the

adequate estimation of runoff. A relationship

has been established between runoff and

the rainfall of the area using the different

available types of regression tools. The

relations developed are

Linear Equation: R = 0.0006 P +0.0787

r2 = 0.6884 (6)

Power Equation: R = 0.0109 P0.554

r2 = 0.7391 (7)

Where R is the runoff and P is the

precipitation.

Summary:

The study was carried out for the higher

order catchment with a complex land-cover

type to determine the general applicability

of SCS method, as this method is only

applied for a smaller catchments (area

ranging from 10-100 km2). The present

study on Neersagar can summarize the

following points.

1. The catchment on the whole is gently

sloping. About 62 % of the area falls in

the category of 1 to 5% slope. The soils

present in the cathcment are B, C and D.

Almost half of the catchment is covered

with the soil type B and about 40% of C

type.

2. The relationship between rainfall and

runoff with power type equation yields

better estimates.

3. The annual yield of the reservoir is about

416000 cubic meters

4. There is no gauged flow to compare the

results thus obtained by the procedure.

Acknowledgements:

The authors deeply acknowledge the

Principal and the Management of S.D.M.

College of Engineering and Technology,

Dharwad for the support and

encouragement given for carrying out this

study.




Table 8. Estimated yield

Month Monthly

Average

Tank

Level

(m)

NTL

(m)

Area

(Sq.m)

Monthly

average

Runoff

(mm)

Yield

(m3)

Monthly

Yield

(m3)

Jan. 8.61 577.7 2666523.29 0.001 3.13301 97.123

Feb. 8.11 577.2 2666113.92 0.000 0 0

March .69 576.78 2396526.6 0.014 32.50177 1007.55

April 7.16 576.25 2277085.13 0.231 526.8902 15806.70

May 6.72 575.81 2206550.74 0.432 952.5778 29529.91

June 6.98 576.07 2275077.3 1.215 2763.693 82910.77

July 7.42 576.51 2279985.32 0.985 2244.972 69594.13

Aug. 8.44 577.73 2667464.84 0.910 2427.257 75244.95

Sept. 8.64 577.73 2668283.57 0.776 2070.786 62123.58

Oct. 9.11 578.2 2948913.31 0.68 1999.028 61969.86

Nov. 9.12 578.21 2955921.89 0.14 415.6448 12469.34

Dec. 8.87 577.96 2780707.4 0.06 165.803 5139.89

Total 415893.84 m3

References:

[1] Chandramohan.T, Dilip G. Durbude.,

and Venkatesh.B., (2007) “Sensitivity

of Runoff Curve Number to initial

abstraction coefficient”, Vol.88,

Journal of Agricultural Engineering

Division, The Institution of Engineers

(India) pp. 39-43.

[2] Hauser,V.L., and Jones, O.R.,

(1991a) “Runoff curve number for

the Southern High Plains”,

Transactions of the ASAE:34(1):

pp.142-148.

[3] Hauser,V.L., and Jones, O.R.,

(1991b) “SCS curve numbers from

short runoff records”, Jl. of ASAE

Paper No.91-2614, St. Joseph, MI:

ASAE.

[4] Hawkins, R.H., (1978) “Runoff curve

numbers with varying site moisture”,

Journal of Irrigation and Drainage

Division, American Society of Civil

Engineers, 104 (IR4). Pp. 389-398.

[5] Johnson, R.R., (1998) “An

Investigation of Curve number

applicability to Watersheds in Excess

of 25000 Hectares”, Journal of

Environmental Hydrology, 6:

Paper.7., July.

[6] Mishra, S. K., Jain, M. K., Pandey, R.

P., Singh, V. P., (2005) “Catchment

area-based evaluation of the AMC-

dependent SCS-CN-based rainfall-

runoff models”,

[7] Hydrological Processes, Volume 19,

Issue 14 , pp. 2701 - 2718

[8] National Bureau of Soil Survey and

Land Use Planning (NBSSLUP),

(1998) “Soils of Karnataka”, Soils of

India Series, Publ. No 47, pp. 88.

[9] Ponce, V.M., (1989) “Engineering

Hydrology – Principles and Practices”,

San Diego State University.

[10] USDA Soil Conservation

Service, (1984), User’s guide for the

CREAMS computer model, USDA-SCS

Engineering Division, Technical

Release 72, Washington, DC.

[11] Woodward, D.E., (1991),

progress report ARS/SCS curve

number work group, Jl. of ASAE

Paper No.91-2607, St Joseph, MI:

ASAE.

[12] Yoo, K.H., Soileau, M., (1993),

Runoff Curve Number determined by

three methods under conventional

and conservation tillage, Jl. of ASAE,

Vol.36(1), pp. 57-62.




Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume

High-Performance Concrete

M. NAZEER*, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN**, and S.V. RAJEEVA*** *Department of Civil Engineering, TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, India.

** Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,

Srinivanagar-575025, India

***Department of Civil Engineering, Dayananda Sagar College of Engg, Bangalore, India

* E-mail:[email protected]

Abstract: This paper presents the results of an investigation dealing with the effects of

curing periods and the level of replacement of cement with silica fume on the strength and

chloride diffusion rate of a few High-Performance Concrete (HPC) Mixes. Laboratory

investigations were carried out to determine the chloride diffusion characteristics by Simple

Immersion Test and Rapid Chloride Permeability Test. HPC was designed for a target mean

strength of 70 MPa. A part of cement was replaced by silica fume at 8, 10 and 12% by mass

of cement and the concrete was examined for both strength development and chloride

penetration resistance. All mixes were prepared with w/b ratio 0.3, total binder content 483

kg/m3 and coarse aggregate content 1050 kg/m3. Four different mixes with varying silica

fume content were examined. The fine aggregate content was modified in silica fume

admixed mixes in order to keep the paste volume constant. The experimental study shows

that the prolonged moist curing and higher silica fume content improve the chloride

penetration resistance of concrete.

Keywords: hpc; supplementary cementitious materials; silica fume; permeability; chloride

diffusion

Introduction:

Corrosion is the process by which a refined

metal reverts back to its natural state by an

oxidation reaction with a non-metallic

environment (Broomfield, 1997). The

corrosion of steel in concrete is basically an

electrochemical process. The damage of

concrete resulting from corrosion of

embedded steel manifests in the form of

expansion, cracks, spalling of concrete,

reduction in steel cross sectional area and

reduction of bond between steel and

concrete. Depending on the oxidation

condition, the volume of rust may increase

upto six times the volume of pure iron

(Mehta and Monteiro, 1997). Concrete is a

strong alkaline medium (pH 12-13).

According to Pourbaix diagram of

electrochemical potential verses pH value,

(Hou et al., 2004) corrosion of steel occurs

only at pH values lower than 9 or higher

than 14. A protective, thin, impermeable

iron oxide film on the surface makes the

steel passive to corrosion. This passive state

can be inhibited by the destruction of this

passive film due to the entry of aggressive

ions like chlorides and sulphates or by an

acidification of the environment closer to the

steel reinforcement by carbonation (Poupard

et al., 2004).

The reinforcement corrosion in concrete

exposed to marine environment is due to

ingress of chloride ions into concrete

through the pores. To reduce the ingress of

chloride into concrete, it is necessary to

make the concrete less permeable. Addition

of supplementary cementitious materials

(SCM) will reduce the volume of pores to a

greater extent and the pores will also be

discontinuous, resulting in better strength

and durability performance. The

discontinuity in capillary pores of such

concrete is due to the continued cement

hydration and also due to pozzolanic

reactivity. Also, for lower w/b ratios, pore

volumes will be minimum and thus the

moisture exchange between hardened

concrete and the environment is minimized

(Zhang et al., 1999). A large volume of

literature (Mullick, 2000., Papadakis, 2000.,

442 Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance Concrete



Dehwah et al., 2002., shi, 2004) is available

on the strength and durability studies of

concretes incorporating SCMs. The addition

of mineral admixtures in concrete may

create a dilution of its alkalinity in the

beginning; however it improves the pore

structure on hardening. The pozzolanic

activity further improves the pore structure

by forming secondary cementitious material

after consuming calcium hydroxide (CH)

resulting from hydration of cement. Hence it

is important to study chloride diffusion in

concrete with SCM.

Experimental Investigation:

In the present investigation, four concrete

mixes have been studied for strength and

performance to chloride diffusion. Chloride

diffusion was examined by the Simple

Immersion Test (SIT) and by Rapid Chloride

Permeability Test (RCPT). Among the mixes,

one was prepared with cement as the only

binder (control mix) and the other three

mixes were prepared by partially replacing

the cement content with silica fume at 8, 10

and 12 percent (by mass). The water/binder

ratio, superplasticiser dosage and coarse

aggregate content were kept constant for all

mixes.

Materials Used:

A brief description of the materials used and

their physical properties are discussed

below:

Cement:

Ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS

12269-1987 was used.

Fine Aggregate:

Locally available river-bed sand having

specific gravity 2.60 and fineness modulus

of 2.17 was used as fine aggregate. The

grading of fine aggregate conforms to ZONE

III of IS 383-1970.

Coarse Aggregate:

Crushed granite chips having specific gravity

2.67 and fineness modulus 6.67 were used

as coarse aggregate. The particle size varied

from 6mm to 20mm.

Silica fume:

Silica fume required for the work was

supplied by Elkem India.

Superplasticiser:

A commercially available sulphonated

naphthaline polymer based high range

water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) was

used. Its optimum dosage (2.25 percent by

mass of binder) was determined by Marsh

cone test method.

Water: Tap water, fit for drinking, was used

for casting and moist curing of specimens.

The chemical compositions of cementitious

materials are presented in Table 1. Cement

is examined for different characterisation

tests as per the relevant standards and the

results are presented in Table 2. Scanning

Electron microscope images of cementitious

materials are shown in Plate 1 and Plate 2.

Coarse aggregate and fine aggregates used

for the investigation were tested for particle

size distribution and specific gravity, and the

results are presented in Table 3.

Mix Proportions:

Concrete mix was proportioned for a target

mean strength of 70MPa. The method

adopted for the design was similar to the

one recommended in the ACI Manual of

Concrete Practice (ACI 211). The design

basically involves the determination of w/b

ratio for the required compressive strength.

After selecting suitable water content,

depending on the dosage of superplasticiser,

the cement requirement was then

determined. The coarse aggregate content

was fixed based on the average shape of the

aggregate particles. The coarse aggregate

content was kept constant in all the mixes

under investigation as its variation may

affect the mechanical properties of resulting

mix. The fine aggregate content was then

calculated using the absolute volume basis.

The volume of entrapped air was assumed

to be 2 percent (Aitcin, 1998). The total

coarse aggregate content was of two

fractions, namely,

Fraction I : Size varying from 10mm to

20mm, and Fraction II : Size varying from

6mm to 10mm, blended in the ratio 60:40.

Concrete mixes with partial cement

443 M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA



replacement by silica fume were arrived by

adjusting the total sand content in order to

keep the paste volume constant for all

mixes necessitated by the difference in the

specific gravity of cement and silica fume.

The details of mix proportions used in the

investigation after modifying the trial mix

are presented in Table 4.

Casting of Specimen:

Concrete cylinders of dimensions 150mm

diameter and 300mm long and 100mm

cubes were prepared from the different

mixes mentioned. A horizontal shaft mixer

was used for this purpose and the mixing

sequence as outlined below was followed:

� The mixer was initially loaded with

coarse aggregate and run for 30

seconds adding just sufficient water

for wetting the surface of aggregate.

� The fine aggregate was introduced to

the mixer and mixed continuously till

the wet mixture looked

homogeneous.

� Cement and silica fume were added

to the mixer and about three-fourth

of the water, pre-mixed with the

required quantity of superplasticiser

was poured in gradually.

� Mixing was continued for a period not

less than four minutes.

� The balance of water-superplasticiser

mixture was added and the mixing

was continued for a further period of

not less than one minute.

� This mix was used for casting

specimens.

Preparation and Testing of Specimen:

Cylindrical specimens were cast in cast-iron

moulds 150mm diameter and 300mm long.

After 24 hours of casting specimens were

demoulded and put in water for curing. After

their attaining sufficient strength, the

specimens were sliced to 50mm thick discs

using a diamond toothed saw after

discarding 25mm of concrete from the top

and bottom of the cast cylinders. The curing

process was continued for periods of 3, 7

and 14 days. Cubes (100mm size) were also

prepared from each mix for the compressive

strength determination.

Compressive Strength:

The cubes were tested for the compressive

strength after 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days of

moist curing.

Simple Immersion Test:

The sliced specimens (150mmΦx50mm)

taken out of water, after specified period of

curing, were surface dried and coated with

bituminous material to prevent the entry of

chloride ions except through one face. This

ensures unidirectional movement of ions

through concrete when it was immersed in

anionic solution. The specimens were

immersed in 5% NaCl solution. The

specimens were then taken out after 7, 28,

56 and 90 days of immersion and split

length-wise. The split surface was sprayed

with Silver nitrate solution. The depth of

chloride ion penetration was measured from

the colour change along the thickness of the

specimen at six locations on each split piece

and their average was taken to calculate the

coefficient of diffusion.

Rapid Chloride Permeability Test:

The sliced specimens (150mmΦx50mm)

taken out of water, after specified period of

curing were placed in a dirt-free

environment till testing. The testing was

done at the age of 28, 56 and 90 days. A

potential of 60V DC was applied between

two electrodes placed on the opposite

surfaces of the specimen which had been

exposed to 0.3 M NaOH solution on one side

(Anode) and 3% by weight NaCl solution on

the other side (Cathode). The test runs for 6

hours and the total charge passed through

the specimen during this period is calculated

from the current-time plot (Basheer, 2001).

Results and Discussion:

It is observed that the addition of silica fume

caused a reduction in slump value as shown

in Table 4, which however did not affect the

mouldability of the concrete. On hardening

within moulds the specimens did not show

any honeycombing. It was noted that at the

administered dosage of superplasticiser

(2.25 percent by mass of binder), there was

a little delay in the hardening of control

concrete, while earlier setting was observed




for silica fume admixed concretes. This

indicates that the pozzolanic reaction of

silica fume started even at the early hours

of hydration. The development of

compressive strength of all mixes upto an

age of 90 days is shown in Fig. 1. Higher

level of replacement of cement with silica

fume caused increase in compressive

strength at all ages of test. However, the

strength of SFC12 shows a lower value at

later age mostly due to the imperfect

compaction. Also, the rate of strength

development of such mixes was much faster

in early ages (upto 28 days).

The depths of chloride ion penetration from

simple immersion test are used to calculate

the chloride ion diffusion coefficient

(Basheer, 2001) to get an idea of

permeability of concrete. The equation used

is as follows:

Eqn(1)

Where Xd – the chloride penetration depth

in m,

t - the time of exposure in s, and

D – chloride diffusion coefficient in m2/s.

The calculated diffusion coefficient values

are used to classify the concrete in terms of

their permeability as per the

recommendations of the Concrete Society as

given below (Basheer, 2001):

High permeability concrete: >5x10-12

m2/s.

Average permeability concrete: (1 to 5) x

10-12 m2/s.

Low permeability concrete:< 1 x 10-12

m2/s.

The variation of diffusion coefficient with

period of exposure for different curing

conditions is plotted and is shown in Fig. 2

to Fig. 4. From these plots, it is clear that

for all mixes the coefficients are less than

those specified for low permeability

concrete. However, the early age test result

shows rather higher values of diffusion

coefficient at 7 days for control mix and SFC

8 mix. The progressive decrease in values

indicates that, the pore refinement is a

continuous process for all mixes. It is also

observed that the control mix requires

longer period of moist curing for pore

refinement. The differences in diffusion

coefficient values for a particular age of test

with different curing conditions are higher

for control concrete and this reduces with

the increase in silica fume content. Mixes

with higher silica fume content require

minimum moist curing for pore refinement;

this is due to the enhanced pozzolanic

activity of silica fume.

The current (ampere) values observed in the

Rapid Chloride Permeability Test are used to

calculate the total charge passed through

the specimen in Coulombs. The area under

the current vs time plot is calculated using a

formula given in ASTM C1202. To account

for the non-standard dimension (diameter)

of the specimen used in the test, the

calculated charge values are corrected using

Eqn (2).

Eqn (2)

where Qs is the charge passed through

100mm diameter standard specimen, Qx is

the charge passed through x mm diameter

test specimen. The total charge passed

through the specimen at the age of 56 and

90 days and for different curing conditions is

plotted against the silica fume content and

presented in Fig. 5.

It is observed that, the addition of silica

fume in concrete reduces the total charge

conductivity. The reduction is more

pronounced upto a replacement level of 10

percent. For higher percentages, there is a

tendency of increase in charge passed

except for concretes, which are moist cured

for a longer (7 days or more) period. The

probable reason for this higher current

through concrete mix with 12% replacement

may be due to the poor compaction

achieved owing to the reduced workability.

All the curves shown in Fig. 5 follow an

exponential relation in the form:

Eqn(3)

Where C is the total charge passed through

the specimen during the test period in

Coulombs, A is a factor depending on the

period of moist curing and age of concrete

at the time of test, r is a factor depending

on age of concrete at the time of test, and s

is the percentage silica fume content in




concrete. The approximate value of the

factor r is 0.09 for 90 days test and 0.08 for

56 days test. Whereas, the factor A may be

computed from the relation:

Eqn(4)

where Cp is the moist curing period in days

and P is a constant, 1050 for 90 days test

and 1200 for 56 days test.

There is an interesting relation between the

initial current, I0 (in mA) and the total

charge passed, C (Coulombs) through the

specimen over six hours test period. Fig. 6

shows this variation irrespective of the silica

fume content. This variation satisfies a

linear relation in the form:

Eqn(5)

Accounting for the silica fume content, the

parameter k may be written as:

Eqn(6)

Based on the total charge passed through

the specimen, the concrete can be rated as

follows as per the ASTM standards:

Chloride

permeability

Total

charge

passed

rating (Coulomb)

Negligible < 100

Very low 100-1000

Low 1000-2000

Medium 2000-4000

High > 4000

The total charge passed through the

specimens at the age of 90 days is plotted

against the period of moist curing and

shown in Fig. 7. It is clear that, the charge

passed reduces with the addition of silica

fume. For any mix, prolonged moist curing

causes the reduction in the value of charge

passed. This is more pronounced for control

mix. For all silica fume admixed concretes,

the curves almost coincided, showing that

even a small percentage of silica fume

addition causes pronounced reduction in

chloride penetrability of concrete. All

concrete mixes have total charge passed

between 100 and 1000 Coulombs and fall

under the category of very low permeability

concrete.

Conclusions:

The effect of silica fume on workability,

strength and resistance to chloride ion

penetration are investigated and compared

for three different curing ages. For the given

mix proportions, the addition of silica fume

reduces the workability of concrete. Use of

high range water reducing admixture is

essential to enhance the workability of

concrete. For higher levels of replacement of

cement with silica fume, higher dosage of

superplasticiser may be required for

maintaining workability. There is a general

trend that the strength of concrete mix

increases as the replacement level increases

except for SFC12 mix, probably due to

imperfect compaction. The chloride ion

diffusion coefficients calculated from the

depths of chloride ion penetration from

simple immersion tests indicates that, 7

days of moist curing makes the silica fume

admixed concrete more impermeable. The

pore refinement increases with increase in

silica fume content. The total charge passed

through the specimen in RCPT decreases

with increase in silica fume content. The

optimum replacement level of cement is 10

percent with respect to the total charge

passed through the specimen. There exists a

linear relationship between the total charge

passed and the initial current in RCP test.

Both prolonged moist curing and higher

silica fume content improve the chloride

penetration resistance of concrete.

Acknowledgements:

The authors acknowledges the support of

M/s ELKEM INDIA (P) LIMITED, M/s FOSROC

CHEMICALS (India) Pvt. Ltd. and M/s

GRASIM INDUSTRIES LIMITED for the

supply of silica fume, superplasticiser and

cement respectively used during the

present investigation.




References:

[1] ACI 211-1-91, (1993), “Standard

practice for selecting proportions for

normal, heavy weight and mass

concrete” ACI Manual of Concrete

Practice, Part 1.

[2] Aitcin, P.-C., “High Performance

Concrete.” E&FN SPON, New York.

1998.

[3] ASTM C1202-97, Standard Test

Method for Electrical Indication of

Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride

Ion Penetration, Annual Book of

ASTM Standards, vol. 04.02,

American Society for Testing and

Materials, Philadelphia, 2003.

[4] Basheer, P.A.M, Permeation Analysis,

in Handbook of analytical techniques

in concrete science and technology,

Principles, techniques and

applications, Ed., V.S.Ramachandran

and James J. Beaudoin, Noyes

publications, USA., 2001. 658-737.

[5] Broomfield JP, “Corrosion of Steel in

Concrete-Understanding,

Investigation and Repair”, E&FN

SPON, London, 1997.

[6] Dehwah HAF, Austin SA, and

Maslehuddin M, Chloride Induced

Reinforcement Corrosion in Blended

Cement Concretes Exposed to

Chloride Sulphate Environments,

Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol.

54(5), (2002), 355-364.

[7] Hou WM, Chang PK, and Hwang CL, A

Study on Anti-corrosion Effect in

High-Performance Concrete by the

Pozzolanic Reaction of Slag, Cement

and Concrete Research, Vol. 34(4),

(2004) 615-622.

[8] IS 12269 – 1987, Specifications for

53 Grade ordinary Portland cement,

BIS, New Delhi.

[9] IS 383-1970, Specifications for

coarse and fine aggregates from

natural sources for concrete, BIS,

New Delhi.

[10] Mehta PK, and Monteiro PJM.

“Concrete-Microstructure, Properties

and Materials”, Indian Concrete

Institute, Chennai, 1997.

[11] Mullick AK, Corrosion of

Reinforcement in Concrete-an

Interactive Durability Problem, The

Indian Concrete Journal, (2000) 168-

176.

[12] Papadakis VG, Effect of

Supplementary Cementing Materials

on Concrete Resistance against

Carbonation and Chloride Ingress.

Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.

30(2) (2000) 291-299.

[13] Poupard O, Mokhtar AA, and

Dumargue P., Corrosion by Chlorides

in Reinforced Concrete:

Determination of Chloride

Concentration Threshold by

Impedance Spectroscopy, Cement

and Concrete Research, Vol. 34(6),

(2004), 991-1000.

[14] Shi, C, Effect of Mixing

Proportions of Concrete in its

Electrical Conductivity and the Rapid

Chloride Permeability Test (ASTM C

1202 or AASHTO T 277) Results,

Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.

34(3), (2004), 537-545.

[15] Zhang MH, Bilodeau A,

Malhotra VM, Kim KS, and Kim JC,

Concrete Incorporating

Supplimentary Cementing Materials:

Effect on Compressive Strength and

Resistance to Chloride Ion

Penetration, ACI Materials Journal,

Vol. 96(2), (1999), 181-189.




Table 2: Physical Properties of Cement.

Plate 1: SEM Image of Cement.

Plate 2: SEM Image of Silica fume.

Table 3: Properties of Aggregate.

Property

Fine

aggregate

Coarse

aggregate

Specific gravity 2.6 2.67

Fineness

modulus 2.17 6.65

Grading zone

(IS 383) Zone III -




Table 4: Trial Mix Details.

Fig.1 Development of compressive strength.

Fig.2 Comparison of diffusion coefficient for

mixes moist cured at 3 and 7 days.








Fig.5 Effect of silicafume content, moist

curing period and test age on total charge

passed through the specimen.

Fig.6 Relation between total charge passed

and initial current.

Fig.7 Effect of silica fume content and

period of moist curing on charge passed at

90 days RCP Test.




Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength

Characteristics of High Strength Concrete

K. CHINNARAJU*, K. SUBRAMANIAN** AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR*** * Structural Engineering Division, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India

** Department of Civil Engg, Coimbatore Inst. of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

*** P.P.G. Institute of Technology, Saravanampatti, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract: To study the role of silica fume and Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag

(GGBS) on the strength characteristics of high strength concrete a test program has been

carried out. A set of 24 different concrete mixtures were cast and tested with different

cement replacement levels (0%, 10%, 20% and 30%) of GGBS with silica fume as addition

(0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by weight of cement). For each mixture, super

plasticizer has been added at different dosage values to achieve a constant range of slump

for desired workability with a constant water-binder (w/b) ratio. Based on the test results

the influence of such admixtures on strength aspects were critically analyzed and discussed.

A statistical model has been developed to relate compressive strength with flexural and split

tensile strengths.

Key words: GGBS, Silica Fume, High Strength Concrete, Compressive Strength, Flexural

Strength, Split Tensile Strength

Introduction:

The use of GGBS as additive to cement is in

use for a reasonably long period due to

overall economy in its production as well as

the improved performance characteristics of

concrete in aggressive environments. GGBS

is a glassy material from by-product of blast

furnace iron making. It mainly contains

calcium silico aluminate with high reactivity

[1]. GGBS can improve the fluidity of fresh

concrete, reduce its bleeding and postpone

the setting when Portland cement is partially

replaced by GGBS in concrete. The early-age

strength of the concrete with Portland

cement partially replaced by GGBS is almost

equal to that of the concrete before

replacement while the strength at later ages

is even much higher. The introduction of

GGBS has a great effect on the

microstructure of concrete, which includes

the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between

aggregates and the hardened bulk cement

paste. The ITZ is a weak zone in the

microstructure of concrete, but it is one of

the most important factors influencing the

performance of concrete. The existence of a

water-membrane and pores at the ITZ of

aggregates results in a much more open

microstructure and a high orientation of

calcium hydroxide crystals in the zone [4].

The rate of hydration due to addition of

GGBS is known to be very slow and hence

the silica fume which is very rich in reactive

silica content is added along with the GGBS

to accelerate the hydration process and

compensate the draw backs [5 - 9]. The

effect of silica fume in concrete can be

explained in two mechanisms, namely the

filler effect and the pozzolanic effect. A

properly proportioned GGBS and silica fume

in concrete mix improves properties of

concrete that may not be achievable

through the use of Portland cement alone

[8].

Experimental Program:

To study the effect of GGBS and silica fume

in the strength properties of high

performance concrete specimens as

mentioned in Table 3. GGBS has been used

as cement replacement material for 0%,

10%, 20% and 30% cement replacement

levels with different values of silica fume

(0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by

weight of cement) as addition.

451 Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of

High Strength Concrete



Materials

The properties of the selected materials for

this experimental study have been reported

as below:

Cement

Ordinary Portland cement 53 grade with

physical and chemical properties as given in

table 1 has been used in this experimental

study.

GGBS

Slag(GGBS) obtained from Andhra Cements,

Vizak, India confirming to IS: 12089 as

mineral admixture in dry powder form has

been used in this study. Its physical and

chemical properties are given in table 1.

Silica fume

The silica fume obtained from the M/s

ELKEM Pvt Ltd , Bombay, India confirming to

ASTM C1240 was used for this study. Its

physical and chemical properties are given

in table 1.

Fine aggregate

Locally available river sand (coarse sand)

confirming to Grading Zone II of IS: 383 –

1970 was used in this experimental work.

Its physical properties are dealt in table 2.

Coarse aggregate

Locally available crushed blue granite stones

confirming to graded aggregate of nominal

size 12.5 mm as per IS: 383 – 1970 was

used in this experimental work. Its physical

properties are dealt in table 2.

Super Plasticizer

Chemical admixture based on Sulphonated

Naphthalene Formaldehyde condensate

‘CONPLAST SP430’ conforming to IS: 9103 –

1999 and ASTM C – 494 was used in this

study.

Water

Potable water with pH value of 7.0 and

confirming to IS 456-2000 was used for

making concrete and curing the specimen as

well.

Mix Proportions

A total of 24 concrete mixtures were

designed as per ACI 211.4R having a

constant water/binder ratio of 0.32 and total

binder content of 583 kg/m3. The control

mixture of grade M60 included only ordinary

Portland cement (OPC) as the binder while

the remaining mixtures incorporated the

GGBS as cement replacement material and

silica fume as addition. The replacement

levels for GGBS was 10%, 20% and 30%

while those of silica fume were 2.5%, 5%,

7.5% 10% and 12.5% by weight of cement

as addition. The mixture proportions are

summarized in Table 3 in which the mixtures

were designated according to the type and

the amount of cementitious materials

included.

Casting and Testing

For the compressive strength determination,

100 mm size cube specimens were used,

while 150 x 300 mm cylinder specimens

were used for determining the split tensile

strength, and for flexural tensile strength,

100x100x500 mm beam specimens were

used. A symmetrical two-point loading

setup, with beam span of 400 mm, was

used for the flexural test. All the specimens

were moist cured under water at room

temperature until testing. Average of the

strength of three specimens has been

considered as the strength value. Specimens

were tested according to relevant Indian

Standards.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

All the 24 mixtures were tested for their

corresponding strengths and their results

are shown in figures 1 through 4.

Figure 1 shows the compressive strength on

7th day whereas figure 2 shows compressive

strength on 28th day. From these results it

can be seen that at 7th day the compressive

strength due to the addition of GGBS as

partial replacement of cement is less than

the control mix. This is due to the fact that

the hydration process will be slow with the

addition of GGBS. However when the silica

fume is added an appreciable increase in the

compressive strength is noticed which is due

to the higher percentage of silica content in

it. Also it is observed that the ultimate

compressive strength reaches when the

silica fume addition is 10 percent. The rate

of increase in compressive strength is high

at 7days and less at 28 days. It can be seen

that the increase in compressive strength at

28 days is almost negligible.

Split Tensile Strength

Figure 3 represents the variation of split

tensile strength at 28 days due to the

452 K. CHINNARAJU, K. SUBRAMANIAN AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR



addition of GGBS as cement replacements

up to 30% with the addition of silica fume

up to 12.5% by weight of cement. It is

observed that the increase in split tensile

strength is moderate when silica fume

addition is up to 10% beyond that there is

no increase of split tensile strength instead

of that a appreciable drop in split tensile

strength is noticed. It is also observed

during tests that the failure of the specimen

was sudden because of more brittleness.

The ultimate split tensile strength was

obtained for the combination of GGBS at

cement replacement level of 20% along with

the addition of 10% silica fume.

Flexural Strength

Figure 4 shows the variation of flexural

strength at 28 days age for cement

replacements up to 30% by GGBS with silica

fume addition of up to 12.5%. The change in

flexural strength is very limited for most of

the combinations except at cement

replacement level of 20% by GGBS along

with the addition of 10% silica fume. It is

also observed that the flexural strength

decreases with higher rate beyond the

addition of 10% silica fume.

Correlation Analysis

Figure 5 shows the correlation between

square root of compressive strength at 28

days and split tensile strength and Figure 6

shows the correlation between square root

of compressive strength at 28 days and

flexural strength. A linear regression

analysis has been made and the relationship

between compressive strength and split

tensile strength, flexural strengths have

been arrived along with their corresponding

regression coefficient and shown in the

figures 5 and 6 for various addition of silica

fume. For all these relations the value of

regression coefficients shows the better

degree of reliability over the relations. By

knowing the compressive strength of

concrete for the percentage of addition of

silica fume along GGBS replacement levels

the corresponding flexural / split tensile

strengths can be arrived at with the

appropriate correlation equations.

Conclusions

Extensive experimentation has been carried

out to determine the effect of addition of

silica fume with the different cement

replacements by GGBS on the compressive,

split and flexural strengths of high

performance concrete. A statistical analysis

also has been performed to get the

generalized relations between the said

strengths. Based on the above experimental

and analytical analysis the following

conclusions can be drawn.

1. There is no enhancement in

compressive strength at 7 days due to

replacement of cement by GGBS,

however due to addition of silica fume

there is appreciable increase in

compressive strength and also noticed

that the increase in compressive

strength is maximum at 10% addition

of silica fume.

2. Even though the compressive strength

decreases at 7th day due to the addition

of GGBS, the 28th day compressive

strength attains almost the control

specimen value. This shows that the

rate of decrease of compressive

strength at early stage is compensated

at the later stage due to the addition of

GGBS and the contribution of silica

fume for the later developments of

strength is negligible.

3. Based on the results obtained it can be

concluded that the 10 % addition of

silica fume with any level of cement

replacements by GGBS gives the

optimum value of compressive strength,

split and flexural strengths as well. It

can also be concluded that the

replacements of 20% by GGBS with

10% addition of silica fume yields an

overall optimum value.

References:

[1] Ganesh Babu, K., Sree Rama Kumar,

V., “Efficiency of GGBS in concrete”,

Cement and Concrete Research, 30,

(2000), pp. 1031– 1036.

[2] Feng Nai-Qian, “High Performance

Concrete”, China Architecture and

Building Press, Beijing, 1996.

[3] Tan Ke-Feng, Xin-Cheng Pu,

“Strengthening effects of FGFA,

GGBS, and their combination”,

Cement and Concrete Research, 28

(12), (1998), pp. 1819–1825.





[4] Gao, J.M., Qian, C.X., Liu, H.F..

Wang, B., Li. L., “ITZ microstructure

of concrete containing GGBS”,

Cement and Concrete Research, 35,

(2005), pp. 1299– 1304.

[5] Hassan, K.E., Cabrera J.G., Maliehe,

R.S., “The effect of mineral

admixtures on the properties of high-

performance concrete”, Cement and

Concrete Composites, 22, (2000),

pp.267– 271

[6] Malhotra, V.M., Mehta, P.K.,

“Pozzolanic and cementitious

materials”, Advances in Concrete

Technology, Gordon and Breach,

London, 1996.

[7] Gengying Li and Xiaohua Zhao,

“Properties of concrete incorporating

fly ash and ground granulated blast

furnace slag”, Cement concrete

research, 25, (2003), pp. 293 – 299.

[8] Ganesh Babu.K., Surya Prakash.P.V.,

“Efficiency of Silica Fume in

Concrete”, Cement and Concrete

Research, 25 (6), (1995), pp. 1273 -

1283.

[9] Rajamane,N.P., Annie Peter,J.,

Dattatreya,J.K., Neelamegam, M.,

and Gopalakrishnan, S.,

“Improvement in properties of High

Performance Concrete with Partial

Replacement of cement by Ground

Granulated Blast Furnace Slag”,

Institution of Engineers (I) – CV, 84,

(2003), pp. 38 – 41.

Table.1 Physical and Chemical properties of cement and admixtures

Property/ composition Cement GGBS Silica fume

Physical properties

Specific Surface Area

(Blaine Fineness)

(m2/kg)

385

400 to 600

20900

Specific Gravity 3.15 2.85 to 2.95 2.20

Standard Consistency 31% - -

Initial Setting Time 2 hrs - -

Final Setting Time 4 hrs - -

Bulk density

(kg/m3) -

1050 to 1375 600 to 700

Physical form - Powder form Powder form

Chemical composition

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) 20.78 % 33.05 % 90 - 96 %

Aluminium Oxide

(Al2O3) 4.44 % 20.62 % 0.5 - 0.8 %

Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 2.88 % 1.34 % 0.2 - 0.8 %

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 63.78 % 34.09 % 0.1 - 0.5 %

Magnesium Oxide

(MgO) 3.66 % 9.06 % 0.5 - 1.5 %

Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 2.75 % 0.58 % 0.1 - 0.4 %

Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 0.46 % 0.23 % 0.2 - 0.7 %

Potassium Oxide (K2O) 0.64 % 0.30 % 0.4 - 1.0 %

Loss on Ignition 0.61 % - 0.7 - 2.5 %

Table.2 Basic Properties of Aggregates




Table.3 Mix proportions





Table.4 Test Results

40

50

60

70

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5

Slica Fume Content (%)

Compressive Strength (MPa)

GGBS 0

GGBS10

GGBS20

GGBS30

Fig 1 Compressive Strength on 7th Day




50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

90.00

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5


Compressive Strength (MPa)

GGBS 0

GGBS10

GGBS20

GGBS30

Fig 2 Compressive Strength on 28th Day

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5


Split Tensile Strength (MPa)

GGBS 0

GGBS10

GGBS20

GGBS30

Fig.3 Split Tensile Strength

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5


Flexural Strength

GGBS 0

GGBS10

GGBS20

GGBS30

Fig.4 Flexural Strength





Fig.5 Square Root of Compressive Strength Vs Split Tensile Strength

Fig.6 Square Root of Compressive Strength Vs Flexural Strength




Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid

Waste Composting in a Rotary in-vessel with

Varying Periods of Rotational Spells

MONSON C. C*, MURUGAPPAN. A* and GOVINARAJAN. M**

* Department of Civil Engineering Annamali University, India

** Muthiah Polytechnic College, Annamalainagar, India

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Kinetic studies on the degradation of vegetable solid waste by microbial

composting process in a rotary in-vessel under controlled conditions and varying periods of

rotational spells in batch process are important for the design of large scale operations. The

composting of vegetable waste was carried out, in a motor driven in-vessel at 3 rpm for 14

days, in four sets of experiments with varying periods of rotational spells, namely (i)

Control Mix 1 and Control Mix 2 in idle condition without any rotational spell (ii) a total of 12

hour rotation in a day with 3-hour rotational spells followed by 3-hour idle condition in two

trials A1 and A2, (iii) a total of 20 hour rotation in a day with 4-hour rotational spells

followed by 1-hour idle condition in two trials B1 and B2 and (iv) Continuously for the entire

24 hours in a day in two trials C1 and C2. The combination of bulking agents used in

Control Mix1, A1, B1 and C1, were paddy straw and dry leaves while in Control Mix 2, A2,

B2 and C2, wood shavings and dry leaves were used. In all the trials, cow dung was used as

a starter along with the bulking agents. The reduction in C/N ratio of the waste in the

control mixes and in all the trials is critically compared. Kinetic studies have shown

remarkable improvement in the reduction of C/N ratio indicating high decomposition rate

and carbon loss. The reaction is found to follow first order kinetics. Trial C1, where the

rotational spell was continuous for 24 hours, had resulted in a maximum reduction in C/N

ratio of 15.9 along with a temperature rise of 64.5ºC and a higher reaction rate constant of

0.032 day-1.This is considered to be the best when compared with other cases where their

periods of rotational spells were lesser and intermittent. This confirms rotations have to be

given continuously as it has greatly influenced the decomposition process ensuring the

reduction of composting period.

Keywords: vegetable solid waste, composting, rotary in-vessel, Bulking agents, kinetics

Introduction:

Solid waste management (SWM) is largely

becoming a complex problem due to high

rate of industrialization and population

growth in many Indian cities. The

enforcement of the environmental

legislation, the rising land cost, the shortage

of dumping sites and the evolution of 50-

60% of methane from landfill emissions

leading to global warming has all created

much more complexity in India (Gupta et al,

1998). Measures adopted to solve them

have only multiplied the problems to several

folds, as open dumping with poorly designed

land fillings have contaminated the soil and

underground sources, Moreover, the burning

of wastes in open dumps using poorly

designed incinerators have led to

atmospheric air pollution. These wide spread

practices have brought significant health

risks for the public and rapid degradation of

a healthy environment (Kalamdhad et al,

2009a). Meanwhile, the indiscriminate use

of chemical fertilizers for crop production

has left the soil totally depleted of its

indigenous nutrients and fertility (Deluca

and Deluca, 1997). Scientists and

environmentalist pursuing for fast, eco-

friendly and cost effective solid waste

management alternative for disposing the

heterogeneous nature of Municipal Solid

Waste (MSW) have considered source

reduction with decentralized composting as

the preferred waste management strategy

(Stelmachowski et al,2003).

459 Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting




Composting, which is the oldest traditional

way of disposal in India helps to degrade the

organic portion of waste, so that it may be

effectively composted and returned to the

soil (Iyengar and Bhave prashant, 2006).

The major drawback of such traditional

composting is its long process duration,

leading to loss of some nutrients in the

heterogeneous nature of the end product.

In-vessel composting is an effective

alternate method to compost in which the

high temperature required for destroying

pathogenic organisms is achieved and also

the organic matter get composted in a much

shorter duration, in a better oxygenated

environment (Haug, 1993). The in-vessel

composting system has several advantages

over the windrow system such that food

waste and other organic wastes can be

successfully composted. It requires less

space, and provides high process efficiency

in a controlled atmosphere better than

windrows (Kim et al, 2008).

Composting, though an oxygen consuming,

heat-generating microbial process in a

highly dynamic system, is moisture

dependent for the function of the microbial

composting process but, if there is excessive

moisture; it will reduce the airspace in

compost matrix and causes oxygen

limitation to microbes (Sunderberg and

Jonsson, 2008). Though various large

composting systems have been proposed,

many of them have failed in providing

optimal operating parameters for effective

degrading environment (Bongochgetsakul

Nattakorn and Tetsuya Ishida, 2007). This

study was conducted to evaluate the

performance of composting in a bench scale

motorized in-vessel by adopting variations in

rotational spells.

Out of 39 tonnes of MSW collected from

Chidambaram town in Cuddalore district of

Tamilnadu state, 12 tonnes are vegetable

wastes mainly from the market that can be

easily segregated at the source, before they

are dumped in landfills in the town outskirts

without any proper treatment. Organic

fractions of these vegetable wastes were

taken for the study in a motor driven rotary

in-vessel developed in the laboratory and

composted with proper amendments in

controlled conditions for 14 days. The

kinetics of the composting are studied in this

work for varying periods of rotational spells,

so that the composting time period is

reduced.

Investigation objectives are to find out the

(1) decomposition rate of composting

vegetable solid wastes with an initial C/N

ratio of around 35 in the experiments. (2)

Kinetics of the different trials for varying

period of rotational spells and (3) the

maturity value of C/N ratio of resultant

compost during different trials.

Materials and Methods:

In this study, vegetable wastes collected

from the town were taken from the mixed

bunch and are shredded to a size of 25 mm

as recommended by Rynk (1992) for

providing better porosity, aeration and

moisture control. The wastes were amended

with cow dung for proper microbial

inoculation along with bulking agents of

combinations of paddy straw and dry leaves

in one trial, wood shavings and dry leaves in

the other trial of each set of experiment to

provide stability, porosity and integrity to

the structure as per Zhang Yun and Yong He

(2006). The composting of vegetable waste

was carried out, in a motor driven in-vessel

at 3 rpm for 14 days, in four sets of

experiments with varying periods of

rotational spells, namely (i) Control Mix1

and Control Mix 2 in idle condition without

any rotational spell (ii) a total of 12 hour

rotation in a day with 3-hour rotational

spells followed by 3-hour idle condition in

two trials A1 and A2, (iii) a total of 20 hour

rotation in a day with 4-hour rotational

spells followed by 1-hour idle condition in

two trials B1 and B2 and (iv) Continuously

for the entire 24 hours in a day in two trials

C1 and C2. Physical and chemical analyses

of the substrate, from the start to the end of

the trials were carried out. The ratio of the

mix of feedstock materials namely,

vegetable waste –(S), cow dung–(M) and

the bulking agents (B) are presented in

Table 1and 2.

460 MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M



Process:

The laboratory scale bio-reactor used for bio

conversion of the wastes is a cylindrical

vessel with a capacity of 50 litres, made of

fibre reinforced plastic material with a

coating of Vinylester resin material inside

to take care of the load and temperature

as well as the chemical changes taking

place at the time of the conversion process.

Further, a 6 mm thick insulation cover is

wrapped on the outer surface of the drum to

prevent the heat escape during the initial

stages of the process. The drum is made to

spin around its horizontal axes, with a low

rpm motor and controlled with preset timer

device to switch on/off. The composting

carried out in the Dano reactor typifies the

horizontal drum category, had three or more

meters larger in diameter and is rotated at

1-2 rpm for a short duration of three days

(Haug, 1993 and Dean, 1978). The design

of the Eweson system which differs from

that of the Dano system is divided into

compartments such that the residence time

can be varied throughout the drum

(Golueke, 1960). The speed of 3 rpm was

arbitrarily chosen here in a 0.35m diameter

drum to treat a quantity of 9-11kg of waste.

The air flow is provided centrally by an

aerator through a stationary central pipe

from one end of the drum and with an

exhaust pipe on the other end to let out the

hot gases (Refer figure 1). The air supply is

given steadily with an aerator for the initial

period at the rate of not less than 10 l/min

which satisfies the requirement of 5%

oxygen in the chamber as mentioned by

Rynk(1992) which is regulated periodically

as per the requirement. Fins are provided

inside the periphery of the drum to provide

proper mixing. The vessel was filled to its

90% of capacity, anticipating quick volume

reduction. Cow urine was added along with

water whenever the moisture content was

below the 50% level to accelerate the

process. The ambient temperature at the

time of experiments inside the laboratory

varied between 28° to 32°C.

Measurement of Physical and Chemical

Parameters:

A 50 g sample was taken once every two

days for laboratory analysis. The moisture

content of sample was measured after

drying at 105ºC for overnight. The pH and

Electrical Conductivity (EC) were measured

in the condition of solid-to-water mixture

(weight: volume = 1:10). The multi pronged

probe of Hitachi make was used daily for

instant measurement of temperature, EC

and moisture content. The dried sample was

ground and then used for determination of

Volatile Solids (VS) and Total Organic

Carbon (TOC). The VS was measured after

igniting the sample at 550º C for 2h in a

muffle furnace (APHA, 1995). TOC was

calculated using the formula (100 - %

ash)/1.8 and Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN)

was measured using semi-micro Kjeldahl

method (APHA, 1995, ASAE, 1986). The

initial parameters were given for each trial

in Table 3.

Reaction Rate Constant:

Many researchers have made the kinetic

studies of substrate degradation and

reported that the reaction is based on first

order function. Haug(1993) has given the

model based on the BVS which showed a

good fit to the selected BOD data at

constant temperature over a composting

period of 60-348 days and the degradation

rate follows the equation of the form given

in equation (1).

(1)

where BVS = the quantity of biodegradable

volatile solids (kg), t = time (days) and k =

degradation rate constant (g BVS/day).

Equation (1) is used to define the first order

reaction kinetics of the system. The

assumption of first order kinetics has

worked well in describing numerous

processes involving biological oxidation. A

first order model without temperature

corrections has also shown evidence of

fairly good fit at longer time periods

exceeding 70,84 and 168 days in the

experiments conducted by Bernal et al

(1993).





Data on Carbon constituents have been

expressed here on a C-basis assuming the

TOC in percentage as the degradation value

against time, it should be noted that the

TOC content are calculated from the directly

measured values of volatile solids.

(2)

where C is the biodegradable volatile solids

being the remaining mass at any time (%),

k is the degradation rate constant (day-1)

and t is the time (days).The potential

residual amount represents a recalcitrant of

the organic matter or C represented in

equation (2) does not degrade fully and the

degradation function does not reach zero as

it requires long term studies. Integrating the

equation (2) and letting C = Co initially

when t = 0, it gives

(3)

First order reactions are fitted linearly

following equation (3) to find the rate of

decomposition in batch system of study.

Kinetic plots are obtained by plotting the ln

(C/Co) at any time versus time. The R2

value of the best fitted straight line was

obtained in each case. The degradation

reaction rate constant kday-1 was calculated

as the slope of the fittest straight line which

was done for all the three sets of trials. The

decomposition rate is also ascertained by

plotting the C/N ratio versus time. These

values together could be used to determine

the optimum conditions for the desired

period of rotational spells to be given.

Results and Discussions:

Temperature:

The evolution of temperature profile shown

by all the trials is shown in Figure 2 ranges

between a value of 40.5ºC in Control Mix 2

to a peak of 64.5ºC in trial C1 occurring on

the third day after the initial increase shown

on the 1st and 2nd day. The temperature

rose to a high of 64.5ºC in the trial C1

followed by 64ºC < 63.5ºC <61ºC <

60.5ºC< 59 ºC<42 ºC <40.5 ºC, in the

trials C2, B2, B1, A2, A1,Control Mix 2 and

Control Mix 1 respectively. The Trial C1

having 24 hour rotational spell, showed the

highest sustenance of temperature above

55ºC for more than 4 days, fared better

than other trials showing evidence of higher

rate of decomposition.

The trials A1 and A2 have reached a

temperature of 61ºC and 61.5ºC on the

third day and the temperature in the trials

B1 and B2 shot up to 63.5ºC and 61.5ºC

whereas in trials C1 and C2 the temperature

shot up to 64.5ºC and 64ºC respectively on

the third day. Composting conducted by

Kalamdhad et al, (2009b) in a rotary drum

at different time intervals, at the gap of 6 h

(Run A), 12 h (Run B), 18 h (Run C) and

24 h (Run D) for 15 d has resulted in longer

thermophilic phase with a higher rise at

temperature of 58 °C in Run D (24 h turning

frequency) and also obtaining higher

mineralization.

The sustenance of temperature above 55ºC

was observed for a longer period of 4 days

in trials C1and C2 and for the remaining

trials it happened for 3 days and declined

from 4th day on wards, but all the trials

satisfied the stipulations laid by USEPA - 40

CFR Part 503(1994) guidelines that the

materials should reach (a) temperature of

40ºC for at least five consecutive days or

(b) 55ºC for at least three consecutive days

or alternately (c) 55°C for a minimum

period of four hours either in In-vessel or in

windrows or in static composting for

essential pathogenic destruction.

C/N Ratio: The reduction of C/N ratio which is one of

the predominant indicators showing the

maturity of compost (Haug, 1993) is found

to have steep slope in all the trials indicating

good decomposition taking place inside the

vessel except for the trials kept as Control,

the reduction of C/N ratio is from 34.41-

28.57 in Control Mix1 and 36.82-30.48 in

Control Mix2, which is far less compared to

all other trials (refer Table 3). The reduction

of C/N ratio in all other trials carried out

clearly indicated the gradual reduction from

35.36-25.92 in trial A1 and 34.55-23.38 in

A2 shown in Figure 3 and 4. In trials B1 and

B2 where the rotational spell has been

increased to 20 hours a day, there is a

marked improvement in the reduction of




C/N ratio from 34.24-17.58 and 35.26-

17.84 respectively, as shown in Figure 3 and

4. The maximum reduction in the C/N ratio

from 34.51-15.90 and 35.31-16.48 is

observed in trials C1 and C2 with rotational

spells for the entire 24 hours, as shown in

Figure 3 and 4. For trials B1 and B2, the

values of C/N ratio are almost close to 17

(17.58 and17.84) as indicated in Table 3 as

well as in Figure 3 and 4. The reduction in

C/N ratio in trials C1 and C2 has obtained

the acceptable value of less than 17 for

compost as indicated by Iyengar and Bhave

prashant (2006).

Decomposition Rate:

The decomposition rates for the trials are

obtained by linear plot between C/N ratios

versus time. Figure 3 shows the reduction

rate of C/N ratio for trials Control Mix1, A1,

B1 andC1 and Figure 4 shows C/N ratio for

trials Control Mix2, A2, B2 andC2 employed

in the study. In Control Mix 1 and Control

Mix 2, the C/N reduction is found to be at

the rate of 0.377 day-1 and 0.382 day-1 .In

trials A1 and A2, the C/N reduction is found

to be at the rate of 0.695 day-1 and 0.718

day-1 respectively. The trials B1 and B2

attained a decomposition rate of 1.153 day-

1 and 1.192 day-1 respectively. The

maximum rate of reduction of C/N ratio of

1.308 day-1 is found in trial C1, and trial C2

showed a value of 1.230 day-1. The straight

lines are best fitted to the reduction in C/N

ratio with time as R-squared values are

ranging in a narrow band of 0.983 for trial

B2 to 0.922 for trial A2.

Reaction Rate Constant:

Correlation between ln(C/Co) with respect to

time has been fitted linearly and the slopes

of the lines have been found to vary with

different trials (Refer Figure 5 and 6). The

rate constants arrived in the trials carried

out by Hamoda et al (1998) indicated high

values of 0.17 for a C/N ratio of 30 for the

0.5kg of MSW treated in a 2 litres

erlenmeyer conical flask provided with a

rate of aeration of 0.3l/h and without any

rotation in an enclosed environment, which

may be due to the smaller amount of

substrate used in that small environment. In

peat composting carried out by Eklind and

Kirchmann (2000) in an octagonal rotatable

drum of capacity 125 litres for a lengthier

period of 590 days by manual agitation

given daily, gave a reaction rate constant of

0.061 for organic carbon decomposition

following a first order degradation function.

Keener and Elwell (1998) has found out the

bioconversion to be of first order reaction

and the reaction rate constant ranges in-

between 0.024 to 0.083 day-1. Figures 5

and 6 show the plots of ln (C/Co) versus

time and the linear fits of trials Control Mix1,

A1,B1 and C1, and for trials Control Mix

2,A2,B2 and C2 respectively. Table 5 shows

the reaction rate constants for reduction in

TOC in different trials.

In Control Mix 1 and Control Mix 2, the

reaction rate constant is found to be at the

rate of 0.005 day-1 and 0.007 day-1

respectively which is of the lowest order

compared to all other trials. The reaction

rate constants in trials A1 and A2 are found

to be 0.008 day-1 and 0.009 day-1

respectively, which are far below the

acceptable range of 0.024 day-1 to 0.083

day-1 suggested by Keener and Elwell

(1998) Trials B1 and B2 with a 20 hour

rotational spells per day showed higher

values of reaction rate constant (0.017 day-

1 and0.016 day-1). These values also fall

below the minimum acceptable range of first

order reaction rate constant of 0.024 day-1

to 0.083 day-1 suggested by Keener and

Elwell (1998). Trials C1 and C2 with

continuous agitation for the entire 24 hours

a day yielded reaction rate constants of

0.032 day-1 and 0.022 day-1 respectively.

The reaction rate constant arrived in trial C1

of 0.032 day-1 employing the bulking

agents paddy straw and dry leaves is found

to be in the acceptable range suggested by

Keener and Elwell (1998) and the linear line

fitted between reaction rate constant and

rotational spell confirms.(refer figure 7)

The lines of fits of the plots of ln (C/Co)

versus time for all the trials showed good R-

squared values ranging from 0.880 for trial

B1 to 0.986 for trial C2 (Refer Table 5). This

is indicative of the bioconversion following

first order reaction in all the trials of the

study.





Conclusions:

When the rotational spells are increased

during composting, the rate of

decomposition in the vegetable waste has

increased. This has been duly indicated in

the kinetic studies made. Determination of

decomposition rate based on C/N ratio and

the reaction rate constant based on carbon

loss following a first order function have

been found for all the trials considered in

the study. The decomposition rate in trial

C1, where the rotational spell is continuous

for 24 hours a day, is found to be high at

1.308 day-1.The highest reaction rate

constant of 0.032 day-1 is obtained in trial

C1 compared to other trials where their

periods of rotational spells were lesser and

intermittent. The reduction of C/N ratio

achieved in trials C1 and C2 has also been

found to be high. The C/N ratio attained

after 14 days of composting in trial C1 (with

paddy straw and dry leaves as bulking

agents) and trial C2 (with wood shavings

and dry leaves as bulking agents) are

respectively 15.90 and 16.48. These values

are well below the C/N ratio of 17 regarded

as a good maturity indicator of compost.

Hence, it is concluded that quality compost

could be achieved with increase in period of

rotational spells of in-vessel.

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pp 377-384.

[15] Bongochgetsakul Nattakorn.,

Tetsuya Ishida., (2007).A new

analytical approach to optimizing the

design of large-scale composting

systems, Elsevier publications, Bio

resource technology vol 99(6)-pp

1630-1641.

[16] Rynk R., (1992). On-Farm

Composting Handbook. NRAES.

Ithaca, New York.

[17] Stelmachowski M., Jaststrzebska

Magdalena., Zarzycki Roman.,

(2003)In-vessel composting for

utilizing of municipal sewage-sludge,

Elsevier publications, Applied Energy

vol 75-pp 249-256.

[18] Sunderberg.C., Jonsson.H.,(2008)

Higher pH and faster decomposition

in bio-waste composting by increased

aeration, Elseiveir Publications.

Waste Management vol 28–pp 518-

526.

[19] Shuchi Gupta.,Krishna Mohan.,

Rajkumar Prasad., Sujata Gupta.,

Arun Kansal., (1998)Solid waste

management in India: Options and

Opportunities, Elsevier publications,

Resources, Conservation and

Recycling vol 24-pp 137-154.

[20] USEPA - 40 CFR Part 503 USEPA .,

(1994)- Land Application of

Biosolids[online].Availablefrom:http:/

/www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/biosolids/50

3pe

Table.1 Feedstock characteristics of Control Mix 1, Trials A1, B1 and C1(S:M:B)

(5.2:1.14:1)

Materials

Moisture

%

Mass

Kg

Volume

m3

BD

Kg/m3 C N

C/N ratio

Vegetable

waste(S) 55-70 9-Jul 0.028

345-

285

34-

42

0.89-

1.15

34.15-

38.25

Cow

dung(M) 60-75

1.5-

1.74 0.0023

758-

875

29-

33

1.7-2.7 10.74-

14.21

Dry leaves

and Paddy

straw(B) 11-Aug

0.87-

1.73 0.0147

86-

104

45-

60

0.45-

0.65

67.23-

79.07

Table.2 Feedstock characteristics of Control Mix 2, Trials A2, B2 and C2(S:M:B)

(5.91:1.17:1)

Materials

Moisture

%

Mass

KG

Volume

m3

BD

Kg/m3 C N C/N ratio

Vegetable

waste(S) 55-70 9-Jul 0.029

345-

285

34-

42

0.89-

1.15

34.15-

38.25

Cow dung(M) 60-75

1.5-

1.74 0.003

758-

875

29-

33

1.7-2.7 10.74-

14.21

Dry leaves and

Woodshavings(B) 9-12.5

0.91-

1.54 0.013 62-125

55-

85

0.38-

0.61

101.00-

145





Table.3 Characteristics of the waste on the 0th day and 14th day of each composting trial

Day MC % pH EC

mS/cm

LOI

/Ash

(%)

VS

(%)

TOC/

Carbon

(%)

TKN/

Nitrogen

(%)

C/N

ratio

Control-Mix 1

0th 65.12 6.21 1.54 26.9 73.1 40.61 1.18 34.41

14th 43.23 7.76 1.78 37.56 62.44 37.71 1.32 28.57

Trial A1

0th 63.18 6 1.23 26.8 73.2 40.67 1.15 35.36

14th 45 7.35 2.22 35.14 64.86 36.03 1.39 25.92

Trial B1

0th 61.67 6.61 1.56 30.35 69.65 38.69 1.13 34.24

14th 46.12 7.23 2.04 48.1 51.9 28.83 1.64 17.58

TrialC1

0th 61 6.45 1.34 28.56 71.44 39.69 1.15 34.51

14th 45 8.43 2.07 53.34 46.66 25.92 1.63 15.9

Control-Mix 2

0th 64 5.45 1.37 24.56 75.44 41.91 1.17 35.82

14th 43.33 7.83 1.84 32.52 67.48 37.49 1.23 30.48

TrialA2

0th 63.12 6.87 1.11 23.5 76.5 42.5 1.23 34.55

14th 44.12 8.13 2.48 31.98 68.02 37.79 1.55 24.38

Trial B2

0th 60.17 6.48 1.56 27.33 72.67 40.37 1.145 35.26

14th 43.5 7.83 1.97 42.52 57.48 31.93 1.79 17.84

Trial C2

0th 62 6.58 1.56 29.45 70.55 39.19 1.11 35.31

14th 56.5 7.83 1.88 48.98 51.02 28.34 1.72 16.48

Table.4 Reduction rate of C/N ratio

Trials

Control

Mix 1 A1 B1 C1

Control

Trials A2 B2 C2

C/N

Reduction

rate(day-1) 0.377 0.7 1.15 1.31 0.382 0.72 1.19 1.23

R-squared

value 0.971 0.94 0.98 0.97 0.987 0.92 0.98 0.98

Table.5 Reaction rate constant for reduction in TOC

Trials

Control

Mix1 A1 B1 C1

Control

Mix2 A2 B2 C2

Reaction rate

constant, k

(day-1) 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.007 0.01 0.02 0.02

R – squared

value 0.939 0.96 0.88 0.97 0.956 0.89 0.95 0.99




Fig.1 Schematic Diagram of the Rotary

Composter

Fig.2 Temperature profile of different trials

Fig.3 Profile of C/N ratio vs. Time (Control

Mix1, Trials A1, B1 and C1)

Fig.4 Profile of C/N ratio vs. Time (Control

Mix 2, Trials A2, B2 and C2)

Fig.5 Profile of ln C/Co vs. Time (Control


Fig.6 Profile of ln C/Co vs. Time (Control


Fig.7 Reaction rate constants vs. Rotational

spell

i

Geological Remote Sensing

S. VISWANATHAN* G.VENKATARAMAN**

* Powai, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay Campus, Mumbai-40076, India

**CSRE (Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering), Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Mumbai-400076, India Email: [email protected]

The term ‘Geological Remote Sensing’ is presently used to denote extraction of geological and geo-related information based on the raw digital data obtained through a variety of sensors of the numerous satellites of different international space agencies such as the ISRO(Indian Space Research Organisation). The raw data from American Satellite ‘Landsat’

or IRS (Indian Remote sensing Satellite) of individual band are usually studied for geological information. Better results are obtained through myriad digital processing techniques and the composite images highlight different aspects of geomorphic, geological

and many other geographic features as Soil types and their distribution, Crop pattern, Forest density, Glacier configuration, Forest fires, oil sleeks and land use. Combinations of digital data from different Satellites with different spectral andl spatial resolutions are also attempted for a specified area or scene to understand how far such exercises are helpful in

enhancing specific desired theme. Normally with even single band imagery geomorphic features like topography and drainage

lines, geological features such as layering, large scale shear or fracture zones are fairly traceable. For drainage related studies the satellite images and toposheets of the survey of India are used in conjunction to make out the attitudes and lengths of the streams of different orders. In the case of recognition of specific rock types and exposures of rock units

which are massive intrusive, there doest not seem to have been any break through. It is hence peremptory to undertake serious study by resorting to all possible image processing, image improvement techniques to answer the following:-

1. What is the best Digital Processing Technique to highlight true geologically linear

zones both of larger and smaller dimension? The term lineament is vague and hence

it would be wiser to use the term fracture, shear or fault. 2. Have attempts been made to separate the Deccan lava flows and recognize the

dykes, feeders, and non- feeders based on spectral signatures. Which satellite

image, raw or processed is best suited to study the volcanic terrain?

3. Can layered sedimentaries and parametamorphics be compositionally recognized and if so up to what scale?

4. Boundaries of large bodies of granitoids are demarcated after a strenuous field coverage and sampling. Can the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the apparently homogenous plutons like the close pat granite be tested for any spectral anomalies due to chemical and mineralogical variations?

ii

There are varieties of rocks such as Kimberlites, Carbonatites and the like. They have to be investigated for their spectral reflectance. Like Land-sat, Sea-sat, Carto-sat, days should

not be far when we would have Petro-sat. Till now Aircraft borne multi-spectral data are not available over any part of our country, which perhaps would give more details with cartographic accuracy.

It is thus clear that only when an earth scientist directs his attention to the probing of the specific enhancement techniques to bring out litho-logical and structural features, he can lay his claim as a specialist in geological remote sensing. As it is every field geologist looks at remote sensing as a preliminary tool to avail of what-ever feature is possible in the ISRO’s

satellite data products.

Report on Workshop

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERED LANDFILLS (October 3-4, 2009)

A workshop on “solid Waste Management and Engineered landfills” was organized in the department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam on the occasion of 126th birthday Karl von Terzaghi, acclaimed worldwide

as the father of Soil Mechanics. The workshop was organised by Indian Geotechnical Society Visakhapatnam Chapter in association with The Institution of Engineers (India) Visakhapatnam Local Centre. Mr B. Jayarami Reddy, Chief Engineer, GVMC, inaugurated the

workshop which was presided over by Prof P.S.N. Raju, Principal, A.U. Engineering College. Prof. C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy, Andhra University and Honorary Secretary, IGS Visakhapatnam Chapter coordinated the workshop. The workshop started with an overview of Solid waste by Dr Sasidhar (Managing Director, SAGES), who emphasized the need to

look at micro management of landfills, as silting of large landfills is becoming a challenge all over the country. This was followed by Engineered Landfills as option for disposal of solid waste and Geosynthetics applications for landfills applications by Dr G. Venkatappa Rao. His

comprehensive coverage of the topic helped participants to appreciate the varied applications of geosynthetics. Prof. C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy shared his experience of working on Jerosite landfill Construction with reinforced Zinc Slag bund at Hindustan Zinc limited, Visakhapatnam and demonstrated how geosynthetic application was carried out in

that engineered landfill to contain the solid waste. Prof. S. Ramakrishna Rao of Environmental Engineering shared his experience of solid waste management project carried out in Vizianagaram and highlighted some of the current challenges in the solid waste management across the city. Various product manufacturers, M/s Garware Wall Ropes,

Pune, M/s Maccaferri, Mumbai, M/s KK Enterprises, Kolkata and M/s GeoSol, Hyderabad shared their experiences of site applications of geosynthetics in engineered landfills and indicated that this is a viable sustained solution for growing issue of solid waste. The two

day workshop also covered overview of various regulations that are required to be complied with in regard to solid waste management. A book on “Solid Waste Management and Engineered Landfills”, authored by Dr G Venkatappa Rao and Dr R S Sasidhar (a SAGES Publication), was released on this occasion which was well received as the first of its kind of

book on this topic, with Indian scenarios and case studies. More than 120 Delegates from different engineering departments namely GVMC, VUDA, Visakhapatnam Port Trust, Essar Steels, Coramandal Fertilizers Limited, HPCL, ITDC, Irrigation Department, Public Health

Engg. Dept., AP Pollution Control Board etc., researchers and academicians participated in the event.

(C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy)

Honorary Secretary

IGS Visakhapatnam Chapter

iii

Nuclear minerals -Uranium

Nuclear mineral Production in the world

Canada, Australia and Kazakhstan produce over half of world’s production of uranium minerals. A statistical records about recoverable resources of Uranium (tonnes U, %0 of

world indicates Canada produces the largest share of uranium from mines (23% of world supply from mines), followed by Australia (24%) and Kazakhstan (17%). (Canada 9%), USA (7%), South Africa (7%) Namibia (6%) Brazil (6%) Niger (5%), Russia Fed. (4%), Uzbekistan (2%) Jordon (2%), India (1%), China (1%), others (6%).World total tones

U=4,743,000

Reasonably Assured Resources plus Inferred Resources, to US$ 130/kg U, 1/1/05, from OECD NEA & IAEA, Uranium 2005: Resources, Production and Demand.(WNA-2009)

What is uranium? How does it work?

• Uranium is a very heavy metal which can be used as an abundant source of concentrated energy.

• It occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4 parts per million and is as

common in the Earth's crust as tin, tungsten and molybdenum. It occurs in seawater, and can be recovered from the oceans.

• It was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a German chemist, in the mineral

called pitchblende. It was named after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier.

• Uranium was apparently formed in supernovae about 6.6 billion years ago. While it is not common in the solar system, today its slow radioactive decay provides

the main source of heat inside the Earth, causing convection and continental drift.

• The high density of uranium means that it also finds uses in the keels of yachts

and as counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, as well as for radiation shielding.

• Its melting point is 1132°C. The chemical symbol for uranium is U. (WNA,2009)

Nuclear power in the World

• The first commercial nuclear power stations started operation in the 1950s. • There are now some 436 commercial nuclear power reactors operating in 30

countries, with 372,000 MWe of total capacity. • They provide about 15% of the world's electricity as continuous, reliable base-

load power, and their efficiency is increasing. • 56 countries operate a total of about 280 research reactors and a further 220

reactors power ships and submarines(Source-World Nuclear Association, March 2009)

Nuclear Power in India (May 2009)

• India has a flourishing and largely indigenous nuclear power program and expects to have 20,000 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020. It aims to supply 25% of electricity from nuclear power by 2050.

• Because India is outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due to its weapons program, it has been for 34 years largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or

iv

materials, which has hampered its development of civil nuclear energy until 2009.

• Due to these trade bans and lack of indigenous uranium, India has uniquely been developing a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves of thorium.

• From 2009, foreign technology and fuel are expected to boost India's nuclear power plans considerably.

• India has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.

• However, India has reserves of 290,000 tonnes of thorium - about one quarter of the world total, and these are intended to fuel its nuclear power program longer-term(Source-WNA,2009)

(Permitted use WNA website-Warwick Pipe-Web Manager Warwick Pipe <[email protected]> for IJEE)

Discovery of water molecules in the polar regions of the moon

NASA, USA scientists have discovered water molecules in the polar regions of the moon. Instruments aboard three separate spacecraft revealed water molecules in amounts that are greater than predicted, but still relatively small. Hydroxyl, a molecule consisting of one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom, also was found in the lunar soil. The findings were

published in Thursday's edition of the journal Science. NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper, or M3, instrument reported the observations. M3 was

carried into space on Oct. 22, 2008, aboard the Indian Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft. Data from the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, or VIMS, on NASA's Cassini spacecraft, and the High-Resolution Infrared Imaging Spectrometer on NASA's Epoxi spacecraft contributed to confirmation of the finding. The

spacecraft imaging spectrometers made it possible to map lunar water more effectively than ever before.

The confirmation of elevated water molecules and hydroxyl at these concentrations in the moon's Polar Regions raises new questions about its origin and effect on the mineralogy of the moon. Answers to these questions will be studied and debated for years to come.

"Water ice on the moon has been something of a holy grail for lunar scientists for a very long time," said Jim Green, director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA Headquarters in Washington. "This surprising finding has come about through the ingenuity,

perseverance and international cooperation between NASA and the India Space

Research Organization."

From its perch in lunar orbit, M3's state-of-the-art spectrometer measured light reflecting off the moon's surface at infrared wavelengths, splitting the spectral colors of the lunar surface into small enough bits to reveal a new level of detail in surface composition. When the M3 science team analyzed data from the instrument, they found the wavelengths of

light being absorbed were consistent with the absorption patterns for water molecules and hydroxyl.

"For silicate bodies, such features are typically attributed to water and hydroxyl-bearing materials," said Carle Pieters, M3's principal investigator from Brown University, Providence,

v

R.I. "When we say 'water on the moon,' we are not talking about lakes, oceans or even puddles. Water on the moon means molecules of water and hydroxyl that interact with

molecules of rock and dust specifically in the top millimeters of the moon's surface. The M3 team found water molecules and hydroxyl at diverse areas of the sunlit region of the moon's surface, but the water signature appeared stronger at the moon's higher

latitudes. Water molecules and hydroxyl previously were suspected in data from a Cassini flyby of the moon in 1999, but the findings were not published until now. "The data from Cassini's VIMS instrument and M3 closely agree," said Roger Clark, a U.S.

Geological Survey scientist in Denver and member of both the VIMS and M3 teams. "We

see both water and hydroxyl. While the abundances are not precisely known, as

much as 1,000 water molecule parts-per-million could be in the lunar soil. To put

that into perspective, if you harvested one ton of the top layer of the moon's

surface, you could get as much as 32 ounces of water."

For additional confirmation, scientists turned to the Epoxi mission while it was flying past

the moon in June 2009 on its way to a November 2010 encounter with comet Hartley 2. The spacecraft not only confirmed the VIMS and M3 findings, but also expanded on them.

"With our extended spectral range and views over the north pole, we were able to explore the distribution of both water and hydroxyl as a function of temperature, latitude, composition, and time of day," said Jessica Sunshine of the University of Maryland. Sunshine is Epoxi's deputy principal investigator and a scientist on the M3 team. "Our

analysis unequivocally confirms the presence of these molecules on the moon's surface and reveals that the entire surface appears to be hydrated during at least some portion of the lunar day."

NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., manages the M3 instrument,

Cassini mission and Epoxi spacecraft for NASA's Science Mission Directorate in

Washington. The Indian Space Research Organization built, launched and operated

the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft.

(For additional information and images from the instruments, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars .

(For more information about the Chandrayaan-1 mission, visit: http://isro.gov.in/chandrayaan/htmls/home.htm .

(For more information about the EPOXI mission, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/epoxi . (For more information about the Cassini mission, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/cassini

The Editor-in-Chief, IJEE wish to acknowledge NASA/Jet propulsion, Laboratory

California, USA-for permitting the reproduction of the above data

vi

Announcement/ Forthcoming Seminars/Symposiums/Technical meets

Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, the nodal agency for promotion of Earth Sciences related studies in the country plans to launch 1) a major programme in Andaman and Nicobar Island to understand the geodynamics of the region and to 2) to

develop damage scenarios for various urban centres that lie in the vicinity of the Himalayas. Proposals are solicited from scientists/academicians working in the related areas of different institutions in the country; Proposals may be submitted to address the following issues:

1. Crustal structures studies

2. Earthquake occurrence processes

3. Detailed plate motion

4. Geodynamic models

5. Tsunami modeling

6. 6 Structure safety and public awareness,

Details and further information can be obtained from Head, Geosciences/Seismology Division, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Room NO.507,Sat,Met Building ,Mausam Bhavan, Lodhi Road, New Delhui-11003, Email:[email protected]

International seminars on earthsciences and engineering view web site for details: http://www.conference-service.com

2010

3rd International Perspective on Current & Future State of Water Resources & the Environment , 5 to 7 January 2010, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, http://content.asce.org/conferences/india2010/index.html

ICESE 2010: "International Conference on Earth Sciences and Engineering”, Cape Town, South Africa, January 27-29, 2010

The International Conference on Earth Sciences and Engineering aims to bring together academic scientists, leading engineers, industry researchers and scholar students to

exchange and share their experiences and research results about all aspects: http://www.waset.org/conferences/2010/capetown/icese/

Safety Conference, Austria, Leoben Jan, 2010 Construction in Soils and Rock, Germany, Jan 26-27, 2010

IDC-6 — 6th International Dyke Conference 04 Feb 2010 → 07 Feb 2010; Varanasi, India

http://www.igpetbhu.com/ 04 Feb 2010 → 07 Feb 2010; Varanasi, India

http://www.igpetbhu.com/ 2010 RPSD, IRD & BMD Joint Topical Meeting — Radiation Protection and Shielding Division, Isotopes and Radiation Division and the Biology and Medicine Division (RPSD, IRD and BMD)

Joint Topical Meeting 2010, 19 Apr 2010 → 23 Apr 2010; Las Vegas, NV , United States

weblink: http://www.ans.org/meetings/index.cgi?c=t

Third International Conference on Debris Flows, 24 May 2010 → 26 May 2010; Milan, Italy,

http://www.wessex.ac.uk/10-conferences/debris-flow-2010.html

Fifth International Symposium on Computational Wind Engineering (CWE2010 Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA, May 23-27, 2010,

vii

http://www.cwe2010.org

3rd International Workshop on Rock Mechanics and Geo-Engineering in Volcanic Environments, as ISRM Sponsored, Spain Cruz (Tenerite, Puerto de la,31May-1 June,2010 Conference on Nuclear Fuels and Structural Materials for the Next Generation Nuclear Reactors ,13 Jun 2010 → 17 Jun 2010; San Diego, California, United States

http://www.new.ans.org Uranium 2010 Conference, 14 Aug 2010 → 18 Aug 2010; Saskatchewan, Canada related

subject(s): Mining & Mineral Processing, http://Ed_Lam.com The International Mineralogical Association- 20 th General Meeting of in Budapest Hungary,

21st to 27th to August, 2010th

http://www.univie.ac.at/Mineralogie/IMA20 ISRM-EUROCK-2010-Rock Mechanics in Civil Engineering, Switzerland, Lausanne

15th June-18th June, 2010 http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf

ICCE 2010 — 32nd International Conference on Coastal Engineering, Shanghai, China, 30 Jun 2010 → 05 Jul 2010;

http://www.icce2010.cn/

ISRM-5th International Symposium on In-Situ Rock Stress ,China-, Beijing,25-27 th Augut http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf

IAEG2010 — 11th Congress of the International Association for Engineering and the Environment, Auckland, New Zealand.05 Sep 2010 → 10 Sep 2010;

http://www.iaeg2010.com/ Plutonium Futures - The Science 2010 19 Sep 2010 → 23 Sep 2010; Bloomfield, CO, United States

http://www.new.ans.org/meetings/c_2 IX Congress of the Carpathian Balkan Geological Association CBGA2010 Thessaloniki,

Greece, 23 - 26 September 2010 www.cbga2010.org International Workshop on Glacier Hazards, http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf

SEG 2010 — Society of Economic Geologists Conference, Keystone, Colorado, United States of America, 02 Oct 2010 → 05 Oct 2010;

http://www.seg2010.org/ 11th Congress of the IAEG (IAEG-2010) 59th Geomechanics Colloquy-2010, Austria. Saizburg, 7th-8th, August, 2010

http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf International Society of Rock Mechanics (ISRM) International Symposium on Advances in

Rock Engineering, New Delhi, India, 25 -27th October, 2010 http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf Geological Society of America (GSA) Annual Meeting

viii

Denver, Colorado, United States, 31 Oct 2010 → 03 Nov 2010;

http://www.geosociety.org/calendar/2010meet.htm

5th National Conference on Coastal and Estuarine Habitat Restoration, 13 to 17 November 2010, Galveston, Texas, United States

http://www.estuaries.org

2011

IUGG XXV General Assembly Earth on the Edge: Science for a Sustainable Planet,

Melbourne, Australia, 27 June - 8 July 2011 13th International Conference on Wind Engineering, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, July 10-15, 2011

http://www.icwe13.org/ ISRM 2011 — 12th International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Beijing, China, 16 Oct 2011 → 21 Oct 2011,

http://www.isrm2011.com/

American Geophysical Union — 2011 Fall Meeting, San Francisco, California, United States, 12 Dec 2011 → 16 Dec 2011

http://www.agu.org/

2012

2012, Shanghai, China 7th International Colloquium on Bluff Bodies Aerodynamics & Applications (BBAA 7)

11th International Symposium on Landslides, Canada, Banff 3-6 June-, 2012

American Geophysical Union — 2012 Fall Meeting, San Francisco, California, United States, 14 Dec 2012 → 18 Dec 2012

http://www.agu.org

34th International Geological Congress (IGC) Australia 2012 Brisbane, Australia -2-10 August 2012 www.34igc.org

ix

The 34th International Geological Congress (IGC)

AUSTRALIA 2012

Brisbane, Australia, 2–10 August, 2012

Oceania Invites You: The 34th International Geological Congress (IGC), to be known as

AUSTRALIA 2012, will be held at the Brisbane Convention and Exhibition Centre (BCEC), Queensland, from 2nd-10th August 2012. This high profile event will be of considerable interest to all people involved in geoscience, be they in universities, industry, government or the broader public. The IGC has a tradition dating back to 1878, and is generally held

every four years.

AUSTRALIA 2012 Organization: The legal entity responsible for AUSTRALIA 2012 is the Australian Geoscience Council (AGC) Incorporated, the peak representative body of Australia’s geoscientists comprising the Presidents or Chief Executive Officers of eight geoscience-related societies in Australia. This has been formalized in an agreement between

the Australian Academy of Science and the AGC. As the national geo-science and geospatial information agency, Geo-science Australia (GA, see www.ga.gov.au) is making considerable contributions towards AUSTRALIA 2012 in the

form of financial and in-kind support. GA is providing the President – Dr Neil Williams – and the Secretary General – Dr Ian Lambert – who will represent the 34th IGC Organizing Committee at meetings of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) Executive and Council, and the international IGC Committee. In addition, GA is contributing to

promotions of AUSTRALIA 2012, and providing personnel as required facilitating delivery of products for the 34th IGC. State and Northern Territory geological surveys and GNS New Zealand is contributing some

funding towards the Congress and organizing field trips. Circulars for the 34th IGC will be distributed electronically. Arrangements will be made for getting printed circulars to countries where electronic communications prove difficult.

Local Organizing Committee: The core Organizing Committee for AUSTRALIA 2012 has been appointed and held several meetings. It comprises:

President – Dr Neil Williams (GA)

Secretary General – Dr Ian Lambert (GA)

Deputy Secretary General, Canberra – Mr Paul Kay (GA)

Deputy Secretary General, Brisbane – Dr Paulo Vascencelos (University of Queensland)

Treasurer – Ms Miriam Way (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy)

Scientific-Program Co-ordination– Dr Lynton Jaques (GA/Geological Society of Australia)

Exhibitions – Ms Andrea Rutley (Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists)

Sponsorship – Ms Shalene McClure (Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia)

Field Trips – Mr Dave Mason (Geological Survey of Queensland)

Australian Geo-science Council representatives – Dr Trevor Powell, Dr Michael Leggo

New Zealand representative – Dr Des Darby (GNS New Zealand)

A Brisbane-based Professional Conference Organizer (PCO) – Carillon Conference

Management – has been appointed to work with the Organizing Committee.

Delegate Information: The state-of-the-art Brisbane Convention and Exhibition Centre (BCEC) venue will readily hold more than 7,000 delegates.

x

Regional participation will be maximized by integrating meetings of the major Australian and regional geo-scientific societies into AUSTRALIA 2012. Efforts are also being made to attract

a range of international groups to hold meetings timed close to, or during, the IGC. The registration fee in Australian dollars, to be set in 2011, is anticipated to be similar to that for the 33rd IGC. A modest abstract handling fee will also apply.

Scientific Program:

AUSTRALIA 2012 will have a wide-ranging scientific program under the theme ‘Unearthing our Past and Future’. This theme will encompass the crucial contributions of geo-science in meeting societal needs and sustaining planet Earth – with particular emphasis on future

mineral and energy supplies, climate change and its impacts on land and water management, and mitigation of geo-hazards. The comprehensive technical program will comprise plenary ‘theme-of-the-day’ sessions,

symposia on a wide range of geo-scientific topics, poster sessions, workshops and short courses. In an effort to minimize overlap between symposia, with consequent small audiences, we are planning:

• a limit of one oral presentation per delegate, although an individual will be able to co-author several oral papers;

• symposia will be convened by selected local geoscientists working closely with representatives of groups affiliated with IUGS;

• to accord poster sessions a high profile; and • organize plenary sessions so as to avoid overlap with other symposia and business

meetings.

Public lectures and student events will be organized to broaden the messages of the Congress to the general public.

Engineering Geology: The IGC organizers are endeavoring to maximize delegate participation in 2012 by the alignment of affiliated gatherings with the congress. Initial contact has been made to achieve this objective for the Engineering Geology strand of earth

sciences. We also anticipate a plenary session with a strong focus on Engineering Geology.

Field trips: The 34th ICG is planning approximately 30 pre- and post-Congress field trips, which offer diverse opportunities to see the fascinating geology of the region.

Collectively, these field visits will take in all Australian states and the Northern Territory. Field trips are also being planned to New Zealand, Malaysia and New Caledonia/Vanuatu, while trips to Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Indonesia are under consideration.

Sponsorship and Exhibition: The support of Queensland Events Corporation (QEC) for the

promotion of the 34th IGC is gratefully acknowledged. This is the first time a scientific Congress has been supported by QEC. The professional and learned societies under the AGC are investing in the Congress. Sponsorship is currently also being sought from industry.

A large GeoExpo (trade show) is expected to occupy two exhibition halls. It is planned to offer the opportunity for petroleum and minerals industry exhibitors to take booths for

different halves of the Congress. This will be complemented by design of the scientific program to have major minerals and petroleum symposia in periods aligned with the exhibits. International exhibitors will also include geological surveys, professional/learned societies,

scientific publishers, consultants and technical services/products providers. Further Information: The www.34igc.org website is the key information outlet for

AUSTRALIA 2012.

20th - 21st February 2010, Website: www.icetedrjjmcoe.in

Organized by Dr. J. J. Magdum College of Engineering [JJMCOE], Jaysingpur,

Kolhapur Dist., Maharashtra - 416 101, INDIA

In Technical collaboration with CAFET-INNOVA Technical Society

CONTRIBUTED PAPERS:

The papers submitted by academicians, research scholars, professors, etc are considered as contributed papers. The papers need to be orginal research work

containing well stimulated results, tabulated readings, graphs, etc.

STUDENT PAPERS:

The papers sudmitted by graduate and under graduate students pursuing their program

in affiliated colleges are consdered as student papers. The papers need not be an original concept or invention but the student's idea and imaginations in terms of

emerging technology with the student's involvement in the paper is sufficient.

IMPORTANT DATES:

Last Date for submission of papers: 14th November 2009

Intimation Date for selected papers: 30th November 2009 Last Date for submission of camera ready papers: 26th December 2009

Last Date for Registration of selected papers: 16th January 2010 Date of the Event: 20th - 21st February 2010

EVALUATION FEE:

Contributed Papers: Rs. 500/- per paper

Student Papers: Rs. 300/- per paper

REGISTRATION FEE (After Selection):

Contributed Authors: Rs. 3, 000/-

Student Authors: Rs. 2, 000/- Other Participants: Rs. 1, 000/-

CONTACT US:

Prof. Anil K. Gupta Organizing Chairman - ICETE 2010

Dr. J. J. Magdum College of Engineering Jaysingpur, Kolhapur Dist., Maharashtra - 416 101, INDIA

Mobile: 9372720011, 9422728195 Tel: 02322-221825

Fax: 02322-221831 Website: www.icetedrjjmcoe.in

IJEE Oct 2009 Issue

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