A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS ON EMPLOYEE PRODUCTIVITY OF AAJ TECHNOLOGIES LAHORE PAKISTAN Submitted to In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD Submitted by Ihsan ur Rehman Roll No: P-564153 2006
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A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE IMPACT OF
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS ON EMPLOYEE
PRODUCTIVITY OF AAJ TECHNOLOGIES LAHORE PAKISTAN
Submitted to
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD
Submitted by
Ihsan ur Rehman
Roll No: P-564153
2006
ABSTRACT
Organizational politics is widely discussed around the globe in relation organizational
productivity. This study on the subject of organizational politics is an effort to empirically
test the factors that construct the concept “Organizational Politics” and its impact on the
organizational growth through the employee’s perceptions. Study also provides a deep
insight to the factors considered as symptoms of organizational politics. Several outcomes
of employee perception in engaging in politics are being explored and empirified; these
outcomes are reported to have an impact on organizational growth as well as on individual
growth, an extensive literature is reviewed for the development of concept.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research was possible because of contribution of many individuals. Personal, academic
and moral support was provided by a very kind and calm personality Mr. Amir Rashid. I
would like to mention many names like Dr. Amos Drory, Dr. Gerald R. Ferris, Dr. Perrewé
Dr. Kacmar and Dr. Russell Cropanzano. These great researchers really made it possible
for me to continue my work and they provided me really helpful materials in the form of
published articles and books. Especially I would like to say Thanks to Dr. Eran Vigoda
who supported me all the time with fruitful discussions. Throughout the entire pursuit, my
parents provided emotional support and a shared passion of work. At last but not least my
friend Farooq Jawaid who helped me a lot in correction of text and it is only possible due to
his continuous reviews of the research. Thank you for making me a wise person and a
better researcher.
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DEDICATION
This study and the Masters of Business Administration degree which follows are dedicated
to my mother. My mother’s unbridled faith in me has always led me to higher grounds. In
all my busy days and nights she always reminds me to finish my work in time with a good
quality, always providing me motivation to accomplish my dreams. So, this is for you,
Mom. Thank you for believing in me with your unwavering faith. You have made all the
difference in my life. I will love you forever...
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 8
The Problem and Its Background 8
Introduction 8
Background Information of the Organization 10
Statement of the Problem 11
Theoretical Framework 11
Hypothesis 15
Significance of Study 15
Scope and Limitations of Research 15
Definition of Related Terms 17
Chapter 2 20
Review of the Related Literature 20
Chapter 3 60
Methods and Procedures 60
Research Method 60
Measures 60
Instrument and Technique Used 65
Statistical treatment of Data 66
Chapter 4 69
Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of the Data 69
Chapter 5 112
Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations 112
Aristotle1 in his book emphasized on roots of politics as he said, politics stems from
diversity of interests, to fully understand the concept “politics in organizations”, it is
necessary to explore the processes by which people engage in politics. Consistent with
Aristotle's conceptualization, it is given that, while joining an organization everyone bring
their own interests, wants, desires, and needs to the workplace.
Regardless of the degree to which employees are made committed to the organization's
objectives, there can be little doubt that, at least occasionally, personal interests will be
incongruent with those of the organization. Organizational politics arise when people think
differently and want to act differently. The democratic organization seeks to resolve this
diversity of interests by asking: "How shall we do it?" By whatever means an organization
resolves this diversity, alternative approaches generally hinges on the power relations
between the actors involved.
For last couple of decades, Organization Politics is widely discussed in Management
literatures. The concepts and perceptions of Organizational Politics in the workplace
evolved during the 1990’s and are considered to be a primary component in business
management practices. The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between
the performance of human resources and the environmental phenomenon of organizational
politics in contemporary business settings. The two are unavoidably linked through
common work place actors, settings, and scripts. The examination of the resulting impact
on human resources is the focus of this study. The significance of this study becomes
inevitable with rapid changes in global economies and business requirements.
Organizations are spreading in all horizons; concepts of boundaryless organizations are in
practice. International management has become an integral part of multinational
1 Aristotle (b. 384 - d. 322 BC). A Treatise on Government, Translated from the Greek By William Ellis (1912 reprinted
1919, 1923, 1928), London &.Toronto published by j m dent & sons ltd. &.in new york by e. P. Dutton &. Co. http://www.literaturepage.com/read/treatiseongovernment.html
9
organizations; people from different ethnic groups and/or educational institutes have strong
bindings to influence organizational decision-making. One of the biggest objectives of
senior management is to get optimum performance in efficient way from its human
resources. According to a survey the turnover rate of IT industry in Pakistan is almost 30%,
which means that a large number of people are trying to juggle with their jobs. One of the
major reasons for this level of turnover rate could be the politics.
This study aims to develop insight on the factors that contribute to employees’ inclination
towards the organizational politics which ultimately makes to suffer the employees’
productivity.
One of the possible major reasons of organizational politics is power; power can be a
positive force if an organization has empowered employees from top to bottom, who are
able to move collectively, with speed and purpose, towards achieving their short-, medium-
and long-term objectives. In contrast, employees are less willing to work for weak leaders
that lack genuine personal authority and credibility or those who tend to be bossy and
dictatorial. Power is the most impressive phenomenon. This phenomenon affects the
worksite by impacting over group of people or individuals. However, no one including
working line employees to middle manager till top management is unwilling to reveal this
mystery and uncover its secret. Organizational politics has many definitions but all of them
relate to the use of personal or aggregate power to influence others and better achieve goals
in the workplace2 (Vigoda, 2002).
Organizational politics as mentioned earlier has a significant relation with human resource
quality and productivity. It has also serious impacts on other variables related to human
resource. Different researches have been done to observe a close relation between
interpersonal trust, job satisfaction, job involvement (Ferris and Kacmar-1992),
organizational commitment3 (Drory-1993), employee attendance, general fatigue, burnout4,
2 Vigoda, E. (2002). Stress-related aftermaths of workplace politics: The relationships among politics, job distress, and
aggressive behavior in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 571-591.
3 Drory, A. (1993). Perceived political climate and job attitudes. Organization Studies, 14, 59-71.
10
and neglected5 behaviors (Cropanzano, 1997; Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Borman, C.
A., & Birjulin, A, 1999). None of the previous studies directly target the section of
employee productivity in relation with perception of organizational policies not the
political behaviors, although all these variables have significant impact on employee’s
productivity and motivation to work. The purpose of the case study is to define a logical
relation between perception of organizational politics and its impact on employee’s
productivity, motivation and long-term commitments with organizations. Motivation is
defined as force within a person that establishes the level, direction and persistence of effort
expended at work. Also we will try to find out physical and psychological health of
employees. As we know healthy minds and bodies can produce best results for any
organization.
Background Information of the Organization
AAJ technologies is one of the biggest IT company in Pakistan with annual turnover more
than 100 million US dollars. It has a central head office in Fort Lauderdale Florida and
country offices in Pakistan, UAE, Canada, Malaysia, with employees more than 1000 with
different ethnic groups and diverse personal objectives. Ethnic diversity varies from Native
Americans to Pakistani, Indian, Bangladeshi, Chinese, French and Englishmen.
As a part of senior management of my company it is felt many times that some critical
decisions are taken by top management with biasness and sometimes people who are not
capable of handling great responsibilities are assigned with them just because of their high
influence in the company. This situation lead to the phenomenon where other employees
get frustrated and this frustrations result in stress related aftermath and eventually most of
the employees leave the company, which results in wastage of great investments done by
the company to train these valuable human resources. On many occasions very critical
clients’ deals are wasted because of these informal politics.
4 Randall1, M., I.., Russell Cropanzano, Carol a. Bormann and Andrej Birjulin (1999). Organizational politics and
organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behavior, 20, 159±175.
5 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J. C., Grandey, A. A. and Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress', Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159±180.
11
Similarly when we try to build a project based team structure employees performance
varies with different projects or team members, this situation arises questions in top
managements how to create project teams in which people present their best output or
productivity. Furthermore we have experience that some employee perform really well and
feel happy all the time with their managers but those employee really feel annoyed and
aggressive with other mangers. We have also come across some situation where people
became security hazards for other employees. Our organization is flat organization with
project based hierarchal structure, however people have their seniority based on their
experience, answers for such question as very important in such situation to get optimum
performance from organization members.
Statement of the Problem
This is closely observed that Human resources have a significant relationship with
organizational politics, if properly engaged: productivity and motivation of employees can
be improved otherwise it has significant effects on employees’ productivity, performance,
and turnover rate. This study intends to determine the impact of organizational politics on
employee productivity of AAJ technologies. Specifically it would seek answers to the
following questions.
1) Organizational objectives.
a) What factors constitutes the concept called perception of organizational politics.
b) What roles do each identified factor plays in the development of employee
productivity.
c) How largely these factors effect overall employee productivity.
Theoretical Framework
Employee productivity is a subjective term that can be measured on the basis of several
empirical variables like employee performance, commitment, attitude, efficiency, extra
efforts, more work intentions, low exit rates and good quality of work. Since there is no
direct mechanism so we need to evaluate our research on the grounds of these variables.
Extensive work is done so far to evaluate job performance, high efficient, and job
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commitment in highly political environment6 (Cropanzano et al, 1997, 1999; Vigoda, 2000,
2002; Ferris et al, 1990,1996, 1997; Drory 1992,1990; Kacmar and Brymer, 1996). After
reviewing extensively about the literature a significant relationship is expected between
organizational politics and it influences on worker and workplaces. As discussed earlier
organizational politics just not have significant relationship with employees’ behavior but
also with the physical and psychological health of employees. So we can say that ailing
human and under par minds cannot perform at optimum level and the reason could be
organizational politics which is continuously damaging their body and brain. Employees
who are victim of highly political environment have greater chances of suffering with
physical and mental disorders.
In response to the organizational politics people have different responsive behaviors, high
stress working environment, greater aggressive attitudes in employees which can create
moral hazards and risks in work environment, another type of reaction which is expected
from employee is to exit from the political eco system. This exit intention is more powerful
in organizations where highly educated and technology equipped human resource is
involved, as many researchers have provided sufficient information that people who with
6 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J. C., Grandey, A. A. and Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support
to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress', Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159±180.
Vigoda (2000). Internal Politics in Public Administration Systems An Empirical Examination of Its Relationship With Job Congruence, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, and In-Role Performance. Public Personnel Management Volume 29 No. 2 pp 185-210
Vigoda, E. (2002). Stress-related aftermaths of workplace politics: The relationships among politics, job distress, and aggressive behavior in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 571-591.
Ferris, G. R., Brand, J. F., Brand, S., Rowland, K. M., Gilmore, D. C., King, T. R., Kacmar, K. M., & Burton, C. A. (1993). Politics and control in organizations. In E. J. Lawler, B. Markovsky, J. O’Brien, & K. Heime (Eds.), Advances in group processes (Vol. 10, pp. 83-111). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Ferris, G. R., Harrell-Cook, G., & Dulebohn, J. H. (2000). Organizational politics: The nature of the relationship between politics perceptions and political behavior. In S. B. Bacharach & E. J. Lawler (Eds.), Research in the sociology of organizations, 17 (pp. 89-130). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.
Drory, A. (1993). Perceived political climate and job attitudes. Organization Studies, 14, 59-71.
Drory, A., & Romm, T. (1990). The definition of organizational politics: A review. Human Relations, 43, 1133-1154.
Bozeman, D., Perrewe, P., Hochwarter, W., Kacmar, M., & Brymer, R. (1996). An examination of reactions to perceptions of organizational politics. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southern Management Association, New Orleans.
13
higher level of education have low rate of involvement in politics rather they prefer to exit
the politically charged environment. However the observable facts do have strong grounds
because the perception of organizational politics is also dependent on personality traits and
socio-economic conditions. One of the very deleterious outcomes of perception of
organizational politics which is more harmful for personal career growth in long term and
organization’s productivity in short terms is the negligent behaviors. Employee neglecting
their everyday responsibility and response casually to critical nature assignment can create
problem for both partakers. These negligent behaviors stimulate the employee to search a
new horizon always. In this state of mind employee feel very low for their self-respect, they
always consider about the worst in any critical situation, this mindset is a position where an
employee cannot produce much result for this marketplace.
The purpose of the study is to determine the perception of organization politics and it
impacts on employee. These effects can be directly mapped with broader definition of
productivity. The factors can be listed down as job commitment, work performance,
physical and psychological health (anxiety7, stress and fatigue8), high efficiency and
affectivity, soft skills like organization citizenship behavior, job attitude, and career
growth.
7 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J. C., Grandey, A. A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support
to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational
8 Randall, M.., I., Russell Cropanzano, carol a. Bormann and andrej birjulin (1999). Organizational politics and organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behavior
14
Figure 1.1
Theoretical Framework of Organizational Politics with Related Factor and Outcome
15
Hypothesis
H1 Organizational politics is positively related to employee’s productivity
Ho Organizational politics is negatively related to employee’s productivity
Significance of Study
The findings of the study are going to provide an organization with an insight to improve
on the organizational environment to improve productivity.
The study findings will serve as a baseline for all business organizations to improve the
general business environment considering employees the valuable assets.
The research is considered significant for researcher as it exposed to the researcher to the
understanding of the situation, which surly would guide the researchers in his professional
career. Once over the study will guide the new students to further investigate the new facts
of the same concept to continuously provide valuable findings to the local and international
business organizations.
Scope and Limitations of Research
Employee productivity is a somehow subjective term but it can be measured on the basis of
several empirically examined variables like performance, commitment, general fatigue,
organization support, job motivation9 and employee satisfaction of job, extra work
intentions, low exit rates and high quality of work. To measure productivity we need to
evaluate our research on the grounds of these variables. There could be number of other
factors that could be directly or indirectly involve in productivity of employees, one of
these could be the change rapid change in command, however we are considering such
factors in our research and our research basically targets the personal variables.
Extensive work is done so far to evaluate relationships among organizational politics, job
satisfaction, job performance, high efficiency and job commitment10 (Cropanzano, Vigoda,
9 Shore, L. M. and Shore, T. H. (1995). `Perceived organizational support and organizational justice'. In: Cropanzano, R.
and Kacmar, K. M. (Eds) Organizational Politics, Justice, and Support: Managing the Social Climate of Work Organizations, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, pp. 149-164.
10 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J. C., Grandey, A. A. and Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress', Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159±180.
16
Ferris, Drory, and Whitt). However research on these lines must be considered to provide
organizations a better view of these variable and suggestion to counter such situations.
Further studies should perform for analysis of these variables and their possible impacts.
Limitations of the study can be listed down as.
1. Data was collected for this research was only limited to a particular station of the
organization so the overall picture is hard to reveal.
2. Researcher was unable to factor-in all variables due to limitation of time.
3. Important variables like Job performance, Job satisfaction and Organizational
Citizenship behaviors are included in the validation of hypothesis.
4. Researcher role in the organization was also a limitation, respondents sometime felt
hesitate while answering properly to the questionnaires.
5. Research took more than usual time to complete because of high rate of turnover.
Researcher was unable to collect important like “exit interview feedback and reasons
for exit questionnaire” data to employees’ withdrawals.
6. The findings were based on cross sectional and self-report data, incurring the possibility
of source bias.
7. Study is unable to reflect any viewpoint from senior management, to counter the fact
and figures obtained from the survey.
8. There could be chances of biasness of researcher because he is not and independent
body but a part of the organization.
9. Scale adopted for the research was a five level ratio scale. Researcher believes that this
level could be further drilldown to ten level scales.
Vigoda (2000). Internal Politics in Public Administration Systems An Empirical Examination of Its Relationship With Job Congruence, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, and In-Role Performance. Public Personnel Management Volume 29 No. 2 pp 185-210
Ferris, G. R., Brand, J. F., Brand, S., Rowland, K. M., Gilmore, D. C., King, T. R., Kacmar, K. M., & Burton, C. A. (1993). Politics and control in organizations. In E. J. Lawler, B. Markovsky, J. O’Brien, & K. Heime (Eds.), Advances in group processes (Vol. 10, pp. 83-111). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Drory, A. (1993). Perceived political climate and job attitudes. Organization Studies, 14, 59-71.
Witt, L. A. (1995). Influences of supervisor behaviors on the levels and effects of workplace politics. In R. S. Cropanzano & K. M. Kacmar (Eds.), Organizational politics, justice, and support: Managing the social climate of work organizations (pp. 37-53). Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
17
Despite its limitation I believe that this study has probed a missing like between
organizational politics and employees’ productivity empirical finding will simulate further
efforts in this area.
Definition of Related Terms
Following are different definitions that researcher has found in literatures:
Organizational Politics
“Others (individuals) are made use of as resources in competitive situations”11 Burns, 1961,
p. 257).
“Behaviors by individuals, or, in collective terms, by subunits within an organization that
makes a claim against the resource-sharing systems of the organization”12 (Pettigrew,
1973, p. 169).
“The management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to
“Those activities taken within organizations to acquire, develop, and use power and other
resources to obtain one’s preferred outcomes in a situation in which there is uncertainty or
dissensus about choices”16 (Pfeffer, 1981, p. 7).
11 Burns, T. (1961). Micropolitics: Mechanisms of institutional change. Administrative Science Quarterly, 6, 257-281
12 Pettigrew, A. (1973). The politics of organizational decision making. London: Tavistock.
13 Mayes, B. T., & Allen, R. W. (1977). Toward a definition of organizational politics. Academy of Management Review, 2, 672-678.
14 Tushman, M.L. (1977). A political approach to organizations: A review and rationale. Academy of Management Review, 2, 206-216.
15 Allen, R.W., Madison, D.L., Porter, L.W., Renwick, P.A., & Mayes, B.T. (1979). Organizational politics: Tactics and characteristics of its actors. California Management Review, 22, 77-83.Allen, N. J. and Meyer, J. P. (1990). `The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization', Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1±18.
16 Pfeffer, J. (1981). Power in organizations. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company.
18
Political Behaviors
“The activities of organizational members…when they use resources to enhance or protect
their share of an exchange…in ways that could be resisted, or ways in which the impact
would be resisted, if recognized by the other party(ies) to the exchange”17 ( Frost & Hayes,
1977).
Social Influences
“Social influence attempts that are discretionary, intended to promote or protect the self-
interests of individuals and groups, and threaten the self-interests of others”18 (Porter, Allen
& Angle, 1981, p. 359).
"Individual or group behavior that is informal, ostensibly parochial, typically divisive, and
above all in a technical sense, illegitimate - sanctioned neither by formal authority,
accepted ideology, nor certified expertise (although it may exploit any one of those)"19
(Mintzberg, 1983, p. 172).
“A social influence process in which behavior is strategically designed to maximize short-
term or long-term self-interest, which is either consistent with or at the expense of others’
interests”20 (Ferris, Russ, & Fandt, 1989, p. 145).
“Social influence attempts directed at those who can provide rewards that will help
promote or protect the self-interest of the actor”21 (Cropanzano, Kacmar & Bozeman, 1995,
p. 7).
17 Frost, P.J., & Hayes, D.C. (1977). An exploration in two cultures of political behavior in organizations. Paper
presented at the Conference on Cross-Cultural Studies of Organizational Functioning, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
18 Porter, L., Allen, R.W. & Angle, H.L. (1981). The politics of upward influence in organizations. Pp. 109149 in B.M. Staw & L.L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, Vol. 3. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
19 Mintzberg, H. (1983). Power in and around organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
20 Ferris, G. R., Russ, G. W., & Fandt, P. M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfield (Eds.), Impression management in organizations (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
21 Cropanzano, R., Kacmar, K. M. and Bozeman, D. P. (1995). `The social setting of work organizations: Politics, justice, and support'. In: Cropanzano, R. and Kacmar, K. M. (Eds) Organizational Politics, Justice, and Support: Managing the Social Climate of Work Organizations, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, pp. 1±18.
19
“The efforts of individuals or groups in organizations to mobilize support for or opposition
to organizational strategies, policies or practices in which they have a vested stake or
interest” (Bacharach & Lawler, 1998, p. 69) 22.
Political Tactics
“Actions by individuals that are directed toward the goal of furthering their own self-
interests without regard for the well-being of others within the organization” (Kacmar &
Baron, 1999, p. 4) 23.
“Involves an individual’s attribution to behaviors of self-serving intent, and is defined as an
individual’s subjective evaluation about the extent to which the work environment is
characterized by co-workers and supervisors who demonstrate such self-serving behavior”24 (Ferris, Harrell-Cook, & Dulebohn, 2000, p. 90).
22 Bacharach, S.B., & Lawler, E.J. (1998). Political alignments in organizations: Contextualization, mobilization, and
coordination. In R.M. Kramer & M.A. Neale (Eds.), Power and influence in organizations (pp. 67-88). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
23 Kacmar, K. M., & Baron, R. A. (1999). Organizational politics: The state of the field, links to related processes, and an agenda for future research. In J. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 17, pp. 1-39). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
24 Ferris, G. R., Harrell-Cook, G., & Dulebohn, J. H. (2000). Organizational politics: The nature of the relationship between politics perceptions and political behavior. In S. B. Bacharach & E. J. Lawler (Eds.), Research in the sociology of organizations, 17 (pp. 89-130). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.
20
C H A P T E R 2
Review of the Related Literature
This chapter reviewed the related literature in-order to strengthen the concept presented in
the theoretical framework.
Organizational politics in its narrow definition could be termed as unsanctioned influence
attempts that seek to promote self-interest at the expense of organizational goals25.
Cropanzano and Grandey, in press; Drory and Romm, 1990; Ferris, Frink, Beehr and
Gilmore, 1995; Ferris and Kacmar, 1992; Ferris and Judge, 1991; Ferris, Russ and Fandt,
1989; Kacmar and Ferris, 1993).
Organizational politics is a subjective experience and state of mind which cannot be
measured exclusively on objective state26 (Gandz and Murray, 1980). Gerald R, Farris in
his research in (1992) mentioned that perception of organizational politics influenced by
organizational, environmental and personal factors27 in turn influences organizational
outcomes such as job involvement, job anxiety, job satisfaction and withdrawal from the
organization. The perception of politics also could be due to variability on job, age, sex
education as well as the hierarchal level in an organization resulting impacts in job
satisfaction, anxiety, employee promotions. In the same way other causes could be job
25 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support
to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
Drory, A., & Romm, T. (1990). The definition of organizational politics: A review. Human Relations, 43, 1133-1154.
Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Beehr, T. A., & Gilmore, D. C. (1995). Political fairness and fair politics: The conceptual integration of divergent constructs. In R. Cropanzano & M. K. Kacmar (Eds.), Organizational politics, justice, and support: Managing the social climate of work organizations (pp. 21-36). Westport, CT: Quorum.
Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
Ferris, G. R., & Judge, T. A. (1991). Personnel/human resources management: A political influence perspective. Journal of Management, 17, 447-488.
Ferris, G.R., Russ, G.S., & Fandt, P.M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the organization (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kacmar, K. M., & Ferris, G. R. (1991). Perceptions of organizational politics scale (POPS): Development and construct validation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 193-205.
26 Gandz, J., & Murray, V. V. (1980). The experience of workplace politics. Academy of Management Journal, 23, 237-251.
27 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
21
environment influences28 (Graen, Novak and Sommerkamp, 1982), wok group cohesion29
(Price and Muller, 1986), span of control30 (Ferris, 1990), Feedback and advancement
opportunities31 (Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al, 1996).
A. Factors of Perception of Organizational Politics
Employees with different education, income and hierarchal level respond to organizational
politics differently, so possibilities of personality traits and economical status have an effect
on situational decisions32 (Vigoda, 2000). Lower status employees perceive the
organizational policies as source of unjustified decisions and frustration and it simulates
negative attitudes. The reason is because they are unable to influence such decision33
(Vigoda, 2000). For higher status employees, the organizational politics works as a
centrifugal force which actually pushes them to withdraw and find a new place which they
perceive as less political termed as turnover intention. So we can infer that organizational
politics is strongly related to organizational commitment. Bozeman34 (1996) depicts that
this relationship could be negative.
Organizations make it easier for employees to engage in political behavior by providing
few rules and policies for guidance. In the absence of specific rules to prescribe how to act,
political activity will be more likely to occur. Circumstances in which few rules exist or the
rules have not been clearly communicated are ambiguous. Ambiguous circumstances allow
28 Graen, G. B., Novak, M. A. & Sommerkamp, P. (1982). The effects of a leader-member exchange and job design on
productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30, 109-131.
30 Wayne, S.J., & Ferris, G.R. 1990. Influence tactics, affect, and exchange quality in supervisor sub -ordinate interactions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75: 487-499.
31 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Bhawuk, D. P. S., Zhou, J., & Gilmore, D. C. (1996). Reactions of diverse groups to politics in the workplace. Journal of Management, 22, 23-44.
32 Vigoda, E. (2000b). Internal politics in public administration system: An empirical examination of its relationship with job congruence, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance. Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210.
33 Vigoda, E. (2000a). Are you being served? The responsiveness of public administration to citizen’s demands: An empirical examination in Israel. Public Administration, 78, 165-191.
34 Bozeman, D. P., Perrewe, P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, K. M. and Brymer, R. A. (1996). `Opportunity or threat? An examination of differential reactions to perceptions of organizational politics'.
22
individuals to define a situation to fit their own needs and desires. This redefinition of the
situation is often considered political behavior35 (Kacmar, 1995).
Ferris et al (1989) and Fandt36, and Ferris37 (1990) identified their research found that
political behaviors are most likely to occur when a reasonably high degree of uncertainty
and or ambiguity exists in the work environment. As emphasized in the research outcome
by Ferris38 (1992) job Autonomy, job variety and feedback can reduce the uncertainty in
the environment. Job autonomy and low task variety leads to powerlessness (Daft, 1989),
which could be important factor in eliminating the political situation.
In a research conducted by Ferris et al39 (1989) it was mentioned that demographics; age,
gender, tenure and race could be another important aspect in perception of organizational
politics.
Formulization could be another important factor in organizational politics as discovered by
Mintzberg4041 (1983, 1985) in his researches. Highly formularized organizations have a
lower rate of political activity. The situation is also an outcome from the research by
Mintzberg42 (1979) which shows that political activity is lowest in highly formulized
organizations. Mintzberg43 (1979b) also represented that professional organizations are
more political than others. The same fact has been highlighted by Ferris that advancement
35 Kacmar, K. M. and Carlson, D. S. (1997). `Further validation of the perceptions of politics scale (POPS): A multiple
sample investigation', Journal of Management. Journal of Management, Vol. 23, pp. 627-658. Southern Management Association.
36 Ferris, G.R., Russ, G.S., & Fandt, P.M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the organization (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
37 Ferris, G. R., & Judge, T. A. (1991). Personnel/human resources management: A political influence perspective. Journal of Management, 17, 447-488.
38 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
39 Ferris, G.R., Russ, G.S., & Fandt, P.M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the organization (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
40 Mintzberg, H. (1985). The organization as a political arena. Journal of Management Studies, 22, 133-154.
41 Mintzberg, H. (1983). Power in and around organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
42 Mintzberg. H. 1979a. Organizational power and goals: A skeletal theory.
43 Mintzberg, H. 1979b. The structuring of organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
23
opportunities44 (Smith et al, 1962) also have a negative relationship with organizational
politics; people maneuver others if they know they have lesser opportunities of
advancement in an organization. Besides this, promotion decisions could also be defined as
one of the most essential political dynamics in organizations4546 (Madison et al, 1980;
Ferris and Buckley, 1990). Personality traits like Machiavellianism47 have also an important
role in the perception of organizational politics. High Machs48 (representing high value of
Mach score) and highly self-monitored people are more involved in political maneuvering
than other people49 (Gerald Ferris, 1992).
B. Perception of Organizational politicos As Mediator of Physical and Mental Health
Cropanzano50 in 1997 explored that there could be many other traits that form the ground
of politics or carve a path that make the horizon of politics a distinct attribute of any
organization. In a political organization individuals think that their hard work will not be
rewarded consistently. Since power is a key to success and perception could be the more
powerful cabal you are affiliated the more you will be rewarded. Additionally settings are
unpredictable, unreliable and threatening51 (Cropanzano, 1997). People normally opt to quit
or withdraw in such situations and these withdraws could be psychological or physical. In
psychological withdraws52 people are mentally unable to present themselves at workplace
44 Smith, P.C., Kendall, L.M., & Hulin, C.L. 1969. The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement nt. Chicago.
45 Madison, D.L., Allen, R.W., Porter, L.W., Renwick, P.A. & Mayes, B.T. (1980). Organization politics: An exploration of managers' perceptions. Human Relations, 33: 79-100.
46 Ferris, G.R., & Buckley, M.R. 1990. Performance evaluation in high technology firms: Process and politics. In L.R. Gomez-Mejia & M.W. Lawless (Eds.) Organizational issues in high technology management: 243-263. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
47 People who are more selfish and motivated only by personal gain (Management and organization, Col MBA. p, 32 )
48 Term Adopted from Management and Organization COLMBA. P,34), Christie and Geiss, Studies in Machiavellianism, 1970
49 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
50 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
51 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
52 Term Adopted from Cropanzano et al The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress (1997)
24
and they spent a lot of time in daydreaming and nonproductive chats. Psychological
withdrawal53 seems to be positively related to organizational politics5455 (Ferris et al, 1993;
Randall et al, 1994) similarly as Ferris et al, 1993 found that organizational politics is
positively related to the turnover intentions. There could be a situation where employees
become more isolated to save themselves from political hazards.
Above situation is analogous to (Hirschman’s, 1970) exit, loyalty56 and voice respectively57
(Ferris, 1992). The domino effect of Ferris’s research was “The negative sign of most of
the relationships is largely consistent with prior research by Gandz and Murray58 (1980),
particularly with respect to job satisfaction5960 (Ferris et al., 1989; Kacmar & Ferris, 1992a,
1992b) along with skill variety6162 (Kacmar and Ferris, 1992; Valle & Perrewé, 2000), job
autonomy63 (Ferris et al, 1989), feedback, organization tenure, and opportunity for
promotion. Unlike prior work64, which found age (Parker et al, 1995) to be positively but
53 Term Adopted from Cropanzano et al The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors,
attitudes, and stress (1997)
54 Ferris, G. R., Brand, J. F., Brand, S., Rowland, K. M., Gilmore, D. C., King, T. R., Kacmar, K. M., & Burton, C. A. (1993). Politics and control in organizations. In E. J. Lawler, B. Markovsky, J. O’Brien, & K. Heime (Eds.), Advances in group processes (Vol. 10, pp. 83-111). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
55 Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. A. and Birjulin, A. (1994). `The relationship of organizational politics and organizational support to employee attitudes and behavior'. Paper presented at the 1994 meeting of the Academy of Management, Dallas, TX.
56 Hirschman, A. (1970). Exit, voice, and loyalty: Responses to decline in firms, organizations, and states. Cambridge, CA: Harvard University Press.
57 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
58 Gandz, J., & Murray, V. V. (1980). The experience of workplace politics. Academy of Management Journal, 23, 237-251.
59 Ferris, G.R., Russ, G.S., & Fandt, P.M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the organization (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
60 Kacmar, K. M., & Ferris, G. R. (1991). Perceptions of organizational politics scale (POPS): Development and construct validation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 193-205.
61 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
62 Valle, M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2000). Do politics perceptions relate to political behaviors? Test of an implicit assumption and an expanded model. Human Relations, 53, 359-386.
63 Ferris, G.R., Russ, G.S., & Fandt, P.M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the organization (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
64 Parker, C. P., Dipboye, R. L. and Jackson, S. L. (1995). `Perceptions of organizational politics: An investigation of antecedents and consequences', Journal of Management, 21, 891±912.
25
not significantly correlated with organizational politics, the present relationship is
significant and inverse”. Politics is not a thing which is always considered as negative;
sometime it plays a significant role in team moral and goal accomplishment,
Political behaviors or perception of organizational politics can be used for betterment of
organizations as Pfeffer65 (1981) has argued that politics are essential to the effective
functioning or organizations. Individual who become proficient at playing politics may
realize greater job and career related rewards66 (Wayne & Farris, 1990). Further Pfeffer67
(1989) suggested that a political focus might be an important, yet overlooked, perspective
in understanding career success68. Timothy expanded the initial work of Ferris and also
seconded the initial work done by Ferris that organizational politics have serious negative
relations with organizational politics. He also found that career interruptions are higher a
lower level employees.
Perception of organizational politics and their impacts on general psychological health of
employees are important to understand. Many researchers explore relationships between
organizational politics and psychological conditions of employees. Higher level of
organizational politics generates stress69 (Valle & Perrewe, 2000) and strains to the
1996), general fatigue, job and somatic tension and burnouts71 (Cropanzano, 1997). These
motives influence work conflicts and overall productivity of employees. Similarly people
65 Pfeffer, J. (1981). Power in organizations. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company.
66 Wayne, S.J., & Ferris, G.R. 1990. Influence tactics, affect, and exchange quality in supervisor sub -ordinate interactions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75: 487-499.
67 Pfeffer, J. (1989). A political perspective on careers: Interests, networks, and environments. Pp. 380-396 in M. G. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.), Handbook of career theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.
68 Timothy A. Judge (1994). Political influence behavior and career success. Walker, J. W. (1980). Human resources planning. New York: McGraw-Hill. JAI Press, Inc.2004 Gale Group.
69 Valle, M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2000). Do politics perceptions relate to political behaviors? Test of an implicit assumption and an expanded model. Human Relations, 53, 359-386.
70 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Galang, M. C., Zhou, J., Kacmar, K. M., & Howard, J. L. (1996). Perceptions of organizational politics: Prediction, stress-related implications, and outcomes. Human Relations, 49, 233-266.
71 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
26
exposed to fatigue and burnouts have high rates of physical problems like headaches,
backaches, lingering colds, gastrointestinal, etc72 (Maslach and Jackson, 1981).
Correspondingly organizational politics has basic out come of work stress, work stress is a
subjective feeling which usually arises when an individual thinks that work demands are
higher than the capabilities and he or she is unable to cop with this situation (Folkman &
Lazarus, 1991; Edwards, 1992). Work stress has an obvious negative impact on the
individual and equally venomous effects on the organization and economy. The cost of
stress can be enormous due to lost, time, reduced production and accidents73747576 (Ganster
and Schaubroeck, 1991; Holley and Frye, 1989; Joure, Leon, Simpson, Holley and Frye,
1989; Minter, 1991; Murphy, 1988) together as predictors of work stress. If an employee
perceives the work environment to be political, he or she reports greater levels of anxiety
and tension, and lower levels of general health77 (Cropanzano, 1997).
Cropanzano in his latest book mentions that politics destabilize the formal decisions in
organizations, and they tend not to be transparent. Both these concepts involve weighting
the opportunity for gains against the potential for losses. These losses can creates stress
because some time people are unable to direct the decision as per their thoughts. Politics
and stress involve how people subjectively construe uncertain situations where an
appropriate action is necessary to avoid harm or to realize a gain78 (Cropanzano, R., & Li,
A. in press). Stress can be referred internal resisting force or as the perception that demands
72 Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 2,
99-113.
73 Ganster, D. C. and Schaubroeck, J. (1991). `Work stress and employee health', Journal of Management, 17,235-271.
74 Joure, S. A., Leon, J. S., Simpson, D. B., Holley, C. H. and Frye, R. L. (1989, March). `Stress: The pressure cooker of work', The Personnel Administrator, 34, 92-95.
75 Minter, S. G. (1991). `Relieving workplace stress', Occupational Hazards, April, pp. 39-42.
76 Murphy, L. R. (1988). `Workplace interventions for stress reduction and prevention'. In: Cooper, C. L. and Payne, R. (Eds) Causes, Coping, and Consequences of Stress at Work, Wiley, London.
77 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J. C., Grandey, A. A. and Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
78 Cropanzano, R., & Li, A. (in press). Organizational politics and workplace stress. In E. Vigoda-Gabot & A. Drory (Eds.), Handbook of organizational politics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward-Elgar.
27
exceeded capacity; some researcher describes that “politics as stress” 79 (Dipboye & Foster,
2002). Employee’s perceptions of resources relative to demand intervene between the
organizational politics and stress, then there should also be an opportunity for those with
1985; Kobasa, 1982). Finally, behavioral responses to stress entail a wide variety of
outcomes such as absence at work, counterproductive behavior88, job performance89,
79 Dipboye, R. L., & Foster, J. B. (2002). Multi-level theorizing about perceptions of organizational politics. In F. J.
Yammarino & F. Dansereau (Eds.), The many faces of multi-level issues (pp. 255-270). JAI: Amsterdam.
80 ability to behave appropriately
81 Kahn, R. L., & Byosiere, P. (1992). Stress in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd Ed., Vol. 2, pp. 571-650). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
82 Fried, Y., Rowland, K. M., & Ferris, G. R. (1984). The physiological measurement of work stress: A critique. Personnel Psychology, 37, 583-615.
83 Beehr, T. A., Walsh, J. T., & Taber, T. D. (1976). Relationships of stress to individually and organizationally valued states: Higher order needs as a moderator. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 41-47.
84 Cooper, C. L., & Roden, J. (1985). Mental health and satisfaction among tax officers. Social Science & Medicine, 21, 747-751.
85 Davidson, M. J., & Cooper, C. L. (1986). Executive women under pressure. Occupational and life stress and the family (Special issue). International Review of Applied Psychology, 35, 301-326.
86 Fisher, C. D. (1985). Social support and adjustment to work: A longitudinal study. Journal of Management, 11, 39-53.
87 Kobasa, S. (1982). Commitment and coping in stress among lawyers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 707-717.
88 Blau, G. (1981). Organizational investigation of job stress, social support, service length, and job strain. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 27, 279-302.
89 Mangione, B. L., & Quinn, R. P. (1975). Job satisfaction, counterproductive behavior, and drug use at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 114-116.
28
turnover90, and drug use on the job9192 (Blau, 1981; Mangione & Quinn, 1975). Baron and
Kenny93 in a research conducted in 1986 and publish in Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology (1986) and Holmbeck94 (2000) remind us, the relationship between actual
political behavior and stress responses should be larger when perceived politics is not used
as a predictor similar results were obtain by and Holmbeck in his research work(2000). The
relationship of actual political behavior with stress should be smaller, or perhaps
nonsignficant, when perceived politics is also used as a predictor.
C. Perception of Organizational Politics in Decision-making
With growth of technology it is impossible to continue with traditional decision-making
approach. Traditional approach of decision-making is creating disappointment in
employees that eventually leads towards more interest in organizational politics. In such
situations, the political model is a more interesting approach for the employees to attain
their self interest95 (Narayanan and Fahey, 1982).
Each political paradigm has a basic objective, which is, to get more resources and power in
legitimacy in organizations96 (Mintzberg; 1983). This situation leads to informal
organizational behavior which is designed to protect or enhance the self interest of
individuals and groups when it is conflicting with the interest of others97 (Porter, Allen, and
90 Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research:
Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
91 Tracy, M., and Siegall, M., Burnout and Expectancies About Alcohol Use: Drinking Behavior in a Sample of University Professors. http://www.westga.edu/~bquest/2004/burnout.htm
92 Holmbeck, G. N. (2002). Post-hoc probing of significant moderational and mediational effects in studies of pediatric populations. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27, 87-96.
93 Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
94 Holmbeck, G. N., Colder, C., Shapera, W., Westhoven, V., Kenealy, L., & Updegrove, A. (2000). Working with adolescents: Guides from developmental psychology. In P. C. Kendall (Ed.), Child and adolescent therapy: Cognitive-behavioral procedures, (pp. 334-385). New York: Guilford Press
95 Narayanan, V. K., and L. Fahey. (1982) 'The micro-politics of strategy formulation'. Academy of Management Review 7/1: 25-34.
96 Mintzberg, H. (1983). Power in and around organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
97 Porter, L. W., R. W. Allen, and H. L. Angle. (1983) 'The politics of upward influence in organizations' in Organizational influence processes. R. W. Allen and L. W. Porter (eds.), 408-422. Glenview, III. Scott, Foresman and Company.
29
Angle, 1983). Employees in supervisory roles normally enjoy greater authority and
autonomy. Formal power and greater opportunities have influence on higher organizational
level98 (Drory 1993). The prevalence and intensity of politics varies with organization
structure and hierarchy of command99 (Drory, 1992). Organizational politics is not guided
by commonly agreed upon organizational goals or any standard of fairness. It often
enhances the interest of selected individuals or groups regardless of any moral
consideration100 (Cavanagh, Moberg and Velasquez, 1981).
Drory unveils that perception of organizational politics becomes more important when
employees want to take more advantages than they deserve. Masses with such opinion may
not consider organizational politics as necessarily undesirable or detrimental to their own
interests. So we can valuate that the origin of organizational politics could be “satisfaction
with superior” 101 (Kozlowski & Doherty, 1989) and “satisfaction with co-workers” (Drory,
1992) but a negative relation is perceived by these factors. These expectations in broader
terms can be called as organizational climate.
D. Perception of organizational politics in Organizational Climate
The concept of organizational climate may be applied directly to organizational politics, so
self serving decision and unjustified power games can be understood by the phenomenon
of organizational politics102 (Drory, 1992). A political organizational climate may suppress
unfair and unjust activities that are easily observed by employees. When an employee feels
deprived and unfairly treated because of political considerations, he/she will be inclined to
react initially by reducing voluntary obligation and attachment to the organization. These
spontaneous attitudes and reactions are not directly controlled by the organization and are
98 Drory, A. (1993). Perceived political climate and job attitudes. Organization Studies, 14, 59-71.
99 Drory, A. (1993). Perceived political climate and job attitudes. Organization Studies, 14, 59-71.
100 Cavanagh, G. F., D. J. Moberg, and M. Velasquez (1981) 'The ethics of organizational politics'. Academy of Management Review 6/3: 363-374.
101 Kozlowski, S. W. J., and M. Doherty. (1989) 'Integration of climate and leadership: examination of a neglected issue'. Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 546-553.
102 Kozlowski, S. W. J., and M. Doherty. (1989) 'Integration of climate and leadership: examination of a neglected issue'. Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 546-553.
30
expected to change more easily in response to disappointment with the workplace103
(Vigoda, 2000). This climate perception is one of the important steps which can be
explained that is primarily an individual process. It is also interactive and reciprocal.
Similar individuals are attracted to the same sort of settings, are socialized in similar ways,
exposed to similar features within context, and share their interpretation with each other in
the setting104 (Kozlowski & Doherty, 1989). Dissatisfaction with work place can cause
serious impacts on long term commitments with organizations. Hence organizational
commitment has also a strong relationship with organizational politics105 (Cropanzano et al;
1997).
People with high commitments strongly believe in acceptance of organizational goals and
objectives. They have a readiness to exert effort and a strong desire to remain a member of
the organization. Alternatively this phenomenon can be termed as Job disappointment. In
this situation people do not prove their optimum productivity with organization106 (Drory,
1992). Drory also suggest that more research is required in Organizational Politics to
understand if organization is tolerable or helpful and how to reduce the undesirable effects
of organizational politics.
E. Perception of Organizational Politics as Stress Factor
Perception of organization evolves the political behaviors in individuals. Political behavior
is usually an undercover/covert activity, which is also highly predominated by uncertainty.
Organizational politics seriously impact the employees of the organizations in terms of job
stress and absenteeism which ultimately leads towards lower productivity107 (Vigoda,
103 Vigoda, E. (2000b). Internal politics in public administration system: An empirical examination of its relationship with
job congruence, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance. Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210.
104 Kozlowski, S. W. J., and M. Doherty. (1989) 'Integration of climate and leadership: examination of a neglected issue'. Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 546-553.
105 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
106 Drory, A. (1993). Perceived political climate and job attitudes. Organization Studies, 14, 59-71.
107 Vigoda, E. (2002). Stress-related aftermaths of workplace politics: The relationships among politics, job distress, and aggressive behavior in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 571-591.
31
2002). Organizational politics is a social-influence process in which behavior is
strategically designed to maximize short-term or long-term self-interest of resources108
(Chachere, 1989). So the outcome of organizational politics could be positive or negative.
In positive sense, it can support in career advancement, recognition and status, enhanced
control, quick decision-making and implementation of unwanted policies and rules.
Negative outcomes could be decreased strategic decision, unsuccessful objectives, low
credibility, negative perceptions about co-workers and feelings of guilt and imbalance
favoritisms109 (Vigoda, 2002). Lot of research works in needed in the area of Job
Performance and Employee Productivity that can branch out various prospective.
Researches have shown that influence behavior affects selection outcomes110111112113114
Tullar, 1989), performance ratings issued by supervisors115116117118 (Ferris, Judge,
Rowland, & Fitzgibbons, in press; Kipnis & Schmidt, 1988; Wayne & Ferris, 1990; Wayne
108 Ferris, G.R., Fedor, D., Chachere, J.G. & Pondy, L. (1989). Myths and politics in organizational contexts. Group &
Organizational Studies, 14: 88-103.
109 Vigoda, E. (2002). Stress-related aftermaths of workplace politics: The relationships among politics, job distress, and aggressive behavior in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 571-591.
110 Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
111 Beehr, T. A., Walsh, J. T., & Taber, T. D. (1976). Relationships of stress to individually and organizationally valued states: Higher order needs as a moderator. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 41-47.
112 Dipboye, R. L. & Wiley, J. W. (1977). Reactions of college recruiters to interviewee sex and self-presentation style. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 10: 1-12.
113 Gilmore, D. C. & Ferris, G. R. (1989). The effects of applicant impression management tactics on interviewer judgments. Journal of Management, 15: 557-564.
114 Tullar, W. L. (1989). Relational control in the employment interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74: 971-977.
115 Ferris, G. R., & Judge, T. A. (1991). Personnel/human resources management: A political influence perspective. Journal of Management, 17, 447-488.
116 Ferris, G. R., Judge, T. A., Rowland, K. M. & Fitzgibbons, D. E. in press. Subordinate influence and the performance evaluation process: Test of a model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.
117 Kipnis, D. & Schmidt, S. M. (1988). Upward influence styles: Relationship with performance evaluations, salary, and stress. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33: 528-542.
118 Wayne, S.J., & Ferris, G.R. 1990. Influence tactics, affect, and exchange quality in supervisor sub -ordinate interactions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75: 487-499.
F. Perception of Organizational Politics and withdrawal Behaviors
Many researches explained a point that there are two possible reactions whenever there is a
strong existence of organizational politics. Either people flew away from the environment
to find another suitable horizon or they become a part of the political situation. By
becoming a member of the political activity they again have two options, they can flow
with the flood or can oppose the situation to normalize it for betterment122123 (Ferris, 1996,
Folger, Konovsky, & Cropanzano, 1992). People who chose to stay in the above mentioned
situation are exposed to more risk of stress and burnout due to their inability or
unwillingness to play the political game as directed by others and still be happy about it124
(Vigoda, 2002).
Each organization is a souk125 where people get benefits in return of their services,
Cropanzano indicate that organizational works like a marketplace where people come to
acquire more benefits towards achievement of their objective, this finding is aligned with
previous work126 (Thibault & Kelly, 1986) which concludes that a workplace involves
119 Bartol, K. M. & Martin, D. C. (1988). Influences on managerial pay allocations: A dependency perspective. Personnel
Psychology, 41: 361-378.
120 Dreher, G. F., Dougherty, T. W., & Whitely, B. . (1989). Influence tactics and salary attainment: A gender-specific analysis. Sex Roles, 20: 535-550.
121 Gould, S. & Penley, L. E. (1984). Career strategies and salary progression: A study of their relationships in a municipal bureaucracy. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34: 244-265.
122 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Bhawuk, D. P. S., Zhou, J., & Gilmore, D. C. (1996). Reactions of diverse groups to politics in the workplace. Journal of Management, 22, 23-44.
123 Folger, R., Konovsky, M. A., & Cropanzano, R. (1992). A due process metaphor for performance appraisal. In L.L. Cummings, & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 14, pp. 129-177). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
124 Vigoda, E. (2002). Stress-related aftermaths of workplace politics: The relationships among politics, job distress, and aggressive behavior in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 571-591.
125 Marketplace
126 Thibault, J. and Kelly, H. H. (1986). The Social Psychology of Groups, Transaction, New Brunswick.
33
market place in which different individual and groups interact to exchange outcomes127
(Blau, 1964; Cropanzano, 1997). In some organizations people adopt self serving and
competitive styles. In order to fulfill their self serving instinct they form small groups
which are most of the time not aliened with organizational goal and could be destructive128
(Cropanzano, 1997). Politics can be termed as a broad social tool that can contribute to the
basic functioning of the organization129 (Pfeffer, 1980).
The strength of organizational politics lies in its potential consequences and effect on work
outcome. Organizational politics often influence the organizational processes. Hence it
causes an overall impact on performance and productivity on individual and organizational
level130 (Vigoda, 2000). Recent studies have also suggested that it enhances withdrawal and
turnover intentions131 (Bozeman et al, 1996). Politics generally disturbs the levels of
justice, equity and fairness which create complications in the minds of employees working
in an organization (Vigoda, 2000). Many researchers argue that perception of politics is
more important that actual existence of organizational politics and their point is that people
respond to their perceptions rather than the reality132 (Kurt Lewin, 1936). This perception
sometimes craft effects which are more intense than the political situation of organizations.
The most salient relationship of organizational politics is related with job attitude and
behavior. Organizational politics has an effect on employees’ behavioral intentions and
work productivity133 (Vigoda, 2000).
127 Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life, Wiley, New York.
128 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
129 Pfeffer, J. (1981). Power in organizations. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company.
130 Vigoda, E. (2000b). Internal politics in public administration system: An empirical examination of its relationship with job congruence, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance. Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210.
131 Bozeman, D. P., Perrewe , P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, K. M. and Brymer, R. A. (1996). `Opportunity or threat? An examination of differential reactions to perceptions of organizational politics'.
132 Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
133 Vigoda, E. (2000b). Internal politics in public administration system: An empirical examination of its relationship with job congruence, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance. Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210.
34
G. Perception of organizational politics and self serving attitudes
Whenever the marketplace (Organization) become politics everyone will try to satisfy
his/her own personal goals, so their general attitude could be pushing or exerting powers to
drag the rewards of others. In order to exert extra power to made decision according to their
will people normally hook themselves to political cabal. The strong the cabal the more they
are affective134 (Cropanzano, 1997). When people are working in different groups which
are informal in nature it makes marketplace more volatile and less predictable. These
conditions create hesitation for individuals to put extra efforts to produce any beneficial
outcome. This lack of confidence makes it less likely to that individual will allocate
additional resources to the organization135 (Cropanzano, 1997). In political organizations
environment become more fractioning and threatening because several factions are
working actively to achieve their desired outcomes which could be harmful to others
(Cropanzano, 1997). Similarly politically oriented managers might use the performance
evaluation system for self-promotion or show favoritism to a personal friend136
(Cropanzano, 1997). Political behaviors are typically self serving and manipulative
activities that observers do not evaluate positively. Personal work attitudes and work
behaviors can also cause an organizational to be more political.
Workplace can be considered as a marketplace where people services to get returns of pays
as tangible and esteem, dignity and personal power as intangible. Holding a job is
analogous to making an investment (Cropanzano, Howes, Grandey an Toth, 1997).
Workers provide their motivation in the hope of earning something in return. In such
conditions, people think it is reasonable to invest carefully otherwise they will face
negative experiences. With so much at stake individuals monitor their investments closely
134 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support
to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
135 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
136 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
35
and try to stick with bonus returns137 (Cropanzano et al,1999). So, we can say that, in this
market place everyone is pointing towards its own investment and growth. People prefer to
stick with those cabals who are more aligned with their personal interests. Alternatively, we
can say that in competitive environment of workplace people make alliance with those
groups who work as cooperators rather than competitors. Political environment creates a
risky environment that inclines resources to contribute completely. A mindset is generated
that these efforts will be not fruitful in getting better rewards and promotions. These
attributes map to a decline in performance and productivity.
Positive work behaviors have a significant correlation with organizational politics. Positive
work behaviors are volunteering for extra work, courtesy and timeliness. Individuals are
more likely to invest effort on behalf of an organization that meets their needs rather than
threatening them. Aggressive work behaviors could also be an outcome of organizational
behaviors. And these are positively related to organizational politics138139 (Cheng, 1983;
Randall, 1994). People evaluate their organizations positive evolution of an organization
when its goals are being met rather than when their aspirations are threatened140 (cf. Hulin,
1991).
Some researchers like Cropanzano have tried to figure out individual’s ability to control
politics and prevent harm. Political environments run the risk of violating social contract
between an individual and an employing organization. Other authors like Ferris have also
made similar observations. Stately somewhat loosely politics reason by jeopardizing
benefits and threatening individuals with harm. Similar to other research Cropanzano have
137 Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. A., & Birjulin, A. (1999). Organizational politics and organizational
support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 159-174.
138 Cheng, J. L. (1983). `Organizational context and upward influence: An experimental study in the use of power tactics', Group and Organizational Studies, 8, 337-355.
139 Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. A. and Birjulin, A. (1994). `The relationship of organizational politics and organizational support to employee attitudes and behavior'. Paper presented at the 1994 meeting of the Academy of Management, Dallas, TX.
140 Hulin, C. L. (1991). `Adaptation, persistence, and commitment in organizations'. In: Dunnette, M. D. and Hough, L. M. (Eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2, 2nd edn., Consulting Psychologistics Press, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 445-506.
36
also segregated the politics in two parts one perceived control over work environment other
understating of organizational politics. Furthermore he divides the factors of organizational
politics in two categories one as insiders and other outsides, whereas the insiders are the
factors related to an individual’s personality and outsiders are the overall organizational
factors.
H. Perception of Organizational Politics and Job Tension
Hochwarter, Perrewe, Ferris and Guercio141 in their examination in (1999) approached the
issue of organizational politics and job tension, Hochwater and his colleagues argued that
dispositional factors may also play a critical role; he mentioned this dispositional role as
organizational commitment. Valle and Perrewe142 (2000) predicted organizational politics
create much ill-effect to the employees who respond with reactive political behaviors, they
explained these reactive political behaviors are those that include “avoiding action”,
“avoiding blame” and “avoiding change”. In political environment people usually hesitate
to take risk due to high expectancy of failures. Consider the nature of perceived politics.
The same political machinations may be positive for one person and negative for another.
For example, beneficiaries are less apt to cry foul than are those who are harmed143 (cf.,
Fedor & Maslyn, 2002). This suggests that politics can be perceived as either positive or
negative. However, it seems to be the negative effects of politics that increase the level of
stress144145 (Vigoda, 2002, 2003). As an example, consider the aforementioned work of
Ferris and his colleagues. These authors show that politics is less harmful when individuals
141 Hochwarter, W. A., Perrewe, P. L., Ferris, G. R., & Guercio, R. (1999). Commitment as an antidote to the tension and
turnover consequences of organizational politics. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 55, 277-297.
142 Valle, M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2000). Do politics perceptions relate to political behaviors? Test of an implicit assumption and an expanded model. Human Relations, 53, 359-386.
143 Fedor, D. B., & Maslyn, J. M. (2002). Politics and political behavior: Where else do we go from here? In F. J. Yammarino & F. Dansereau (Eds.), The many faces of multi-level issues (pp. 271-285). JAI: Amsterdam.
144 Vigoda, E. (2002). Stress-related aftermaths of workplace politics: The relationships among politics, job distress, and aggressive behavior in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 571-591.
145 Vigoda, E. (2003). Developments in organizational politics: How political dynamics affect employee performance in modern worksites. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
37
are in a position to cope with it146147148 (Ferris et al., 1994; Ferris, Frink, Bhawuk, et al.,
1996; Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al., 1996).
I. Perception of Organizational Politics and Organizational Support
In some organizations working style is really supporting (organizational support). People
come across others in order to learn more and get quick resolutions of the everyday
problems, but where is a high perception of organizational politics people always trying to
avoid others and their interaction with others will be minimized. Where there is low
interaction higher will be the ambiguities because people will discuss the problem they are
facing with their peers. Supporting organizational help their employees to achieve better
their long term and short term goals, they are more predictable they are less threatening and
people are always sure that their efforts will be recognized and will bring better payoffs149
(Cropanzano, 1997).
Organizational politics and organizational support have very high and negative correlation
as examined by150 (Cropanzano, 1999). Supporting organization is an organization where
people acquire support for their achievements. Employees are rewarded better periodically
on their achievements and organization looks after their needs. Hence people invest more
in terms of supplementary eagerness towards work and task completion with quality. This
prevail helpful organizational behavior151152153 (George, Reed, Ballard, Colin and Fielding,
146 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Gilmore, D. C., & Kacmar, K. M. (1994). Understanding as an antidote for the dysfunctional
consequences of organizational politics as a stressor. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 1204-1220.
147 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Bhawuk, D. P. S., Zhou, J., & Gilmore, D. C. (1996). Reactions of diverse groups to politics in the workplace. Journal of Management, 22, 23-44.
148 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Galang, M. C., Zhou, J., Kacmar, K. M., & Howard, J. L. (1996). Perceptions of organizational politics: Prediction, stress-related implications, and outcomes. Human Relations, 49, 233-266.
149 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
150 Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. A., & Birjulin, A. (1999). Organizational politics and organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 159-174.
151 George, J. M., Reed, T. F., Ballard, K. A., Colin, J. and Fielding, J. (1993). `Contact with AIDS patients as a source of work-related distress: Effects of organizational and social support', Academy of Management Journal, 36, 157-171.
152 Shore, L. M. and Shore, T. H. (1995). `Perceived organizational support and organizational justice'. In: Cropanzano, R. and Kacmar, K. M. (Eds) Organizational Politics, Justice, and Support: Managing the Social Climate of Work Organizations, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, pp. 149-164.
38
1993; Shore and Shore, 1995; Fasolo, 1995). Higher the organizational politics lower will
be organizational support. The phenomenon of organizational support is based on multiple
factors like organizational commitment and job satisfaction. It is also important to know
how people think about their job, how they behave at work and this accumulates to their
organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). There are two possible varieties of
organizational commitment. In the first one, employees try to present themselves very
“affective” and feel emotionally affiliated with their work place. Researches suggest that
this bond in stronger if there is low organizational politics and vice versa. The other type of
commitment is “continuance” or calculative (Cropanzano, 1999) which can be expressed as
the employee being a part of the organization otherwise he/she will face economical losses
or will not be able to get much anywhere else. So this affiliation with the organization will
be only for short socioeconomic advantages rather than long term commitment with the
organization. In such situations people feel low self respect, dignity and sense of
worthiness154 (Cropanzano et al, 1999). This leads in severe decline of employees moral
and is reflected in indolence and absenteeism.
Researches have also proved that in certain situations organizational politics is negatively
related to job satisfaction and it has a positive relation with turnover intentions. If the
employees fail to find any better opportunity they start developing negligent attitude in
work behavior155156157158159160161162163164165166 (Bozeman, Perrewe , Hochwater, Kacmar and
153 Fasolo, P. M. (1995). `Procedural justice and perceived organizational support: Hypothesized effects on job
performance'. In: Cropanzano, R. and Kacmar, K. M. (Eds) Organizational Politics, Justice, and Support: Managing the Social Climate of Work Organizations, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, pp. 185-195.
154 Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. A., & Birjulin, A. (1999). Organizational politics and organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 159-174.
155 Bozeman, D. P., Perrewe , P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, K. M. and Brymer, R. A. (1996). `Opportunity or threat? An examination of differential reactions to perceptions of organizational politics'.
156 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
157 Drory, A., & Romm, T. (1990). The definition of organizational politics: A review. Human Relations, 43, 1133-1154.
158 Ferris, G. R., Brand, J. F., Brand, S., Rowland, K. M., Gilmore, D. C., King, T. R., Kacmar, K. M., & Burton, C. A. (1993). Politics and control in organizations. In E. J. Lawler, B. Markovsky, J. O’Brien, & K. Heime (Eds.), Advances in group processes (Vol. 10, pp. 83-111). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Gilmore, King, Kacmar and Burton; 1993; Ferris, Frink, Beehr and Gilmore, 1995; Ferris,
Frink, Galang, Zhou, Kacmar and Howard, 1996; Ferris and Kacmar, 1992; Gandz and
Murray, 1980; Nye and Witt, 1993; Parker, Dipboye and Jackson, 1995, Ferris et al., 1993;
Eran Vigoda, 2000).
J. Political Behaviors and Work Attitudes
Political behaviors can be categorized in two major clauses; one is the actual political
behavior, tactics, strategies, and their consequence. Second category could be the
perception part of politics, as Ferris suggests that people react more towards their
perception rather than the reality. In perception of organizational politics we focus on how
employee perceive about the politics in work environment, the antecedents of such
perceptions and their consequences167 (Ferris, 2001-inpress).
Employee work attitudes are also affected by the perception of organizational politics and
these negative effects can impact employees in the long run168 (Drory, 1993; Vigoda,
2000). In job attitude the most significant factor is “neglect”. Which means employees will
159 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Beehr, T. A., & Gilmore, D. C. (1995). Political fairness and fair politics: The conceptual
integration of divergent constructs. In R. Cropanzano & M. K. Kacmar (Eds.), Organizational politics, justice, and support: Managing the social climate of work organizations (pp. 21-36). Westport, CT: Quorum.
160 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Bhawuk, D. P. S., Zhou, J., & Gilmore, D. C. (1996). Reactions of diverse groups to politics in the workplace. Journal of Management, 22, 23-44.
161 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
162 Gandz, J., & Murray, V. V. (1980). The experience of workplace politics. Academy of Management Journal, 23, 237-251.
163 Nye, L. G., & Witt, L. A. (1993). Dimensionality and construct validity of the perceptions of organizational politics scale (POPS). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 821-829.
164 Parker, C. P., Dipboye, R. L. and Jackson, S. L. (1995). `Perceptions of organizational politics: An investigation of antecedents and consequences', Journal of Management, 21, 891-912.
165 Ferris, G. R., Brand, J. F., Brand, S., Rowland, K. M., Gilmore, D. C., King, T. R., Kacmar, K. M., & Burton, C. A. (1993). Politics and control in organizations. In E. J. Lawler, B. Markovsky, J. O’Brien, & K. Heime (Eds.), Advances in group processes (Vol. 10, pp. 83-111). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
166 Vigoda, E. (2000a). Are you being served? The responsiveness of public administration to citizen’s demands: An empirical examination in Israel. Public Administration, 78, 165-191.
167 Ferris, G. R., Judge, T. A., Rowland, K. M. & Fitzgibbons, D. E. in press. Subordinate influence and the performance evaluation process: Test of a model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.
168 Drory, A. (1993). Perceived political climate and job attitudes. Organization Studies, 14, 59-71.
40
remain member of political cabals but will neglect his/her duties. This will be evident in
delays of assignments, less effort contributed in their work, no creativity and no initiative
and carelessness169 (Vigoda, 2000). In such situation employee spent a lot of their time in
job hunting, submitting resume and searching for alternatives. Furthermore, when the
situation prolongs it will create an overall aggressive attitude towards co-workers,
misbehaving, irresponsibility and sloppiness. Bottom-line could be that people misuse
organizational politics to achieve their self interest and try to violate the basic justice and
fairness170 (Vigoda, 2000).
Politics and political behaviors are like a promising field for theoretical inquiry (Vigoda,
2000). The purpose of such studies is to device tools for manager to handle political
situations. Some scholars even comment that “it is a necessary evil present at workplace”.
Organizational politics usually emerges when there is an imbalance in formal or informal
power another influence(Vigoda, 2000) it could also could be the power struggle and
influence tactics171. In the current research Vigoda continues to stress that organization
politics is negatively related to employees’ performance, his further emphasis was the
somehow positive relationship among phenomenon of organizational politics and person-
organizational fit.
K. POPS and Influential Groups
Ferris in his book “Politics in organizations” mentioned that there could be three groups
who can influence organizational politics. Firstly, general personal group based on
demographics and personality traits. Secondly, organizational influences consisting of
organizational hierarchy thirdly, work environment influence comprising of job autonomy,
job variety, feedback and advancement opportunities and person-organizational fit.
169 Vigoda, E. (2000b). Internal politics in public administration system: An empirical examination of its relationship with
job congruence, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance. Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210.
170 Vigoda, E. (2000b). Internal politics in public administration system: An empirical examination of its relationship with job congruence, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance. Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210.
171 Vigoda, E. (2002). Stress-related aftermaths of workplace politics: The relationships among politics, job distress, and aggressive behavior in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 571-591.
41
Person-organizational fit or job congruence is the “basic compatibility of an employee with
its workplace” (Vigoda, 2000).
Since we have already studied that we cannot remove organizational politics from
organizational (Ferris et al, 1990), but we can use it in positive manners so people could
take effective actions by having control over information, flexibility and statecraft172
(Vigoda, 2000). Similarly, if we are able to counter with negative organizational politics it
could be also supportive in normalizing “groupthink” and rationalize decision-making. In
normalization of organizational politics the role of supervisor or leader is very important. A
wise leader can create positive competition among employees to improve their
productivity. Conclusion could be that high satisfaction means high job effectiveness or
productivity. If an employee is satisfied and equally treated according to their performance
and fair priorities than intentions towards work increased (Vigoda, 2000). One study by
Farh and his contemporaries173 (Vigoda, 2000) et al, 1990; partially supports the notation
that higher level of justices and fairness encourages employees with higher levels of
organizational citizenship behavior.
Politics undermines formal decision structures and tends not to be transparent to all.
Perception of politics basically determines the state of mind of employees to decide for the
gain and loss. (Cropanzano, in press).The concept of politics creates stress and sense of ill-
ease which drives to gauge opportunities of gains and losses in organization. Politics and
stress involve how people subjectively construe uncertain situations where an appropriate
action is necessary to avoid harm or to realize a gameError! Bookmark not defined. (Cropanzano, in
press). “Stress referred to the internal resisting force. Strain or distortion was the resulting
change in the object.” 174 (Kahn & Buyosiere, 1992) Stress which could be an outcome of
organizational politics historically defined as an external force applied to change the shape
172 Vigoda, E. (2002). Internal Politics in Public Administration Systems, An Empirical Examination of Its Relationship
With Job Congruence, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, and In-Role Performance Public Personnel Management Volume 29 No. 2 Summer 2000 185-210.
173 Farh, J.L., Zhong, C.B., & Oragan, D.W. (2004). Organizational citizenship behavior in the People’s Republic of China. Organization Science, 15, 241-253.
174 Kahn, R. L., & Byosiere, P. (1992). Stress in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd Ed., Vol. 2, pp. 571-650). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
42
of an objectError! Bookmark not defined. (Cropanzano, in press). Some individuals might
conceptualize “politics as stress.” This way of approaching politics would treat
politics/stress as a source of potentially harmful individual responses175 (Dipboye & Foster,
2002). As per suggestions of many researchers like Rizzo176 and his colleague and another
research by, House & Lirtzman (1970), Netemeyer, Johnson & Burtun177 (1990) stress has
a negative relationship with role conflict, role ambiguity and tension. Moreover
organizational politics has a positive relationship with stress.
L. POPS and Work Ethics
Bozeman178 and his colleagues elaborated a relationship between organizational politics
and its impact on organizational commitment, job satisfaction, intentions to turnover and
job stress. However significant negative relationships were found between organizational
politics and self efficacy. Gandz and Murray179 in their initial work suggested that
organizational politics promotes an unhealthy and irrational behavior in employees which
could lead to lower job satisfaction for other employees.
Political environments run the risk of violating social contract between an individual and an
employing organization180181182. (Witt, Andrews and Kamar, 2002; Cropanzano Howes,
175 Dipboye, R. L., & Foster, J. B. (2002). Multi-level theorizing about perceptions of organizational politics. In F. J.
Yammarino & F. Dansereau (Eds.), The many faces of multi-level issues (pp. 255-270). JAI: Amsterdam.
176 Rizzo, J. R., House, R. J., & Lirtzman, S. I. (1970), Role conflict and ambiguity in complex organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 15, 150-163.
177 Netemeyer, R. G., Joshnston, M. W., & Burton, S. (1990). Analysis of role conflict and role ambiguity in a structural equations framework. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 148-157.
178 Bozeman, D. P., Perrewe , P. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Kacmar, K. M. and Brymer, R. A. (1996). `Opportunity or threat? An examination of differential reactions to perceptions of organizational politics'.
179 Gandz, J., & Murray, V. V. (1980). The experience of workplace politics. Academy of Management Journal, 23, 237-251.
180 Witt, L. A. (1998). Enhancing organizational goal congruence: A solution to organizational politics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 666-674.
181 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
182 Witt, L. A., Andrews, M. C., & Kacmar, K. M. (2000). The role of participation in decision-making in the organizational politics-job satisfaction relationship. Human Relations, 53, 341-358.
43
benefits and threatening individuals with harm, lack of predictability produces adverse
harms a worker’s sense of well-being190 and self esteem in employees (Cropanzano,
Goldman & Benson, 2005). Injustice might provide an additional mechanism by which
politics creates stress191 (Vigoda, 2002).
So far we can term it as the satisfied needs or expectations of any from his/her organization
the major factor in organizational politics. Vigoda comments that it is the “basic
compatibility of an employee with its workplace.” In broader term it can be defined as,
level of fulfilled aspirations and expectations. It is also expected that it has a negative
relationship with perception of organizational politics. Some researches depict that lower
perception of organizational politics lead to higher congruence. Hulin (1991) in his book
183 Ferris, G. R., & Judge, T. A. (1991). Personnel/human resources management: A political influence perspective.
Journal of Management, 17, 447-488.
184 Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. A., & Birjulin, A. (1999). Organizational politics and organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 159-174.
185 Ferris, G. R., Russ, G.S., & Fandt, P.M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the organization (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
186 Vigoda, E. (2003). Developments in organizational politics: How political dynamics affect employee performance in modern worksites. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
187 Ferris, G. R., Adams, G., Kolodinsky, R. W., Hochwarter, W. A., & Ammeter, A. P. (2002). Perceptions of organizational politics: Theory and research directions. In F. J. Yammarino & F. Dansereau (Eds.), The many faces of multi-level issues (pp. 179-254). JAI: Amsterdam.
188 Kacmar, K. M. and Ferris, G. R. (1991). `Perceptions of organizational politics scale (POPS): Development and construct validation', Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 193-205.
189 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
190 Cropanzano, R., Goldman, B., & Benson, L., III. (2005). Organizational justice. In J. Barling, K. Kelloway and M. Frone (Eds.) Handbook of work stress (pp. 63-87). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
191 Vigoda, E. (2000). Organizational Politics, Job Attitudes, and Work Outcomes: Exploration and Implications for the Public Sector. Journal of Vocational Behavior 57, 326-347
44
Handbook of “Industrial and Organizational Psychology” 192 revels in his research that
people positively evaluate an organization if their personal goals are met rather than being
threatened for good performances. So it is very important to understand the job congruence
or organizational fit. People who feel they are fit within the organization believe that
organization will provide them better chances to fulfill their aspirations (Vigoda, 2000). On
the other hand, if employees fail to develop such congruence with their organizations it
creates discomfort and they perceive the organization as negative. This feeling could create
an emotional and functional gap among employees193 (Vigoda, 2000). Theory of job
congruence is basically adopted by Vroom’s194 expectancy theory, which says that
expectations can significantly drift motivation and performance i.e. both formal (in-role)
and information (extra-role).
M. Workplace and Perception of Organizational Politics
Politics –source of stress; strain-possible outcome of stress195. (Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al,
1996). Politics and political behaviors seemed a promising field for theoretical inquiry
(Vigoda, 2000). The purpose of studies could be their practical implications and urge of
mangers to understand this relationship order to counter or improve it according to their
needs. Politics represent a creative approach to the understandings of organization
dynamics. Many scholars are agreed that organizational politics is a common phenomenon
in every organization (Vigoda, 2000). Some scholars even commented “it is the necessary
evil present at workplace”. Organizational politics usually emerges when there is
unprovoked legitimacy or imbalance formal or informal power (Vigoda, 2000) also could
be due to power struggles and influence tactics.
192 Hulin, C. L. (1991). `Adaptation, persistence, and commitment in organizations'. In: Dunnette, M. D. and Hough, L. M.
(Eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2, 2nd edn., Consulting Psychologistics Press, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 445-506.
193 Vigoda, E. (2000b). Internal politics in public administration system: An empirical examination of its relationship with job congruence, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance. Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210.
194 Management and Organization COL MBA pp,22
195 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Galang, M. C., Zhou, J., Kacmar, K. M., & Howard, J. L. (1996). Perceptions of organizational politics: Prediction, stress-related implications, and outcomes. Human Relations, 49, 233-266.
45
Literature today widely stresses that organizational politics have a negative relation with
employees’ performance and somewhat positive relation with organizational congruence.
The reason could be that employees respond their political environment both formally and
informally (Vigoda, 2000).
So far we have also observed that in reaction to organizational politics people have
different responsive behaviors. This responsiveness can be segregated as perceptions and
actual behaviors of politics.
N. Perception of Organizational Politics in Literature and Research
Perception of organization politics initially discuss almost three decades ago and since last
fifteen years significant research has been conducted to measure the reasons and factors of
this area. All studies in last fifteen years basically influenced by initial work done by
Ferris196, as john197 (1999) discusses about the self-serving behaviors, Cropanzano198 in
different studies199 shares his research about the outcome of organizational on personal life
of employees in terms of physical and mental health, whereas Kacmar200 and Baron201
provided a review of both political behaviors and perception of politics literature (Ferris at
el 2001-inperss). Initial studies like by Burns202 (1961) discusses about the importance of
“micropolitics”. Porter203 (1976) argued that perceptions of politics are important to
investigate even if they are misperceptions due human mind analogy.
196 Ferris, G. R., Russ, G.S., & Fandt, P.M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.),
Impression management in the organization (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
197 Johns, G. (1999). A multi-level theory of self-serving behavior in and by organizations. In R.I. Sutton & B.M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 21, pp. 1-38). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.
198 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
199 Cropanzano, R., & Li, A. (in press). Organizational politics and workplace stress. In E. Vigoda-Gabot & A. Drory (Eds.), Handbook of organizational politics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward-Elgar.
200 Kacmar, K. M. and Ferris, G. R. (1991). `Perceptions of organizational politics scale (POPS): Development and construct validation', Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 193-205.
201 Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
202 Burns, T. (1961). Micropolitics: Mechanisms of institutional change. Administrative Science Quarterly, 6, 257-281.
203 Porter, L.W. (1976). Organizations as political animals. Presidential address, Division of Industrial-Organizational Psychology, 84th Annual
46
Many researchers204205206207208209210 (Allen et al., 1979; Cropanzano et al., 1995; Ferris et
characteristics of its actors. California Management Review, 22, 77-83.Allen, N. J. and Meyer, J. P. (1990). `The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization', Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1-18.
205 Mayes, B., & Allen, R. (1977). Toward a definition of organizational politics. Academy of Management Review, 4, 672-677.
206 Cropanzano, R., Kacmar, K. M. and Bozeman, D. P. (1995). `The social setting of work organizations: Politics, justice, and support'. In: Cropanzano, R. and Kacmar, K. M. (Eds) Organizational Politics, Justice, and Support: Managing the Social Climate of Work Organizations, Quorum Books, Westport, CT, pp. 1-18.
207 Mintzberg, H. (1983). Power in and around organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
208 Pfeffer, J. (1981). Power in organizations. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company.
209 Porter, L. W., Allen, R. W., & Angle, H. L. (1981). The politics of upward influence in organizations. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 3, pp. 109-149). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
210 Tushman, M.L. (1977). A political approach to organizations: A review and rationale. Academy of Management Review, 2, 206-216.
211 Ferris, G. R., Harrell-Cook, G., & Dulebohn, J. H. (2000). Organizational politics: The nature of the relationship between politics perceptions and political behavior. In S. B. Bacharach & E. J. Lawler (Eds.), Research in the sociology of organizations, 17 (pp. 89-130). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.
212 Ferris, G. R., Russ, G.S., & Fandt, P.M. (1989). Politics in organizations. In R. A. Giacalone & P. Rosenfeld (Eds.), Impression management in the organization (pp. 143-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
213 Kacmar, K. M., & Ferris, G. R. (1991). Perceptions of organizational politics scale (POPS): Development and construct validation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 193-205.
47
significant relation with organizational politics these are, coworker and group behavior,
organization’s policies and practices and supervisory influence.
Research model developed for this research basically influence by model developed by
Ferris. Ferris discussed only three antecedent of perception of organizational factors
however in this model we have factored-in the local environment and exogenous and
indigenous factor which can have a significant relationship for developer of political
perceptions. This model discusses about the previous influencing factors by Ferris
identified in 1989 it also has the other factors like economic factor and extended
environmental factors. In our community economic factors can have also relationship with
political behaviors; it has been observed that high boom industries where people have more
opportunities lower will be political behaviors. We have also categorized outcomes in to
two categories one category deals with the outcome that have to be faced by an individual
moreover organizational can also suffer the high politically charged environment.
Many studies including the Parker214 (1995) suggested that minority-status could have a
strong relationship with organizational politics. Minorities would have been more likely to
be negatively impacted by personnel decisions regarding pay and promotions--and
therefore more likely to perceive politics. Farrell and Petersen (1982) further suggested that
organizational participants who have a high level of trust do not perceive a need for
political action and are consequently less likely to engage in politics than those with lower
levels of trust215. Moreover, when participants with high levels of trust engage in politics,
they are more likely to engage in legitimate, constructive political behavior than those with
low levels of trust (Parker, 1995).
Whether political behavior proves beneficial or harmful to the organization may depend
more on how that behavior is perceived rather than reality. For example, employees'
perceptions that organizational processes, such as pay and promotions, are political may
214 Parker, C. P., Dipboye, R. L. and Jackson, S. L. (1995). `Perceptions of organizational politics: An investigation of
antecedents and consequences', Journal of Management, 21, 891-912.
215 Farrell, D. & Petersen, J.C. (1982). Patterns of political behavior in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 7:403-412.
48
violate implicit expectations that rewards and recognition are based on performance. Such
perceptions could lead to a decrease in organizational citizenship behaviors and a lack of
extra-role effort on the individual's part216. Researches have proved that manager involved
in high political activity are less open to their subordinates and vice versa.
Detailed studies in context of complete model of organizational politics are not performed
since the first model of perception of organizational politics in (1989), furthermore no
study to date discusses about all variable that have linkages with this model. Some
variables of the original model were tested by Ferris217 & Kacmar218, 1992; Parker et al.,
1995), Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) these variables are centralization, formalization,
hierarchical level, advancement opportunities, age and sex. Results also indicated a
significant inverse relationship between pops and four original model variables; that is,
centralization (operationalized as involvement in decision-making), formalization
(operationalized as clarity of roles and responsibilities), advancement opportunity
(operationalized as career development opportunities), and interactions with coworkers
(operationalized as inter-group cooperation). Other antecedents achieving significance and
representing possible extensions to the model included emphasis on affirmative action or
equal opportunity (posited as an organizational influence; a positive relationship), fairness
of rewards and recognition (-), and minority status (+). Five outcomes were explored:
innovation, and loyalty. Among these outcomes, only perceived innovation (-) achieved
significance. In 1999 Kacmar et al219 performed a complete test for POPS model and he
found three significant outcomes for the POPS these outcomes are job satisfaction, physical
withdrawal and job anxiety. He also found a significant inverse relationship between
216 Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W. & Near, J.P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 68: 653-663.
217 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Galang, M. C., Zhou, J., Kacmar, K. M., & Howard, J. L. (1996). Perceptions of organizational politics: Prediction, stress-related implications, and outcomes. Human Relations, 49, 233-266.
218 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
219 Kacmar, K. M., Bozeman, D. P., Carlson, D. S., & Anthony, W. P. (1999). An examination of the Perceptions of Organizational Politics Model: Replication and extension. Human Relations, 52, 383-416.
49
POPS and supervisor interaction, peer interactions and feedback220 and development
opportunities. A greater span of control also has a positive relationship with POPS. The
relationship between advancement opportunities and pops has been examined in five
studies, all finding a negative relationship. In addition to the studies just mentioned
(Kacmar & Ferris, 1992221, inverse relationships found in both Study 1 and Study 2;
Kacmar et al., 1999; Valle & Perrewe, 2000), an inverse relationship was also reported by
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996). Similarly, "interactions with coworkers” had a negative
relationship with pops in three of the four studies in which it was examined. "Work group
cohesion"222 (Kacmar & Ferris, 1992), "inter-group cooperation" (Parker et al., 1995), and
"cooperation"223 among co-workers224 (Kacmar et al., 1999) were all significantly and
negatively related to pops. Finally, "coworker influence," in the Valle and Perrewe225
(2000) study, was not significantly associated with pops. Following Table shows a
complete details about the studies that have be conducted so far to evaluate the factors and
outcome of perception of organizational politics.
220 Valle, M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2000). Do politics perceptions relate to political behaviors? Test of an implicit assumption
and an expanded model. Human Relations, 53, 359-386.
221 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Galang, M. C., Zhou, J., Kacmar, K. M., & Howard, J. L. (1996). Perceptions of organizational politics: Prediction, stress-related implications, and outcomes. Human Relations, 49, 233-266.
222 Kacmar, K.M., Delery, J.E. and Ferris, G.R. (1992) Differential effectiveness of applicant impression management tactics on employment interview decisions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1250-1272.
223 Parker, C. P., Dipboye, R. L. and Jackson, S. L. (1995). `Perceptions of organizational politics: An investigation of antecedents and consequences', Journal of Management, 21, 891-912.
224 Kacmar, K. M., & Baron, R. A. (1999). Organizational politics: The state of the field, links to related processes, and an agenda for future research. In J. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 17, pp. 1-39). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
225 Valle, M., & Perrewe, P. L. (2000). Do politics perceptions relate to political behaviors? Test of an implicit assumption and an expanded model. Human Relations, 53, 359-386.
50
Table 2.1
Antecedents Of Organizational Politics Perceptions (POPS) 226
Pops Antecedents Study Finding
Organizational Influences
Fédor et al. (1998) Positive
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) Positive
Kacmar et al. (1999) Positive
Parker et al. (1995) Negative
* Centralization
Valle & Perrewe (2000) Positive
Fedor et al. (1998) Negative
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) Negative
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 2) not significant a
Parker et al. (1995) Negative b
* Formalization
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) Positive
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 2) Positive
Parker et al. (1995) not significant
* Hierarchical level
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 1) not significant
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 2) not significant
* Span of control
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Organizational size Fedor et al. (1998) mixed c
Percentage of unionization Fedor et al. (1998) not significant
AA / EO emphasis Parker et al. (1995) Positive
226 information retrieved from perceptions of organizational politics Theory and research directions by Ferris et al 2001-
inpress
51
Job / Work Influence* Job autonomy
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 1) Negative
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant* Skill variety
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 1) Negative
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 1) Negative
* Feedback
Kacmar et al. (1999) Negative* Opportunity for promotion / Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 1) Negative
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 2) Negative
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) Negative
Advancement
Kacmar et al. (1999) Negative
Valle & Perrewé (2000) Negative
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 2) Negative
Kacmar et al. (1999) Negative
* Interactions with coworkers
Parker et al. (1995) Negative
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, study 2) Negative
* Interactions with supervisors
Kacmar et al. (1999) Negative
Supervisor expectations Valle & Perrewé (2000) Negative
Time since last appraisal Kacmar et al. (1999) not significant
Time since last promotion Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) not significant
Fairness of rewards and
recognition
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) not significant
Senior management support Parker et al. (1995) Negative
Trust in coworkers Parker et al. (1995) not significant
52
Decision involvement Parker et al. (1995) not significant
Career development
opportunities
Kacmar et al. (1999) not significant
Parker et al. (1995) Negative
Person-organization fit Kacmar et al. (1999) Negative
Vigoda (2000b) NegativeLevel of met-expectations
Vigoda (2000b) Negative
Personal Influences
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) Negative
Kacmar & Ferris (1992, Study 1) not significant
Kacmar & Ferris (1992, Study 2) not significant
* Age
Parker et al. (1995) not significant
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Fedor et al. (1998) not significant
Ferris, Frink, Bhawuk, et al.
(1996)
Negative
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) Negative
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, Study 1) not significant
* Gender / sex
Parker et al. (1995) not significant* Machiavellianism Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant* Self-monitoring Valle & Perrewé (2000) Positive
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, Study 2) not significant
Organizational tenure Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Fedor et al. (1998) Negative
Ferris, Frink, Bhawuk, et al.
(1996)
Positive
Occupational Group Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) not significant
53
Ferris & Kacmar (1992) Negative
Ferris, Frink, Bhawuk, et al.
(1996)
Positive
Race / minority status
Parker et al. (1995) Positive
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significantEducational level
Parker et al. (1995) not significant
Need for power Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
External locus of control Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Valle & Perrewé (2000) NegativeInternal locus of control
Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
*Denotes variables in the original Ferris, Russ, & Fandt (1989) model conceptualizationa Not significant on full POPS dimension; negative on coworkers and cliques behavior sub
dimensionsb Negative on clarity of roles / responsibilities (i.e., ambiguity); not significant on formal
communication effectiveness. Parker et al. (1995, p. 895) called these "perceptual
measures of formalization." c Positive for the key others POPS subdimension; negative correlations with the rewards
and clarity subdimensions
Table 2.2
Outcomes Of Organizational Politics Perceptions (POPS) 227
Pops Outcomes Study Finding
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 2) positive
Ferris et al. (1993, Study 1) negative
* Job anxiety / tension / stress
Ferris et al. (1994) positive
227 information retrieved from perceptions of organizational politics Theory and research directions by Ferris et al 2001
54
Ferris, Frink, Bhawuk, et al. (1996) positive
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) positive
Hochwarter, Perrewé, et al. (1999, 1) not significant a
Hochwarter, Perrewé, et al. (1999, 2) positive
Kacmar et al. (1999) positive
Valle & Perrewé (2000) positive
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 1) negative
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 2) not significant* Job involvement
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, Study 1) positive
Satisfaction:
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 1) not significant k
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 2) Negative
Ferris et al. (1993, Study 2) negative
Ferris et al. (2000) negative
Ferris, Frink, Bhawuk, et al. (1996) negative
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) negative
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, Study 1) negative
Ferris & Kacmar (1992, Study 2) negative
Harrell-Cook et al. (1999) negative
Hochwarter, Kiewitz, et al. (2000) negative b
Kacmar et al. (1999) negative
Nye & Witt (1993) negative l
Parker et al. (1995) negative l
Randall et al. (1999) not significant k
Valle & Perrewé (2000) negative
Valle & Witt (in press) negative
* Job satisfaction
Witt et al. (2000) negative
55
Witt, Hilton, & Hochwarter (in press) negative
Kacmar et al. (1999) negativeOrganizational satisfaction
Parker et al. (1995) not significant
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al. (1996) negative
Harrell-Cook et al. (1999) negative
Satisfaction with supervision
Zhou & Ferris (1995) negative c
Satisfaction with pay Zhou & Ferris (1995) negative c
Promotion satisfaction Zhou & Ferris (1995) negative c
Coworker satisfaction Zhou & Ferris (1995) negative c
Satisfaction with service Vigoda (2000a) Negative
Satisfaction with operation Vigoda (2000a) Negative
Organizational Withdrawal
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 1) Positive
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 2) not significant
Harrell-Cook et al. (1999) not significant
Hochwarter, Perrewé, et al. (1999, 1) not significant a
Hochwarter, Perrewé, et al. (1999, 2) Positive
Kacmar et al. (1999) Positive
Maslyn & Fedor (1998) positive d
Randall et al. (1999) not significant e
* Intent to turnover
Valle & Perrewé (2000) Positive
Actual turnover Witt (1999) Positive* Absenteeism / punctuality Ferris et al. (1993) not significant
Gilmore et al. (1996) not significant
Psychological withdrawal Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 2) not significant
Negative eval. of decision to Ferris et al. (1993) Positive
56
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 1) Positive
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 2) not significant k
Maslyn & Fedor (1998) negative f
Nye & Witt (1993) negative l
Randall et al. (1999 - affective) not significant k
Randall et al. (1999 - continuance) not significant
Witt (1998) Negative
Witt, Hilton, & Hochwarter (in press) Negative
take job Commitment
Witt, Patti, & Farmer (in press) Negative
Supervisor / management
effectiveness Kacmar et al. (1999) Negative
Parker et al. (1995) not significant
Self-appraisal (of performance) Kacmar et al. (1999) Negative
Hochwarter et al. (2000) not significant hSupervisor ratings of
performance. Witt (1998) Negative
Randall et al. (1999) not significant
Vigoda (2000b) Negative
In-role performance
Witt, Hall, et al. (2001) Negative
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 1 -
altruism OCB) not significant
Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 1-
compliance OCB) not significant
Maslyn & Fedor (1998) positive i
Randall et al. (1999 - individual) not significant
Randall et al. (1999 - organization) negative j
Org'l citizenship behavior
(OCB)
Vigoda (2000b) Negative
Loyalty Parker et al. (1995) not significant
Perceived innovation Parker et al. (1995) Negative
57
Positive values Parker et al. (1995) not significant
Antagonistic work behaviors Cropanzano et al. (1997, Study 2) not significant
General responsiveness Vigoda (2000a) Negative
Political behaviors
Proactive Valle (1997) Positive
Reactive Valle (1997) Positive
Self-promotion Ferris et al. (2000) Positive
* Denotes variables in the original Ferris, Russ, & Fandt (1989) model conceptualizationa Not significant for POPS as a main effect but significant in interaction between POPS and
commitment.b Significant for just the pay and promotion politics variable; not significant for the
variables general political behavior or for go along to get along. c Significant for both the supervisor and subordinate samples. d Significant for organization-focused politics perceptions, but not for group-focused
politics perceptions. e Regression results were not significant; however, significant positive correlation with
POPS. f Significant for both organization-focused and for group-focused politics perceptions.h Not significant as a main effect, but significant in interaction with conscientiousness. i Significant for group-focused politics perceptions, but not for organization-focused
politics perceptions. j Significant for the OCB variable that benefited the organization; not significant for the
OCB variable
benefiting a specific individual.k Regression results were not significant; however, significant negative correlation with
POPS. l Significant correlation with POPS. No regression analyses attempted.
58
Table 2.3
Moderators Of Politics Perceptions (POPS) – Outcomes Relationships228
Variables Study Finding
POPS Moderators
Ferris et al. (1993, Study 1) Significant
Ferris et al. (1993, Study 2) Significant
* Perceived control
Witt et al. (2000) Significant
Ferris et al. (1994) Significant
Ferris, Frink, Bhawuk, et al.
(1996)
Significant
Ferris, Frink, Galang, et al.
(1996)
Significant
Gilmore et al. (1996) Significant
Kacmar et al. (1999) Significant
* Understanding
Witt, Hall, et al. (2001) Significant
Political behavior:
Self-promotion Harrell-Cook et al. (1999) Significant
Ingratiation Harrell-Cook et al. (1999) not significant
Proactive Political behavior Valle & Perrewé (2000) not significant
Reactive Political behavior Valle & Perrewé (2000) Significant
Organizational commitment Hochwarter, Perrewé, et al.
(1999)
Significant
Socialization / tenure Ferris et al. (2000) Significant
Positive affectivity Hochwarter, Kiewitz, et al.
(2000)
not significant a
228 information retrieved from perceptions of organizational politics Theory and research directions by Ferris et al 2001
59
Self-Efficacy Bozeman et al., (2000) Significant
Collective efficacy Hochwarter, Kiewitz, et al.
(2000)
not significant b
Goal congruence Witt (1998) Significant
Witt, Hilton, & Hochwarter
(in press)
Significant
Teamwork perceptions Valle & Witt (in press) Significant
Work identity Witt, Patti, & Farmer (in
press)
Significant
POPS as a moderator Witt, Burke, & Kacmar
(2001)
Significant
Witt et al. (2000) Significant
* Denotes variables in the original Ferris, Russ, & Fandt (1989) model conceptualizationa While correlations were significantly and negatively related to the General Politics and
Go Along to Get Ahead POPS subdimensions, none of the two-way interaction terms with
positive affectivity and POPS dimensions were significantb While correlations were significantly and negatively related to each of the three POPS
subdimensions, none of the two-way interaction with collective efficacy and POPS
dimension was significant.
60
C H A P T E R 3
Methods and Procedures
This chapter presents the methods used in this research. The respondents of the research
and sampling techniques, instruments and methods adopted, the data gathering procedures,
and statistical methods implemented on data.
Research Method
Researcher initially adopted the unstructured interviews to identify the best strata in the
population. Population was segregated in to different groups and unstructured interviews
were conducted randomly to identify the most critical stratum of the population that can be
used for the next phase of questionnaires. The research then used the descriptive method to
obtain information using the questionnaire as the source of information. The researcher
believes that the descriptive method is more appropriate for this research because it goes
beyond the simple data gathering and tabulation. It involves the elements of interpretation
of meaning and significance of what is described. On this basis, the researcher would able
to access and describe the prevailing conditions as could learned from the opinions of the
respondents through the survey with the subjects.
Respondents of the study
Since our target population is flat project based organization with minimum levels of
hierarchy so the sample can be classified in to two different classes. These are (1) Project
Mangers and (2) technical staff (software engineers and Sr. software engineers). The
employees had not taken part in any other studies since last one year. Participation in the
research was voluntary and employees were assured of confidentiality in the data analysis.
To ensure this process emails sent to respondents and their response was collected by the
researcher after they have complete. Overall 140 questionnaires were distributed and
researcher was able to retrieve 132 questionnaires.
Measures
The data collected for POPS (perception of organizational politics) is through a seven items
of POPS scale. The scale is influenced by Ferris and Kacmar 1992 original version of 40
Items POPS scale. The measurement of dependent variables like Employee withdrawal
61
behaviors, General fatigue, Organizational Support, Job Motivation (in-role extra role),
Organizational Commitment were analyzed through custom measurement scale developed
after extensive literature review.
Physical and mental health indicators were developed with consideration of previous
research conducted by Cropanzano et al 1997, 1999; Vigoda 1999, 2001; Ferris et al, 1993;
factors of researches.
Organizational support widely discussed in literature of organizational politics and it is
expected that it can another major factor in empirical classification of organizational
politics. The phenomenon was portrayed in several articles by Cropanzano229, et al 1997,
1999; Amos Drory230 1992; George, Reed, Ballard, Vigoda231, Colin and Fielding 1993;
shore and Shore 1995; Thomas and Ganster 1995.
Job motivation which is expected to have relationship with organizational politics is
measure though a three item scale influenced by previous researches.
Organizational commitment three items scale was developed after study of related material
Eisenberger, Shore and many others. Organizational commitment extensively discussed in
chapter 2 of literature review.
Table 3.1
Distribution and Retrieval of Questionnaire by Position Level
Position level Distribution Percentage of
distribution
Retrieval Percentage of
retrieval
Project Managers 34 24.29 29 20.71
Technical staff 106 75.71 103 73.57
Total 140 132 94.29
229 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support
to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
230 Drory, A. (1993). Perceived political climate and job attitudes. Organization Studies, 14, 59-71.
231 Vigoda, E. (2000). Organizational Politics, Job Attitudes, and Work Outcomes: Exploration and Implications for the Public Sector. Journal of Vocational Behavior 57, 326-347
62
Table 3.1 shows the distribution and retrieval of questionnaire from the respondents by
position level. One hundred and forty questionnaires were distributed to the respondents.
The questionnaires were distributed to the randomly selected people in different offices of
the target offices. Out of 140 distributed questionnaires 132 were retrieved, which is 94.29
percent of the questionnaire distributed. The technical staff is the largest population of the
survey with percentage of 75.00.
Figure 3.1
Distribution and Retrieval of Questionnaire by Position Level
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 2
Distribution
Retrival
Table 3.2
Frequency Distribution of the Respondents by Educational Qualification of
Respondents
Educational Qualification Total Percentage
Bachelor’s Degree 55 39.29
Master’s Degree 77 55.00
63
By educational attainments, the dominant numbers of respondents are masters’ degree at
55.00% followed by bachelor degree with 55 or 39.29%. The educational attainment of the
majority of respondent refers to the fact that they were qualified to participate in this
research in an effective manner. Also we need to examine how the age can influence the
research. Figure 3.2 shows the distribution of respondents by education qualifications.
Figure 3.2
Frequency Distribution of the Respondents by Educational Qualification of
Respondents
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
Bachelors
Masters
Table 3.3
Percentage Distribution of Respondents by Age
Age Classification Total Frequency Percentage
20-29 106 75.71
30-39 26 18.57
40-49 0 0.00
50 & Above 0 0.00
64
Total 132 100.00
Table 3.3 depicts the distribution of respondents with regards to their age. Dominant
number of respondents is in the rage of 2-29 years, followed by 30-39, none of the
respondents were in 40-49 and 50 & above. The situation gives a picture all respondents
were young and energetic towards their career achievement this condition normally
neutralizes the politically charged environment (Ferris et al; 1989).
Figure 3.4
Distribution of Respondents by Age
20-29106
30-3926
40-490
50 & Above0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1
20-29
30-39
40-49
50 & Above
.
Table 3.4
Gender Distribution of Respondents
Gender Total Frequency Percentage
Male 123 87.86
Female 9 06.43
Total 132 100.00
65
Table 3.4 illustrates the distribution of respondents with respect to their gender. Dominant
numbers of respondents are male, followed by female respondent of 6.43 percent of total
population. The table also depicts the fact that number of female in the total population is
really very low.
Figure 3.4
Gender Distribution of Respondents
Male
Female
The research used both primary and secondary data sources for data gathering. Primary
data was collected though unstructured interviews, questionnaires upon which the response
was collected by respondents. The primary data was collected form various key functional
areas of the organization to ensure the participation of all functional areas.
The secondary data is consists of extensive readings of related materials. These related
material were magazines, Journals, related books and studies with contributed a lot to
develop the understating and development of the study.
Instrument and Technique Used
1. Questionnaire
66
Questionnaire was specially designed for this particular study. Since many independent and
dependent variables were recorded by researcher. It consisted of several parts which
covered all the area to be investigated and which are presented in the statement of problem.
It was designed in such a way that multiple choices were given to the respondents for them
to answer in more convenient way. The idea was to get the how much respondent is agree
or disagree to a statement. In brief the purpose of questionnaire was to collect response for
an independent variable POPS (perception of organizational politics) Kacmar and Ferris
1992. impacts of POPS was collected in terms of Employee Withdrawal Behavior, General
Fatigue, Organizational Support, Job Motivation (in-role extra role), Organizational
Commitment.
2. Unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews were conducted with the respondents during the retrieval of the
questionnaires to verify or clarify responses that might be vague and to provide additional
explanation to response.
3. Documentary analysis
Since research is not a pure exploratory research, to support the hypothesis of the study
extensive literature review and documentary analysis was conducted. Although no previous
studies is similar to this study but the formulation of hypothesis was basically influence by
previous researches conducted by Ferrier, Kacmar , Vigoda, Cropanzano etc. other material
such as unclassified personnel records and general job description and policies were
reviewed to argument the responses that were retrieved from the questionnaires.
Statistical treatment of Data
The data were classified according to the relevant topics into in the study. The respective
calculation were arranged and organized in accordance with the sequence presented in the
statement of the problem.
To make the interpretation of data comprehensive, the following statistical
Formulas were used.
67
Percentile
This is the presentation of the ration of the part to a whole. This was used to present the
data on the profile, and on the problems that were encountered. For percentage calculations,
the formula is:
100*n
fp
Where
P = Computed percentage
f = Frequency of the scores
n = number of respondents
Weighted Arithmetic Mean
This measure of central tendency was used to determine the perception of organizational
politics and employees’ productivity. The formula is:
W
WXxw
Where: xw = the weighted mean
=symbol of summation
W = the weight of the value
X = scale value
Standard Deviation
This measure of variance was used to analyze the deviation in the results that could be
possibly due to hierarchal level of age difference. The formula is:
N
xx
)(2
Where: x = mean value
X= scale value
N= total number of observation
68
= Symbol of standard Deviation
=symbol of summation
The obtained means were interpreted using a 5 point Likert scale, detailed as indicated
below.
Table 3.5
Calculation and Degree of Intensity
Scale Weight Range of mean Values Interpretation
1 1.00-1.50 Strongly Agree
2 1.51-2.50 Moderately Agree
3 2.51-3.50 Undecided
4 3.51-4.50 Disagree
5 4.51-5.00 Strongly Disagree
69
C H A P T E R 4
Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of the Data
This chapter presents the data, which was collected from Validated Questionnaire,
unstructured interviews, observation, documentary analysis and other reading materials and
were organized, classified and statistically treated. The data presented, analyzed and
interpreted in the context of the problems presented in chapter 1.
The aim of this study was to analyze the impact of organizational politics in terms of
employees’ productivity. The validity of hypothesis was tested through relationship of
independent variable which is Organizational politics and dependent variables i.e.
Employee withdrawal behaviors, General fatigue, Organizational Support, Job Motivation
(in-role extra role), Organizational Commitment.
Table 4.1
Employee Perception of Organizational Politics and Its Impact on Organizational
Decisions
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 9 6.82
Moderately Agree 29 21.97
Undecided 23 17.42
Disagree 45 34.09
Strongly Disagree 26 19.70
Table 4.1 depicts that only a small number of people strongly agree with the notation that
organizational decisions always transparent where as a larger group of people were not
agreed with this statement. Analysis of response signifies that the 34.09% or around 34%
people disagree that organizational decisions are transparent, followed by group of people a
percentage of 21.97 who agree with the statement. Third large segment with a percentage
of 19.70 strongly disagree with the statement that organizational decisions have always
been transparent. People with a percentage of 17.42 were unable to decide that either
organizational decision as transparent or vice versa. Overall a large number of people a
70
percentage of 53.79 disagreed that organizational decisions are always transparent. Figure
4.1 shows the perception of organizational politics in terms of organizational decisions.
Figure 4.1
Employee Perception of Organizational Politics and Its Impact on Organizational
Decisions
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.2
Relationship between Organizational Politics and Performance Appraisals
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 34 25.09
Moderately Agree 66 50.00
Undecided 14 10.61
Disagree 9 6.82
Strongly Disagree 9 6.82
With regard to relationship between organizational politics and performance appraisal,
response in table 4.2 shows that a large population of sample a percentage of 50.00
believed that performance appraisals cannot be influenced by organizational politics and
71
hard work is a key to get better performance appraisal, followed by a percentage of 25.09
respondents who strongly agreed with this observable fact. A smaller group of people at a
percentage of 6.82 disagreed with the statement, a similar number of people a percentage of
6.82 strongly disagreed with this avowal. Another group of respondents with a percentage
of 10.87 were failed to decide the situation and they remain undecided. The situation could
also be expressed as there might be political influence for performance appraisals but
performance can neutralize the impact of this political decision.
Figure 4.2
Relationship between Organizational Politics and Performance Appraisals
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.3
Supervisory Favoritism Behavior
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 34 25.76
Moderately Agree 52 39.39
Undecided 26 19.70
72
Disagree 17 12.88
Strongly Disagree 3 2.27
During the literature review it was anticipated that perception of organization politics
supervisory attitudes or personal favorites should always be in better situation to get the
high salary raise and promotion, data in table 4.3 strongly support this perceived relation.
Respondents with a percentage of 39.39 agreed with the statement that people those were
favorites to their supervisors are awarded with better salary and promotions. Second
highest group of people with a percentage of 25.76 strongly agreed with to this point. 19.70
percent of people were unable to conclude that either personal favorite are awarded with
better promotions or not. Respondents with a percentage of 12.88 disagreed, whereas only
2.27 percent of people strongly disagree with prejudice in supervisory attitudes. From the
forgoing explanation one can easily conclude that organizational politics have a strong
relationship with supervisory bias.
Figure 4.3
Supervisory Favoritism Behavior
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
73
Table 4.4
Political Group/Personal Influences
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 72 54.55
Moderately Agree 40 30.30
Undecided 11 8.33
Disagree 5 4.55
Strongly Disagree 3 2.27
One of the driving factors of organizational politics is group influence or supervisory bias.
As Cropanzano describes in his article published in 1997 title “The relationship of
organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress” that people
normally attached themselves to a stronger cabal where they have a chance to get better
opportunities in an organization. Similar to Cropanzano research table 4.4 portrayed similar
results. Respondents at a very high percentage of 54.55 strongly agreed that there exists a
group in our target population who was influencing the organizational decisions. So we
could infer that there was a strong existence of informal groups which was not allowing the
organization to work in neutral in environment, followed by another high percentage of
30.30 who agreed with the group politics or groups think happening in target population.
Figure 4.4 shows the group influence behavior in target organization. A very small group
of respondents with a percentage of 4.55 and 2.27 disagreed and strongly disagreed with
the phenomenon discussed in the questionnaire, similar to previous question a percentage
of 8.33 in proportion responded as undecided to this phrase.
74
Figure 4.4
Political Group/Personal Influences
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.5
Individual Response towards Influential Group
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 38 28.76
Moderately Agree 34 25.76
Undecided 14 10.61
Disagree 26 19.70
Strongly Disagree 20 15.15
Factor was added to evaluate how people react to any influential groups, either they join
them or they oppose such unwritten agreements among people to maximize their interest.
The factor got much significance in perception of organizational politics because it was
considered as dysfunctional. This cause was initially identified by Russell Cropanzano in
1997 and Ferris et al in 1989. Table 4.5 presented the response of the people that did they
agreed with the statement that they should be the part of a groups which influences the
75
organizational decisions. A major group of respondents at high percentage of 28.76
strongly agreed with the statement that they should be a part of such group. The second
largest cluster with a percentage of 25.76 moderately agreed with this statement. Only
10.61 people remain undecided about the state of affairs. However relatively larger number
of respondents with percentage of 19.70 disagreed with the proclamation. Furthermore
15.15 percent of respondents strongly disagreed with statement. The above situation of
response could be that people with high education normally prefer to escape the politically
charged environment rather than getting favor from surroundings. Also we deduced that
there could be two types of reactions whenever this is chance of organizational politics
either people become a part of politics to play for their better interest of they oppose to such
situations and if they are unable to combat with these influential groups they may escape
the organizational landscape.
Figure 4.5
Individual Response towards Influential Group
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
76
Table 4.6
Preference towards Personal Goals Rather Than Organizational Goals
Particulars F Percentage
Strongly Agree 26 19.70
Moderately Agree 46 34.85
Undecided 23 17.42
Disagree 23 17.42
Strongly Disagree 14 10.61
Table 4.6 depicts the preference of respondents towards their personal goals over
organizational goal. In highly political environment people usually prefer their personal
interest over organizational interest and they always try to attain a batter payoff of their
dedications to organizations. Table illustrates that there was no significant relationship
between organizational politics and organizational goal displacement. A fairly high
number of respondents at a percentage of around 34.85 agreed with the statement that
organizational goal should be preferred over personal objectives, followed by 19.70 percent
on respondents who are strongly agreed with the statement. 17.42 percentages of
respondents remained undecided with the question where as 17.42 percent of respondents
disagreed with it, only a small ratio of respondent with a percentage of 10.61 strongly
disagreed with the condition. From the above results we can understand that people
normally have a preference towards organizational goals over their personal goals but if the
situation is really worse or high politically charged then it becomes a spoil system rather
than organization.
Figure 4.6
Preference towards Personal Goals Rather Than Organizational Goals
77
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree.
Table 4.7
Neutral Work Environment
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 101 76.52
Moderately Agree 11 8.33
Undecided 17 12.88
Disagree 3 2.27
Strongly Disagree 0 0.00
Table 4.7 demonstrates a very critical point of study that majority of respondents with a
percentage of 76.52 strongly agreed with the statement that like to work in a situation
which is neutral in decisions and there is no place for organizational politics. Respondent
with a percentage of 8.33 agreed with this notation. The second large segment of people
with a percentage of 12.88 were unable to decide either they prefer to work in neutral
environment or not. Only three respondents disagree with above mentioned statement.
78
As discussed earlier perception of organizational politics was measured with help of
abovementioned seven items scale. In terms of weighted mean the facts are given below.
Figure 4.7
Neutral Work Environment
Strongly Agree
AgreeNeutral
Disagree Strongly Disagree
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.8
Perception of Organizational Politics
Particulars Weighted
Mean
Do you think that organizational decisions are always transparent 3.38
Good performance and hard work is a key to promotions and raises in
salary? 2.19
Personal favorites are awarded with better raises in salary and
promotions? 2.26
There is always a group/person that influences the formal decisions in
organization? 1.70
79
It is always a better idea to stay with some influential group to get high
raise and promotion?
2.67
Organizational goals should always be preferred even if they contradict
with personal objectives?
2.64
I always prefer to work in a situation where people are neutral in thoughts
and affiliations
1.41
Perception of organization politics was measure by a 7 scale POPS survey which was
designed after comprehensive analysis of literature review. Original POPS version was
developed by Kacmar and Ferris232 (1991) this version did not have any particular option
from POPS but original POPS is used as reference. Segment of POPS is also influenced by
Research of Nye and Witt233 (1993), Randall et al234 (1994), Cropanzano et al235 (1997)
and Vigoda236 (1999, 2002, and 2004). Respondents’ perception of organizational politics
is shown in table 4.8. Overall respondents were unable to decide that whether
organizational decisions are always transparent or not as the weighted average mean 3.39
shows no significance in results. Good performance is a key to promotion and raises in
salary with a weighted mean of 2.17. A strong correlation was found between personal
favorites and performance appraisal (2.26). A very strong relationship was found in
perception of respondent and influential group (1.69) which supports the previous studies.
Somewhat weak relationship which was not expected was identified between group politics
and response to such situation (2.67). We can infer that people can react differently to this
232 Ferris, G. R., & Kacmar, K. M. (1992). Perceptions of organizational politics. Journal of Management, 18, 93-116.
233 Nye, L. G., & Witt, L. A. (1993). Dimensionality and construct validity of the perceptions of organizational politics scale (POPS). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 821-829.
234 Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. A. and Birjulin, A. (1994). `The relationship of organizational politics and organizational support to employee attitudes and behavior'. Paper presented at the 1994 meeting of the Academy of Management, Dallas, TX.
235 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J.C., Grandey, A.A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizational politics and support to work behaviors, attitudes, and stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 159-180.
236 Vigoda, E. (2000). Organizational Politics, Job Attitudes, and Work Outcomes: Exploration and Implications for the Public Sector. Journal of Vocational Behavior 57, 326-347
80
situation at different number of occasions. In addition to the previous phenomenon another
weak relationship (2.65) was found perception of organizational politics and organizational
goal displacement. It can be deduced that people do not overrule the organizational goals
for their personal interests. In high political environment people wish to work in non
political situations. A very strong desire from respondents was measured to work in neutral
environment (1.41).
Figure 4.8
Perception of Organizational Politics
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Responses
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Questions
POPS
POPS
During the literature review it was expected that could is a strong relationship between
perception of organizational politics and employee withdrawal behavior. Withdrawal could
be psychological or physical as discussed during chapter 2. People who have low desire to
manipulate the situation for their personal objective usually avoid political behavior and
their reactions very from time to time.
81
Table 4.9
Propagation of Grapevine
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 85 64.39
Moderately Agree 26 19.70
Undecided 9 6.82
Disagree 6 4.55
Strongly Disagree 6 4.55
Table 4.9 give a picture that a large number of respondents at percentage of 64.39 strongly
agree with the fact that it always better to tell the truth rather than heard stories, followed
by moderately agree respondents at a percentage of 19.70. Only small strata of respondents
around 6.82 were unable to decide the phenomenon. A very low number of people with a
percentage of only 4.55 each with disagree and strong disagreeing responses. From the
results we can infer that due to some reasons respondents have a strong desire to share the
about the truth instead of heard stories. Possible variables affecting the phenomenon could
be external locus of control and personality factors. In some case education play a vital role
to change the personalities of the respondents, further studies are suggested to explore this
area of current research which researcher is unable to cover.
82
Figure 4.9
Propagation of Grapevine
Strongly Agree
Agree
NeutralDisagree Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.10
Psychological Withdrawal Behavior
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 83 62.88
Moderately Agree 26 19.70
Undecided 6 4.55
Disagree 11 8.33
Strongly Disagree 6 4.55
83
As Vigoda emphasis in his article that in highly charged environment people mentally
withdraw from the organization and such withdrawal reflects negligent behaviors in their
daily work habits. Table 4.10 illustrates the data gather for such situation. Largest of group
of respondents seems to be in mental withdrawal stage as 62.88 percentages of respondents
strongly agreed with phenomenon that they should keep silent instead of participating in
rumors. We can infer that this group was not socially active in organization. Second larger
segment of respondents with a percentage of 19.70 moderately agreed with it. Only a 4.55
percentage of respondents are unable to decide the situation, followed by a very low ration
of people who were against this attitude. Researcher personally found some biasness in
response to this question due to respondents overall role in organization. For example
respondent of human resource department most strongly disagreed to this question because
they were trying to promote spoken habits in employees. Inference can be perceived from
this ratio that there is high levels of psychological withdraw in the employees of the
organization.
Figure 4.10
Psychological Withdrawal Behavior
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.11
Supervisory Influence and Withdrawal Behavior
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 23 17.42
84
Moderately Agree 55 41.67
Undecided 20 15.15
Disagree 20 15.15
Strongly Disagree 14 10.61
Table 4.11 shows the percentage of responses that how people perceive that how much
their ideas are accepted even if they are against their supervisor. If people believe that their
suggestion will be accepted without biasness, they become more creative in terms of
productivity. A large number of respondents at a percentage of 41.67 moderately agreed
with this opinion followed by strongly agreed people at a percentage of 17.42. 15.15
percentages of respondents were undecided; same is the case for people who disagreed with
this question. Only a small group of respondents with a percentage of 10.61 strongly
disagreed with this point.
Figure 4.11
Supervisory Influence and Withdrawal Behavior
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
85
Table 4.12
Negligent Attitudes and Withdrawal Behavior
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 37 28.03
Moderately Agree 23 17.42
Undecided 11 8.33
Disagree 52 39.39
Strongly Disagree 9 6.82
In high politically charged environment people usually don’t care about intensive situation
or it becomes a norm for a group of employees. Table 4.12 shows the careless attitudes as
an outcome of psychological withdrawal behaviors. A large majority of people disagreed
that they do not care about the crisis and severe time in their organization, however almost
similar number of people a sum of 45.45 a percentage with 28.03 strongly agreed and 17.42
moderately agreed with this option, so overall respondents are similar at both poles. Only a
percentage of 8.33 respondents were undecided.
86
Figure 4.12
Negligent Attitudes and Withdrawal Behavior
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.13
Psychological Withdrawal Behavior
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 11 8.33
Moderately Agree 32 24.24
Undecided 11 8.33
Disagree 37 28.03
Strongly Disagree 41 31.03
Psychological withdrawal behaviors can be quantified in different manners, table 4.13
depicts one of these outcomes that can be possible by psychological withdraws behaviors.
The opinion required in this question was, would it be a good idea to keep unvoiced instead
of demanding for constitutional rights in organization. A large fragment of respondents
around 59.09 percentage of people disagreed with this situation with 28.03 and 31.03
87
people disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively. A 24.24 percentage of respondents
agreed with the situation and proportion of 8.33 of respondents strongly agreed with the
observable fact; however a group of respondents with a percentage of 8.33 remained
undecided. From this perspective we can conclude that employee have a tendency to ask
for their rights instead of keeping silent for the demands. The possible reason for such
responses was the falter nature of organization. Due to lower number in hierarchal level
technical staff has a close interaction with their immediate managers. However there was a
strong vertical hierarchy after the line managers. Researcher personally observed that
managerial tier mostly responded as they were disagreed with the inquiry.
Figure 4.13
Psychological Withdrawal Behavior
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.14
Physical Withdrawal Behavior
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 32 24.24
Moderately Agree 37 28.03
88
Undecided 20 15.15
Disagree 32 23.24
Strongly Disagree 11 8.33
In high politically charged environment it was observed that people like to spend time in
chitchats and gossips instead of focusing on works. Table 4.14 illustrates somehow
expected results, a relatively high number of respondents with a percentage of 28.03 agreed
with the state of affairs followed by 24.24 percentages of strongly agreed people. A group
of respondents proportionately 23.24 disagree to the phenomenon, and a percentage of 8.33
people were unable to conclude the state. From the results we concluded that target
organization had a higher level of political behaviors which is building up a psychological
withdrawal syndrome in employees. Over longer span of time this syndrome will have an
effect on the overall productivity and efficiency of employees.
Figure 4.14
Psychological Withdrawal Behavior
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.15
Psychological and Physical Withdrawal Behaviors
Particulars Weighted
Mean
Telling the truth is good rather than propagating heard stories? 1.65
89
Being silent is good rather than propagating heard rumors? 1.71
Wise suggestions are always appreciated even if they oppose supervisors? 2.59
I don’t care about crunch modes because it is a norm in my organization? 2.79
It is always better to be quite rather than struggle for basic rights like
proper performance evaluation? 3.49
It is always better to spent sometime in relaxing activities rather than doing
work of others. 2.64
Analysis of psychological and physical behaviors of reveals a strong agreement regarding
perception of organizational politics. Withdrawal behavior could be of two types one
psychological and other is physical the scale was determined after analysis of work of
psychological and physical withdrawal behaviors which are possible presumptions of
organizational politics. Most of the respondents strongly feel that there could be a strong
relationship between organizational politics and employee withdrawal behaviors. Data
retrieved for the analysis of employees’ withdrawal behaviors shows that most of the
employees are in psychological withdrawal stage so this could have an impact their daily
work routines. Although the weighted average of most of the responses were unable to
draw some clear distinction in their attitudes however a minor skewness in data showed the
trend. People prefer to be silent instead of being talkative for unwanted situations. People
did not want to share their concerns which could eventually lead to employee burnout and
turnover intensions. Similarly a large relatively larger number of respondents believed to
struggle for their basic rights instead of being silent observer. Overall researcher was
unable to decide whether to share sensible suggestion with seniors or not as the data is slant
237 Vigoda, E. (2000b). Internal politics in public administration system: An empirical examination of its relationship with
job congruence, organizational citizenship behavior, and in-role performance. Public Personnel Management, 29, 185-210.
238 Hulin, C. L. (1991). `Adaptation, persistence, and commitment in organizations'. In: Dunnette, M. D. and Hough, L. M. (Eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2, 2nd edn., Consulting Psychologistics Press, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 445-506.
239 Vardi, Y., & Wiener, Y. (1996). Misbehavior in organizations: A motivational framework. Organizational Science, 7. 151-165.
90
towards undecided situation. We have also observed the mild intentions for turnover and
physical withdrawal behaviors (3.49). Second parameter for physical withdraw was the
spending time in repartee and gossips rather than to focus on work and which was
supported by the data (2.64). Figure 4.2 show this data graphically.
Figure 4.15
Psychological and Physical Withdrawal Behaviors
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Propagation ofgrapevine
Psychologicalwithdrawalbehavior
Supervisoryinfluence
Negligentattitudes
Psychologicalwithdrawal
Phys icalwithdrawal
During the literature review it was observed that there could be strong relationship between
general fatigue and perception of organizational politics.
Table 4.16
Distribution Of Overburdened
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 20 15.15
Moderately Agree 26 19.70
Undecided 29 21.97
Disagree 43 32.58
91
Strongly Disagree 14 10.61
Table 4.16 gives a picture of employees feeling for general fatigue in a manner that how
they feel in their workplace and how they perceive about the overall work stress level.
Results from the respondents’ basis on the primary data collected were difference from the
perceived results. A minor relationship was observed in this situation. A large number of
respondents about a 32.58 in percentage responded that they did not agreed with this
notation, followed by a 21.97 percentage of respondents who were unable to settle on this
opinion. Moreover respondents with percentages of 15.15 and 19.70 strongly agreed and
moderately agreed with this question respectively.
Figure 4.16
Distribution Of Overburdened
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
92
Table 4.17
Distribution of Physical and Mental Stress
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 26 19.70
Moderately Agree 32 24.24
Undecided 26 19.70
Disagree 37 28.03
Strongly Disagree 11 8.33
As we have discussed in table 4.16 that there were chances that a strong relationship might
be possible between perception of organizational politics and employee mental and
physical health and could be possible to observe a strong impact of organizational politics
over general health of employees. Table 4.17 portrays this relationship; data retrieved for
this particular reaction was not equivalent with the perceived theory. A percentage of 28.26
of respondent disagreed with the statement, however respondents with a percentage of
24.24 agreed with it. 19.70 percent of respondents who strong agreed and 19.70 percent of
respondent remain inconclusive. A proportion of respondents at percentage of 8.33
strongly disagreed in response to this inquiry.
93
Figure 4.17
Distribution of Physical and Mental Stress
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.18
Approach towards Mental Discomfort
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 46 34.85
Moderately Agree 40 30.30
Undecided 14 10.61
Disagree 23 17.42
Strongly Disagree 9 6.82
As discussed in explanation that a strong relationship was expected between employees
mental health and perception of organizational politics. Table 4.18 gives a very good
picture of this situation. A large majority of respondents at with a sum of 65.15 percentages
in proportion strongly or moderately agreed that they were unable to spend much time with
their families due to extra burden of work at office these 34.85% and 30.30 moderately and
strong agrees respectively. Some respondents 10.61 in percentage were unable to answer or
94
decide for this particular problem, only a small proportion of 17.42 was not agreed and
very minor fraction of about 6.82 strongly disagreed with the question.
Figure 4.17
Approach towards Mental Discomfort
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.18
Distribution of Aggressive Attitudes
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 37 28.03
Moderately Agree 26 19.70
Undecided 23 17.42
Disagree 43 32.58
Strongly Disagree 3 2.27
Table 4.18 illustrate the responses of respondents in the form of their opinion, do people
get exhausted at times because people were not ready to cooperate in drastic situations?
The purpose of this question was to evaluate how people react to unsolicited situation. A
larger segment of respondents around 28.03 in percentage strongly agreed followed by
19.70% who moderately agrees with this point. A 32.58 percent of responses were against
95
this statement and 2.27 percent strongly disagreed with it. However another larger segment
of about 17.42 remained undecided.
Figure 4.18
Distribution of Aggressive Attitudes
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.19
Distribution of General Fatigue
Particulars Weighted
Mean
I feel I am overburdened because some people are doing nothing in the
organization
3.04
I am not 100% because I am mentally and physically overloaded with
office assignments?
2.81
I cannot spend much time with my family because I have lot of things to
do in office
2.31
I feel exhausted at times because people are not ready to cooperate in
drastic situations?
2.61
96
Table 4.19 tries to find out any positive or negative relationship between perception of
organizational politics and it possible outcomes towards mental and physical strain240 or
fatigue241 in employees. (Cropanzano 1997, Randall et al 1999). Analysis of general fatigue
in context of perception of organizational politics show that there is a moderate relationship
between both these variables like in case of personal feelings of respondent perception was
they overburdened because other people do nothing in the organization, we unable to
conclude due an overall tendency of results to skew towards undecided (3.04). Furthermore
feelings of strain were expected in employees due to intensive political influences. In this
case we concluded there might be chances with larger data that people agree with the
situation. Weighted average for this particular response is about 2.81; high chances of the
data to skew towards undecided instead of agree. Item three in this section depicts that a
positive relationship is possible between organizational politics and discomfort. Higher the
perception of politics will lead to higher degree of discomfort in employee. People do agree
with the point that they are unable to spend enough time with their families due to office
assignments. In addition it was observed that people feel exhausted in situation where
people do not realize the importance of cooperation in drastic situation (2.61). The outcome
is very much aligned with previous researches242 that organizational citizenship behaviors
have strong negative relation243 with organizational politics as identified by many
researchers (Kacmar, K. M., & Ferris, G. R. (1991); Cropanzano, R., Howes, J. C.,
Grandey, A. A., & Toth, P. (1997)) organizational politics. People hesitate to support their
co-workers in political environment and they usually isolate themselves from such situation
240 Vigoda, E. (2002). Stress-related aftermaths of workplace politics: The relationships among politics, job distress, and
aggressive behavior in organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 571-591.
241 Cropanzano, R., & Li, A. (in press). Organizational politics and workplace stress. In E. Vigoda-Gabot & A. Drory (Eds.), Handbook of organizational politics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward-Elgar.
242 Kacmar, K. M. and Ferris, G. R. (1991). `Perceptions of organizational politics scale (POPS): Development and construct validation', Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 193-205.
243 Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. A., & Birjulin, A. (1999). Organizational politics and organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 159-174.
97
which some times creates problem for other employees. Figure 4.3 shows above mentioned
data graphically.
Figure 4.19
Distribution of General Fatigue
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Feelings ofOverburdened
Physical and MentalStress
Mental Discomfort Aggressive A ttitudes
Table 4.20
Organizational Support
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 11 8.33
Moderately Agree 11 8.33
Undecided 40 30.30
Disagree 56 42.42
Strongly Disagree 14 10.61
Table 4.20 shows an overall response of people for a situation that how they feel others
discuss their personal problems and routine matters in office. A large majority of people
around 42.42 disagreed with the statement that they feel it disturbing, followed by 30.30
percent of people who remained undecided in response to this question. 10.61 percentages
98
of respondents strongly disagree with the question and only 8.33 percent each of people
moderately or strongly agreed with this statement.
Figure 4.19
Organizational Support
Strongly Agree Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.21
Organizational Support
Particulars Weighted
Mean
It is very disturbing for me when people discuss their day to day problems
in office
3.39
Above question was posed in order to verify employee support behavior in high political
environment as we have already discussed that there might be chances that people feel fear
to discuss their personal matter in such situations. Higher the perception of organizational
politics may lead to low organizational support though the responses do not back up this
assumption and data evaluated for this question refers to an overall tendency of undecided
99
(3.39). The results are somehow aligned with previous researcher that there is no
significant relationship between perception of organizational politics and employee
citizenship behaviors. Figure 4.4 show this graphically.
Figure 4.21
Organizational Support
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Organizational Support
Table 4.22
Job Motivation In-Role Behaviors
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 91 68.94
Moderately Agree 26 19.70
Undecided 6 4.55
Disagree 6 4.55
Strongly Disagree 3 2.27
Table 4.22 shows that how employee approach towards assigned tasks to them; for this
purpose in-role motivation was measure, data retrieved for this purpose depicts that there
was a strong intention in employees to accomplish their job within a given time with
100
quality. They are inclined to perform this responsibility with a strong motivation as we
have strongly agreed respondent in proportion of 68.94 in percentage. Second larger
segment of respondents were moderately agreed with this opinion and only a small faction
of respondents were remain unresolved, disagreed or strongly disagreed with proportions of
4.55, 4.55 and 2.27 respectively.
Figure 4.22
Job Motivation In-Role Behaviors
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.23
Job Motivation Extra-Role Behaviors
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 23 17.42
Moderately Agree 57 43.18
Undecided 34 25.76
Disagree 9 6.82
Strongly Disagree 9 6.82
101
Job motivation in context of extra-role assignment was measure with an influence scale of
motivation. A simple question asked to respondents if they were willing to be assigned with
extra responsibilities other than job description. Respondent with a percentage of around
43.18 moderately agreed with opinion, 17.42 percentages of respondents were strongly
agreed with it and 25.76 percent of respondents were unable to response in either way for
this question. A portion of people with percentage of 6.82 responded in disagreement with
situation either as strongly disagree or disagree.
Figure 4.23
Job Motivation Extra-Role Behaviors
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 4.24
Distribution of Job Motivation
Particulars Weighted
Mean
I always prefer to finish tasks assigned to me and on time? 1.5
I often offer my services for assignments other than my job
responsibilities
2.42
102
Table 4.24 symbolizes how people much people are motivated to perform their duties
either in-role244 or extra-role capacity245 (Cropanzano; 1997, Zhou & Ferris; 1995). A large
majority of employees found highly motivated towards their job in each category. Most of
the employees are willing to finish their assignments on time (1.5) similarly for extra role
motivation it is found that comparatively a larger segment is willing to share burden with
other. This situation eventually leads to a healthy environment with high level employee
citizenship behavior. This usually happens where workforce is highly qualified having
good moral values. The behavior is negatively related with perception of organizational
politics. From the above results it might be inferred as in target population people have
strong intention to perform under job description but at the same time hesitation have been
observed for additional responsibilities Figure 4.24 show this graphically.
244 Vigoda, E. (2003). Developments in organizational politics: How political dynamics affect employee performance in
modern worksites. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
245 Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Bhawuk, D. P. S., Zhou, J., & Gilmore, D. C. (1996). Reactions of diverse groups to politics in the workplace. Journal of Management, 22, 23-44.
103
Table 4.25
Organizational Goal Alignment
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 23 17.42
Moderately Agree 11 8.33
Undecided 34 25.76
Disagree 50 37.88
Strongly Disagree 14 10.61
Table 4.25 shows a picture that how much organizational is aliened with goals of
employees. Overall perception of employees were bit disagreeing with percentage of 37.88
but due to some personal reservations therefore we retrieved a lot of data with undecided
response, respondents with a high proportion of 25.76 in percentage either did not
responded to this question or they opt undecided. Conversely a large strata of respondents
selected the option of disagree with the question that organization is aligned with their
goals. Respondents with percentage of 17.42 in percentage responded that organization is
strongly aligned with their goals, group of responses with a percentage of 8.33 moderately
agreed. A fairly high number of respondents selected that organization strongly unaligned
with their goals (10.61); possibility of this response could show the frustration due to
political environment.
Figure 4.25
Organizational Goal Alignment
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
104
Table 4.26
Organizational Allegiance
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 17 12.88
Moderately Agree 29 21.97
Undecided 37 28.03
Disagree 20 15.15
Strongly Disagree 29 21.97
Table 4.26 characterizes the responses, will respondents always prefer to be a part of
current organization. The question was added to measure the long term commitment of
current employees. Same problem which was discussed previously faced during this
question that people remained undecided to due to some personal fears which is 28.03 in
percentage. People with a percentage of 21.97 strongly disagreed that they was to be part of
this organization in longer terms. Similarly respondents with a percentage of 15.15 replied
that they disagree with this notation. Conversely people with percentage of 21.97 replied
that they moderately agree to be a part of the organization in the long run. Smallest group
of people with a percentage of 12.88 in proportion responded that strongly agree to be a
part of the organizational in the long run.
Figure 4.26
Organizational Allegiance
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
105
Table 4.27
Organizational Dedication
Responses F Percentage
Strongly Agree 17 12.88
Moderately Agree 35 26.52
Undecided 35 26.52
Disagree 34 25.76
Strongly Disagree 11 8.33
Dedication can be termed as “a mental state when an employee tried to server its
organization in best possible manner with extra efforts”. Table 4.27 depicts level of
organizational dedication, opinions was asked about if people are willing to be assigned
with any responsibility within organization to serve better for their organization. A
heterogeneous reaction was recorded against this question. Larger segments with
percentage of 26.09 each received as undecided or disagree or moderately agree. 12.88
percentage of respondents replied in strongly agree way; whereas 21.97 percentage
responded in strongly disagree. Since the data retrieved in both directions such as
agreement and disagreement so we could not conclude any observation for this particular
question.
Figure 4.27
Organizational Dedication
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly DisagreeStrongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
106
Table 4.28
Organizational Commitment
Particulars Weighted
Mean
This organization is not aligned with my career objectives? 3.15
I will always prefer to be a part of this organization? 3.11
I can be assigned with any responsibility because I am really concerned
about my organization?
2.90
Table 4.28 portrays an overall response for the organizational commitment levels scale was
influenced by work of Porter and Smith (unpublished manuscript), commitment can be
termed as the willingness to exert extra efforts for organizations and desire to retain
membership in the organization246 (Mowday & Boolean, 1974). For organizational goal
alignment we are unable to conclude any significant response due a large segment of
respondents who respondents as undecided due to some personal reservations. However a
large number of respondents answered as the organization was not aligned with their goals.
Researcher will discuss possible outcomes of this response in next chapter of
recommendations. For the question that if they always prefer to be a part of this
organization mostly the respondents replied as undecided because of researcher’s role in
the organization however a fairly large amount of respondents disagreed with this point and
some of them replied that they strongly disagree with this point. Overall calculated average
of this question was 3.10. For measurement of organization dedication a simple question
was posed to respondents “will they accept any responsibility in the organization” here
again we faced fear of unwanted from respondent due to researcher’s personal capacity in
the organization. Calculated average of this question was 2.90. Figure 4.28 represent this
information graphically.
246 Mowday, R. T., Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. M. (1979). The measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 14, 224-247.
107
Figure 4.28
Organizational Commitment
2.75
2.8
2.85
2.9
2.95
3
3.05
3.1
3.15
3.2
Organizational GoalAlignment
Organizational A llegiance Organizational Dedication
Two questions were asked at the end to identify if there is any particular relationship
between organizational politics and individual growth. The opinion was retrieved in a scale
from 1 to 10. Responses for these questions are presented below in table 4.29
Table 4.29
Relation between Perceptions of Organizational Politics and Individual Growth
Particulars Weighted
Mean
How would you rate the impact of organizational politics on an
individual’s growth?
9.8
Table depicts that there was significant relationship of between perception and
organizational and individual growth. Scale was set from 1 to 10 means strongest to
weakest relations, outcome obtained was 9.8 which means that there a very strong negative
relationship and perception of organizational politics and individual growth. Almost 73%
108
respondent responded that there is some how a relationship between personal growth and
organizational politics, this high percentage show that environment can be highly
politically charged and employees are playing political games. Higher the organizational
politics lower will be the individual growth and vice versa. A similar question was asked
from the respondents that is there any significance of organizational politics in growth of
organizations? Table 4.30 represents the consolidated response for this question. Figure
4.29 represent this information graphically.
Figure 4.29
Relation between Perceptions of Organizational Politics and Individual Growth
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Table 4.30
Relation between Perceptions of Organizational Politics and Organizational Growth
Particulars Weighted
Mean
How would you rate the impact of organizational politics in organizational
growth?
2.40
109
Above rating scale question was asked to find out relation between organizational politics
and organizational growth, we have observed a significant relation and strongly negative
relationship between both these variables (2.40~2). Question was seems not to simple to
respond as there could be multiple factors involved in organizational growth and most
importance is the strategic decisions, however some respondents communicated in during
their responses that strategic decision are also influenced by organizational politics or
personal preferences. Respondent with a percentage of 60.61 were in favor of negative
skewness of organizational politics and organizational growth where as remaining 39.39
percentages we favor of no relationship between organizational politics and organizational
growth. Figure 4.30 represent this information graphically.
Figure 4.30
Relation between Perceptions of Organizational Politics and Organizational Growth
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Table 4.30
Means, Standard Deviation of Research Variables
Variables Mean S.D
Organizational Politics 2.32 0.65
110
Withdrawal behaviors 2.48 0.69
General Fatigue 2.69 0.30
Organizational Support 3.36 0
Job Motivation 1.95 0.64
Organizational Commitment 3.05 0.13
Table 4.31 shows overall mean values of mean and standard deviation of each research
variable. Lower mean values of variables show that there was strong level of
organizational politics and high level of feeling of fatigue or strain among employees.
Conversely a high rate of job motivation and organizational support; also observed a slight
lower level of organizational commitment. This study tried to support the idea that
organizational politics should be considered a prominent behavior with significant
consequences on employee performance in an organization. This study tried to empirically
determine relationship between organizational politics and employee productivity in terms
their performance, physical and mental health and long term commitment with
organizations. Study has also provided a relative deep insight that organizational politics is
a good mediator organization and working employees. This perception somehow
determines the factor of organizational commitment and organizational support. Some
limitation of the study were faced which were discussed in the first chapter, despite of
limitations researcher was able to succeeded in obtaining useful information regarding
organizational politics in AAJ Technologies. Furthermore, perception of politics was
successfully related to the objective information on formal and informal performance and
productivity of employees. The present findings reveal that politics contributes to our
understanding of organizational dynamics and outcomes. The most profound finding of this
study was that perception of organizational politics extensively exists and does make a
difference in research organization. . The significant paths of the research model showed
that politics had a modest negative effect on formal performance (in-role behavior). It also
maintained a stronger negative influence on informal performance and long term
organizational commitments. It is also important to note that the silent effect of
111
organizational politics can spill over beyond the formal boundaries of organizations.
Attitudes and behaviors of employees can be low and aggressive in daily work and
eventually can create unwanted situations. A strong level of perception of organizational
politics works a catalyst for physical withdrawal and a vast majority of employee spent
valuable time and resources of organization in job hunting and job search.
Figure 4.30
Means, Standard Deviation of Research Variables
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Per
cept
ion
of
Org
aniz
atio
nal
Pol
itics
(P
OP
S)
Em
ploy
ee
With
draw
al
Beh
avio
r
Gen
eral
Fat
igue
Org
aniz
atio
nal
Sup
port
Job
Mot
ivat
ion
Org
aniz
atio
nal
Com
mitm
ent
112
C H A P T E R 5
Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
Findings
The findings of the study are:
1. A strong level of organizational politics was observed among the organization. The
level of perception of organizational politics was much higher among managers
whereas its intensity was lower at technical staff.
2. Perception of influential group was very strong across the organization; the perception
may also lead to influencing supervisory attitudes.
3. There is always a will in human mind to work in low political setups; it is also observed
that in low politically charged environment people may work with more enthusiasm.
4. A fairly high level of biasness was observed in organizational decisions. There could be
other reasons for this biasness such as strategic decision or ground realities.
5. A high level of tendency to share reality was observed at organization level. The
situation also referred as the respondents are observed as straight forward in the
organization.
6. A mild tendency of wisdom was observed at senior organization level of organization.
A larger segment of respondents believe that they are free to share their ideas with their
managers.
7. Due to high level of physical of mental exhaustion high intensity of negligence attitudes
is observed. These negligent attitudes eventually to lead to employee withdrawal
behaviors. A larger segment of respondents are observed as high psychological
withdraw stage, moreover a reasonably good number of respondents are found in
physical withdrawal stage.
8. A high rate of turnover was examined in the organization, based on the data of last one
year 62.5 % turnover was recorded. This high level of turnover rate can be a strong
indicator of withdrawal behaviors due organizational politics or high stress levels.
113
9. A considerably high level of organizational support was observed during the research
possible reasons could be friendly atmospheres among technical staff or some informal
group influence due to institutional bindings, ethnic diversity common benefits.
10. A high degree in-role motivation is observed in the respondents. However a lower level
of extra-role was discovered. This means that employees if directed properly can be
more beneficial than they are at the moment.
11. Organization alignment it found to be very low. In lower level of organizational
alignment people tend to leave the organizational in short periods rather than consider
for lifetime employment. Also people refuse to put extra efforts in their daily working
because they consider it as a time waste.
12. So far we have not mentioned any finding about organizational commitment, a severely
lower percentage of organizational commitment is observed in respondents. The
situation could lead to a very alarming fact that people do not want to stay longer in the
organization, so they could be more interested expanding their social networks rather
than being beneficial for organization.
Conclusions
1. Organizational politics was overall found to be treacherous and harming for the
organizations. It could cause serious levels of feelings of general fatigue and
deceitfulness among employees. In highly educated industries like information
technology it also impacts the overall turnover rate in the organizations. Organizational
policies can lead to negligent behaviors which sometimes leads to security or moral
hazards on the other hand it increase the anxiety and severity in attitudes. Politically
influence decision of manager can cause dissatisfaction in lower technical personal.
2. A high politically charged environment can be a strong factor in lower organizational
commitment. Industrial sectors like information technology where job substitutions was
not a big factor people always prefer to escape from political environment and always
try to find neutralized environments. High salaries and greater number of incentive
114
some time fails to create stronger bonds between person and organization due to
political environment.
3. Industries where workforce is the most critical factor of success like the one we have
target must be free from organizational politics up to certain level, fatigue and lower
physical or mental health can cause severe impacts on organizational growth. Tired
minds cannot perform in critical situations and this tiredness could be due to
organizational politics. Moral hazards can be caused due to stress working
environments.
Recommendations
1. To reduce level of organizational politics job allocation must be revised after a certain
time period. In this way people will be unable to form their cabals
2. Supervisory decision must me made after discussion in some central meeting this will
reduce the personal influences.
3. Senior management should be aware of the internal problems and conflicts among the
employee otherwise they would be unable to understand the problem from grass root
level.
4. To reduce semiotic tension there must be some forum where people feel free to share
their problem with others and management must have some process to understand these
problems.
5. Human resource department is the strongest and the most basic department in any
organization. Their role should be of a facilitator rather than a new caster of senior
management.
6. Organizational decision must me be made after consensus with all senior resources.
Otherwise it will increase the job dissatisfaction in employees.
7. Turn out intension can be reduced by inquiring the basic reasons for such intentions
also some time proper job allocation can reduce these intentions.
8. Manager should be aware of job stressors that are creating aggressive attitudes in
employees.
9. To reduce fatigue intentions work items should be properly estimated and managed.
115
10. Employees must be given stress breaks; this can be helpful in providing them a feel of
comfort and job confidence.
11. Performance appraisal or progress reviews must be done with 360 degree method to
reduce supervisory influences.
12. Management must identify opinion leaders and they should be treated carefully to
reduce the overall feelings of discomfort among the employees.
116
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