Iese Ingles II

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IESE PROGRAMA NIVEL II

Overview of Nouns

A noun can name:

a person -I'd like to speak to Mr. Nakamura, please. a job title - You should see a doctor about your sore throat. a place - Mexico is south of the United States. a thing -I left the reporton yourdesk. a quality -Many countries have had to fight forindependence. an activity - Swimming is good exercise.

Form of Nouns

Nouns may be:

a single word without a suffix.The door was open, and the officewas empty.

a word formed with an ending such as -eror-mentadded to a verb.She's a computerprogrammer.After a year of talks, the two countries finally reached an agreement.

a compound formed from two or more words.Can I pay with a credit card?

Compound nouns occur when two or more words are used together in a fixed expression.They can be written as one word or with a space or hyphen between the words. Compound

nouns can be formed from:

noun + noun - There's a bookshelfin the corner. adjective + noun -He is a middle manager in a large company. gerund + noun -Does the hotel have a swimming pool? noun + gerund - Ice-skating is a winter sport. verb + preposition/particle -Employees have been unhappy with recent changes in

the company, and staffturnover has been high.

Noun + Noun Combinations

It is very common to use a noun as a modifier. Use noun + noun combinations to show:

possession -Is the car door open? location -I left the umbrella in the hall closet. streets -Her house is on Oak Street. materials -He bought an expensive wool suit for the interview. types -I've been invited to a dinner partyat their house. containers - There was an empty soda bottleon the table.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns (also called count nouns) have both a singular and plural form.They can be used with a/an or with numbers.Can we fit a table and two chairs in this corner?

How many? can be asked about countable nouns. (For more information aboutquantity words used with countable nouns, seeOverview of Quantifiers.)

How many people work in your office?

Uncountable nouns (also called non-count) have only one form, with no plural.They are not generally used with a/an or numbers.

We mixed flour and water together to make paste.

Use a singular verb after uncountable nouns. Pronouns referring to uncountablenouns are singular, too.

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The music is very loud. Can you turn it down?

How much? can be asked about uncountable nouns. (For more informationabout quantity words used with uncountable nouns, seeOverview of

Quantifiers.)

How much rain did we get yesterday?

Some nouns are countable in other languages, but not in English. For example:advice, furniture, hair, information, luggage, machinery, money, news.

New machinery is being installed in the factory.

Some nouns are uncountable in one meaning and countable in another.Do you think he has enough experience (= skill that comes from practice) to do

the job?

I had a couple of bad experiences (= something that happens to you) with thatairline, and I won't fly with them again.

Some nouns are uncountable when talking about the thing in general andcountable when indicating different types or individual units.There's more cake in the kitchen. I baked a chocolate cake for dessert.

Use words that mean a piece with uncountable nouns, words that mean a group with

countable nouns, and words that mean a container or a measure with either countableand uncountable nouns. All of these words are followed by of + the noun. The words can

refer to:

a single unit of an uncountable substanceThe cat played with a ball of string.

a piece of an uncountable substance - He ate two slices of bread and a piece ofcheese.

a collection of people, animals, or thingsI put the bunch of flowers in a vase.

a container filled with something - I bought a box of cereal and a container oforange juice.

a particular amount of somethingThis recipe for onion soup calls for three pounds of onions and two quarts of beefbroth.

Plural Nouns

Form the regular plural by adding:

-s to most nouns: call--calls, bird--birds, monkey--monkeys, prize--prizes, store--stores, tree-trees.They could hear the callsofbirdsandmonkeys in the trees.

-es to most nouns ending in -s/-x/-sh/-ch/-z: box--boxes, bush--bushes, class--classes, watch--watches, quiz--quizzes (notice thatzat the end of a word may be

doubled).I have quizzes today in my biology and English classes.

-es and changingy to i for most nouns ending in consonant +y: city--cities, country--countries, university-universities.Damascus is one of the oldestcities in the world.

-es to some nouns that end in -o: hero--heroes, potato--potatoes, tomato--tomatoes;just -s to some: kilo--kilos, photo--photos, piano--pianos, video--videos; and either-

es or-s to some: mosquito--mosquitoes ormosquitos, volcano--volcanoes orvolcanos.

The book showed dramatic photos of active volcanoes.

Some nouns have irregular plural forms:

A few nouns have special plurals: child--children, foot--feet, man--men, mouse--mice, person--people, tooth--teeth, woman--women.

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Thousands ofmen, women, andchildren were forced to leave their homes after theearthquake.

Some nouns ending in -for -fe have a plural ending in -ves: half--halves, knife--knives, leaf--leaves, life--lives, loaf--loaves, shelf--shelves, wife--wives.I keep history books on the two lowershelvesof the bookcase.

Some nouns have the same singular and plural form: aircraft, deer, fish,headquarters, moose, series, sheep.We caught six fishyesterday.

Some nouns borrowed from other languages have irregular plurals: analysis--analyses, memorandum--memoranda, phenomenon--phenomena, stimulus--stimuli.

The discovery helps explain several naturalphenomena.

Gender (Masculine or Feminine)

There is no grammatical gender for English nouns.

Most nouns referring to people do not indicate whether the person is male orfemale. Only the pronoun (he orshe) indicates this.

My accountantsays thatheis movinghisoffice.My neighbor said thatshesoldher house.

A few nouns exist in contrasting masculine and feminine forms; for example:man/woman, boy/girl, hero/heroine, bull/cow.Women, on average, live longer than men.

A few feminine -ess endings are still used (for example, actor/actress,waiter/waitress), but adding -ess to most words, like author, is now old-

fashioned.

The actor andactresswho played the couple in the movie are married in real

life. Many people prefer to use nouns ending in -person or other gender-neutral nouns

rather than words ending in -man or -woman; for example: chair/chairperson

(rather than chairman or chairwoman), firefighter(rather thanfireman), policeofficer(rather thanpoliceman orpolicewoman),spokesperson (rather than

spokesman orspokeswoman).

Dr. Atkins is the new spokesperson for the hospital.

Form of the Possessive

Add apostrophe s ('s) or just an apostrophe (') to nouns to show possession:

Add 's to most singular nouns.The company's main office is in Caracas.

Add 's or just an apostrophe (') to singular nouns ending in -s.My boss's/boss' assistant is out sick today.

Add 's or just an apostrophe (') to most names ending in -s.James's/James' father is from Iran.

Add an apostrophe (') to plural nouns ending in -s.They checked all the passengers' tickets carefully.

Add 's to irregular plural forms that do not end in -s.The men's football team won last night.

Add 's to the last part of a compound or a phrase used as a unit.My sister-in-law's father is a pilot.

We stayed at Miguel and Lena's house.

Use of the Possessive

Use the 's (ors') form for possession by people, animals, and groups, but not for possession

by things. The possessive can be used for:

things belonging or connected to someoneMy sister'scar is a Toyota.

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relationshipsHave you metGerhard's sister?

parts of the bodyThe man'shair was very long.

actions performed by someoneThe government'sdecision to lower taxes surprised many people.

the intended users of a thingWomen'sclothes are on the first floor, andmen'sclothes are on the second.

A possessive can be used without a following noun to refer to a person's home or place ofbusiness.

We're having dinner atMolly's tonight.I'm leaving work early to go to the doctor's.

Use a possessive with 's after a noun + ofto refer to one of a number of things or people

that belong to or are connected with someone.I'd like you to meeta friend of my brother's.It reminded me ofa story of Hemingway's that I once read.

Possession by Things

Ofcan be used to show possession by things.He opened the door of his office.

It is also very common to use a noun + noun combination.He opened his office door.

There are some phrases with ofwhere it is not possible to form compound nouns. For

example:

most parts of things - The inside of the car was covered in mud. many abstract phrases - The cost of living rose 3% this year.

There are some phrases referring to things where we use the 's/s'possessive rather than acompound noun or a phrase with of. For example:

time references -He receivedsix months' severance pay. places named after people - St. Patrick'sCathedral is on Fifth Avenue in New York. features of the Earth and other planets - The Earth'satmosphere protects us from

the sun.

Form and Basic Uses of Indefinite Articles

Use a before a consonant sound.

I needacomfortable chair.I couldn't finda hotel room.

Use an before a vowel sound. Notice that an is used before words beginning with h when

the h is not pronounced.Take an umbrella. It's raining.You have an hour to finish the test.

Use a/an with singular countable nouns. There is no difference between a and an in theway they are used.

She was writingaletter when he called.

Use a/an:

with an indefinite meaning (it doesn't matter which).Do you have a pen? I need to sign this check.

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when mentioning something for the first time. Use the for second mention.I looked up and saw a plane.The planewas flying very low.

Specific Uses of Indefinite Articles

Use a/an:

to classify or identify a person or thingShe's a computer programmer.Is thatan answering machine?

to mean "one." Usually, the word one is not used unless counting or contrastingone with another number.

I'd like aburger, please. with some units of time or measurement to mean "each."

The trains depart 5 times anhour.

Form and Basic Uses of Definite Articles

The never changes in form. Use the when both the speaker and the listener know which

thing is being talked about. It can refer to:

people or things - The woman sitting in front of us was upset by the movie. singular or plural nouns - The storm delayed the buses. uncountable or countable nouns - The information in the book was incorrect.

When mentioning something the first time, a or an is often used. When mentioning it

again we use the because the listener knows which person or thing is meant.

There was a big tree in front of my school. One day a boy climbed the tree and couldn'tget down. The boy's friends had to get a ladder.

Use the when adding information that identifies which item is meant.Do you have the report that I asked about?

The new photocopier is as slow as the old one.

Specific Uses of Definite Articles

Use the when there is only one possible person, place, or thing in the environment.

There has been an accident. Does the President know about it?

Are you going to the post officethis morning?Exercise is good forthe heart.Do you mind if I open the window?

Use the to refer to things that are one of a kind:

the Earth, sun, moon, sky, etc. -The Earth travels aroundthe sun every 365 days. institutions -The World Bank lends money to many nations. public bodies -The government collects taxes. publications -The Singapore Straits Times is a daily newspaper.

Use the with nouns that refer to a particular group as a whole:

specific groups - The museum is not open to the publicon Monday. nationalities -The Portuguesewere great explorers. Remember to add plural -s to

nationalities ending in -an -The Russiansandthe Americans raced to the moon inthe 1960s.

Specific Uses of the Zero Article

Use the zero article to classify or identify people and things in the plural form.Both of my parents are doctors.

These are photographsof my family.

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Use the zero article with:

days of the week and monthsHave a nice weekend. See you on (-) Monday.

mealsLet's have (-) lunch in the cafeteria.

certain places (for example,school, work, home, bed, prison) after a prepositionElizabeth isn't here. She's at(-) school.

continents, most countries, states, cities, streets, lakes, and most other place names.But: Use the with seas, rivers, deserts, and mountain groups.The Andaman Sea is off the coast of(-) Thailand.

Overview of Quantifiers

Quantifiers are words like a lot of, a little, andsome, or numbers. They show how much ofsomething or how many things we are talking about.

I have a lot ofwork to do.The soup needs a little salt.I could use somehelp setting up the equipment.Can you give us twohours?

Numbers and exact measure words are definite quantifiers.We needfiveeggs andhalf a pound ofbutter for this recipe.

Most quantifiers are indefinite. They do not give an exact amount.

We have enough eggs, but we don't have much butter.

Some quantifiers are used with uncountable nouns.

He hada great dealofconfidence in himself and was sure he would succeed.

Some quantifiers are used with countable nouns.

I called them several times, but there was no answer.

Some quantifiers are used with both countable and uncountable nouns.A lot ofemployees are at a training course now.There was a lot ofinformation on their web site.

Uses ofsome and any

Usesome + plural noun or uncountable noun:

in affirmative statementsI have somephone calls to make.

in questions inviting a "yes" answerA: Do you needsomemore time?B: Yes. I'm not quite finished.

in offersA: Would you like somecoffee?B: Yes. Thank you.

in requestsA: May I have somemilk?B: Of course.

to mean "certain"Somepeople will believe anything they read.

Use any + plural noun or uncountable noun:

in negative statementsI didn't take anysick days last year.

in uncertain questionsAre there anyholidays in May?

in statements with a negative meaning

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There were hardly any (= very few) seats left by the time we got to thetheater.

in conditional sentencesIf you have anyquestions, I'll be happy to answer them.

to mean "every"Anychild could answer that question.

Uses ofno and none

No + countable or uncountable noun can be used in place ofnot any to show complete

absence.No may sound more emphatic.There are no sandwiches because there was no time to make them.There aren't anysandwiches because there wasn't any time to make them.

None can be used by itself as a pronoun to refer to a noun used earlier.

I can't find the eggs. There are none in the refrigerator.

A: Did you have any trouble getting here?

B: No, none.Your directions were very clear.

Uses ofmany, much, and a lot of

Use many + plural noun:

in negative sentencesNot manypeople know who he is.

in questionsHowmanypeople work in your office?

afterso and too or with asas (seeComparatives and Superlatives.)So manyqualified people have applied for the job that it will be difficult to choosejust one.

in ordinary affirmative statements.A lot ofis more usual in conversation; manysounds more formal in affirmative statements.Many foreign companies have set up factories there.

Use much + uncountable noun:

in negative sentencesThere wasn't much traffic this morning, since it's a holiday.

in questionsHowmuch water should I give the plants?

in statements with a negative meaningThe noise prevented her from gettingmuch sleep.

afterso and too or with asasI can't go out to dinner tonight. I have too much work to do.(For more information about as...as, seeComparatives withAs.)

Much can be used in ordinary affirmative statements, but it sounds very formal. Other

quantifiers are usually used in its place, such as a lot ofora great deal of.

Much effort went into the development of this project.

A lot ofis more usual in conversation than many ormuch in affirmative sentences. Use a lotof(informal lots of) with:

plural nounsI tooka lot ofpictures on the trip. (more natural than: I tookmanypictures on thetrip.)

uncountable nounsHe has a lot ofexperience in marketing. (much more natural than:He has muchexperience in marketing.)

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Notice that the verb agrees with the noun that follows a lot of.

There wasa lot ofwater on the floor.

There werea lot ofpeoplewaiting to board the airplane.

Uses offew, a few, little, a little

A few and a little are positive in meaning. They mean "some."

Use a few with countable nouns.We're havinga few friends over on Saturday. Would you like to join us?

Use a little with uncountable nouns.I know a littleSpanish.

Few and little are negative in meaning. They mean "hardly any" or "not enough."Few

and little sound formal when they are used without a modifier like very.

Usefew with countable nouns.Claire was lonely. She hadfew friends. Use little with uncountable nouns.

He has very littlehope of winning the election.

Uses ofboth and all

Use both + plural noun and both (of) the (orboth (of) my/these etc.) + plural noun in the

same way to refer to two people or things.Katherine wrote two letters. Both letterswere about the company's new advertising

campaign.Both the letterswere short. Both of my brothersare older than me.

Use all+ plural or uncountable noun to refer to things in general.All children like to play.Notall grass is green.

Use all (of) the/my etc. for particular reference.All the children on my street like to play soccer.All the grass in our yard has turned brown.

All of their documents were lost in the fire.

Usually allis not used by itself as a pronoun to mean "all the people" or "all the things."

Use everyone,everybody, oreverythinginstead.Everyonehas gone home.I thinkeverything is ready for the presentation.

Each compared with every

Use each/every + singular countable noun.

Each is used for two or more things to suggest "one by one," "separately."You must sign each copy of the form.

Every is used for three or more things and suggests "all together."The meal was delicious! I enjoyedeverybite.

However, each and every are often used in exactly the same way.The company's profits have increasedeach/everyyear.

Each (not every) can be used after a noun or at the end of a sentence.The tickets are fifteen dollars each.

Every (not each) can be modified by words like almostornot.I buy a newspaperalmost everyday.

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Other, others, and another

Use other+ plural noun to refer to additional or alternative people or things ofthe type mentioned.

He shares an office with two other people.

There must be other ways of solving the problem. After quantity words such assome, any, no, orone, the word othercan be used

with an uncountable or singular noun.We don't have any other information about the accident.There is one other person I could ask.

Use the (ormy/her, etc.) otherwith either a singular or plural countable noun torefer to one or more of the rest of a group.I found one glove, but I can't findthe other one.

Use the others by itself to mean "the rest."Alicia, what do you think? Do you agree with the others?

Use another+ singular noun to refer to an additional or an alternative thing orperson.Would you like another cup of coffee?Thursday isn't good for me. Can we meetanother day?

Anothercan be used with a plural noun iffew or a number comes before thenoun.

I'll be staying here foranother two days.

Adjetivo

Overview of Adjectives

An adjective describes the person or thing that a noun refers to.Julio is young. He's only twenty-two.These boxes are heavy. I can't lift them.That's a good idea. Let's go out for dinner.

Adjectives do not change their form to "agree" with nouns.

We had a longmeeting to discuss the problem.We had severallongmeetings to discuss the problem.

Adjectives may be:

a word without a suffix or prefixThe basement was coldanddamp. a word formed with a suffix such as -able, -ful, -ical, -ish, -ous, -y added to a noun.

Be careful. The roads are icy. a word formed with a prefix such as dis- orun- added to an adjective.

He was unhappyabout moving to a smaller office. the -ingform of a verb

I read an interestingarticle about Internet-based companies. the -edform of a verb

I'm interested in the effect of electronic commerce on local businesses. a compound

She's self-employed. She runs a small consulting company.

Position of Adjectives

Most adjectives can occur:

before nounsWe bought a newcomputer.

after linking verbs.Be, look, seem, feel, taste, smell, and become are commonlinking verbs.

This computer is new. We just bought it.

Note that adjectives come after, not before, indefinite pronouns like anything, anyone,

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something, somewhere, nothing, everything.

Did you notice anythingunusual?

Some adjectives are used only after a verb (usually a linking verb like be), not before a

noun. These include:

adjectives beginning with a- (e.g., afraid, alive, alone, asleep, awake)She was alonein the house, and no one could hear her.

some adjectives, when they describe a person's health or feelings (e.g., glad, ill,pleased, sorry, stressed, upset, well)But: these adjectives have different

meanings when used before some nouns - an ill effect, a sorry state, etc.I'm gladyou liked the present.

Some adjectives are used only before a noun. These include:

adjectives that either give emphasis (e.g., mere, sheer, utter) or restrict thereference of the noun (e.g., chief, main, only, sole)The meeting was an utter waste of time.

adjectives referring to location (e.g., bottom, indoor, lower, outdoor, top, upper)She bit herlower lip nervously.

a few adjectives ending in -alor-ic (e.g., atomic, federal, medical)We pay state andfederal taxes.

A limited number of adjectives (e.g., available, eligible, imaginable) can either go

before or after a noun.

There are no rooms available/available rooms for the 23rd.

Adjectives used in measurements go after the noun.The room is 18 feetlongand 12 feetwide.

Some adjectives can take on different meanings when they are used in different

positions.He's an old friend. (= I've known him a long time.) [used only before a noun]My aunt is very oldnow. (= She has lived for a long time.) [used either before or after anoun]

He gave a very involved (= complicated) explanation. [used before a noun]The people involved (= connected with this) no longer work for the company. [used after

a noun]

Modifying Adjectives

Many adjectives that describe a quality can be modified with very, too, orenough.

Very and too go before the adjective.Your directions were veryclear.Steve is only 14. He's too young to drive a car.

Enough goes after the adjective.Jane is 18. She's old enough to drive.

Some adjectives cannot be modified by very, too, orenough. These adjectives often

describe an extreme quality. Other modifiers may be used to emphasize them.The weather was absolutely perfect.What you're asking me to do is utterly impossible.He won't hear you. He's fast asleep.

Overview of Adverbs

Adverbs can add to the meaning of:

verbsHe spoke slowlyandclearlyso that everyone would understand.

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adjectivesMy department is verybusy now.

other adverbsI don't know herverywell.

whole sentencesUnfortunately, sales were much lower than we expected.

Adverbs can be single words or phrases. They answer questions like:

howShe walkedquickly to keep warm.

how longThe training session lastedall day.

how often; whenIusually leave the house before seven.

whereWe ate lunch in the park.

Adverbs of Place (answering the question where) are usually in the form of prepositionalphrases. For more information, see,Prepositions of Direction and Position.

Adjective Word Order

Adjectives used together are usually in this order: opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin,material, use.

No more than three or four adjectives are used together to modify a noun..

opinionThey have a beautiful horse.

opinion + sizeThey have a beautiful littlehorse.

opinion + size + colorThey have a beautiful little black horse.

opinion + size + color + originThey have a beautiful little black Arabian horse.

useThere was a conference table in the room.

shape + useThere was a round conferencetable in the room.

size + shape + useThere was a large round conferencetable in the room.

size + shape + material + useThere was a large round oak conference table in the room.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner tell how something happens. They are typically formed by adding -ly

or-ily to an adjective.

It was a slow train. It creptslowly through the tunnel.She was happy. She sanghappilyas she worked.

Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives.

He liked fast cars. He drove fast on the highway.We had an early flight. We leftearly.

Some adverbs have two forms: a form that is the same as an adjective and an -ly form.The two forms often have different meanings.

He didn't workhard(= using effort). In fact, he hardlyworked (= almost didn't work) atall.I workedlate(= past my usual time) last night. I've had a lot of work to do lately(=

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recently).

Some adverbs have two forms that have the same meaning. The form without -ly is

usually used only in informal speech or writing.

Please don't talk so loud/loudly. I'm trying to read.

Go call the police quick/quickly! There's been an accident.

Some adjectives end in -ly. Since they are adjectives, they cannot be used as adverbs.(Incorrect:Everyone smiles very friendly.) Other adjectives like this are: cowardly,

lively, lovely, silly.

My neighborhood is a friendlyplace. People smile in a friendlyway when you passthem on the street.

Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of time describe when something happened. They are usually points of time, suchas last weekoryesterday. Other time adverbs include already, still, yet, andsoon.

I presented my proposallast week.They had a staff meetingyesterday.They've alreadymade their decision.I'm still waiting to hear what they decided.No one has told me anythingyet.

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency are words like always, usually, frequently, often, sometimes, seldom,

and never(arranged from most to least often) that answer the questionHow often? Theyhave three basic positions:

afterbe when it is the only verb in the sentenceI'm always late.

after an auxiliary, if there is one, and before the main verb when there is only oneverbIfrequentlysleep through my alarm.My business partner is usuallywaiting for me when I get to the office.

after the first auxiliary when there is more than oneI wouldnever have completed the report without you.

Overview of Comparatives and Superlatives

The comparative shows a higher amount or degree of a quality. Use comparatives when

comparing one person or thing with another, or with itself at a different time.The Seitan Tunnel in Japan is longer than the Channel Tunnel between England andFrance.

This restaurant is more expensivethan it used to be.

Use superlatives to compare one person or thing with the group that it belongs to. The isusually used before the superlative.

Are the Petronas Towers stillthe tallest buildings in the world?Tokyo is the most expensivecity in the world.

If it is clear what the person or thing is being compared with, this does not need to be

mentioned.

A: Should we take the bus or the train?B: The train. It's quicker.

First class is usually the most comfortable.

To show a smaller degree of a quality, use:

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less and leastThe advertising campaign was less successful than we expected.She was the least experiencedof all the candidates for the job.

not asas. This is probably more common than less/leastin conversation.The advertising campaign wasn't as successful aswe expected.

She wasn'tas experienced as the other candidates for the job.

Less/leastis not used with many short adjectives and adverbs. Instead, use not asas or a

comparative adjective or adverb of the opposite meaning.

Anna isn't as old asKate.

Anna is younger than Kate.

Forming Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

One-syllable adjectives usually form the comparative with -erand the superlative with -est:

In most cases, simply add -eror -estto the end of the adjective:short--shorter--shortest; great--greater--greatest.

Did you cut your hair? It looks shorter.Our employees are very important. In fact, they are ourgreatestasset.

If the adjective ends in -e, add only -ror -st: large--larger--largest; nice--nicer--nicest.The company has grown and is looking forlarger office space.He tried to say "no" in the nicestway possible.

If the adjective ends in one vowel + one consonant, double the consonant beforeadding -eror -est: big--bigger--biggest; hot--hotter--hottest.

It was hot outside and even hotter in the house.

Russia is the biggestcountry in the world.

For two-syllable adjectives that end in -y, change y to -i and add -eror-est: happy--

happier--happiest; busy--busier--busiest.She's much happier at her new job than she was at her old one.Atlanta has the busiest airport in the United States.

Some two-syllable adjectives can form the comparative with -erormore or the superlative

with -estormost.

Let's go to my office to talk. It's quieter/more quiet there.At the street's narrowest/most narrowpoint, you can touch the houses on either side.

This conversation is depressing. Can we talk about somethingmore pleasant/pleasanter?The wordthe is the most common/commonestword in English.

Other two-syllable adjectives and adjectives with more than two syllables generally use

more and mostto form the comparative and superlative.

Sorry about the mess. I'll try to be more careful next time.It was the most boring speech he had ever heard. He almost fell asleep.Would you like a more comfortablechair to sit on?Last year was the company's most successful year to date.

A few adjectives have irregular comparatives and superlatives:

good--better--bestbad--worse--worst

far--farther

further--farthest/furthest

Employees demandedbetter working conditions.How can we choose the best candidates for the job and avoid the worstones?

Forming Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Some one- and two-syllable adverbs form the comparative with -erand the superlative with-est: fast--faster--fastest; early--earlier--earliest. These are usually words that can also be

used as adjectives. Other adverbs like this include: close, late, loud, slow.We'll have to walkfaster to get there on time.

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I have to get up earlier than usual tomorrow to catch a plane.Everyone worked hard on the project, but I think you worked (the) hardest.

Most adverbs form the comparative with more and the superlative with most.

Could you speak a little more softly? I'm trying to work.

We can advise your company on how to use advertisingmost effectively.

A few adverbs have irregular comparatives and superlatives:

well--better--bestbadly--worse--worst

far--farther/further

farthest/furthestlittle--less--least

much--more--most

The car runs better since I had the oil changed.Farmers have been hit (the) worstby the recession.

The with Superlatives

Use the or a possessive with a superlative adjective when a noun follows the adjective.

The teacher chose the best work for the exhibition.The teacher chose my bestwork for the exhibition.

The is also usually used with superlative adverbs.

Who works the best under pressure?

In an informal style, the is sometimes omitted:

when a superlative adjective follows the verbWhich company is (the) most profitable?

with superlative adverbsThe assembly line in Kyoto runs (the) fastest.

The cannot be omitted when the superlative is followed by a phrase describing the group

with which the person or thing is being compared.Which company is themost profitable in the industry?

Comparatives withAs

Use as as with adjectives and adverbs to say that two people or things are equal in some

way.

I was as surprised asanyone when they offered me the job.The noise endedas abruptly as it started.

Not asas can be used instead of a comparative to show that two people or things are notequal in some way.

Our apartment isn't as big as theirs. (= Our apartment is smaller than theirs.)She doesn't work as hard ashe does. (= He works harder than she does.)

Asas can be used to compare quantity:

Use as many as with countable nouns.Our company has hadas many problems as theirs.

Use as much as with uncountable nouns.We didn't make as much profit as we had projected.

Use as + adjective/adverb + as followed by:

a nounHe's as talented as Beth.

I can't run as fast as Mario.

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a noun or subject pronoun + an auxiliary or main verbHe's as talented as she is.I can't run as fast as he can.

an object pronoun. Note that this is informal and not generally used in writing.He's as talented as her.

I can't run as fast as him.

Form of the Simple Present: Statements

To form affirmative statements:

Use the base form of the verb withI, you, we, they.Iwork in a commercial bank.You own a business.

We makeloans to businesses.Businesses often needmoney. Add -s or -es to the base form of the verb with he, she, it

Edwarddesigns clothes.Martha sellsclothes.Her store opensat 10.

To form negative statements, use subject + do not/does not(= don't/doesn't) + base form ofthe verb.

Use do not(= don't) + base form of the verb withI, you, we, they.Idon't speak French.

Use does not(= doesn't) + base form of the verb with he, she, it.He doesn't speak English.

Form of the Simple Present: Questions

To form Yes/No questions:

Use do + subject + base form of the verb withI, you, we, they:Doyou needa ride home?

Use does + subject + base form of the verb with he, she, it.Does it eversnow in Florida?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + do/does.A: Do I need a visa to enter the country?B:Yes, you do.

A: Does the train stop in Birmingham?B:Yes, it does.

No + subject pronoun + don't/doesn'tA: Do you have any questions?B: No, I don't.

A: Does this light work?

B: No, it doesn't.

To form questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how, etc.) + do/does

+ subject + base form of the verb.How do you spell your last name?Where does the company market its products?

Uses of the Simple Present

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Use the simple present for:

permanent truthsThe sun rises in the east.Gases expandwhen heated.

conditions and situations that exist at the present timeMy motherwearsglasses.Iwork at Ace Electronics.

habitual actionsJohn travels to Spain every year.I usually get upat 6:30.

comments and declarationsI hopeeverything will be all right.I hear Sara has been promoted.I don't agreewith you.

future reference in describing scheduled events (assumed to be facts)The plane leavesat 7:45 andarrivesat 10:20.

future reference after some subordinating conjunctions (For more information, seeSubordinating Conjunctions.)

I'll call you when Iget to San Francisco.

Form of the Present Progressive [Continuous]: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use subject + present ofbe + verb + -ing

Use am + verb + -ingwithII'm workingon a big project right now.

Use is + verb + -ingwith he, she, itMarkis helpingme.

Use are + verb + -ingwithyou, we, theyWe're trying to finish by Tuesday.

For more information on the present ofbe, seeSimple Present Form ofbe.

To form negative statements, use subject + am/is/are + not+ verb + -ing. Short forms

are normally used in conversation.I'm not driving to work today.The headlights on the cararen't working.

Itisn't raining, so maybe I'll walk.

Form of the Present Progressive [Continuous]: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use am/is/are + subject + verb + -ing.

AmIwaiting in the right place?IsMr. Jackson interviewing the candidates?Areyou applying for a position?Arethey makinga decision today?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + am/is/are (no short form)A: Are you enjoying your visit?

B:Yes, I am. No + subject pronoun + am/is/are + not(using a short form in the negative):

A: Are you staying long?

B: No, I'm not.

A: Is it still raining?B: No, it isn't. OR No, it's not.

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A: Are they going to the meeting?

B: No, they aren't. ORNo, they're not.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how,

etc.) + am/is/are + subject + verb + -ing.

What areyou doingafter work?How is your motherfeeling?Why are they staringat us?

Uses of the Present Progressive [Continuous]

Use the present progressive for:

actions in progress at the moment of speakingShh. The baby is sleeping.

actions in progress around the presentI'm very nervous. I'm takingexams this week.We're changingour accounting system at work.

temporary situationsHe's visitinghis aunt in Miami.She's studyingChinese.I'm workingat a law firm for the summer. (= it's a temporaryjob)

Compare: She worksat a law firm. (= it's her regular job) planned future actions

We're leaving for Hong Kong tomorrow.He's cominghome next week.

repeated actions (with always, constantly, etc.)You're always complaining. You're never satisfied.

Form of the Simple Past: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use a simple past tense verb after the subject. The form isthe same for all subjects.

Regular verbs add -edor -dto form the simple past tense.IvisitedMaggie yesterday.

She moved to a new apartment last week. Some verbs are irregular. Their past forms cannot be predicted. You must learn

them.

We atedinner out.Then we went to a movie.

To form negative statements, use subject + did not(= didn't) + base form of the verb.

I looked for her, but Ididn't seeher in the crowd.She didn't stay long, because she had a headache.

Form of the Simple Past: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use did+ subject + base form of the verb.Didyou haveany trouble finding us?Didanyone call while I was out?

Ayes/no question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + didA: Did you get my message?

B:Yes, I did. No + subject pronoun + didn't

A: Did Rosa say where she was going?B: No, she didn't.

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To form a question-word question (wh-question), use a question-word (what, where, how,

etc.) + did+ subject + base form of the verb.Where did they go?Why didhe leave?How longdidyou stay there?

Uses of the Simple Past

Use the simple past for:

actions or events that began and ended in the past. A time reference is usuallygiven or understood from the context.

Ispoketo the contractorthis morning.We introduced two new products in J anuary.Iplayeda lot of tennis when I was younger.Inever metmy grandfather. (he is dead)

Who left the door open? (a moment ago-it is still open) past habitual actions. A specific time period is usually given or understood.

My family renteda house at the beach every summerwhen I was a child.He smokeda pack of cigarettes a day until he quit.

The past tense does not always refer to past time. It can also be used in present unreal

conditionals, expressing wishes, and in making polite requests. (For more information,

seePresent Unreal ConditionalsandExpressing Wishes.)Iwondered if you could give me a ride. (more tentative or polite thanI wonder if youcould give me a ride.)

Form of the Past Progressive [Continuous]: Statements

To form an affirmative statement, use subject + past ofbe + verb + -ing.

Use was + verb + -ingwithI, he, she, it.A: Can I come in?B: Of course. Iwas expecting you.

She was sleepingwhen I called. Use were + verb + -ingwithyou, we, they

They wereboth working for the same company when they met.

To form negative statements, use subject + was not/werenot(=wasn't/weren't) + verb + -

ing

Could you repeat that, please? Iwasn't listening.We weren't enjoying the play, so we left at the intermission.

Form of the Past Progressive [Continuous]: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use was/were + subject + verb + -ing.Was itrainingwhen you were out?

Wereyou planning to work late today?

A Yes/No question is often used with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + was/wereA: Were all the men at the meeting wearing ties?B:Yes, they were.

No + subject pronoun + wasn't/weren'tA: Were you expecting this many people?B: No, I wasn't.

To form a question-word question (wh-question), use a question-word (what, where, how,etc.) + was/were + subject + verb + -ing.

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What wereyou doingat nine o'clock last night?Who wasEva talking to when I came in?Why were the children crying?

Uses of the Past Progressive [Continuous]

Use the past progressive for:

actions or situations in progress at a point in the pastThe picnic was canceled yesterday because itwas raining.

A: Whatwereyou doingbetween 8:00 and 10:00 that night?B: Iwas watchingtelevision.

two past actions in progress at the same timeWhile I was looking at the sales figures, my assistant was answering some e-mails.At the time I was working in the bank, I was also studying engineering.

repeated actionsWhen he worked here, Patrickwas always makingmistakes.

polite requestsI was wondering if you could give me a ride.

events planned in the past to take place at a later time ("future in the past")We were justgoing to leave when I fell and twisted my ankle.(answering the phone) Hi, Annie. Iwasgoing tocall you today.

Use the past progressive (continuous) together with the simple past for past actions or

situations interrupted by a shorter action or event.

The action in progress is often introduced by when, as, just as, orwhile.J ust as I was leaving the house, the phone rang.He learned how to ski when he was living in Switzerland.

When can also introduce the shorter action.We were having dinnerwhen he walked through the door.I was waiting for the bus when a blue car pulled up.

Form of the Simple Present Perfect: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use subject + present ofhave + past participle.

Use have (= 've) + past participle withI, you, we, theyWe're old friends. We've known each other since we were children.

Use has (= 's) + past participle with he, she, itThe weatherhas been great all week.

For regular verbs, the past participle has the same form as the simple past tenseAndrew has worked for us for two years. Before that, he worked(= simple past)for an advertising agency.

For irregular verbs, the past participle and simple past are often differentInterest rates rose(= simple past) again today. In the past six months, they haverisen almost 5 percent.

To form negative statements, use subject + have not/has not(= haven't/hasn't) + past

participle

I've tried calling several times, but Ihaven't been able to reach her.The company has not madea profit for three years.

Form of the Simple Present Perfect: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use have/has + subject + past participle.

Haveyou evereaten Thai food?HasRebecca finished law school yet?

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A Yes/No question is often used with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + have/has:A: Have you ever bought anything online?

B:Yes, I have.

A: Has Brian been to Greece before?B:Yes, he has.

No + subject pronoun + haven't/hasn'tA: Have you met Linda Chan?B: No, I haven't.

A: Has the rain stopped?B: No, it hasn't

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how,etc.) + have/has + subject + past participle.Where hasVictorbeen all morning?How long have they known each other

Uses of the Simple Present Perfect

Use the simple present perfect for actions occurring in a period of time up to the present.

with already, before (now), ever, never, so far, yetThis is the most interesting bookI 've ever read.A: Haveyou finished the reportyet?B: Yes, I've already sent it out.

withjustorrecently for recent actions (in American English, the simple past tensecan also be used)

They've just left for the airport. with often, several times, etc., for repeated or habitual actions

He has been to Japan twice in the past year.I've often wonderedwhat happened to Tom.

without an adverb of time or durationWe've hada lot of problems with the new software.I can't find my keys. I've lookedeverywhere.

Use the simple present perfect for situations beginning in the past and continuing up to now

(and possibly into the future).

withsince + point in timeMr. Ito has been with the company since 1998.

withfor+ period of timeI've livedhere for five years. (and I still live here)Compare:I lived here for five years. (but I don't live here now)

with adverbs of durationI've always loved to swim.

Notice that the present perfect is not usually used with adverbs referring to a period of timethat has ended. Use the simple past instead.

I haven't seen Ahmed today, but Isawhim yesterday.

Form of the Present Perfect Progressive [Continuous]: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use subject + present ofhave + been + verb + -ing.

Use have (= 've) + been + verb + -ingwithI, you, we, they.We've been waiting to see Ruth Goodman for almost an hour.

Use has (= 's) + been + verb + -ingwith he, she, it.She's been talkingon the phone to another client.

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To form negative statements, use subject + have not/has not(= haven't/hasn't) + been +

verb + -ing:

Use have not(= haven't) + been + verb + -ingwithI, you, we, they.Ihaven't been sleepingwell lately.

Use has not(= hasn't) + been + verb + -ingwith he, she, it.He hasn't been teaching for very long. He just started teaching in September.

Use of the Present Perfect Progressive [Continuous]

Use the present perfect progressive for:

actions that began in the past and are still in progressHe has been looking for a job for over two months, but he hasn't found anything

yet.

I've been painting this room for two days and I'm still not done. (= unfinished

action)Compare: I've painted this room three times and I still don't like it. (= completed

action)

actions that have recently stopped and have effects nowLet's go for a walk. I've been sitting most of the day.

repeated actionsThe phone has been ringing all morning.

temporary actions or situationsI've been staying at my cousin's house, but I'm moving to my own house next

week.

Form of the Simple Past Perfect: Statements

To form affirmative statements, use subject + had(= 'd) + past participle.

My fatherhad been with the company for ten years before the merger.We'd justboughta new house when he lost his job.

To form negative statements, use subject + had not(= hadn't) + past participle.

He hadn't looked for a job for a long time.

Form of the Simple Past Perfect: Questions

To form Yes/No questions, use had+ subject + past participle.Hadyou heardof the company before they offered you the job?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + had.A: Had he lived there his whole life up until that time?

B:Yes, he had. No + subject pronoun + hadn't:

A: Had they met before then?

B: No, they hadn't.

A: When you got to the office, had she already left?B: No, she hadn't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how,

etc.) + had+ subject + past participle.Where hadyou workedbefore your last job?Who had they interviewed before Cara?How long hadhe worked there before his retirement?

Uses of the Simple Past Perfect

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Use the simple past perfect:

to show which of two past events happened firstIhadnevereaten sushi before I moved to Japan. Now I love it.When we arrived, Tom hadalready left.

to show that something happened before a time in the past:Juliet was excited because she had never saileda boat before.I began collecting stamps in February and by November Ihad collectedmore than500.

He had changed so much that I almost didn't recognize him. to describe things one hoped or wished to do but didn't (e.g., with expect, hope,

mean, suppose, think, want)

She had hoped to reach him before he left, but she was too late.

When, after, as soon as, orby the time thatare often used with the past perfect.

We went to bedas soon asour guests had gonehome.

Notice that the past perfect is not always needed to show which event came first.

Sometimes either the past perfect or simple past can be used. After I (had) checkedmy schedule for the day, Ireturned some phone calls.

Form of the Past Perfect Progressive [Continuous]

To form affirmative statements, use subject + had(= 'd) + been + verb + ingWhen I first met Joel, he'd been workingat Global for five years.We had been hikingall day and we were very hungry.

To form negative statements, use subject + had not(= hadn't) + been + verb + -ing

I had almost finished the work when I was told that Ihadn't been doing it correctly.

To form Yes/No questions, use had+ subject + been + verb + -ing.Hadyou been gettingenough sleep before you got sick?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + hadA: Had she been working for the company long when she retired?

B:Yes, she had. Fifteen years. No + subject pronoun + hadn't

A: Had they been living in Paris for long at that time?

B: No, they hadn't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how,

etc.) + had+ subject + been + verb + -ingWhere hadyou been livingbefore you moved to Chicago?How long hadyou been studyingEnglish when you got the job?

Use of the Past Perfect Progressive [Continuous]

Use the past perfect progressive for:

actions that began at an earlier time and were still in progress at a time in the pastWe'd been waitingfor three hours when we got the phone call. (= we were stillwaiting)

Compare: We'd waited for three hours, so we decided to go home.(= we stoppedwaiting and went home)

actions that had recently ended and had an effect at a time in the pastHe was very tired. He had been walking for hours.

Form of the Simple Future with will

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To form affirmative statements, use subject + will+ base form of the verb. The short form

'llis usually used in conversation, especially after pronouns.I'll, you'll, he'll, she'll, it'll,

we'll, they'll.

I'll seeyou tomorrow.The lawyers will review the contract next week.

To form negative statements, use subject + willnot(= won't) + base form of the verb. The

short form is usually used in conversation.

Don't worry. Iwon't tell anyone.They won't sign the contract until their lawyers see it.You won't believeit, but I won the lottery!

To form Yes/No questions, use will+ subject + base form of the verb.Will the furniture beready for delivery by the 15th?

Ayes/no question is often answered with a short answer:

Yes + subject pronoun + willA: Will patients have access to their medical records?B:Yes, they will.

No + subject pronoun + won'tA: Will I be responsible for phone sales?B: No, you won't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how,

etc.) + will+ subject + base form of the verb.When will you find out if you got the job?What time will the meetingend?How will we get to our hotel from the airport?

Uses of the Simple Future with will

Use the simple future with willfor:

making predictionsThere's a lot to discuss. Itwill bea long meeting.

announcing decisions made at the moment of speakingA: It's hot in here.

B: I'll open a window. announcing scheduled events, especially in a formal style

The weddingwill take placeon June 27th. making promises

Iwon't leavewithout you. expressing hopes, expectations, and beliefs (e.g., afterassume, believe, doubt,

expect, hope, suppose, think)I hope she'll get the job.

A: Do you think he'll like the present?

B: I 'm sure he will.

For other uses ofwill, seeFuture Factual Conditionals,Offers, Requests, and Invitations

andWillingness or Readiness.

Form of the Future Progressive [Continuous] with will

To form affirmative statements, use subject + will(= 'll) + be + verb + -ing.

In ten years, robots will be doingmany of our household chores.We'll be waiting for you at home after the game.

To form negative statements, use subject + willnot(= won't) + be + verb + -ing. The short

form won'tis often used in conversation.Jorge won't be comingwith us. He had to take care of a family emergency.

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To formyes/no questions, use will+ subject + be + verb + -ingWill you be stopping in London on this trip?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + willA: Will you be staying at the Madison Hotel?

B:Yes, I will. No + subject pronoun + won't

A: Will Dr. Leon be giving tomorrow's lecture?

B: No, she won't.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how,

etc.) + will+ subject + be + verb + -ing.When will you be taking the test?Where will you be staying in Boston?

Uses of the Future Progressive [Continuous] with will

Use the future progressive for:

actions that will be in progress at a time in the futureWe'd better hurry. The guests will be arrivingat any minute.By this time tomorrow, I'll be lyingon the beach.

making a question about plans sound more politeWill you be working late tonight?When will you be seeingDr. Weiss? (e.g., assistant to supervisor)Compare: When will you finish these letters? (e.g., supervisor to assistant)

talking about planned eventsThe bus won't be leavinguntil six.We'll be spending the summer in California.

Form of the going to Future

To form affirmative statements, use subject + am/is/are + going to + base form of the verb.

I'm going tomeet with the software developer tomorrow.He's going tosubmit a revised proposal by the end of the week.They're going toinstall the new system in two weeks.

To form negative statements, use subject + am/is/are + not+going to + base form of the

verb. Short forms are normally used in conversation. (For more information, seeSimple

Present Form ofbe.)I'm not going to cook tonight. We're eating out.We aren't going to walk into town. It's too hot.Itisn't going to cool offuntil the weekend.

To form Yes/No questions, use am/is/are + subject +going to + base form of the verb:Is she going to accept the job?Areyou going to tell him the truth about what happened?

A Yes/No question is often answered with a short answer.

Yes + subject pronoun + am/is/areA: Are they going to replace the damaged goods?B:Yes, they are.

No + subject pronoun + am/is/are + not(using a short form in the negative)A: Are you going to be around this weekend?

B: No, I'm not.

To form question-word questions (wh-questions), use a question-word (what, where, how,etc.) + am/is/are + subject +going to + base form of the verb.

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Which shoes areyou going to wear to the party?When isHelen going to beback at work?

Uses of thegoing to Future

Use thegoing to future for:

making predictions based on present evidenceLook at those black clouds! It's going to rain.Tom's always late for work. He's going to get fired.My wife is going to havea baby.

plans and firm intentionsI'mgoing to beaway for a couple of weeks.I've made my decision. I'm going to take that job.

Overview of Phrasal Verbs

Verbs are often combined with prepositions or adverb particles to form phrasal verbs

(also called multi-word verbs or two-word verbs). Phrasal verbs are very common in

conversation and informal writing.

Sometimes the meaning is non-idiomatic; the meaning of the phrasal verb issimilar to the meaning the words have when they are used separately.Let me look at my notes from the last meeting.

Often the meaning is idiomatic, and the words used together have a completelydifferent meaning from when they are used separately.The police are looking into (= trying to find out more about) the cause of the fire.

Phrasal Verbs Type 1: verb + (object +) preposition + object

In Type 1 phrasal verbs, the verb is followed by a preposition and then an object. The

object always follows the preposition; it cannot come before it. Since the prepositioncannot be separated from the verb, phrasal verbs like this are sometimes referred to as

inseparable. The meanings can be:

non-idiomaticI never listen to the news.

Do you believe in astrology?

I'll take care of the problem later. I don't want to deal with it now. idiomatic

I came across (= discovered by chance) this ad for a sales manager, and I thoughtyou might be interested.

There's no need to make a decision now. Why don't you go home and sleep on it

(= delay a decision).

You'll never guess who I ran into (= met by chance) at the post office.

Some Type 1 phrasal verbs must have an object directly after the verb: verb + object +preposition + object. The meanings can be:

non-idiomaticThey accused Mike of lying.

idiomaticThe acting company turned (= changed) the old barn into a theater.

If the economy worsens, voters are likely to hold it against (= blame) him in thenext election.

Phrasal Verbs Type 2: verb + particle + object

Type 2 phrasal verbs are probably the most common type. They are sometimes called

separable phrasal verbs, because the particle can be separated from the verb.

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A noun object can go either after the particle or before the particle.He took offhis hat.He took his hatoff.

If the object is a pronoun, it must go before the particle (that is, between the verband the particle).

He took itoff. Notice that if there is a long noun object, it usually goes after the particle.

When will we find out the answer to the question?

In Type 2 phrasal verbs, the particle strengthens or extends the meaning of the verb. Themeanings can be:

non-idiomaticShe cut the article outof the newspaper.I want to writeyour idea down so I won't forget it.

idiomaticHe called off(= canceled) the meeting.Did you call your motherup (= telephone her)?They offered her the job, but she turned itdown (= refused it) because the salarywas too low.I can dropyou offat (= give you a ride to) the station on my way to the bank.

Phrasal Verbs Type 3: verb + particle (no object)

Type 3 phrasal verbs are intransitive (have no object). The meaning can be:

non-idiomaticHurry up! The train is leaving.Please stand upwhen Dr. King is introduced.

idiomaticThe workerpassedout (= fainted) in the heat.Things are certainly looking up(= getting better) around here.

Phrasal Verbs Type 4: verb + particle + preposition + object

Type 4 phrasal verbs consist of three words, verb + particle + preposition, followed by

an object. The meaning can be:

non-idiomaticI'm sorry you couldn't come. You missed out on a good party.

idiomaticWe've run out (= used all we had) ofink cartridges. Could you order somemore?

I don't know how you put up with (= tolerate) their rudeness.

A few three-word phrasal verbs also have an object after the verb: verb + object +

particle + preposition + object.Can Iletyou in on (= tell you) a little secret?We tried to talk him out ofquitting (= persuade him not to quit) his job.

Overview and Form of Modals

There are ten modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must,

and ought to. The verbs used to, have (got) to, had better, and be supposed to have

meanings similar to modals; these expressions are also dealt with here.

Use the base form of the verb (infinitive without to) after a modal.Bill drives fast, so they might arrive early.

Modals each have only one form. There is no -s/-es for the 3rd person singular(he, she, it).

She is very physically fit. She can run very fast.

Form negative statements with modal + not + base form of the verb.

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You must not smoke near oil. It's dangerous.

Short forms of these negative modals are common in conversation and informalwriting: cannot = can't, could not = couldn't, will not = won't, would not =

wouldn't, should not = shouldn't, must not = mustn't (less common than the

others). Note: there is no short form for may not.I'd love to go, but I can't. I have to work late.

Form a yes/no question with modal + subject + base form of the verb.

A Yes/No question can be answered with Yes + subject + modal or No + subject +

modal + not (using a short form in the negative).

A: Should we leave now?

B: Yes, we should. It's getting late.

A: Can you see the sign?

B: No, I can't.

Form a question-word question (wh-question) with question-word + modal + subject +

base form of the verb.He's two hours late. Where could he be?

Expressing Ability: can/could/be able to

Can

Use can to describe natural or learned ability.Mr. Forester can speak Japanese.

The negative form is cannot, usually written as one word. The short form can't ismore common in conversation.He can't read it.

Can can refer to the present or the future.You can sell the stock today or you can sell it tomorrow.

Could

Could refers to general ability in the past.When I was young, I could swim two miles.

Be able to

To describe a particular ability that someone will have in the future, use be ableto.

When you finish this course, you'll be able to design your own web site.

Use was/were able to (not could) to refer to the successful completion of anaction in the past.

In fact, I was able to get a scholarship.

Use either wasn't/weren't able to or couldn't for negative sentences referring toability in the past.

Unfortunately, my father died and I wasn't able to/couldn't finish college.

Asking for Permission: can/could/may

There are various ways to ask for permission:

Can is the least formal.

(one student to another)CanI use your phone?

Couldis more polite than can.

(one stranger to another)Couldyou tell me the time, please?

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May is formal. Some people think it sounds more respectful than could.

(waiter to a customer in a restaurant)MayI take this chair?

Requests for permission can also be made more polite by adding phrases likeI wonder ifor

Do you thinkorDo you mind if.

I wonder ifI could look at your notes.Do you think I could sit here?

Giving and Refusing Permission: can/may/be allowed to

Give permission with can and may and refuse permission with their negative forms.May

is more formal than can.

You can bring a guest to work with your supervisor's permission.Guests cannot enter the building without a pass.They mayeatin the employee cafeteria.They may notuse the staff parking.

Be allowed to (or its negative form) can be used for more emphasis.

Students are not allowed to bring books into the exam room.

Was/were allowed to is usually used for past reference.

The children were allowed to stay up late to watch the fireworks.

Possibility and Certainty:should/could/may/might

Degrees of certainty can be expressed on a scale:

Useshouldfor something that is probable, expected to be true.Their plane landed at 6. It's 8 now. They shouldbe home by now. Use couldfor something that is possible.

No one's answering the phone. They couldbe at dinner. Use may to allow a possibility.

They maybe on their way home. Mightis less certain than may.

There mightbe a lot of traffic tonight.

Could, may, and mightare very similar in this meaning.

Degrees of certainty in the negative can be expressed on a scale:

Use can'tfor something that is nearly certain.Ben's only a teenager. He can'tbe the manager.

Couldn'tis less certain than can't.Ben couldn'thave enough seniority to be the manager.

Use may notto allow a possibility.We may notberight about his age.

Might notis less certain than may.He might not be as young as he looks.

In American English, the short form ofmight notis not usually used. Remember, there isno short form formay not.

Express degrees of certainty about the past:

Use may/might/could have for somethingpossibleThe fire may/might/could havestarted in the restaurant next door.

Use could/mighthave for something possible that did not happen.Itcould/might havedestroyed both buildings, if the firefighters hadn't arrived whenthey did.

Use may/might have for something possible (negative).Itmay/might not havecaused as much damage as we thought.

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Use could not have for something impossible.The ownercouldn't haveknown about it. He was away when it happened.

Deduction: must/must not/cannot/have (got) to

These modals are used to express deduction when the conclusion seems likely to be true:

mustTom's back at work. He mustbe feeling better.The phone's ringing. Itmustbe Will--he said he would call.

must (not) have + past participle (used to express deduction in the past)Sophie isn't in her office. She must havegone to the meeting.He didn't respond when you said that. He must not haveheard you.

have to/have got to (used in affirmative sentences)Have got to is used mostly inconversational speech and writing.Ithas tobe here somewhere. I was just using it.You've got to be joking! That can't be true.

These modals are used to express deduction when the conclusion seems to be impossible or

unlikely to be true.

must notKayla's not here. She must notbe feelingwell.

can't(= cannot)The phone's ringing. Itcan'tbe Rachel--she just called.

can't have (to express impossibility in the past)She can't havegone home. Her jacket is still in her office.

Offers, Requests, and Invitations: would/can/could/may/will

Modals are used for various social functions:

To offer things:

Would you like is common as a polite way to offer something.A: Would you likea cup of coffee?B: Yes, thank you.

Wouldn't you like is polite, but more emphatic or persuasive.A: Wouldn't you likea more comfortable chair?B: No, this is fine, thanks.

Willyou is polite but informal.Will you have some more cake?

To request things:

Can is the least formal.Can I borrow a pen?

Couldgenerally sounds more polite than can.Could I have some typing paper, please?

May is more formal than can orcould.May I have some paper clips, please?

To offer to do something for someone else:

Can I/we is often used to offer help.Can I take you to the airport?

May I is very formal.(salesclerk to a customer in a store) May I help you?

To request someone else to do something for you:

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Wouldand couldare more polite than can orwill.Notice that couldis not used to answer a request for permission.Can you help me with this suitcase?Would you make a copy of this contract for me?

A: Could you write that down for me, please?B: Yes, of course I can. Willis informal and sounds less polite or more abrupt than the others.

Will you drop this in the mail for me?

To offer an invitation:

Would you like is very common as a polite way to offeran invitation.Would you liketo come with us?

Won't you is formal.Won't you come in?

Advisability and Warning:should/ought to/had better

When talking about advisability or warning in the present or future:

Useshouldorshould not(=shouldn't) to say that something is or is not advisable.Ishouldget more exercise. I'm really out of shape.You shouldn't leavewithout telling your supervisor.

Use ought to in the same situations asshould. The negative ought not to means thesame asshould notbut is not common.

We ought to get the photocopier fixed. These copies aren't clear at all. Use had better(not) to suggest a stronger warning. Note that it refers to the present

or future, not the past. It is usually impolite to use had better(not) to someone in

authority (e.g. a student to a teacher, an employee to a supervisor).

We'd better leave now, or we'll miss our flight. (we had better = we'd better)We'dbetter not stop at the office. We don't have enough time.

When talking about advisability or warning in the past:

Useshould have to say that something was advisable.I did badly on the test. Ishould havestudiedharder.

Useshould not have to say that something was inadvisable or unwise.Ishouldn't havegone out the night before the exam.

Obligation and Prohibition: must/have to/be supposed to

Use mustand have (got) to to express absolute or unavoidable obligation:

Mustis often used by officials or other people in authority.Visitors musthave a visa to enter the country.

Have to is more common in conversation.We have to return these forms before the end of the month.

Have got to is used in conversational speech and writing.I've got to get up early tomorrow. My plane leaves at seven.

Mustand have got to are not common in questions.Have to is usually used.Do Ihave to sign both copies?

Use had to to refer to absolute or unavoidable obligation in the past.Ihad to return the books to the library yesterday.

The negative forms of these words have different meanings:

Use must notto express absolute prohibition.You must not tell anyone your secret password.

Use don't/doesn't have to to say that something is not necessary.You don't have to answer all of the questions. You can leave some answers blank. You don't have to accept their offer (= You can accept their offer, but it isn't

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necessary.)

Compare:You must notaccept their offer (= Don't accept their offer). Be supposed to suggests a duty or responsibility to do something or an expectation

that something will happen.I'm supposed tobe at work by 8:30.

The meetingis supposed to start in fifteen minutes. It can be used in the negative to express prohibition.

We're not supposed to eat in the computer room. When used in the past, it suggests that an intended result was not achieved.

The letterwas supposed to arrive two weeks ago, but it's still not here.

Willingness or Readiness: will/would

Use willto refer to willingness or readiness to do something.They can't find anyone who will take the job.The doctorwill see you now.

The negative form, will not/won't, can suggest refusal to do something.He won't tell me what happened.The window won'topen.

Used to and wouldfor the Past

Use used to + base form of the verb for affirmative statements with all subjects.My brotherused tolive in Chicago, but now he lives in San Francisco.

Use did not(= didn't) + use to + base form for negative statements.Ididn't use toseehim very often, but now I do.

Use did+ subject + use to + base form forYes/No and question-word questions (wh-questions).

A: Didyou use to call him on the phone?B: Yes. I talked to him every week.

Use used to for something that happened regularly or was true in the past but doesnot happen or is not true now.

When I was young, Iused to work in a bank.Iused to makea lot of mistakes.

Use did not(= didn't) use to for something that didn't happen or wasn't true in thepast but does happen or is true now.

Bank tellers didn't use to usecomputers. Do not use used to for single events. Use the simple past.

Once Ilosta customer's money.

Wouldcan also be used for something that happened regularly in the past but doesnot happen now. Wouldis not used in the negative with this meaning.When I was a child, Iwouldsit and watch the trains go by for hours.Sometimes Vera wouldcome over and have dinner with us.

Use used to, not would, for states that were true in the past.Iused to like that kind of music, but I don't any more.