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@,"o.UNIT-V
7. What is meant by productivity?
Productivity is defined as the ratio of output and input. The
output can be water delivered, areairrigated, yield, or income, and
the input can be water in the root zone, at the farm gate at the
outret orat upstream points in the system incruding the point of
diversion or storage. rmproved water suppryinfluences the adoption
of high
- yielding agricultural practices by farmers, which justifiT the
productivity
criterion of performa nce.
2.. Deline equity.
Equity in canal irrigation systems implies equality, fairness,
and even-handed dealing in mattersof allocation and appropriation
of irrigation water. There can be several ways to decide the
equality ofsupplies to different farmers. Two of them, practiced
throughout the world, are the methods of priorappropriation and of
proportionate equality.
3. Wite dhout the conjunctive use of water.
conjunctive use means the water lifted from below the ground is
used in conjunction with canalwaters lt results in the coordinated,
combined, and.creative exploitation of ground water and
surfacewater so as to minimize the dislocation caused by nature's
inconsistent rainfall pattern. suchcoordinated use of surface and
ground waters results in increased amount of available water,
smallersurface distribution system, smaler drainage system, reduced
canar rinings, greater frood contror, andsmaller eva poration
losses.
4. What is meont by short -
term stabitity?
The short -
term or interseasonal stability refers to the variations in
productivity and equitybetween irrigation seasons, and is a
function of crimate, water suppry, storage and contror,
systemmanagement, and other factors such as pests, diseases, and
availability of labour and other inputs. lt canbe measured by
comparing performance between seasons.
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5, Deline long -tem stobilw.
The long -
term stability is defined as "environmental stability" and
"durability" and refers to
the prevention or minimizing of adverse physical changes such as
waterlogging, leaching of nutrients
form soils, salinity. erosion, silting, the 'mining' of ground
water, and infestations with weeds.
6. write dbout the moin components oI soil reclomotion.
The main componentS of soil reclamation works are as follows
> lsolation of land areas according to their categorization
and leveling and bunding of the affected
land as per the category.
> provision of drainage (surfacd or subsurface or vertical)
network to remove leaching water and
to keep the water table to a safer level.
> Breaking up of impervious subsoil layer in alkali soils by
deep ploughing.
}> Adding suitable chemicals (such as gypsum, sulphur, etc.)
dependinB upon the results ofchemical tests ofthe affected
soil.
Why o proper plan for operation & maintenonce ol irrigotion
system is necessary?
A proper plan for operation and maintenance is, therefore,
necessary to
> Achieve stipulated levels of project services including
maintenance at mlnimum achievable cost.! Achieve optimum use
ofcanal water.> provide detailed operation and maintenance
guidelines during various anticipated scenarios of
water availability, including equitable water distribution upto
the tail-end of the system, and
> Effect efficient coordination of staff, equipment, physical
and financial resources and related
disciplines, active involvement of farmers etc.
What ore the mdin obiedives ol canol lining?
The following are the main objectives of canal lining:
> To canal seepage.> To prevent water-logging.> To
increase the capacity of canal.> To increase the command
area.> To protect the canalfrom the damage by flood.> To
control the growth of weeds.
8.
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Whdt ore the foctors to be considered during the setection ol
potticutor type o! lining?The selection of particular type of
lining depends on the following factors,
> lm perviousness.) Smoothness.> Dura bility..D
Economy.> Site condition.-! Lite of project. r.} Availability of
construction materials.
70, How con the water losses be controlled?
The following are thereservoir.
measures that are generally taken to control the water losses
from the
Meosure to Reduce Evdporotion Lossa) The reservoir should be
constructed of less surface area and more depth.b) Tall trees
should be grown on the windward side of the reservoir which act as
wind
breakers and hence the rate of evapordtion will be reduced.c)
The reservoir basin shoutd be surrounded by plantation or forest
area so that cooler' environment exists within the reservoir
area.d) Certain chemical like cetyl atcohol is spread over the
reservoir surface. lt forms a thin film
on water surface reducing evaporation.2. Measure to Reduce
Absorption Loss
a) The weeds and plants at the periphery ofthe reservoir should
be removed completery.b) The weeds from the surface of the
reservoir should be removed.
3. Measure to Reduce percoldtion Lossa) Geological
investigations should be carried out to locate the zones of
pervious formations,
cracks and fissures in the bed a nd periphery of the reservoir
basin.suitable treatments should be adopted to stop the leakage of
water through these zones.soil stabilization methods should be
adopted ifthe basin is composed of permeable bed soil.
b)c)
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77. Whdt is meant by wdter logging?
ln agricultural land, when the soil pores within the root zone
of the crops get saturated with the
subsoil water, the air circulation within the soil pores gets
totally stopped. This phenomenon is termed
as water logging. The water logging makes the soil alkaline in
character and the fertility of the land is
totally destroyed and the yield of crop is reduced.
72. State the eltects ol water logging?
The following are the effects of water logging:
> Stabilization of soil> Lack of aeration) Fall of soil
temperature) Growth ofweeds and aquatic plants> Diseases of
crops> Difficulty ln cultivation> Restriction of root
groMh
73. Wite the methods used for controlling woter logging?
The following measures may be taken to control water
logging:
F Prevention of percolation from canals> Prevention of
percolation from reservoirs
.P Control of intensity of irrigation> Economical use of
water> Fixing of crop pattern> Providin8 drainage system>
lmprovement of natural drainage> Pumping of ground water>
Construction of sump well
,.
14. DeJine 0n-farm water management (NOV/DEC 2006)It can be
defined as manipulation of water within the borders ofan individual
farm, a
farming plot or field.Example: in canal inigation system, OFWM
starts at the farm gate and ends at the disposal pointofthe
drainage water to a public watercourse, open drain or sink.15. What
do you meant by h'ater user association (WUA)?
It is a self-managing group of fanners working together to
operate and maintain their
irrigation and drainage network, to ensure fair and equitable
water distribution, and to increase
crop yield.I.:
t
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,16. ll4tat are the problems of irrigation management without
pailicipatory management?. Inadequate water availability at the
lowest.o Poor condition / maintenance ofthe system.o Lack of
measuring devices and control structures.o Inadequate allocation
fro operation and maintenance.. Lack of incentives fro saving
water.. Poor drainage.
l7).what are the cquses of water loss?I . seepage from the
canal
2. over irrigation of field3. heavy surface runoff18) what are
ways of water loss in the canal?I . seepage loss
2. evaporation loss
19) What are factors on which seepage loss depends?position of
water tableporosity ofsub-soilporosity ofsoilextend of absorbing
medium
20) What are two different condition ofseppage?l.pbrculation
2.absorption
21). What are the remedial measures for losses?I .efficient
surface drainage
2..restriction of inigation3. change in crop pattern
22) What are the advantages of irrigation water managements?I
.achievement of optimum irrigation efficiency2.economical and
efficient operation and maintanence of irrigation system3.equitable
distribution ofsupplies to irrigators especially at the end
23) Discuss some eomponents ofwater management?I .,'yater shed
management
2.land management
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3.rain water management
4.reservoir management
24).What are the imprct of wrter user associetion?I .conveyance
efficiency
. 2.operation efficiency3.equity
4.area water unit ratio
25) What are the advantages ofwater user association?l.better
maintenance of the distributry2.possibility ofhigh value ofcrop
programme3.availability of water ancl irrigation process
26) What are optimization of water user association?I .to reduce
the seepage loss and conveyance2.control over the usage
ofwater3.planning4.to avoid excess suppl.y of water
27).what are the factors which influence evaporation
loss?l.temperature2.wind velocity3.relative humidity
28) What is land management?
The intensity ofraising ploductivity per unit area per unit time
reeds to be increased whiclramounts to increasing iroped area.
29). What are the irrigation methods for cultivation?l.border
strip-wheat2.funow method --cotton3.basin method --orchard
30) What is meant by cad?Command area developments.the concept
oftliis developments is to ensure efficient wateruti I ization.
31). What are the uses of irrigation waters?l.wastages due to
over irrigation2.wastages due to surface runoff3.wastages due to
escape ofwater
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32), What are the work of on farm devetopment?
Lirrigation Practice2.croP Planning3.irrigation method
4.right amount of irrigation
33). what are the components of on farm developments?
1 .field drain
2.crossing in field channel
3.crossing of field ihannel
4.formation of field channel
34). What is called optimum rvater depth?
Thi quantity of water at which the yield is maximum' is called
the optimum water depth'
35). What is called optimum utilisation of irrigation?
It generally means. getting maximum yield with any amount of
water'
36).what is the relation between efficieny and losses?
efficieny is inversely proportional to the losses'
l. Discuss the inadequacies o7 yn'ni@igai'-'*'agement in
India'2. Describe the common *iteriafor judgw the pedormance of an
irrigation system'
3.Describetheevaluationofperformanceofcanalirrigationsystems.4.I{hatarethemethodsadoptedforimprovingcanalirriSationmanagement?Explainindetail.5.
Why shbuf d fining be provided in conols? Whot orc the
merits ond demerits of condl lining?
6. lilrite the dffirent types of canal lining' Explain them'
7. How con woter be lostirom o reiervoir? How con the losses be
controlled?
8, Whot kinds of porticipotion ore necessory for irrigotion
monogement octivities?
g. whot is meant bY percototion pond? Drow o neot sketch oI a
percototion pond' (NOv/DEc 2006)'
10. What is the need fro WUA? (NOV/DEC 2006)'
77. Whot is the need fro optimizotion of woter use? (NOV/DEC
2006)'
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.1. i?latq i""4\ -,b"'4 on &o. atwue'n"a{ toN FARM
DEVELOPMENT (OFD) WORKS
The purpose of irrigation is to enable the fanneni to iurprove
the agricr,rlturalproduction. The modern irigation management airns
at lriglr efficiency of water conveyanceand appropriate nrethods of
water application, through participator, irigation managementat
each stage of irrigation development. The Govt. of lrrdia in
irlgation departrnent hastaken appropriate decision to promote and
implement the parlicipatory irrigationmanagement in all the
irrigation projects through formation 0f Water Users'
Associations(WUA). The approach to planning. design, construction
and maintenance of OFD worksneeds to be, therefore. reoriented.
The efficient management of i.rigution water for maxirmzmg
productivity requires both. theeffrcient on fam water management
and the optimization of the use or waterand land.through
appropriate methods of water appiication. The items of work
pertaining to on farmwater management are termed as "On farm
development works".
The on farm development works comprise of following,
r Field channels for conveyance ofwaterControl
structuresCrossings
Surface drainage syStemFann roads
Field channel protection works andLand forming (Smoothening /
grading / leveling).
The general approacr, to design and execution of OFD works
The general approach to dgsign and execution of OFD wolks shall
be in accordancewith the Govt. technical circulars, the Govt.
Resolution and other directive issued by theGovt. from time to time
for this purpose. The participatory irrigation management
andefficient water delivery system to provide timely as well as
adequate water supply to eachfann, shall be the main focus points
in the design and implementation of OFD works.
It.
l.
IV.
vt.
vlt.
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'3. Functional utility' The purpose of the OFD works is to
provide timely and adequate supplies water to each
holding and presewe environrnental balance as well, by avoiding
seepages, leakages and stagnations
of water which trigger problems like water logging. causing
adverse impact otr environment. Toachieve this functional utility.
the planning ano design ofOFD wolks has to be hydraulically
betterand socially aoceptable. The OFD works also need to be such
that these are economical fbr theoonstruction and maintenance. In a
water delivery system. accuracies are very important.
Separatetolemnces are. therefore, prescribed for different works of
on-farm development. rhe quality ofconstruction govems the cost of
maintenance and overall life of OFD works. Thus the
functionalutility of OFD works is governed by following aspects
Ilydraulic designl) Eoonomy for conStructibn and maintenance2)
Social acceptance i.e. User friendliness to community of farmers
who willactually using OFD works and3) Levels ofaccuracies and
qualily ofconstruction.These issues need to have a proper bearing
in approach to design and execution ofOFD
works.
4. Farmer's participationSuccess ofcanal irrigation depends on
the response ofthe lbrmer, both as an individual and as
a member of the group beneflted by the outlet. Active
partioipation of the farmer at the stage ofdesign should therefore
be encouraged. This will also help in building up of an atmosphere
ofcommon purpose and thereby in the unification ofthe beneficiaries
into a lromogeneous group.
The Govt. of lndia in Irrigation Dept. has taken a decision to
promote and expedite theformation of WUA's, so that all the created
potential under various projects is taken over by WaterUsers'
Associations.
5. Organizational coordinationThe works from the canal head down
to the distributory and from the distributory head to the
outlet are cagied out by the Construction Organization of the
Irrigation Department. Below outlet,OFD wor.ks are the community
works, Presently the work below tlre outlet is entusted to the
LandDevelopment Divisions. Design and construction proceed on the
basis ofthe location ofthe outletand its sill level. To ensure a
coordinated effort. it is necessary at the stage ofdesign. that the
designofa minor is reated as an overlapping function.
Thus the Land Development Division should not consider the
design and layout ofa minor asa work unr.elated to the work below
the outlet. Instead. at least conceptually. the process ofdesign
ofthe works below the outlet should continue upto the head ofthe
minor. For this purpose the LandDevelopment Divisions should
approach the Construction Organization for the details ofthe
designsand layouts of the distributaries/rninors.
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2, .,,herj- "rr,q +L{ ,funotrZ,n, an4 he^fihtleJe) eP v'o-Lo,v'
u}.er4auocrYfi},rriroV I Plr -ertt
WATER USERS ASSOCIATION
Prsenf sfafus of Water Users Associafions
Majority of the f'armers showed enthusiasm and willingness to
involve themselvesm the community activities like rehabilitation,
water disribution, operation and maintenanceactivities. Nearly 80 %
ofthe farmers have contributed to the rehabilitation activities by
way of either(a) cash or (b) Iabour or (c) supervision ofworks.
Nearly half of the respondents mentioned that theyare involved in
water distribution within their land limits. The rest 17 Vo ofthe
farmers said that theyare using the services of hired labourers to
distribute water even to their own fields. Nearly 20 o/o ofthe
farmers in the well functioning WUA sector mentioned that they are
not at all involved in theoperation and maintenance activities. The
rest ofthe farmers mentioned that they are involved by wayof
contributing labour and supervision activities.
Advantages of the WUA formation to solve envitonmenta, issues
.The formation of WUAs has brought down some of the environmental
problems. For example,
the wat er logging and salinity problems were experienced during
pre- WUA period in 40percent of the surveyed schemes. These
problems werc morre pronounced in both tank and
canal irrigation schemes. The post - WUA period showed improved
situation due to (a)
controlled and regulated supply of water in the canal due to the
application of effective water
distribution system and (b) canal improvement works .Nearly 50 %
ofthe schemes have experienced slightly poor quality of groundwater
below their
ayacuts (command area). Farmer's perception is that it happened
due to (a) application of rightquantity of water at right time. the
consequence of proper distribution pattem, (b) reducedwater logging
condition, (c) awareness about soil. water and crop mBnagement
aspects'
Gender sensitivity in water users associafiorrsThree fourth of
the surveyed farmers said that they are involving their family
women
members for the works like (a) transplanting, (b) weeding and
(c) harvesting.A Water User Association is a co-operative
association of individual water users who wish tourdertake
water-related activities for their mutual benefit. The specific
nature of the servicethat a WUA provides will differ fron-r caie to
case: as the name suggests, a water userassociation is an
institution that serves its members. Because member needs will
differ fromone area to another, a WUA is normally established in
response to the aspirations of itsmembers. That is, its design.
Conforms to their specifications.
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IA WUA may be established for a range ofactivities including
streanr flow reduction'
treatment of effluent and waste and its disposal and control the
use ofwater for
recreational and environmentaI purposes'
There are thus significant advantages to members of WUAs and to
government
offrcials in seeing WUAs as an interface between the state and
society ratller than an
organization thaf serves the interests of one of the two parties
only'
Functions of WUAs
ln doing sol it also intends to provide some ciariry on the
question how WUAs
shosldbe delineated from and link in to umbrella structures of
water resource
management.
A number ofissues are important in considering the differences
benveen various
. tiers of water management, namelY:
I . The function that the institution has been established to
perfonn' Four key
functions of water institutions can be i'dentified' namely:
. Operational functions' related to the management ofa
service;
. Bulk supply functions' relatsd to the riranagement ofa bulk
rvater supply
system
Resource management functions' related to the management of the
resource;
o Representation functions' relatd to the represevttation of
stakeholder
needs at higher institutions of water management
2. The functions mentioned above each tequire a certain nature
and frequency of
the communication between members or sub-aggregate units'
3. The oommonality ofvision and purpose amongst members or
sub-aggrsgateunits
ft
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3/ ,D,) c^44 y;24\ 47'q objecf,v* oqA leeA ''t*
f*r;?oto'Ji:rvila.Fa,') rnenafl,o,r4r;{@9? v1 &n^^
-aolA.]:
PARTIC]PATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT (PIM)It is believbd that
many developmental efforts, more so in water resource sector had
been
implemented through participatory approach. ln AD qn Century,
Chanaba the author ofArthoshastu, a treatise on political - economy
urged the rulers to assist the fanners in theconstruction of
irrigation works and give thera various incentives. During I 3h and
l6th Centuryin the Vijq,onlgar ernpire (Kamataka). the rulers buih
several diversion rveirs and canals withactive voluntary
participation f'r'om farrners. Resolution of conflicts and routine
maintenancewere achieved tluough community participation. In Tamil
Nadu. the Chola King Karikalan builtan ani cut on the rivel Cauvery
(known as the Grand Anicut). certain partl of the irrigationsystenr
weie maintained by the Covernment and were knorvn as 'surkari'and
the-lower partsnraintained by thrmers, rvhiclr were known as
'Kudinarammat' (people's maintenance by donatedlabour).Similarly in
Minor irrigation systenrs (Tanks) construction, operation and
maintenance ofdistribution chanrrel s,,-stem below the head sluice
is the sole responsibility of the f'armers'. Thefarmers provide
liee labour periodically to maintain the irrigation works. This
should have beenin vogue as a tradition or custom, at least in the
southern part ofthe country over a long period,'perhaps frorn the
tinres prior to Mughal rule
Need for this project
It could be seen that the revival ofpa*icipatory approach is
sought out to be the majot solutionin the operation and maintenance
ofrvater resource systems. lt is evidentthat the goal in enabling
farmers to participate can be easily achieved ifthe problems tbced
byone agency is known to the other. or the success stories ofone
organization is made known tothe other. This saves a lot oftime,
effort, and investment in such participatory projects. The
pointofdeparture ofthis study from the other rvorks is that it will
engage in such a comparativeanalysis across regions. size and type
or organization, lf experiences are studied and shared. a lotof
time and money could be saved in evolving fool proof. cost and time
effective programs.
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Pfoject objectivesat To consolidate the experiences of the Watel
Users Associations'
b. To compare the sustainability of WUA built on the prenrises
of ParticipatoryIrrigation Management usirrg varied strategies lbr
exanrple motivation throughNGOs, through Cornmunity Organizers'
working under tlre govemmentdepartments etc
c. To study the problems faced by associations and identifying
the solutions for' the problems
d. To identify the gender sensitivity in the water user
association structule andfunctioning and
e. To present the findings througli publications and disseminate
the findings ofthe study for better understanding ofthe scenario.
interventions to be made forthe present and future Planning.
Any irrigation project cannot be successful unless it is linked
to the stakeholders,that is, the farmers themselves. In fact,
people's participation in renovation and
maintenance offield clrannels was the established practice
during the pre independencedays. However, the bureaucracy
encroached on this firnction in the post independence
period and a realization l.ras dawned that without the
participation of farmers, the full
potenrial ofan irrigation scheme may not be realized. Though a
water resources etrgineer
not directly lnvolved in such a scheme. it is nevertheless wise
to appreciate the nlotive
behind Participatory lrrigation Management (PIM) and keep that
in nrind while designingand irrigation system.The national viater
policy stresses the participatory approach in water resources
management. It has been recognized that participation ofthe
beneficiaries would help
grearly for the optimal upkeep of irrigation system and
utilization of irrigation rvater. The
participation of farmers in the management of irrigation would
give responsibility for
operation alld maintenance and collection of watef tates from
the areas under thejurisdiction ofthe water user's association of
concemed hydraulic level'
ThesustairrabilityandsuccessofPlMdependsonmutualaccountabilitybetweenthe
water user's association and the irrigation department of the
concemed state. attitudinalchange in the bureaucracy, autonomy for
the water user's associations, multiiltrctional nalure
of the water user,s association and the choice of appropriate
rnodel for PIM with appropriate
tegal and institutional framework. If the farmers lrave to take
over and manage the system, then
the system must be fectified by the irrigation department to a
minimum standard to can:y the
design discharge before it is harided over to the water user's
association. The success of thePIM is also linked to the
introduction of lotational water supply and water charges
withrationalized establishment costs. Unlined field chanrrels need
to be manually constructed in a
'V' shape which is considered stable and efficient for car'rying
wator'
7-**fto: t B
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47 fri-rn -h*k fl"ti"3 qaA &w-1,r"*n{ .r'fi*9"#ur
fu"fu'b,tPI-ANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF ]RRIGATION PROJECTS
'lie purpose of the planning and implementation process is to:I
. Provide rnethodorogy that helps pranners work effectivery with
sponsors to
identify opportunities and needs to solve identified resource
probrems orconcerns
2. Help sponsors recognize and understand natural resource
oonsewationprinciples. concems and problems. Resource treatment and
effects areconsidered for eaclr altemative
3. Develop and evaluate altematives that lead to decisions to
implement andmaintain conservation
4. Treatments and rnanagement for the project5. Entible sponsors
to achieve their objectives as well as meet social. legal. and
program. requirements6. Help sponsors develop a plan thht meets
established project specific quality
criteria including7. Environmentalconcems8.Assess the
effectiveness of installed practices in meeting the goals and.
objectives ofthe sponsors while solving problems and impacts
onenvironmental values
I. Watershed-based planningThe watershed-based planning approach
provides a comprehensive process that
considers all natural resources in the watershed as well as
social, cultural. and economicfactors. The process tailors workable
solutions to ecosystem needs through theparticipation and
leadership of sponsors. The watershed approach follows the
established
I
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o|
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\"plannillg process and empowe$ Iocal people to recognize
problems and oppoitunities
i
and find workable solutions for resolving issttes and attaining
goals related toecosystems. This approach provides a tbrum for
successful planning and con{'lictresolution, 'fhe result is a
watershed plan that is a clear description of resourceconcerns,
goals to be attained and identified sources for technical
assistance. education
assistance, and funding assistance fronr federal. state, and
local entities For'implementing solutions.
2. Outline for irrigation project planning
It can assist planning personuel with irrigation aspects
ofplanning a project'Adherence to the principles ofthe outline will
help elrsure a uniform approach iuestimating physical t'easibility,
benetlits. effects, and impac s at ttre various stages
ofprogressive planning. The outlirre is not intended to indicate a
fixed chronological order
or procedure. Many ofthe investigations may be ca|ried on
conctlrrently. Perlbrm onll'those items descr.ibed in the outline
that are directly applicable to appraise the capabilitl'
of satisfoing a component need. Intensity of investigations
required lbr various outline
components varies with the level ofplanning atrd the scope and
significance oftheproject being planned. cenerally. the lowest
interrsity is associated with pre applicationplarrning level. It
increases to frlll intensity for investigation ofthe selected
plarr. Theprocedural outline does not describe program requirements
or tbfln:]t for plan 'prcparation. It provides an orderly format
for plaruling, implementation and evaluation.
It also provides guidance for writing of plans, organizing
supporting documentation,and facilitating reviews.
3. Degree of ptanning
Irigation planning can be cornplex, involvirrg environmenlal
assessmenls and
impacts, agronomy, soil, animal husbandry, engineering.
economics, ecology, and thmr
and ranch lranagement. On the other hand, it can be direct.
addressing only one collcel'n
and its effect on the environment. Plan preparation and content
should be based on the
irrigation decision maker's needs and identified resoulce
concelns. A couseryation
planning process oonsiders the farm, ranch, or community as a
whole even if thedecision maker is intercsted in only one field or
practice. This can ensure tlrat delivery
system components of pipelilles and ditches are an adequate size
and elevation toservice the entire unit.
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