EFFECT OF INM ON TRANSPLANTED RICE AND ITS EFFECT ON WHEAT CROP
IN RAINFED UPLAND SEMI IRRIGATED CONDITION
SUBJECT- CROPPING SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURECOLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE,JNKVV,JABALPUR,(M.P.)
Submitted toSubmitted byArti Baghel, Rajul sooni
M.Sc.(Ag.) pre. yearDeptt-AgronomyRoll
No.-160111016,160111011
Dr. K.K. AGRAWALAssociate Professor Dept.-Agronomy
Cropping systems definition, Indices and its importance;
Physical resources, soil and water management in cropping
systems;Assessment of land usePlant ideotypes for drylands; Plant
growth regulators and their role in sustainability
INTRODUCTIONThe term ideotype introduced by Donald in1968Accor.
To him ideotype: is a biological model which expected to perform or
behave in predictable manner in a defined environmentThe term have
following synonyms Model plant typeIdeal model plant typeIdeal
plant type
INTRODUCTIONThe term ideotype introduced by Donald in1968Accor.
To him ideotype: is a biological model which expected to perform or
behave in predictable manner in a defined environmentThe term have
following synonyms Model plant typeIdeal model plant typeIdeal
plant type
Types of Ideotypes
Isolation IdeotypeCompetition IdeotypeCrop Ideotype
Isolation ideotype: It is the model plant type that performs
best when the plants are space-planted. In case of cereals.
isolation ideotype is lax, free- tiSllering.Competition ideotype:
This ideotype performs well in genetically heterogeneous
populations, such as the segregating generations of crosses. In
case of cereals, competition ideotype is tall, leafy, free-
tillering plant that is able to shade its less aggressive
neighbours and, thereby, gain a larger share of radiation,
nutrients and water.
Crop ideotype: This ideotype performs best at commercial crop
densities because it is a poor competitor. It performs well when it
is surrounded by plants of the same form. But it performs less well
when it is surrounded by plants of other forms, e.g., competition
ideotype, and also in isolation. In case of cereals, a crop
ideotype is erect, separately tillered plant, with small erect
leaves
Market ideotype: Includes traits like seed colour, seed size,
cooking and backing quality, etc. since these traits determine the
market acceptability of the produce. Climatic ideotype: Includes
traits important in climatic adaptation, e.g., early maturity,
thermo-period insensitivity, heat and cold tolerance, drought
tolerance, photoperiod-insensitivity, etc. Stress ideotype:
(traits: resistance to the concerned a biotic and biotic stresses),
Disease/pest ideotype: (traits: resistance to the concerned
diseases and insect pests), etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CROP IDEOTYPE: It should he a weak
competitor. That is able to accept all the photosynthate either
from its own green surface or from other parts of the plant. An
ideotype will be the most efficient in utilizing its environmental
resources. The ideotype, must include morphological and
physiological characteristics that result in a high harvest index A
crop ideotype must be grown, as far as possible, in a weed-free
situation in view of it being a weak competitor.
STEPS IN IDEOTYPE DEVELOPMENT: Donald (1968) suggested that the
asic ideotype should he first developed for the optimum,
nonlimiting environment. Quality considerations would determine the
limits to size, shape, etc. of the economic parts. Current
agronomic practices would determine the limits to plant stature,
branching and other features. It should now be assessed as to what
changes in particular traits would improve yield potential in the
target environment. The choice of characters to be included in an
ideotype will also depend on certain other considerations
IDEOTYPES OF SELECTED CROPS
BARLEY(I) a short, strong stem; (2) a few, small, erect leaves;
(3) a high harvest index; (4) an erect car; (5) awns; and (6) a
single culm.
WheatShort Strong Stem.Erect LeavesFew Small LeavesLarge Ear
Erect EarPresence of AwnsSingle Culm
Maize
Stiff-vertically-oriented leaves above the ear;Maximum
photosynthetic efficiencyEfficient translocation of photosynthate
into grain.Small tassel size.Cold tolerance of germinating seeds
and developing seedlings.
RiceShorter Culm length. (100 cm or less)Greater Culm
diameter.High tillering capacityHigh (55% or more) harvest
indexLower relative internodes elongation
Irrigated Cotton
Plants of short stature (90-120 cm)Compact and sympodial plant
habit Short duration Responsive to high fertilizer dose.High degree
of resistance to insect pests and diseases.boll size in proposed to
be between 3.5 and 4 g.
General plant Ideotype concept in pulses
Determinate plant type Erect and upright plant Average plant
height Early vigour, early flowering and synchronous maturity Pod
bearing from well above the soil surface More pods/plant and more
number of seeds /pod High harvest indexYield stability
Rainfed cottonFew smaller and thick leaves with sparse
hairiness.Medium to big boll size (3.5 to 4 g).Responsive to
nutrients.High degree of resistance to insects and
diseases.Synchronous boiling habit.Short stature (75-80 cm) and
compact plant habit.
LIMITATIONS OF IDEOTYPE BREEDING
It has not been possible to identify individual traits that
enhance yield universally or in a relatively limited genetic and
environmental situations.costly and time taking, while their
usefulness is not well established.An ideotype breeder may place a
higher priority on obtaining genetic diversity for single traits
than would be beneficial in the long run.
Croping System
Cropping system: is an important component of a farming system.
It represents cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction
with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available
technology which determine their make up. Copping pattern: means
the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a
unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement
of crops and fallow in an area. Cropping scheme is a plan according
to which crops are grown on individual plot of a farm during a
given period of time with the object of obtaining maximum return
from each crop without impairing soil fertility. Thus a cropping
scheme is related to the most profitable use of resources, land,
labour, capital, and management.
Types of Cropping System: Mono cropping: refers to growing of
only one crop on a piece of land year after year. E.g. under
rainfed conditions shorgum is grown year after year. Multiple
cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in
one calendar year is known as multiple cropping. It is
intensification of cropping in space and time dimensions. It
includes intercropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
Double cropping: Growing of two crops in a year in sequence.
Tripple cropping and Quadruple croppingCompetition effect:
Competition of intercropped spp. For light, nutrients, water,
carbon dioxide, and other growth factors. Complementary effect:
Effect of one component on another which enhances growth and
productivity.
Intercropping: Intercropping is growing two or more crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land with a definite row
pattern. For example growing maize + green gram in 2:1 ratio Mixed
cropping: is growing two or more crops simultaneously intermingled
without any row pattern. It is common practice in most of dry land
areas Sequence cropping: sequence cropping can be defined as
growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same piece of land
in a farming year. Parallel cropping: Cultivation of such crops
which have different natural habit and zero competition e.g. Black
gram /green gram+miaze. The peak nutrient demand period for green
gram is around 30-35 DAS while it is 50 DAS for maize.
Multi-storied/multi-tiered cropping/multi-level: Cultivation of two
or more than two crops of different heights simultaneously on a
certain piece of land in a certain period e.g.,
sugarcane+mustard+onion.
Sustainable agriculture is a form of agriculture aimed at
meeting the needs of present generation without endangering the
resource base of future generation. It is the practice of farming
using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between
organisms and their environment. It has been defined as "an
integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a
site-specific application that will last over the long term.
Contour farming is the practice of tilling sloped land along lines
of consistent elevation in order to conserve rainwater and to
reduce soil losses from surface erosion. These objectives are
achieved by means of furrows, crop rows, and wheel tracks across
slopes, all of which act as reservoirs to catch and retain
rainwater, thus permitting increased infiltration and more uniform
distribution of the Crop rotation: The practice of planting a
succession of crops in a field over a period of years. Rotations
can maintain field fertility since different crops use different
soil nutrients, so excessive demands are not made of one
nutrient.
Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems and
practices in which woody perennials are deliberately integrated
with crops and/or animals on the same land management unit. The
integration can be either in a spatial mixture or in a temporal
sequence. There are normally both ecological and economic
interactions between woody and non-woody components in
agroforestry. Alley cropping: Agroforestry, farm forestry and
family forestry can be broadly understood as the commitment of
farmers, alone or in partnerships, towards the establishment and
management of forests on their land. Where many landholders are
involved the result is a diversity of activity that reflects the
diversity of aspirations and interests within the community. Alley
cropping, sometimes referred to as 'sun systems', is a form of
intercropping.
Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on
techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost and
biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control
pests on a farm. Organic farming excludes or strictly limits the
use of manufactured fertilizers, pesticides (which include
herbicides, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators
such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, and
genetically modified organisms. It relies on ecological processes,
biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than
the use of inputs with adverse effects. Permaculture is an approach
to create stable, productive systems that provide for human needs;
it's a system of design where each element supports and feeds other
elements, ultimately aiming at systems that are virtually
self-sustaining and into which humans fit as an integral part.
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where
the land is thereafter converted to a non forest use. Examples of
deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches,
or urban use.
Agro-ecology: is the application of ecological principles to the
production of food, fuel, fiber, and pharmaceuticals. The term
encompasses a broad range of approaches, scientific practice.
Silvi-pasture: Silvipastures combine livestock grazing on forage
crops or pastures within actively managed tree or shrub crops.
Cattle, sheep and goats are the most common livestock incorporated
into silvipasture systems and they may be deployed entirely within
a private farm/woodlot silvi-pasture or through collaborative
arrangements between forest licensees and livestock producers on
public lands.
[email protected] PatternThere are different ways of
growing crops. These different ways can be used to give maximum
benefit. They are called Cropping Patterns .There are many types of
cropping patterns
[email protected] CroppingGrowing of two or more crops
simultaneously and intermingled on the same piece of land without
row arrangements are called Mixed Cropping.This reduces risk and
gives some insurance against failure of one of the crops.
[email protected] is growing two or more crops
simultaneously on the same field in a definite pattern . A few rows
of one crop alternate with a few rows of a second crop.
Inter-cropping
[email protected] Rotation
The growing of different crops on a piece of land in a
pre-planned succession is known as crop rotation. The availability
of moisture and irrigation facilities decide the choice of the crop
to be cultivated after one harvest.
[email protected] farmingCropping pattern which involve
the raising of crops, animals and or trees. RatooningOne of the
important methods of intensive cropping, allowing the stubbles of
the original crop to strike again after harvesting and to raise
another crop.
[email protected] croppingOne crop variety grown alone in
pure stands at normal density. Also known as solid planting The
repetitive growing of the same sole crop on the same land.
Monoculture
Plant Growth Regulators and Their Role in Crop Improvement
34
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORSPLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ARE NECESSARY
FOR, BUT DO NOT CONTROL, MANY ASPECTS OF PLANT GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT. - BETTER NAME IS GROWTH REGULATOR. THE EFFECT ON PLANT
PHYSIOLOGY IS DEPENDENT ON THE AMOUNT OF HORMONE PRESENT AND TISSUE
SENSITIVITY TO THE PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR
substances produced in small quantities by a plant, and then
transported elsewhere for usehave capacity to stimulate and/or
inhibit physiological processes
at least five major plant hormones or plant growth
regulators:auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene and abscisic
acid
35
General plant hormonesAuxins (cell elongation)
Gibberellins (cell elongation + cell division - translated into
growth)
Cytokinins (cell division + inhibits senescence)
Abscisic acid (abscission of leaves and fruits + dormancy
induction of buds andseeds)
Ethylene (promotes senescence, epinasty, and fruit ripening)
36
AuxinAuxin increases the plasticity of plant cell walls and is
involved in stem elongation.Arpad Pal (1919) - Asymmetrical
placement of cut tips on coleoptiles resulted in a bending of the
coleoptile away from the side onto which the tips were placed
(response mimicked the response seen in phototropism). Frits Went
(1926) determined auxin enhanced cell elongation.
37
Additional responses to auxinparthenocarpyflower initiationsex
determinationfruit developmentapical dominancerooting
38
GibberellinsGibberellins are named after the fungus Gibberella
fujikuroi which causes rice plants to grow abnormally
tall.synthesized in apical portions of stems and rootsimportant
effects on stem elongation
39
Effects of GibberellinsCell elongation.GA induces cellular
division and cellular elongation; auxin induces cellular elongation
alone. GA-stimulated elongation does not involve the cell wall
acidification characteristic of auxin-induced elongationBreaking of
dormancy in buds and seeds.Seed Germination - Especially in cereal
grasses, like barley. Not necessarily as critical in dicot
seeds.Promotion of flowering.Transport is non-polar, bidirectional
producing general responses.
40
Abscisic AcidAbscisic acid is produced chiefly in mature green
leaves and in fruits.suppresses bud growth and promotes leaf
senescencealso plays important role in controlling stomatal opening
and closing
42
Functions of ethyleneGaseous in form and rapidly diffusing.Gas
produced by one plant will affect nearby plants.Fruit
ripening.Epinasty downward curvature of leaves.Encourages
senescence and abscission. Initiation of stem elongation and bud
development.Flowering - Ethylene inhibits flowering in most
species, but promotes it in a few plants such as pineapple,
bromeliads, and mango. Sex Expression - Cucumber buds treated with
ethylene become carpellate (female) flowers, whereas those treated
with gibberellins become staminate (male) flowers.
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Plant growth regulators
Effect of plant growth regulators and natural supplements on in
vitro morphogenesis of Pogostemon cablin Benth. (A) Initiation of
shoots on MS + 0.5 mg L-1 BA. (B) Callus formation on MS + 0.1 mg
L-1 BA. (C) Shoot multiplication on MS + 0.5 mg L-1 BA and 0.5 mg
L-1 KN. (D) Shoot multiplication on MS + 10% coconut water. Rooting
of shoots on MS () + activated charcoal (100 mg L-1). (F) Directly
acclimatized plantlet in the soil. (G) In vitro-grown plant in the
field.
Swamy et al. 2014 J. Crop Sci. Biotech. 17 (2) : 1-7
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