IDEA 2004, RTI, Process Assessment & the WISC-IV Pocono Mountain School District Tuesday, October 11, 2005 10:00 AM to 2:30 PM
IDEA 2004, Rti, WISC-III and WISC-IV
May 13, 2015
Pocono Mountain School District presentation
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Transcript
IDEA 2004 RTI Process Assessment amp the WISC-IV
Pocono Mountain School District
Tuesday October 11 2005
1000 AM to 230 PM
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
Greater emphasis on early identification and early intervention
School districts will be able to use up to 15 of their federal funds for early intervention
May be used for professional development academic and behavioral supports
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
School psychologists are ideally trained to develop academic interventions which are directly linked to improved academic achievement
Law now gives psychologists amp school districts the option to eliminate ability-achievement discrepancy requirements and to consider ldquoResponse to Interventionrdquo
Identification of Learning DisabilitiesSection 614 (b)(6)
ldquoIn determining whether a child has a specific learning disability an LEA shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual abilityrdquo
In determining whether a child has a specific LD an LEA may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific research-based intervention as part of the evaluation procedures described in paragraphs 2 and 3 (of Section 614)
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
The child is assessed in all areas of suspected disability
Assessment tools amp strategies are provided that directly assist in determining educational need
Specially designed instruction and services are derived from assessment data
Evidenced-based instruction is key to intervention
300309 Determining LD
The child does not achieve commensurate with age expectations in one or more of the following areas
ndash oral expressionndash listening comprehensionndash written expressionndash basic reading skillsndash reading fluency skillsndash reading comprehensionndash mathematics calculationndash mathematics problem solving
300309 Determining LD
Child fails to achieve a rate of learning to make sufficient progress to meet State-approved results in one or more of the 8 areas (see previous slide)
Assessment may include response to scientific research-based intervention
300309 Determining LD
The childrsquos exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievementhellip
relative to intellectual developmenthellip
using appropriate (reliable amp valid) assessments
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
Greater emphasis on early identification and early intervention
School districts will be able to use up to 15 of their federal funds for early intervention
May be used for professional development academic and behavioral supports
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
School psychologists are ideally trained to develop academic interventions which are directly linked to improved academic achievement
Law now gives psychologists amp school districts the option to eliminate ability-achievement discrepancy requirements and to consider ldquoResponse to Interventionrdquo
Identification of Learning DisabilitiesSection 614 (b)(6)
ldquoIn determining whether a child has a specific learning disability an LEA shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual abilityrdquo
In determining whether a child has a specific LD an LEA may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific research-based intervention as part of the evaluation procedures described in paragraphs 2 and 3 (of Section 614)
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
The child is assessed in all areas of suspected disability
Assessment tools amp strategies are provided that directly assist in determining educational need
Specially designed instruction and services are derived from assessment data
Evidenced-based instruction is key to intervention
300309 Determining LD
The child does not achieve commensurate with age expectations in one or more of the following areas
ndash oral expressionndash listening comprehensionndash written expressionndash basic reading skillsndash reading fluency skillsndash reading comprehensionndash mathematics calculationndash mathematics problem solving
300309 Determining LD
Child fails to achieve a rate of learning to make sufficient progress to meet State-approved results in one or more of the 8 areas (see previous slide)
Assessment may include response to scientific research-based intervention
300309 Determining LD
The childrsquos exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievementhellip
relative to intellectual developmenthellip
using appropriate (reliable amp valid) assessments
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
School psychologists are ideally trained to develop academic interventions which are directly linked to improved academic achievement
Law now gives psychologists amp school districts the option to eliminate ability-achievement discrepancy requirements and to consider ldquoResponse to Interventionrdquo
Identification of Learning DisabilitiesSection 614 (b)(6)
ldquoIn determining whether a child has a specific learning disability an LEA shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual abilityrdquo
In determining whether a child has a specific LD an LEA may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific research-based intervention as part of the evaluation procedures described in paragraphs 2 and 3 (of Section 614)
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
The child is assessed in all areas of suspected disability
Assessment tools amp strategies are provided that directly assist in determining educational need
Specially designed instruction and services are derived from assessment data
Evidenced-based instruction is key to intervention
300309 Determining LD
The child does not achieve commensurate with age expectations in one or more of the following areas
ndash oral expressionndash listening comprehensionndash written expressionndash basic reading skillsndash reading fluency skillsndash reading comprehensionndash mathematics calculationndash mathematics problem solving
300309 Determining LD
Child fails to achieve a rate of learning to make sufficient progress to meet State-approved results in one or more of the 8 areas (see previous slide)
Assessment may include response to scientific research-based intervention
300309 Determining LD
The childrsquos exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievementhellip
relative to intellectual developmenthellip
using appropriate (reliable amp valid) assessments
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Identification of Learning DisabilitiesSection 614 (b)(6)
ldquoIn determining whether a child has a specific learning disability an LEA shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual abilityrdquo
In determining whether a child has a specific LD an LEA may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific research-based intervention as part of the evaluation procedures described in paragraphs 2 and 3 (of Section 614)
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
The child is assessed in all areas of suspected disability
Assessment tools amp strategies are provided that directly assist in determining educational need
Specially designed instruction and services are derived from assessment data
Evidenced-based instruction is key to intervention
300309 Determining LD
The child does not achieve commensurate with age expectations in one or more of the following areas
ndash oral expressionndash listening comprehensionndash written expressionndash basic reading skillsndash reading fluency skillsndash reading comprehensionndash mathematics calculationndash mathematics problem solving
300309 Determining LD
Child fails to achieve a rate of learning to make sufficient progress to meet State-approved results in one or more of the 8 areas (see previous slide)
Assessment may include response to scientific research-based intervention
300309 Determining LD
The childrsquos exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievementhellip
relative to intellectual developmenthellip
using appropriate (reliable amp valid) assessments
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
IDEA 2004 amp Assessment
The child is assessed in all areas of suspected disability
Assessment tools amp strategies are provided that directly assist in determining educational need
Specially designed instruction and services are derived from assessment data
Evidenced-based instruction is key to intervention
300309 Determining LD
The child does not achieve commensurate with age expectations in one or more of the following areas
ndash oral expressionndash listening comprehensionndash written expressionndash basic reading skillsndash reading fluency skillsndash reading comprehensionndash mathematics calculationndash mathematics problem solving
300309 Determining LD
Child fails to achieve a rate of learning to make sufficient progress to meet State-approved results in one or more of the 8 areas (see previous slide)
Assessment may include response to scientific research-based intervention
300309 Determining LD
The childrsquos exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievementhellip
relative to intellectual developmenthellip
using appropriate (reliable amp valid) assessments
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
300309 Determining LD
The child does not achieve commensurate with age expectations in one or more of the following areas
ndash oral expressionndash listening comprehensionndash written expressionndash basic reading skillsndash reading fluency skillsndash reading comprehensionndash mathematics calculationndash mathematics problem solving
300309 Determining LD
Child fails to achieve a rate of learning to make sufficient progress to meet State-approved results in one or more of the 8 areas (see previous slide)
Assessment may include response to scientific research-based intervention
300309 Determining LD
The childrsquos exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievementhellip
relative to intellectual developmenthellip
using appropriate (reliable amp valid) assessments
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
300309 Determining LD
Child fails to achieve a rate of learning to make sufficient progress to meet State-approved results in one or more of the 8 areas (see previous slide)
Assessment may include response to scientific research-based intervention
300309 Determining LD
The childrsquos exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievementhellip
relative to intellectual developmenthellip
using appropriate (reliable amp valid) assessments
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
300309 Determining LD
The childrsquos exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievementhellip
relative to intellectual developmenthellip
using appropriate (reliable amp valid) assessments
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Response To Intervention (RTI)
Was the student provided with appropriate high-quality research-based instruction in the regular education setting
Was the instruction delivered by fully-qualified personnel
Was data-based documentation of repeated assessment of achievement completed at reasonable intervals
Was there formal assessment of student progress during instruction
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
IDEA 2004 amp Early Intervention
If the child has not made adequate progress after an appropriate period of timehellip referral for an evaluation must be made to determine if the child needs special education and related services
Question How much time is appropriate
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Written Report Must Include
Whether the child has SLDrsquos
The basis for making the determination
Relevant behavior during observation of the child
Relationship of behavior to childrsquos academic functioning
Educationally relevant medical findings
Whether the child achieves commensurate with age
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Written Report Must Include
Strengths and weaknesses in performance andor achievement relative to intellectual development in one or more of the 8 areas
Instructional strategies used
Student-centered data collected if a response to scientific research-based intervention process was implemented
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
The Role of Intelligence Tests
The task of assessing a childrsquos intelligencenecessarily involves more than simply obtaining
his or her scores As Wechsler (1975) noted
ldquoWhat we measure with tests is not what tests measuremdashnot information not spatial perception not reasoning
ability These are only a means to an end Whatintelligence tests measure is something much more
important the capacity of an individual to understandthe world about him and his resourcefulness to cope with
its challengesrdquo
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Why Revise the WISC-III
New research on cognitive abilities
Demographic shifts (Hispanic population changes from 11 to 15)
Regional changes (Growth of the WestSouth at expense of the Northeast)
Flynn Effects
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo
Steady rising of IQ scores
Causes IQ test norms to become obsolete over time
To counter the ldquoFlynn Effectrdquo IQ tests are ldquore-normedrdquo (made harder) every 15 to 20 years by resetting the mean score to 100
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Wechsler IQ tests
WISC-III has been replaced by WISC-IV
5 year period of development
Based on current neurocognitive model of information processing
Emphasizes Fluid over Crystalized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence The power to reason and use information in a novel situation
Crystallized Intelligence Acquired skills and knowledge (including knowledge about the best approach for solving problems) and the application of knowledge to specific domains
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Fluid Intelligence vsCrystallized Intelligence
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Strengthen Four-Factor Model Improve assessment of
ndash 1048713 Fluid Reasoningndash 1048713 Working Memoryndash 1048713 Processing Speed
Enhance clinical utility through process assessment
Provide strong evidence of clinical validity
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Revision Goals of PsychCorp
Remove time-bonuses where possible Improve psychometric properties Remove potentially biased items Link to measures of achievement amp memory Link to measures of adaptive behavior amp
emotional intelligence Improve cognitive process assessment
capabilities
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Process Assessment
Itrsquos not weather you win or lose but how you play the game (Edith Kaplan)
Careful systematic observation of a childrsquos problem-solving behavior (whether correct or incorrect) yields significantly more useful information about cognitive and academic functioning than simple binary scoring (right or wrong)
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Process Assessment
The Boston Approach Edith Kaplan amp Harold Goodglass (Boston University)
Combined quantitative evaluation of tests with qualitative analysis of errors and how the test taker responds
This is called ldquoProcess analysisrdquo
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
WISC-IV Subtests
Core Subtests (10 of them) are administered to obtain composite scores
Supplemental Subtests (5 of them) extend the range of cognitive skills sampled and provide additional clinical informationndash Enable clinician to complete additional
discrepancy analysisndash Can be used as substitutes for core subtests
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Full Scale IQ
Stronger contributions of working memory and processing speed
1048713 30 each VCI and PRI
1048713 20 each PS and WM
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
The WISC-IV is NOT the WISC-III
See ldquoChanges in the Composition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Editionrdquo copyrighted by DumontWillis copy httpalphafduedupsychologymelissa_farrall_WISCIVhtm
Differences between the WISC-IV and WISC-III become apparent when assessing children with learning disabilities
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
WISC-IV Decreased focus on Acquired Knowledge
ldquoSome children such as those with weaknesses in acquired knowledge (Information and Arithmetic) may earn scores on the WISC-IV that are significantly higher than the WISC-III due to the decreased focus of the WISC-IV on knowledge that is generally acquired in schoolrdquo
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
WISC-IV Increased focus on Ability to Solve Novel Problems
ldquoOn the other hand given the increased WISC-IV emphasis on the ability to solve novel problems children with pronounced weaknesses in nonverbal fluid reasoning (Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts) may be dismayed to find that their IQ scores have droppedrdquo rather than improved on the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
The WISC-IV is not the WISC-III
The composition of the WISC-IV Full Scale IQ has changed by 50
Changes in the composition of WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning and Working Memory Scales vary from twenty-five percent to seventy-four percent
Only Processing Speed remains intact
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed Full scale IQ Full scale IQrsquos are
running 10 to 15 points lower than on WISC-III
WISC-IIII Index Scores Verbal comprehension Perceptual organization Freedom from
distractibility Processing speed Verbal IQ Performance IQ Full scale IQ
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
WISC-IV Full Scale IQ Score
Derives from VCI PRI WMI amp PSI
No longer a Verbal amp Performance IQ
Compared to WISC-III the WISC-IV deemphasizes crystallized knowledge amp increases the contribution of fluid reasoning
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
WISC-IV Verbal and Performance IQ scores are eliminated
The Verbal Comprehension Index is the functional equivalent of the Verbal IQ
The Perceptual Reasoning Index is the functional equivalent of the PIQ
You use the VCI and PRI as you would use the VIQ and PIQ
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash (Information)ndash (Word Reasoning)
WISC-III Index Scores
Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Informationndash Similaritiesndash Vocabularyndash Comprehension
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Perceptual reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Picture Conceptsndash Matrix Reasoningndash (Picture Completion)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Perceptual organization subtests
ndash Picture Completionndash Picture Arrangementndash Block Designndash Object Assembly
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Perceptual Reasoning Index
Shift in emphasis from organization to reasoning
Emphasis on fluid reasoning in the perceptual domain
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Working memory subtests
ndash Digit Spanndash LetterNumber
Sequencingndash (Arithmetic)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Freedom from distractibility subtests
ndash Arithmeticndash (Digit Span)
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Working Memory Index
Essential component of fluid reasoning and other higher order skills
Closely related to achievement and learning
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Perlow Juttuso amp Moore 1997Swanson 1996
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
WISC-IV Index scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash Symbol Searchndash (Cancellation)
WISC-IIII Index Scores
Processing speed subtests
ndash Codingndash (Symbol Search)ndash (Mazes)
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Processing Speed Index
Dynamically related to mental capacity reading performance amp development and reasoning by conservation of resources (eg efficiency)
See Fry amp Hale 1996 Kail 2000 Kail amp Hall1994 Kail amp Salthouse 1994 Berninger 2001
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Process Scores In addition to the subtest and composite scores
several additional process scores which provide more detailed information about a childrsquos performance are available
No additional administration procedures are required to derive these scores
Process scores can NEVER be substituted for core or supplemental subtest scores in the calculation of composite scores
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
User Friendliness of WISC-IV According to PsychCorp
Testing time reduced Administration procedures simplified Use of supplemental subtests for core
subtests based on clinical need and appropriateness
Manual reorganization Record Form reorganization
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
WISC-IV
Uses 4 factor neuro-cognitive model
ndash Fluid reasoning (MR PCn SI WR)ndash Quantitative knowledge (AR)ndash Crystallized knowledge (IN VC)ndash Short term memory (DS LN AR)ndash Visual processing (PC BD)ndash Long-term storage and retrieval (IN VC)ndash Processing speed (CD SS CA)
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Core Subtest Differences
WISC-IVndash Increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning working memory amp processing speed
ndash Removal of Information subtest from core battery reduces contribution of Crystalized knowledge
WISC-IIIndash Increased emphasis on
crystalized knowledge
ndash Increased emphasis on verbal and non-verbal conceptualizations of intelligence
ndash Little attention to Index scores
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
WISC-IV New Subtests
Picture ConceptsLetter-Number SequencingMatrix ReasoningCancellationWord Reasoning
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)
Word Reading
Letter Identification and Phonological Awareness Items
Items 4-29 Letter recognition and identification using all 26 alphabet letters
Items 30-33 Phonological awareness Items 34-38 Phonemic categorization Items 39-41 Phonemic blending Items 42-47 Sound-symbol relationships
Word Reading
Word Reading Items High frequency ldquosightrdquo words Initial or final consonants Consonant digraphs (th sh ph ch) Consonant blends (sl fr pl) CVVC (consonant vowel vowel consonant pattern) Syllabication (dividing the word into syllables) Prefixes suffixes and roots Applying pronunciation and accent rules
Qualitative Observations
Substitutes visually similar letters Provides nonword responses for rhyming
words Pronounces words automatically Laboriously ldquosounds outrdquo words Self corrects errors Loses place when reading words Makes accent errors Adds omits or transposes syllables
Pseudoword Decoding
Measures the ability to apply phonetic decoding skills
Nonsense words are designed to be representative of the phonetic structure of words in the English language
Recording errors phonetically can help with later error analysis
Pseudoword Decoding
The Pseudoword Decoding subtest can be used to evaluate whether the phonological decoding mechanism is developing in an age-appropriate manner
Frequently older students who are struggling in reading will demonstrate non-mastery of the alphabet principle as they are unable to decode unfamiliar words
Written Expression
Assesses the writing process
Is divided into 5 sections Alphabet Writing Word Fluency Sentences Paragraph and Essay
Alphabet Writing (PreK-Grade 2) is timed and is a measure of automaticity and recall of sequential information
Word Fluency assesses the ability to generate and write a list of words that match a prescribed category
Sentences evaluate the ability to combine multiple sentences into one meaningful sentence or to generate sentences from visual or verbal cues
Written Expression The Paragraph (given to Grades 3-6) can be evaluated analytically
using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary and writing mechanics (spelling and punctuation)
The Essay (given to Grades 7-16) can be evaluated analytically using a rubric scoring system based on organization vocabulary theme development and writing mechanics
Both the the Paragraph and the Essay can be scored holistically but analytic scoring is required for a subtest standard score
Word count is a Supplemental score
Written Expression
Direct measure of written discourse
Goes beyond indirect methods of assessing writing ability
Measures vocabulary and editing skills
Measures skill in formulating an idea and developing that idea into coherent discourse
Ability-Achievement Discrepancy Analysis
Reynolds has cautioned that ldquodetermining a severe discrepancy does not constitute the diagnosis of LD it only establishes that the primary symptom of LD existsrdquo
Evidence separate from test results should indicate that the child has a ldquofailure to achieverdquo or lack of attainment in one of the principal areas of school learning
Clinical evidence and direct observation must indicate that the child has a ldquopsychological processing disorderrdquo
Processing problems may include but not be limited to difficulties in attention and concentration conceptualization information processing or comprehension of written and spoken language
Evidenced Based Instruction
Learning Disabilities Association of Americandash httpwwwldanatlorg
What Works Clearinghousendash httpwhatworksclearinghouseorg
Access Centerndash httpwwwk8accesscenterorg
References
Psychological Corporationndash httpharcourtassessmentcomhaiwebCulturese
n-USdefaulthtm
John Willis amp Ron Dumontndash httpalphafduedupsychology
National Association of School Psychologistsndash httpwwwnasponlineorg
- Slide 63
- Slide 64
- Slide 65
- Slide 66
-
Picture Concepts
For each item the child is presented with 2 or 3 rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic
Measures fluid reasoning and abstract categorical reasoning (without verbal response)
Items progress from relatively concrete to more abstract
Letter-Number Sequencing
The child is read a sequence of numbers and letters and recalls the numbers is ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order
Measure of working memory
Adapted from the WAIS-III (but new items)
Involves sequencing mental manipulation attention short-term auditory memory visuospatial imaging and processing speed
Matrix Reasoning
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and selects the missing portion from 5 response options
Measures fluid reasoning and perceptual organization Reliable estimate of general intellectual ability 4 types of items to assess skills Continuous and discrete pattern completion Classification Analogical reasoning Serial reasoning
Cancellation
The child scans both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within a specified time limit
Measures processing speed and visual selective attention 2 forms (Random amp Structured) Forms share identical target locations Targets are animals Foils are common non-animal objects
Word Reasoning
The child is asked to identify the common concept being described in a series of clues
Measures verbal comprehension analogical amp general reasoning ability verbal abstraction domain knowledge the ability to integratesynthesize different types of information and the ability to generate alternative concepts
Designed to measure fluid reasoning with verbal material
Subtest Substitution Rule
Specific subtest per subtest replacement
Only one substitution per IndexNo more than 2 substitutions per FSIQOne subtest used as a replacement at
a time
Computing Index and Full Scale IQ for Low Functioning Students
Compute composite scores on each scale ONLY when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest on each scale
Compute Full Scale IQ only when student obtains raw score gt 0 on at least one subtest from each of the four Indices
What PsychCorp Doesnrsquot Say
Problems with WISC-IVndash Flynn Effects and classification of students
Dropping Picture Arrangement Dropping Object Assembly Eliminating time requirements Arithmetic dropped as core subtest Information dropped as core subtest
Problems with Flynn Effects
Increases those identified as ldquoMentally Retardedrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoLearning Disabledrdquo
Decreases those identified as ldquoGiftedrdquo
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
In addition to the difference in the core subtests on WISC-III and WISC-IV the norms for the newer test are slightly harder due to the Flynn Effects
Children may not be identified the same as they were previously due to the shift in conceptualization of intelligence reflected in the core subtests that contribute to the WISCndashIV FSIQ
I tested a student using WISCndashIV and the scores were lower than previously reported on WISCndashIII
On the WMI (formerly called FDI on WISCndashIII) Letter-Number Sequencing replaces Arithmetic a subtest on which many students tended to score well due to school-based learning of mathematical skills
One additional processing speed subtest was added to the core battery (SS) Many students tend not to score as high on processing speed subtests relative to other indices perhaps due to an approach to problem solving that stresses accuracy over speed
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMark Penaltyrdquondash Incurred when a students disability depresses not
only measures of academic achievement but also estimates of the students intelligence
ndash The same disability is depressing both the students actual achievement and the estimate of the students intellectual ability
Effects of Biblical Proportions
The ldquoMatthew Effectrdquondash ldquoThe rich get richer and the poor get poorerrdquo
ndash WISC-III Verbal IQ scores particularly susceptible
ndash Theoretically WISC-IV should not be as susceptible to Matthew Effects since crystalized intelligence is deemphasized
General Ability Index Score
WISC-IV GAI provides score that is less sensitive to influence of working memory and processing speed
Children with LD or ADHD may obtain lower Full Scale IQrsquos on WISC-IV due to problems in working memory and processing speed
GAI can substitute for FSIQ to determine eligibility for special education
General Ability Index Score
Based on 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests
ndash Vocabularyndash Comprehensionndash Similarities
Based on 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
ndash Block Designndash Matrix Reasoningndash Picture Concepts
Calculate the GAI
GAI = Sum of scale scores for 3 Verbal Comprehension subtests and 3 Perceptual Reasoning subtests
Locate General Ability Sum of Scaled Scores in the left column of Table 1 (Tech Report 4) and read across row to find GAI composite percentile rank amp confidence interval
When to use the GAI
Significant discrepancy exists between VCI and WMI
Significant discrepancy exists between PRI and PSI
Significant discrepancy exists between WMI and PSI
Significant subtest scatter within WMI andor PSI
Additional Process Assessment Tools
Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing (Dr Virginia Berninger)
ndash Orthographic (symbols)ndash Phonological (sounds)ndash Rapid Naming (fluency)ndash Identifies underlying processes necessary for
skilled reading amp writing
WIAT-II
Linked to Process Assessment of the Learnertrade (PALtrade) Test Battery for Reading and Writing
Linked to WISC-IV WPPSI-III and WAIS-III for Ability-Achievement discrepancy analysis
Co-normed with other Wechsler tests
Reading
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
Subword Orthographic Awareness Training
Receptive Coding bull matching visually similar lettersbull search for words that contain target lettersbull name target letters in sets of letters that are visually similar
Expressive Coding bull identify letters in words (eg what is the third letter in theword cupcake)
Phonological Awareness Training
bull Syllable Segmentation and Phonemes
bull ldquoFind the Hiddenrdquobull ldquoSay the Missingrdquobull ldquoSay the Word Withoutrdquobull ldquoSubstituterdquo
Syllables
Phonemes
Rimes
Pseudoword Decoding
RAN Lettersbull Talking Letters
Word
Text
RAN Words
Word Choice
Story Retell
Sentence Sense
bull Word Decodingbull Whole Word Readingbull Word Families
bullStory Reading
Writing
Subword
Word
Text
Alphabet Writing
Word Choice
Copy Task
Note ndash Taking
PAL Subtest PAL Intervention Activity
bull Handwriting Lessonsbull ask students to write rather than say answers toOrthographic Awareness activitiesbullTalking Letters
bull Talking Lettersbull spelling activities
bull Composition
bull Planbull Writebull Reviewbull Revise
Writing Strategy
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIReading
Composite
Word ReadingSubtest
PseudowordSubtest
ReadingComprehension
Subtest
Letter-Sound ID
Sight WordAccuracy
Sight WordAutomaticity
Word AttackSkills
Reading Rate
SentenceComprehension
PassageComprehension
Word Accuracyin context
Subword level
Word level
Subword level
Text level
Word and Text level
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
WIAT IIWritten
LanguageComposite
Written LanguageSubtest
Letter Production
Word Spelling
Homonyms
Alphabet Writing(letter production)
Writing Fluency(word production)
Sentence GenerationSentence Combining
Discourse Production
Subword and word level
Subword level
Word level
Text level
SpellingSubtest
Copyright copy 2000 by The Psychological Corporation
Strengthen the link between assessment and instructionintervention
Inclusion of ability ndash achievement discrepancy analysis using Verbal IQ Performance IQ and factor scores
Statistical linkage to a process instrument
Development Goals of the WIAT - II
Revisions Guided by Research Standards and Mandates
Reading Subtestsndash Report of the National Reading Panel (2000)ndash Research by Virginia Berninger and others funded by the National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD)
Mathematics Subtestsndash Consistent with the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(2000) by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Written Language Subtestsndash Research by Graham Berninger Abbott Abbott amp Whitaker (1997)
Berninger (1998 2001) Moats (1995)