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������ ��� ��� �� � � �� ������ ���
The One who taught Man by the pen
Taught Man that he knew not
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 0 PRELIMINARIES 1
CHAPTER 1 PHRASES 24
SECTION 1.1 THE QUASI SENTENCE 24
SECTION 1.2 POSSESSION 29
SECTION 1.3 DEMONSTRATION 40
SECTION 1.4 DESCRIPTION 47
CHAPTER 2 THE NOUN SENTENCE 56
CHAPTER 3 THE VERBAL SENTENCE 56
SUMMARY OF VERB FORMS 97
CHAPTER 4 GOVERNMENT 99
CHAPTER 5 DUALS OR PLURALS 121
CHAPTER 6 NUMBERS ONE TO TEN 131
CHAPTER 7 THE FIVE NOUNS 141
CHAPTER 8 ADVERBS OF TIME AND PLACE 152
CHAPTER 9 FURTHER POSSESSION 160
CHAPTER 10 QUANTIFICATION AND COMPARISON 169
CHAPTER 11 DOUBLED AND HAMZATED WORDS 178
CHAPTER 12 WEAK VERBS 190
CHAPTER 13 TERMINAL WEAK VERBS 199
CHAPTER 14 كانا HER SISTERS AND HALF SISTERS 128
CHAPTER 15 إن HER SISTERS ظن HER SISTERS 132
CHAPTER 16 أن HER SISTERS 248
ARABICA ANSWERS CH 1 - 10 258
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�������
Preliminaries
Words
Arabic divides words into three categories:
1. ���� ���� (Verbs)
2. ������ �� (Nouns)
3. !"#$%$& (Particles)
A '��(� (verb, fi⊂lun) is a word that has a self-contained meaning of its own and has a tense or a time in
which the meaning exists. An �!�� (noun, ismun) has a self-contained meaning of its own but no tense. A
!"�%�& (particle, Harfun) has no self-contained meaning of its own. Often we say that a !"�%�& (particle) is
any word that is neither a �(� '� (verb) nor an �!�� (noun).
P1 �� ����� (Nouns)
In English we refer to adjectives as a separate category to nouns. A noun is the name of a person, place,
thing, state, quality or action. An adjective is a word that describes a noun. We say that an adjective
modifies a noun by limiting, qualifying or specifying it.
In Arabic we class adjectives together with nouns as one general category called ������ �� (nouns or
names). Arabic does distinguish between nouns and adjectives but does not have a single word
corresponding to the English word ‘noun’. For the purposes of this book, we are going to be slightly
vernacular and will use the term !�� � narrowly to mean ‘noun’. The word for adjective in Arabic is �)�*'+
(Sifatun).
P2 Vowels
A consonant is a static sound that cannot move. A consonant needs a vowel either before it or after it in
order to ‘move’ or liaise with other consonants. For example, the consonant ‘b’ can only ‘move’ if we
say ‘ab’ or ‘ba’.
The word for vowel in Arabic is �)�,�%�& (Harakatun) which literally means ‘movement’. There are three
principal !-��,�%�& (vowels) in Arabic:
1. The �).��/ (Dhammatun) represented by the symbol 01 above a letter produces a ‘u’ sound
2. The �)�2�3�� (fatHatun) represented by the symbol 04 above a letter produces an ‘a’ sound
3. The �5�%���,(kasratun) represented by the symbol 0' below a letter produces an ‘e’ sound
iv
The ��678$ (sukuunun), represented by the symbol 09 above a !"�%�& (letter), indicates that the !"�%�& (letter)
carries no �)�,�%�& (vowel).
A !"�%�& (letter) carrying a �)�,�%�& (vowel) is called !:;%�2�3$� (voweled, lit. moving, mutaHarrikun) and a !"�%�&
(letter) with a ��678$ is called !<',�� (unvoweled, lit. still or silent, saakinun).
The !-��,�%�& (vowels) given above are often called short vowels. When the letters �� , �# and � are !<',��
(unvoweled) they are called ;=����� $"#$%$& (letters of elongation, Huruufu al-maddi) or long vowels. When
placed after their corresponding !-��,�%�& (vowels), these ;=����� $"#$%$& (letters of elongation) produce >=�� (elongation, maddun):
���� (maa) �#7? (dhuu) �@'� (fii)
As illustrated above, �� is used to elongate �)�2�3�� , �# to elongate �).��/ and � to elongate �5�%���, .
When the letters � , # and carry a �)�,�%�& (vowel), they become consonants.
�� (a)
�# (wa)
� (ya)
The alif, when !:;%�2�3$� (voweled) is no longer called an alif. It becomes a hamza.
P3 ������� (Nunation)
Often an Arabic noun or adjective is pronounced with a � (n) sound at the end. This is called !<�'6�A�B or ‘nunation’. This � however, is not written but is represented by a doubled vowel:
'���3.��/ 0� (un
)
�2�3��'���3 0C (an
)
�%���,'���B 0D (in
)
For example, the word for ‘book’ in Arabic is pronounced �<$���3', (kitaabun) but written as !E��3', (kitaabun).
!<�'6�A�B appears only on ������ �� (nouns) and never on !"#$%$& (particles) or ���� ���� (verbs).
v
P4 �������� (Declension)
Arabic words are either !E�%� $� (declinable/variable, mu⊂rabun) or >@'A�F�� (indeclinable/fixed, mabniyyun). A
declinable word is able to change the vowel on its last letter. An indeclinable word is fixed on one
vowel ending. For example, the word !E��3', (kitaabun) meaning ‘book’ is !E�%� $� (declinable) so we may
say H����3', (kitaaban) or DE��3', (kitaabin) depending on the meaning we want to produce. On the other hand,
the word �# (wa) meaning ‘and’ is >@'A�F�� (indeclinable) and never becomes $# (wu) or '# (wi). >@'A�F�� (indeclinable) words never have !<�'6�A�B .
We shall see later that most ������ �� (nouns) are !E�%� $� (declinable). Most verbs and all !"#$%$& (particles)
are >@'A�F�� (indeclinable).
As illustrated above, we shall represent the vowel endings on � $�!E�% (declinable) words in superscript.
P5 ����������� (Definition)
Nouns are either definite or indefinite. Definite words refer to things that are particular and therefore
identifiable. Indefinite words refer to things that are members of a class and are therefore non-
particular and unidentifiable. The expression ‘a book’ is indefinite because we do not know which
particular book is being referred to. To make it definite, we need to introduce a ‘determiner’ as in the
expressions ‘the book’, ‘this book’ and ‘my book’ which are definite. The Arabic word for definite is
�)��'%� �� (ma⊂rifatun) which interestingly means ‘knowledge’; definite things, being identified are thereby
‘known’. The Arabic word for indefinite is �5�%'8�� (nakiratun) which interestingly means ‘unknown’.
Indefinite things, being unidentified are ‘unknown’.
P5.1 Common Nouns and Proper Nouns
‘Common nouns’ refer to classes of things, such as the word ‘city’. ‘Proper nouns’ (often called
‘proper names’) refer to particular things, such as ‘Damascus’.
Proper nouns are intrinsically �)��'%� �� (definite) because they are the names of particular things, such
as ‘Damascus’. Common nouns may be indefinite, such as in the expression ‘a city’. Common nouns
can be made definite by a ‘determiner’, such as in the expressions ‘the city’, ‘this city’ and ‘my city’.
P5.2 Articles of Definition
The most common way of making common nouns indefinite and definite is by using articles of
definition. In English, the word ‘a’ (‘an’ before a vowel) is called the ‘indefinite article’. Placing it
vi
�
before a common noun makes it indefinite. The word ‘the’ is called the ‘definite article’. Placing it
before a common noun makes it definite.
Articles of definition apply only to common nouns and not to proper nouns. Proper nouns such as
‘Damascus’ cannot be made indefinite because they are intrinsically definite. We cannot say ‘a
Damascus’ or ‘a London’. It also makes no sense to say ‘the Damascus’ or ‘the London’.
There is no indefinite article in Arabic. ‘A book’ is simply expressed as,
!E��3', A book
(kitaabun)
We can think of a !<�'6�A�B (tanweenun
) or nunation on the final letter of an Arabic common noun or
adjective as the indefinite article which usually indicates that it is �5�%'8�� (indefinite).
The Arabic definite article is ���I... (al) which is called the 'J�'%� .3�� 75��K�� (lit. particle of definition, adaatu
at-ta⊂reefi). It is prefixed to an !�� � (noun) or �)�*'+ (adjective). ‘The book’ is expressed as,
���$E��3'8 The book
(al-kitaabu)
Notice that the un sound on the final letter is replaced by a simple u sound. In short, the I��� at the
beginning and the u at the end tell us that the word is �)��'%� �� (definite).
� First Aid
Beginners sometimes fail to distinguish between a �5�%'8�� (indefinite) and �)��'%� �� (definite) word. They say for example:
$E��3',
���!E��3'8
(kitaabu) –
(al-kitaabun
) –
Which appears to be neither �)��'%� �� (definite)
because of the absence of the I��� , nor �5�%'8�� (indefinite) because there is no un at the end.
Placing the un
of the �5�%'8�� (indefinite) on a �)��'%� �� (definite) word beginning with I��� .
Prescription
Restrict yourself to saying either:
!E��3', which is �5�%'8�� (indefinite), or
���$E��3'8 which is �)��'%� �� (definite).
�������
vii
We stated above that articles of definition only apply to common nouns and not to proper nouns
because proper nouns are intrinsically definite. You will find that some proper nouns do however have
!<�'6�A�B or I��� , such as !L��M (Greater Syria, shaamun) and !<���� (Yemen, yamanun) which are also written as
��$L��N (ash-shaamu) and $<���O��� (al-yamanu). Some proper nouns come invariably with an I��� such as $P��%' ��� (Iraq, al-⊂iraaqu) and $Q;R�� (China, aS-Seenu). We have this in English too with ‘The Congo’ and ‘The
Levant’. These should not be thought of as articles of definition. They are simply conventions that
have developed as these words were used over time.
P5.3 Proper names that derive from common nouns
(a) The word for God in Arabic is S�1 (allaahu) which is a proper name. One opinion suggests that this is
an assimilation of the definite article I��� with the word !T��'U (god, ilaahun (an alif in pronounced but not written
after the lam)), rendering $T���� (al-ilaahu). The hamza is then dropped, and the two lams are assimilated in
pronunciation but written separately.
� 9� + $T��= $T����� =1 S�
Another opinion states that the proper name 1 S� , being the personal and unique name of God is
indivisible like God Himself, and has no etymology.
(b) People like to give their children names with beautiful meanings and this is why some words such
as !<���& have two existences, one as an adjective and one as a proper name.
The word !<���& started its life – as the !<�'6�A�B suggests – as an indefinite adjective meaning ‘handsome’.
Making it definite renders $<���2��� (the handsome).
Then one day someone named their son !<���& . The moment they did so, this adjective ossified into a
proper name. We translate the proper name !<���& as ‘Hasan’ without regard to the descriptive meaning
the original adjective had. As a proper name, !<���& (Hasan) is �)��'%� �� (definite). The !<�'6�A�B is not an
indefinite article, but merely a surviving accoutrement of its previous existence as an adjective.
The I��� should not normally be attached to proper names that have ossified from the adjective without
it. However, I��� is sometimes attached to such proper names as an allusion to the descriptive meaning
of the original adjective. We might for example, attach I��� to the name !<���& rendering $<���2��� (al-
Hasan) to suggest that the person whose name is Hasan is also himself handsome. (This explains the
name of the author of this book). The proper name !=.��2$� behaves in the same way except that it is no
longer used as an adjective.
viii
P6 Moon Letters and Sun Letters
Pronunciation
• The I�� of the definite article I��� is pronounced when a word begins with one of the
following letters:
� E X Y Z [ \ " P : L ] #
These are called 7).�'%������� $"#$%$2��� (the ‘Moon Letters’, al-huruufu al-qamariyyatu).
They are called so because when we make the word !%��� (moon, qamarun) �)��'%� �� (definite),
we say it ���$%���� (al-qamaru), pronouncing the I�� of the definite article I��� .
• The I�� of the definite article I��� is not pronounced when a word begins with one of the
remaining letters of the alphabet:
- _ K ? ` a b c d e f g � �
These are called 7).O'���.N�� $"#$%$2��� (al-huruufu ash-shamsiyyat
u, the ‘Sun Letters’).
They are called so because when we make the word !h���M (sun, shamsun
) �)��'%� �� (definite),
we say it $h��.N�� (ash-shamsu), not pronouncing the I�� of the definite article I��� .
It is not necessary to memorise these two lists of letters. Instead, notice that all the Sun
Letters are pronounced very near the place in the mouth from which the I�� is
pronounced. The I�� of the definite article I��� is not pronounced when followed by a Sun
Letter to avoid the difficulty on the tongue of successively uttering two letters
pronounced from the same part of the mouth. This difficulty does not occur with the
A ‘glottal stop’ is the sound at the beginning of the word ‘at’. In Arabic, the glottal stop
is usually represented by the letter ‘hamza’ written as ‘ � ’ . When a word begins with a
glottal stop sound, we assume that we should write an initial hamza to represent this.
The initial hamza is written as follows: 'U / �� /7� . For example, if we want to say the
word ‘akhbaarun
’, we write ! ��F�m�� . The initial hamza must always be written and
pronounced. This is called 75�i���] 'j�k����� (hamzatu-l-qaT⊂i). When the 75�i���] 'j�k����� is preceded
by a vowel, it is still pronounced:
���#������ (wa’asmaa’un
)
• 75�i���] '(�+�6��� (Conjunctive or ‘liaison’ hamza, hamzatu al-waSli)
Sometimes, we appear to pronounce a glottal stop at the beginning of certain words but
do not write � (hamza). Such words are few and can simply be learned. So far we have
encountered !�� � and the definite article I��� . We never write � (hamza) on the initial � (alif) of such words. To do so is a spelling mistake. This is because there is actually no
� (hamza) there. This is called 75�i���] '(�+�6��� (hamzatu-l-waSl
i), which is often written like
this n .
The only time an initial hamza sound is pronounced on such words is when they begin a
sentence. This hamza sound is imported like a liaison vowel in order to get the sentence
started (cf. P8). It is not possible to start on a sukuun; !�� and I�� are impossible to
pronounce. When this occurs, the initial � (alif) in often vowelled to indicate that a
hamza sound needs to be produced: !�� '� and ��I�� .
When such words are preceded by a vowelled letter, this liaison vowel need not be
supplied and the � (alif) is overridden:
�#!�� � (wasmun)
I����#... (wal …)
�#$%������� (wa-l-qamaru)
�#$h��.N�� (wa-sh-shamsu)
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x
P8 The liaison vowel
Phonetics
The word ‘phone’ refers to ‘sound’, and is where the word ‘telephone’
comes from. A phonetic change is a change we make to the way we say
something because it is either difficult or impossible to say it the way it
should be. In English, for example, the indefinite article ‘a’ changes to ‘an’
when followed by a vowel simply because it is easier to say. Try saying ‘a
apple’ and then ‘an apple’.
In Arabic, when the 75�i���] '(�+�6��� on the definite article I��� is preceded by
��678$ we encounter something called 1����'3��� �'<�O�A',�.�� (iltiqaa’u as-
saakinayni, the meeting of two vowelless consonants). This renders it
impossible to pronounce:
I��� ��$] (hum –l)
'�I��� �< (min –l)
�(�] I��� (hal –l)
It is possible to pronounce both consonants by stopping:
I���� ��$] (hum al)
I���� �<'� (min al)
�(�] ��I�� (hal al)
However, this stilts the flow of speech so we often import a �)�F' ��A$� �)�,�%�&
(liaison vowel, lit. appropriate vowel). If the vowel preceding the ��678$ is a
�).��/ the liaison vowel is �).��/ . If it is a �)�2�3�� the liaison vowel is a �5�%���, and
vice versa:
I��� $�$] (humu-l)
I��� �<'� (mina-l)
'(�] I��� (hali-l)
Compare for example, the euphonic harmony of '(�] I��� (hali-l) with the
disjointedness of �(�] ��I�� (hal al).
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xi
P9 � ���!�� ��" �#������$�� (The Diptote)
You will notice that there are some words in the vocabulary lists that are given,
1. without !<�'6�A�B , and
2. without I��� These words are called '"�%.R�� �<'� ![6$A���� (diptotes).
P9.1 There are intrinsically definite Proper Noun Diptotes, such as,
7)o8�� Makkah $p�N��'K Damascus
P9.2 There are indefinite common noun diptotes such as,
1���%�2�+ Desert 1�����=7 Ancients
These words should be learned without !<�'6�A�B . Note that while the proper noun diptote is intrinsically
definite, the common noun diptote is indefinite. To make it definite, we simply attach ���I to it:
��.R1���%�2 The desert 1�����=7���� The ancients
'"�%.R�� �<'� $[6$A������� (The Diptote) will be explained in chapter four. For the moment, you simply need to
recognise it and learn it without !<�'6�A�B .
P10 %&�����$�� �'��(� (The Weak Noun)
In Arabic, there are three letters that are considered to be ‘weak’ letters. They are called ')o�' ��� $"#$%$&
(letters of weakness):
1. q ( �5� 6$R���� !J'��� , short alif, (alifun maqSuuratun)), (also called �)�����$� !J'��� , long alif)
If the final root letter of a word is not weak it is called a !�� �!sO'2�+ (sound noun). When the final root
letter is weak it is called a !�� �t(�3� $� (weak noun) and undergoes certain phonetic changes.
The alif is considered weak because, being itself a long vowel, it is not able to carry another vowel. A
vowel needs a solid consonant to carry it. It is actually physically impossible to pronounce a vowel on
an alif and prizes will be awarded to anyone who can! Arabs calls this ! Cu�� �B (impossibility).
xii
Orthography
Often we see what appear to be vowels on an �5�K#$=���� !J'��� . In fact what we
see are not alifs but hamzas: 17� , �� , 'U . Often a vowel is written on the alif of
words such as !�� '� and on the definite article I���� . These are liaison vowels
on alifs carrying '(�+�6��� 75�i���] (cf. P5 The Hamza), not vowels on alifs proper.
The # and are considered weak because it is often, but not always, �(O'��v (inelegant, lit. heavy) on the
tongue to pronounce a vowel on them. Arabs call this �(��'v (inelegance lit. heaviness). This will be
explained below.
P10.1 �)��!$*�$�� (The short)
Words such as IA� ��wx (meaning, ma⊂nan) and wxyA�z$� (dual, muthannan) are called ! 6$R���� (short) because they
end in �5� 6$R���� !J'��� which is written as q (like a but without dots). As you can see, wxIA� �� looks
quite different from the regular Arabic word that ends in !<�'6�A�B such as !E��3', . This is because it
undergoes certain phonetic changes. For the moment you simply need to know that there is a category
of word called ! 6$R���� that ends in �5� 6$R���� !J'��� and has a fatha !<�'6�A�B on the penultimate letter.
But we know that you are a curious bunch and for those of you who really want to know why, we have
explained it in the box below. If you find it befuddling, take a deep breath and gently move on. Don’t
worry, you can revisit it later.
Phonetics
The word wxIA� �� should be ‘ !@�A� �� ’ (ma⊂
nayun
) but the ‘ayu’ sound is �(O'��v (inelegant) in the Arabic tongue. In response, the changes to �5� 6$R���� !J'��� rendering ‘ !x�A� �� ’ (ma
⊂
naa–un
). Earlier we said that !E��3', is actually
pronounced ‘ �<$���3', ’. If we do the same for ‘ !x�A� �� ’ we get ‘ $x�A� �� �� ’ . It is not
physically possible to pronounce a vowel on an !J'��� because an !J'��� is itself a
long vowel. A vowel needs a solid consonant to carry it. To overcome this,
we override the �5� 6$R���� !J'��� and pronounce the !<�'6�A�B on the letter preceding
it: ‘ xwA� �� ’ (ma⊂
nan
) (or phonetically, x�A� �� �� ). Finally, the �5� 6$R���� !J'��� is still
written though not pronounced and it is a convention to write the !<�'6�A�B on the
�5� 6$R���� !J'��� though it is actually pronounced on the letter preceding it:
wxIA� �� (ma⊂
nan
).
i
i
xiii
Some ! 6$R���� words such as H�R� (stick, ⊂aSan) are written with �5�K#$=���� !J'��� (‘stretched alif’, also called
�)���'6�r !J'��� or ‘long alif). They are still called ! 6$R���� even though they have no �5� 6$R���� !J'��� . The word
H�R� should be ‘ !@�R� ’ (⊂
aSayun
). The phonetic changes it undergoes are identical to that of wxIA� �� .
When the definite article ���I is attached to wxIA� �� and H�R� , they are pronounced ����A� ���xI (al-ma⊂
naa)
and ������R� (al-⊂aSaa).
! 6$R���� (short) words that are '"�%.R�� �<'� ![6$A���� (diptotes) such as �x� 6$� (muusaa, Moses), �q� ��2�+
(SaHaaraa, deserts), ���O��$K (dunyaa, world) and �x����=7 (ancients) as expected, do not have !<�'6�A�B . When the
definite article I��� is attached to the common nouns among them we have ���q� ��2.R (aS-SaHaaraa, the
deserts), �����O��{= (ad-dunyaa, the world) and ����x����=7� (al-qudaamaa, the ancients).
P10.2 �+�,*���$�� (The reduced)
Words such as D[��K (caller) and DK��# (valley) are called !d67��A�� (reduced) because they drop their final
letter. The root of the word D[��K is K 6 (d-⊂
-w) so it should be ‘!6'��K ’ (daa⊂
iwun
). The root of the word
DK��# is K# (w-d-y) so it should be ‘!'K��# ’ (waadiyun
). However, the sounds ‘iwu’ and ‘iyu’ are �(O'��v (inelegant) in the Arabic tongue, so the weak letter is dropped leaving the !<�'6�A�B to be pronounced on the
penultimate letter.
When made �)��'%� �� (definite), a � is appended to !d67��A�� words, rendering ���@'�.= and �'K��6��� .
!d67��A�� (reduced) words of the form D[����� such as De�� �� (lands) and D��� �� (meanings) are '"�%.R�� �<'� ![6$A���� (diptotes). This is not apparent at first instance, there being no evident difference in ending between the
words DK��# and De�� �� . We will expand upon this later.
xiv
P11 Vocabulary
You will have noticed that there are some words in Arabic that suffer certain anomalies relating to the
way they end. We will use this opportunity to enumerate them and put them into categories, choosing
one word of each type as a paradigm heading. We can think of these categories as mental vocabulary
‘boxes’.
On a clean sheet of paper, draw out seven columns in the following manner.
You can then enter any new word you encounter into one of these ‘boxes’ so that you know exactly
how it behaves. Box 1 is simply the default box and you need not write anything in it. If you occupy
yourself too much with it you will spend a very long time filling it!
xv
P12 ,-.�/!�� (Word form)
Most Arabic words are produced from a three letter root. ~ 3 , (k-t-b) for example are the root letters
for the words !E��3', (book) and �)����3', (writing). � � , (k-l-m) are the root letters of the words !L���,
(speech) and �)��'��,(word). Words are produced from their roots by adding, dropping or changing letters
and vowels. English grammarians often call root letters ‘radicals’. (The English word ‘radical’,
contrary to common perception, simply means ‘root’ – as in radish). A root letter or radical in Arabic is
called a !L'a�� !"�%�& (lit. necessary letter) and a non-root letter is called a !='���a !"�%�& (extra letter). Arabic
uses the letters ( � (f-⊂
-l) to map ���O'+ (word forms). ( � is called {@'��%.R�� 7���iO'���� (the morphology
template (lit. scale).
P13 The �&�� �0$�� �'��� (Active Participle) and �1���$0�$�� �'��� (Passive Participle)
The �)��O'+ (form) �('��� is used to produce the '('��*��� $�� � or Active Participle from the root. An Active
Participle is a noun or adjective that refers to the ‘doer’ or active agent of the action denoted by the
root. For example, the root ~ 3 , (k-t-b) denotes the action of ‘writing’, so the Active Participle !~'B��,
refers to ‘one who writes’ or ‘writer’. The root � � � (f-h-m) denotes the action of ‘understanding’ so
the Active Participle ��!�']� refers to ‘one who understands’.
The �)��O'+ (form) ��6$ �*�� is used to produce the '�6$ �*����� $�� � or Passive Participle from the root. A Passive
Participle is a noun or adjective that refers to the ‘done to’ or passive agent of the action denoted by the
root. For example, the root ~ 3 , (k-t-b) denotes the action of ‘writing’, so the Passive Participle
!E6$3�8�� refers to something ‘written’. The root � � � (f-h-m) denotes the action of ‘understanding’ so
the Passive Participle !L6$��*�� refers to something ‘understood’.
P14 The relative adjective
It is possible to produce a �)�*'+ (adjective) from an !�� � (noun) by suffixing 0>' to it. This is called 1����')�F��;A�� (the yaa’of relating). This produces an attributive ‘relating to…’ meaning. In English, we suffix
‘–ic’ in this way to produce ‘Islamic’ from ‘Islam’ and suffix ‘–tary’ to produce ‘monetary’ from
‘money’. suffixing 0>' produces a ‘relative adjective’ that is indefinite, masculine and singular, despite
the characteristics of the original word.
>@'���� 'U
Islamic (islaamiyyun)
� $L��� '�� Islam (al-islaamu)
>@'���� Monetary (maaliyyun)
� �����
Money (maalun)
>@'����M
Solar (shamsiyyun)
� !h���M
Sun (shamsun)
xvi
>'%���
Lunar (qamariyyun)
� !%���
Moon (qamarun)
>@'��%�&
Literal (Harfiyyun)
� !"�%�&
Letter (Harfun)
>@'��%�+
Morphological (Sarfiyyun)
� !"�%�+
Morphology (Sarfun)
Nationality and attribution is frequently produced in this way.
>' 6$ Syrian �.�' 6$ Syria
>@'��N��'K Damascene $p�N��'K Damascus
>'%�R'� Egyptian $%�R'� Egypt
>@'8�'%���� American ��8�'%���� America
>@'���k�'%�� British ��O'���k�'%�� Britain
When the 0>' is attached to a definite word, it becomes indefinite and must lose its definite article.
>@'AO'+ Chinese $Q'R��� China
>@'��%' Iraqi $P��%' ��� Iraq
If the !�� � (noun) ends in a )I /5 it must be dropped before suffixing 0>' .
>@'���2�+ Companion �)����2�+ Companions
>@�8�� Meccan 7)o8�� Mecca
The relative adjective is made ��.���$� (feminine) by attaching )I /5 after 0>' .
�).O�8�� Meccan (f)
The 0>' attached to a !j���� (plural) renders it !K�%�*$� (singular).
>@'����' Men’s �����' Men
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>@'����'� />'6��'� Women’s; womanly �����'� /�5�6��'� Women
>@'��%� Arabic; Arab
(masc. sing. adj.) $E�%� �� The Arabs
(collective plural)
When 0>' is attached to a word ending in �5� 6$R���� !J'��� such as wxIA� �� , the �5� 6$R���� !J'��� changes to a # .
>'6�A� �� Relating to meaning, semantic; spiritual
(also ��$K>'#��O ) >'6�O��$K Worldy
� 6$�>'6 Mosaic(al)
When 0>' is attached to a word ending in 75�K#$=������� '�O'���.3�� $J'��� such as 1���%�2�+ , the � changes to a # .
>'#��%�2�+ Relating to the desert, desert (adj.)
P15 ���2 ��3�� (pronouns)
A !�'��/ (Dameerun, pronoun) is a word that takes the place of an !�� � (noun) in the noun’s absence. In
the expression, ‘the man is big’, we may replace the !�� � (noun) ‘man’ with the !�'��/ (pronoun) ‘he’,
rendering ‘he is big’.
Arabic $%'�����/ (pronouns) have a singular !K�%�*$� (singular), wxyA�z$� (dual) and !j���� (plural) form. $%'�����/
(pronouns) are all intrinsically �)��'%� �� (definite) because they always take the place of a �)��'%� �� (definite)
noun. If I were to say to you, ‘He came’, it would make no sense for me to say this unless you know
who I am talking about. If you know who I am talking about, then ‘He’ is �)��'%� �� (definite).
English has different sets of pronouns for different purposes. Consider the expression, ‘He is a student
so do not take his book from him’. There are three pronouns we can use to refer to him: ‘He’, ‘his’ and
‘him’. The same is true for the other persons. For example, in the first person we have: ‘I am a student
so do not take my book from me’. We will consider why we have different sets of pronouns later. For
the moment, we will learn the Arabic equivalents for these.
P15.1 4-�5�!�0���" ���2 �6 (detached pronouns)
The pronouns ‘He’, ‘She’, ‘They’, ‘You’ ‘I’ and ‘We’ are rendered into Arabic using what we call
Expressions such as ‘the student’s book’ and ‘his book’ involve possession. We render such
expressions into Arabic using something called an ��������� construction. ��������� literally means
‘attribution’. The ��������� construction is made up of two parts: ���� � (muDaafun, ‘possessed noun’ or
‘attributed’) and �������� ���� � (muDaafun
ilayhi, ‘possessor’ or ‘attributed to (it)’).
1.2.1 ���������������������� (the definite possessive construction)
In Arabic, the ���� � (possessed noun) always comes before the ���� ��������� (possessor), so that the
actual word order would be for example, ‘the book of the student’, rather than ‘the student’s book’,
though both translations are acceptable.
� The ���� � (possessed noun) always makes the �������� ���� � (possessor) end in �������� .
��������� ������ The book of the student or
The student’s book
(kitaabu aT-Taalibi)
�������� ���� � �� ���
Possessor Possessed noun
We said in the ‘Preliminaries’ chapter that ������ does not exist. As you can see, that is not entirely true.
Possession by a definite entity is one of the ‘determiners’ that makes a noun definite. When we say,
‘the student’s book’, we are not referring to a book or any book; we are referring to the particular book
that belongs to ‘the student’. In English we do not feel the need to repeat the definite article on the
word ‘book’ and say ‘the student’s the book’. The simple fact that ‘book’ is possessed by ‘the student’
makes ‘book’ itself definite. It does not need its own definite article.
� In the same way, in Arabic, we never put the definite article � �� on a ���� � (possessed noun). The
���� � being definite, also never has !"�#�$�% .
In short, we only put the definite article � �� on the ���� � �������� (possessor), which makes the whole ���������
construction �������&�� (definite) – ‘the book of the student’.
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Here are a few very common expressions in Arabic that are definite ��������� constructions.
�'� ������ Allah’s book / The book of Allah (kitaabu Allahi)
�'� (���) Allah’s house / The house of Allah (baitu Allahi)
�'� *�+�, Allah’s slave / The slave of Allah (⊂abdu Allahi)
�'� -.��/�0�1 Allah’s names / The names of Allah (asmaa’u Allahi)
�'� 2��3�4 Allah’s attributes / The attributes of Allah (Sifaatu Allahi)
(a) The �������� ���� � (possessor) may be a �5�67� � ����/� (attached pronoun), not a �5�6�3�$ � ����/� (detached
pronoun). The ending of the ����/� (pronoun) however does not change because ��8��/� (pronouns) are
9:�$�+�� (indeclinable).
)����� � His book
� ������ ��������� The student’s book
(Note: we do not say �# ; ������ )
%��$�) <�= Their daughters
� �>��?@��� 2��$�) The men’s daughters
A�B�C�1 ;7! Their sons
� �.���@$�� A�B�C�1 The women’s sons
�D ��3�4 Your attribute
�:�����) My house
��$E�F1 Our mother
Phonetics
The following phonetic changes occur to some ��5�67��� ��8��/ (attached
pronouns) when they are attached to G.��/�0�1 (nouns).
i
8
• When � � , ��/ ; , �= ; or 7! ; are preceded by �������� or �H , the ��7/�
becomes �������� .
���)����� :�� � )����� �
�$�)� �!���<��/ � $�)� <��/
@�F1 I�����<�= � E�F1 <�=
���J�� I�K�,�<7! � ��J�� <7!
• When preceded by a long vowel (�C , �H or � ), L�H changes to �H .
����M A�H My world
��6�,�H My stick
� (b) There is no fixed ending for the ���� � (possessed noun). In the examples above, it ends in ��7/�
which is the default ending. It may also end in �������� or ���N���� , depending on what comes before it.
:������ ������������ In the book of the student / In the student’s book (fii kitaabi aT-Taalibi)
���/�K�� :����������� ������� A word in the book of the student / A word in the student’s book (kalimatun fii kitaabi aT-Taalibi)
We will introduce ���N���� endings in chapters two and three.
(c) When one ���� � �������� possesses a number of items, rather than saying,
��������� =�K�O�C ������ �
We say,
� /�K�O�C �������� ������ The book and pen of the student (lit. the book of the student and his pen)
�0�1 � %��3�4�C �'� -.��/ The names and attributes of Allah (lit. the names of Allah and His attributes)
Effectively, we have two �������� constructions; the second is conjucted to the first with �C .
(d) Note that the �������� ���� � (possessor) may be �������&�� (definite) but have !"�#�$�% if it is a proper noun. This
is still a definite ��������� construction.
9
P�J��Q*7/�N � Muhammad’s speech / The speech of Muhammad (kalaamu Muhammadin)
Q!���R �(���) :�� In Hasan’s house / In the house of Hasan
(fii bayti Hasanin)
Q!���R �(���) �!�� �����S �� The book from Hasan’s house / The book from the house of Hasan (al-kitaabu min bayti Hasanin)
1.2.2 ������������������� (the indefinite possessive construction)
You have probably guessed that if the whole ��������� is made �������&�� (definite) by a definite �������� ���� �
(possessor), then simply making the �������� ���� � (possessor) �����S�M (indefinite) should render the whole
construction �����S�M (indefinite).
Q�����T ������ A book of a student, or
A student’s book, or
The book of a student (kitaabu Taalibin)
Q�����T ������� :�� In a book of a student, or
In a student’s book, or
In the book of a student (fi kitaabi Taalibin)
In English we say, ‘a student’s book’. We don’t feel the need to repeat the indefinite article on the word
‘book’ and say ‘a student’s a book’ because ‘book’ is made indefinite by ‘a student’. In the same way,
in Arabic, we never put a !"�#�$�% on a ���� � (possessed noun). In short, we only put a !"�#�$�% on the
���� � �������� (possessor), which makes the whole ��������� construction �����S�M (indefinite) – ‘a book of a
student’.
You can see above that we have translated the expression Q�����T ������ in three different ways. In
meaning, all of these expressions are �����S�M (indefinite), even though English uses a definite article in the
third. This is because the �������� ���� � (possessor) ‘a student’ is �����S�M (indefinite). Similarly, Arabic would
consider the expressions, ‘the middle of a desert’ and ‘the daughter of a king’ to be completely �����S�M (indefinite) and would translate them using an indefinite ��������� construction.
The ��������� construction cannot be used to express ‘a book of the student’, for which we will introduce
an alternative structure.
(a) The indefinite ��������� construction is used for certain idiomatic expressions
F��/�K�� VW�R A word of truth (kalimatu Haqqin)
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We can dispense with the ��������� construction and render this,
�!�� ���/�K�� �@W�N � A word of truth (kalimatun min al-Haqqi)
The preposition �!�� (from) is used here to mean ‘of’. Note that ���/�K�� in the above expression has !"�#�$�% . This is because we are not using an �������� construction.
1.2.3 ���������� ‘Chains’
It is possible to have a series of ���� � (possessed nouns) and �������� ���� � (possessors) forming an ‘Idafa
chain’. The definite article � �� can only be placed on the final �������� ���� � (possessor).
�X����0-Y� �(�$�) =�0� The name of the daughter of the teacher (ismu binti al-‘ustaadhi)
��������� �X����0F1 �(�$�) =�0� The name of the daughter of the teacher of the student (ismu binti ‘ustaadhi aT-Taalibi)
Q�����T �X����0F1 �(�$�) =�0� A name of a daughter of a teacher of a student (ismu binti ‘ustaadhi Taalibin)
In the second example above, we have three ���� � (possessed nouns) and three �������� ���� �
(possessors). � =�0 (a name) is the ���� � of �(�$�) (a daughter) which is its �������� ���� � and in turn also the
���� � of �X����0F1 (a teacher), which is its �������� ���� � and again in turn also the ���� � of Q�����T (a student)
which is the final �������� ���� � (possessor).
1.2.4 Superlatives
The form F5�& ��1 (af⊂
alu) is called �5��� 37��� =�0� (noun of preference). In English, it is often called the
‘elative’ form. The �5��� 37��� =�0� is used in Arabic for comparatives and superlatives. �5��� 37��� =�0� is made
�\7M�] � (feminine) using the form I�K�&F� (fu⊂
laa). The �\7M�] � (feminine) of !���R�1 (handsomer/handsomest)
for example, is I�$�� R (more/most beautiful). The �\7M�] � (feminine) of F>7C�1 (first, (assimilated from F>�C 1�1)) is I���CF1 .
The �5��� 37��� =�0� (noun of preference) for 7&�� � (doubled) roots is of the form _5���1 (afallu) for the ���� �
(masculine) and does not have a �\7M�] � (feminine) counterpart. We have E*�a�1 (severer/severest) and _5�O�1 (less/least).
The �5��� 37��� =�0� (noun of preference) for b5���& � (weak) roots is of the form I�& ��1 (af⊂aa) for the ���� �
(masculine) and ����&F� (fu⊂
yaa) for the �\7M�] � (feminine). We have I�K�,�1 (higher/highest) and its feminine
��� K , . The word ����M A (world) is actually the feminine of I�M�A�1 (lower/lowest or closer/closest).
11
(a) When in an indefinite ��������� construction the �5��� 37��� =�0� (noun of preference) form �1F5�& � produces a
superlative. The masculine singular form �1F5�& � is used even for the feminine and the plural.
Q*���C !���R�1 The handsomest boy
(aHsanu waladin)
Q(�$�) !���R�1 The prettiest girl (aHsanu bintin)
Q.��/�0�1 !���R�1 The most beautiful names (aHsanu asmaa’in)
Q2��"c ��+ ��1 The greatest signs (akbaru aayaatin)
�d�efY� :�� Q(���) F>7C�1 The first house on the Earth (awwalu baytin fi al-arDi)
F>7C�1Q��/�K�� The first word (awwalu kalimatin fi al-arDi)
Q=�0� I�K�,�1 The loftiest name (a⊂laa ismin)
�d�efY��C �2��C��/7��� :�� Q5�g�� I�K�,�1 The loftiest similitude in the heavens and the earth (a⊂laa mathalin fi as-samaawaati wa al-arDi)
Q��/�K�� I�K�,�1 The loftiest word (a⊂laa kalimatin)
Q.��/�0 I�M�A�1 I���� Q.��/�0 I�K�,�1 �!�� From the highest heaven to the lowest heaven (min a⊂laa samaa’in ilaa adnaa samaa’in)
Q�����R I�M�A�1 The lowest life (adnaa Hayaatin)
The nouns ����h (better/best) and 9��a (worse/worst) are not of the F5�& ��1 form but are used in this way as
superlatives. (it is poor Arabic to say ����h�1 and E��a�1 ).
E��aQ*���C The worst boy
����hQ(�$�) The best girl
If we make the ���� � �������� indefinite and plural, we have the following,
���R�1QA�B�C�1 ! The handsomest boys (aHsanu awlaadin)
!���R�1�)��$Q2 The prettiest girls (aHsanu banaatin)
Note that although the above are indefinite ��������� constructions, they are �������&�� (definite) semantically or
in meaning. This is because, by definition, there can only be one person/thing that is most or least in
12
any given quality. That person/thing is therefore identifiable and anything identifiable is necessarily
�������&�� (definite).
If we make the ���� � �������� definite and plural, we have the following
�A�B�CfY� !���R�1 The handsomest of boys, or
The handsomest of the boys (aHsanu al-awlaadi)
!���R�1�2��$�+�� The prettiest of girls , or
The prettiest of the girls (aHsanu al-banaati)
$���R�1��$ The handsomest/prettiest of us (aHsanunaa)
(b) When the �5��� 37��� =�0� (noun of preference) form �1F5�& � is followed by the preposition �!�� it becomes a
comparative. Only the masculine singular form F5�& ��1 can be used for the comparative.
Q*���C �!�� !���R�1 Handsomer than a boy (aHsanu min waladin)
!���R�1 �� �!���(�$�+ Prettier than the girl (aHsanu min bintin)
�7$�� ����h Better than us (khayrun minnaa)
9��a ��$�� Worse than him (sharrun minhu)
1.2.5 � �!
The word _5F� in an indefinite ��������� construction means ‘every’ or ‘each’
Q.�:�a _5F� Everything (kullu shay’in)
Q������ _5F� Every/each book (kullu kitaabin)
Q.����� _5F� Every/each person (kullu mri’in)
Note that although these are indefinite ��������� construction, they are �������&�� (definite) semantically or in
meaning. This is because if we refer to every member/unit of a group, we are referring to the group as
a whole, which then becomes identifiable and anything identifiable is necessarily �������&�� (definite).
13
If we make the ��������� construction �������&�� (definite), _5F� means ‘whole’.
_5F�������S �� The whole book (kullu al-kitaabi)
If we make the ���� ��� ������ (possessor) definite and plural _5F� means ‘all’. When used like this, i��/�? is
synonymous to _5F� .
_5F� �FS ���� / i��/�? �FS �� �� All (of) the books (kullu al-kutubi / jamee⊂u al-kutubi)
�= <_KF� / &��/�?�= < All of them (kulluhum / jamee⊂uhum)
The above can also be expressed as follows:
�!�� b5F� �FS ���� All (of) the books (kullun min al-kutubi)
�= <�$�� b5F� All of them (kullun minhum)
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�"��#���$��� Vocabulary
��������� 1. possession (gram.);
2. addition iDaafatun
I���� k������� in addition to . . . iDaafatan ilaa
Phrases such as ‘this student and ‘that book’ contain ��������� (demonstration). In Arabic we produce such
phrases by placing a �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun lit. noun of demonstration) before a � �� (noun). In
English, the words ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’ and ‘those’ are demonstrative pronouns.
(a) ��������� ��������� (demonstration of something close)
To demonstrate something close in English we say ‘this’. The masculine singular �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun) meaning ‘this’ in Arabic is �� (dhaa), from which variations of the feminine and
plural are derived.
Feminine Masculine
����� /������ (haadhihi) (haadhii)
This
��� /����� (haadhaa) (dhaa)
This
Singular
������� (haa’ulaa’i)
These
Plural
Note that the �� prefixes above are pronounced with an unwritten alif after them.
Morphology
• The �� prefix is actually not part of the �������� � �� (demonstrative
pronoun). It is a truncation of the particle ��� (haa) which is called ������ !"� ���#�$ (particle of alerting) and we might think of it as an interjection in English.
The actual masculine singular �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun) is ��� .
When ��� is prefixed to ���$%&��'�������� (demonstrative pronouns) the alif of ���
is pronounced but not written rendering,
i
17
�(�� � �� This (m. sing.) (dhhaa � haadhaa)
�)�(�� � �)�� This (f. sing.) (dhii � haadhii)
�*�(�� � �*�� This (f. sing.) (dhihi � haadhihi)
�&�+�,�� � �&�+�-�$ These (m. & f. pl.) (‘ulaa’i � haa’ulaa’i)
(There are in fact ten derivations for the feminine singular but the two given above are by far
the most common. (1) �)�� , (2) �.�/ , (3) �*�� , (4) ���/ , (5) �*�� with a lengthening of the �����0�1 on the
haa’, (6) ���/ with a lengthening of the �����0�1 on the haa’, (7) �*�� , (8) ���/ , (9) �2�� , (10) ��/ )
• ��� is used on its own to mean ‘ha! look!’.
�3�� ��� /�� �3�� ��� ‘look, there he is!’.
(b) �5��6���� ��������� (demonstration of something far)
To demonstrate something far in English we say ‘that’. The masculine singular �������� � �� (demonstrative
pronoun) meaning ‘that’ in Arabic is produced from �� (this) by suffixing �7 , rendering �7�� (that). This �7 is
called �8��9�:�� �;��1 (the kaf of address).
Feminine Masculine
��� �! (Tilka)
That
�"��� /������ (dhaalika) (dhaaka)
That
Singular
���#��$��% (‘ulaa’ika)
Those
Plural
The �- in �<�=���-�$ is not pronounced and an alif is pronounced but not written after the�� .
18
Morphology
The feminine �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun) is actually �<��/ produced by adding the �8��9�:�� �;��1 (the kaf of address) to �.�/ which is
one of the feminine variations of �� given in the grey box above.
It is very common with the singular to insert a >� (lam carrying sukuun)
before the �8��9�:�� �;��1 (the kaf of address), rendering,
(for �<����) �����< That (m. sing.) (dhaalika)
(for �<�?���/) �<�?�/ That (f. sing.) (tilka)
This >� is called �5�6���� �@�+ (the lam of distance) and is inserted to
demonstrate something farther away than �7�� and �<��/ . In common
parlance today, this distinction is not unfortunately given due attention
and �<���� and �<�?�/ are used loosely.
The �������� %&��'���$ (demonstrative pronouns) given above are B.� ���C (indeclinable) and do not ever change in
ending.
1.3.1 When a � �� (noun) is demonstrated, it must always be �D�E���6�C (definite). The �������� � �� (demonstrative
pronoun) is placed before the ������� ����F�C (demonstrated) noun.
�(�����G9��� This student (haadhaa aT-Taalibu)
�<���� ���8��"�H That book (dhaalika al-kitaabu)
As we know, the demonstrative pronoun is called �������� � �� . The demonstrated noun is called ������� ����F�C
(lit. ‘pointed to’).
In Arabic, we say that the ������� ����F�C (demonstrated noun) is a �I�5�J (substitute) for the �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun). Suppose I point to a book and say, ‘I read that’. I can express the same meaning
by saying, ‘I read the book’. Effectively, I have substituted ‘the book’ for the demonstrative pronoun
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‘that’. When the two are combined in the expression ‘I read that book’, the ������� ����F�C (demonstrated noun)
‘book’ is the �I�5�J (substitute) of the �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun) ‘that’. We call the �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun) the �C �I�5���C��� (substituted-for). In English, the �I�5�J (substitute) is called ‘apposition’
or ‘the permutative’.
K The general rule is that a �I�5�J (substitute) must always agree with its �C �I�5���C��� (substituted-for) in four
respects:
1. Definition: �D�E���6�C (definite) or �����H�L (indefinite) ?
2. Gender: ��G1�(�C (masculine) or �M!L�,�C (feminine) ?
(a) �������� %&��'���$ (demonstrative pronouns) are always �D�E���6�C (definite). This is because they involve pointing
to something and once pointed to, things are identifiable and therefore �D�E���6�C (definite). If we point to a
house and say ‘this house’ or ‘that house’, we are referring to this or that particular house, not ‘a’ house or
‘any’ house. Since the ������� ����F�C (demonstrated noun) must agree with the �������� � �� (demonstrative
pronoun) it must always be �D�E���6�C (definite).
�����G9��� / �(�����G9��� This student (dhaa aT-Taalibu / haadhaa aT-Taalibu)
(b) The ������� ����F�C (demonstrated) noun must agree with the gender of the � ���������� (demonstrative
pronoun).
�D�����G9� �<�?�/ That student (f) (tilka aT-Taalibatu)
)�(�� /�*�(�� �D�'�?�H�� This word (f) (haadhii / haadhihi al-kalimatu)
�<�?�/ �D�'�?�H�� That word (f) (tilka al-kalimatu)
(c) Since ������ %&��'���$�� (demonstrative pronouns) are B.� ���C (indeclinable), their endings never change. In
ordinary circumstances as in the examples above, the ������� ����F�C (demonstrated) noun takes the default
ending, which is �D!'�N . If the ��������� is preceded by a W��V �;���X (preposition), the �������� � �� (demonstrative
pronoun) becomes the ‘object’ of the W��V �;���X (preposition). Being B.� ���C (indeclinable), the �������� � ��
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(demonstrative pronoun) is not visibly affected. However, the effect of the W��V �;���X (preposition) passes
over to the ������� ����F�C (demonstrated) noun.
�� �(�� .�E�8��"�H In this book (fii haadhaa al-kitaabi)
�<�?�/ T�?�Y �D�'�?�H�� Upon that word (⊂alaa tilka al-kalimati)
We will introduce �D�O�"�E endings in chapters two and three.
(d) The ������� ����F�C (demonstrated) noun must agree with the number of the �������� � �� (demonstrative
pronoun).
�I��VZ�� �&�+�,�� These men (haa’ulaa’i ar-rijaalu)
� �<�=��-�$��0Z %& Those women (‘ulaa’ika an-niasaa’u)
�[�C�I��VZ�� �&�+�,�� From these men (min haa’ulaa’i ar-rijaali)
T����� �<�=��-�$��0Z �& To those women (ilaa ‘ulaa’ika an-niasaa’i)
1.3.2 &�������' (Demonstration) in the ��'&(�)��* construction
%&��'���$�������� (Demonstrative pronouns) can only be used to demonstrate the �;��\�C (possessed noun) and
�������� �;��\�C (possessor) in a definite ����D�E��N construction. This is because, as we know, the ������� ����F�C
(demonstrated noun) must always be �D�E���6�C (definite).
(a) Demonstrating a ������� �;��\�C (possessor)
This is the only instance when the ‘integrity’ of the �D�P�N�� construction is ‘broken’. A �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun) may be placed before the last, and only the last ������� �;��\�C (possessor).
�8��"�1 �����G9� �(�� The book of this student / This student’s book (kitaabu haadhaa aT-Taalibi)
.�E�8��"�1 �(�������G9� In the book of this student / In this student’s book (fii kitaabi haadhaa aT-Taalibi)
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�]� ���� �*�(�� � �� The name of this girl / This girl’s name (ismu haadhihi al-binti)
%&��'���$���8G _9� �&�+�, The names of these students / These students’ names (asmaa’u haa’ulaa’i aT-Tullaabi)
(b) Demonstrating a �;��\�C (possessed noun)
To demonstrate the �;��\�C (possessed noun), we place the �������� � �� (demonstrative pronoun) after the
����D�E��N construction.
�8��"�1 �(�� �����G9� This book of the student (kitaabu aT-Taalibi haadhaa)
�J��"�1���(�� This book of his (kitaabuhu haadhaa)
.�E�8��"�1 �(�� �����G9� In this book of the student (fii kitaabi aT-Taalibi haadhaa)
.�E�J��"�1�� �<���� In that book of his (fii kitaabihi dhaalika)
�(�� �]� ���� � �� This name of the girl (ismu al-binti haadhaa)
�*�(�� [�0�X Z@�$ �]� �J This daughter of Hasan’s mother (bintu ‘ummi Hasanin haadhihi)
�<�?�/ ��a�"� �J That daughter of hers (bintuhaa tilka)
�&�+�,�� �I��VZ�� �2�� �J These daughters of the men (banaatu ar-rijaali haa’ulaa’i)
���-�$ � �a�/�� �J�<�= Those daughters of theirs (banaatuhum ‘ulaa’ika)
�"�P�b�<�?�/ �< That attribute of yours (Sifatuka tilka)
�(�� �.�"���J This house of mine (baytii haadhaa)
�*�(�� �� cC�$ This mother of ours (‘ummunaa haadhihi)
If there is more than one �;��\�C (possessed noun), there is an ambiguity.
� ���8��"�1G9� ������(�� This name of the book of the student or
The name of this book of the student (ismu kitaabi aT-Taalibi haadhaa)
��*��$L& ��A�U��*�: Our temporal (lit. lowest) life (Hayaatunaa ad-unyaa)
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A ���7��P�Q ���� (demonstrative pronoun) demonstrating the ���f� (possessed noun) is placed after the ������
(adjective).
�S�&�lb& ���� �!%& �'�( �LM�L�G This new book of the student (kitaabu aT-Taalibi al-jadeedu haadthaa)
�g���� �!%& �'�( �LM�L�G This new book of his (kitaabuhu al-jadeedu haadthaa)
�-�'�( .��,*�+�G%& ��n� �A�� This beautiful daughter of hers (bintuhaa al-jameelatu haadthihi)
�+�G%& ���n�U��A���<�?�@�( �=�>* These beautiful daughters of theirs (banaatuhum al-jameelaatu haa’ulaa’i)
�B�o�?�.D �7��_1 & )2�(�N�?���D Those small children of theirs (‘awlaaduhunna aS-Sighaaru ‘ulaa’ika)
�B%,�U .��,*�+�G%& �B� ���� That beautiful attribute of yours (Sifatuka al-jameelatu tilka)
�B�&�p � �_) & �� �*�� That small house of mine (baytii aS-Sagheeru dthaalika)
�-�'�( .��,*�+�G%& ��A$ .D This beautiful mother of ours (‘ummunaa al-jameelatu haadthihi)
�-�'�( ��*��$L& ��A�U��*�: This temporal (lit. lowest) life of ours (Hayaatunaa ad-dunyaa haadthihi)
In a chain ��F���"��/ we can often tell which ���f� (possessed noun) the .����� (adjective) is describing from the
agreement pattern.
�������,*�+�G%& �B�,�+%& �V�A�� The name of the beautiful daughter of the king /
The name of the king’s beautiful daughter (ismu binti al-maliki al-jameelati)
We know that ���,*�+�G%& is describing �V�A�� here because it agrees with it in all four respects; it disagrees with
���� in gender and ending and disagrees with �B�,�+%& in gender.
It is possible in the ��F���"��/ construction for a ������ (adjective) to appear to describe both the ���f� (possessed
noun) and the �g�*�&�F ���f� , so that more than one translation is possible.
��" ���� �!�S�&�lb&%& �LM�L�G In the new book of the student or In the book of the new student (fii kitaabi aT-Taalibi al-jadeedi)
E�,��WX �B1��7 ���� The highest name of your Lord or The name of your Highest Lord (ismu rabbika al-a⊂laa)
The ambiguity in this last example is created by the inability of the word E�,��WX to carry a vowel ending.
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The correct reading of such ambiguous expressions is determined by context, but may be resolved using the
preposition q�& which means ‘to’, ‘for’ or ‘belonging to’. When written, it attaches to the ���� (noun)
following it. If the definite article q%& is preceded by q�& , we drop the (alif) and write q%,�& . When q�& attaches to a word, it forms a ���,�+�5 �gK�P (quasi sentence), just like any other 0��5 ����: (preposition).
���� �! �V�*�K%& ��" A book in the house (kitaabun fi al-bayti)
���� �!�& �V�*�K%, A book belonging to the house (kitaabun lil-bayti)
���� �!,�& �S�&�lb A book belonging to the student,
A book of the student (kitaabun liT-Taalibi)
We can use the preposition q�& to overcome the ambiguity in an ��F���"��/ construction.
��"�& ���� ��%&�S�&�lb,%& �LM�L�G In the book of the new student (fi al-kitaabi liT-Taalibi al-jadeedi)
��"%& ���� ��%&�LM�L�G�S�&�lb,�& In the new book of the student (fi kitaabi al-jadeedi liT-Taalibi)
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��������� �� Vocabulary
������ description waSfun
������� described noun mawSuufun
������ adjective Sifatun
�H�I���) �8�.,�I��� r R<�>�T��( rational ⊂aaqilun (⊂uqalaa’u , ⊂aaqiluuna)
�H�I��� ���*�J irrational ghayru ⊂aaqilin
� �_��)�7��_��( small (m) Sagheerun (Sighaarun)
��� �_��)�=� �_��( small (f) Sagheeratun (Sagheeraatun)
�LM�L�5) �N�L�5( new (m) jadeedun (jududun)
�LM�L�5 ��)�L�M�L�5�=( new (f) jadeedatun (jadeedaatun)
�HM���c ) �6���c( tall; long (m) Taweelun (Tiwaalun)
�,M���c ��)�M���c�=�>( tall; long (f) Taweelatun (Taweelaatun)
���*�J not ghayru
�8���� )�2�!�� �D r ���A��� �D( place makaanun (amkinatun, amaakinu)
���7)������7�D( lord rabbun (arbaabun)
���7)�7�D�����( lord rabbun (arbaabun)
q�& to; for; belonging to li
Exercise 1.4.2 Express in Arabic
1. A heavy word
2. The few servants of Allah on the Earth
3. Our new (male) teacher and our
old (female) teacher
4. His beautiful house in this valley
5. This beautiful house of his in the valley
6. From Hasan’s young (small) daughter
7. The closest meeting (do not use ���"��/�F )
8. Heavier than the whole Earth
9. The first Man on this Earth (do not use ���"��/�F )
In chapter one, we produced the phrases ‘an Arabic book’ and ‘the Arabic book’. In this chapter we
will learn how to produce the ������ (sentences) ‘the book is Arabic’ and ‘the books are Arabic’.
Arabic is both an inflected and analytic language. This means that meaning is produced either by
inflection (vowel ending on a word) or by structure (the order of words in a construct). This chapter
will introduce to us how we can produce meaning in the Arabic language in these two ways.
2.1 The simple ���������������� (noun sentence)
The Arabic language is made up of two basic types of sentence, the � ������� ����� (noun/nominal
sentence) and the ������� ������� (verb sentence). If a ������ (sentence) begins with a ������ (verb) it is a �� ����� ������� (verb sentence) and if it begins with a ����� (noun), it is usually a � ������� ����� (noun sentence), even
if it contains a ������ (verb).
In English, every sentence must contain a verb. In the sentences, ‘the book was useful’ (past), ‘the
book is useful’ (present) and ‘the book will be useful’ (future), we encounter the English verb ‘to be’.
Arabic also has a verb ‘to be’ but we do not use it in present tense sentences such as ‘the book is
useful’ and ‘the books are useful’. Arabic does not have a word equivalent to ‘is’ and ‘are’. A definite
����� (noun) followed immediately by an indefinite ����� (noun) or ���� (adjective) requires us to read ‘is’
or ‘are’ in between. This structure is called a � ������� ����� (noun sentence).
���������� ������� The book is useful (al-kitaabu naafi⊂un)
� �!�" �#�$���!�% Predicate Subject
This is an instance of Arabic being an analytic language where structure produces meaning.
In the above sentence, ���������� is the �#�$���!�% (Subject, mubtada’un). The �#�$���!�% (subject) must be ��� ���%
(definite). The word ������� is the � �!�" (Predicate, khabarun). The � �!�" (predicate) must be �&� ���� (indefinite).
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Noun Sentence in a nutshell
The � ������� ����� (noun sentence) is used to express the meaning, ‘the x is
(a) y’, in the present tense.
When we have a �#�$���!�% (subject) that is ��� ���% (definite) and a � �!�"
(predicate) that is �&� ���� (indefinite), we read ‘is/are’ in between.
The � �!�" (predicate) agrees with the �%�#�$���! (subject) in 2. gender, 3. ending
and 4. number but not in 1. definition.
Here are a few more examples.
�$�'���(�% �)���*+�� The student is diligent (aT-Taalibu mujtahidun)
�&�$�'���(�% ��!���*+�� The (f) student is diligent (aT-Taalibatu mujtahidatun)
������, -��� �� The man is a scholar (ar-rajulu ⊂aalimun)
-&#� ������������, The woman is a scholar (al-mar’atu ⊂aalimatun)
./�����, -0���1 �� The men are scholars (ar-rijaalu ⊂ulamaa’u)
./��213���4�������, The women are scholars (an-nisaa’u ⊂aalimaatun)
2.1.1 The �#�$���!�% (subject) need not agree with the � �!�" (predicate) if the � �!�" (predicate) is a � *56�% (masculine)
noun that does not have a �7 ��8�% (feminine) form or counterpart bearing the same meaning. Examples
are, �9���% (m), �$��: (m) and � �;�% (m). When one of these nouns is the � �!�" (predicate), it cannot agree with
a feminine �#�$���!�% (subject) in gender.
��<�=>? �9���% ������@ The earth is a wide place (al-arDu makaanun waasi⊂un)
-*��% �$��: �)1�A Makkah is a good town (makkatu baladun Tayyibun)
�B�C�%�D � �;�% ������� Damascus is a beautiful city (dimashqu miSrun jameelun)
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There are also some �7 ��8�% (feminine) nouns that do not have a � *56�% (masculine) form bearing the same
meaning. Some examples are � AE�F (f), �DG�: (f) and �$��: (f). When one of these nouns is the � �!�"
(predicate), it cannot agree with a masculine �#�$���!�% (subject) in gender.
��������@ � E�HI �DG�: �J�� ����� Iraq is a strong and beautiful country (al-⊂iraaqu bilaadun Qawiyyatun wa jameelatun)
2.1.2 The �#�$���!�% (subject) may be described by �4���� (adjectives).
������� KL�:� ����� ���������� The Arabic book is useful (al-kitaabu al-⊂arabiyyu naafi⊂un)
The ���� (adjective) agrees with the �#�$���!�% (subject) in 1. definition, 2. gender, 3. ending and 4. number.
In the above example, the � �!�" (predicate) is a ���� (adjective). If the � �!�" (predicate) is a ����� (noun), it
may also be described by �4���� (adjectives).
�M�!5 ������, -��� �� The man is a great scholar (ar-rajulu ⊂aalimun kabeerun)
2.1.3 We can conjunct words onto the � �!�" (predicate) with the conjunction �@ (and). The word �@ is always
prefixed to the word following it. In Arabic the conjucted word must always agree with the word it is
conjuncted to.
���E�$I �����������@ ���������������@ The book is old, beautiful and useful (al-kitaabu qadeemun wa jameelun wa naafi⊂un)
�M�!5�@ ������, . N� Allah is All-knowing and Great (allahu ⊂aleemun wa kabeerun)
O There are no commas in Arabic. A �@ must be placed before every item on a list.
2.1.4 We can simply juxtapose words to the � �!�" (predicate) as �0�$�: (substitute).
���������� ���E�$I�������������� The book is old beautiful useful (al-kitaabu qadeemun jameelun naafi⊂un)
�M�!5 ������, . N� Allah is All-knowing Great (allahu ⊂aleemun kabeerun)
2.1.5 We may use a �&�=��P�Q� ����� (demonstrative pronoun) as the definite �#�$���!�% (subject).
������� �6�R This is useful (haadha naafi⊂un)
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��!1�A �S�6�R This is good (haadhihi Tayyibatun)
./�����, �/T�8�R These scholars (haa’ulaa’i ⊂ulamaa’u)
In such sentences, the �U���V �=��C�% (demonstrated noun) may be mentioned. As stated in chapter 1, the �=��C�%�U���V (demonstrated noun) is a �0�$�: (substitute) of the �&�=��P�Q� ����� (demonstrative pronoun).
������� ���������� �6�R This book is useful (haadha al-kitaabu naafi⊂un)
��!1�A -�������� �S�6�R This word is good (haadhihi al-kalimatu Tayyibatun)
�/T�8�R�, -0���1 ��./���� These men are scholars (haa’ulaa’i ar-rijaalu ⊂ulamaa’u)
2.1.6 We know that � �W����X (pronouns) are intrinsically ��� ���% (definite) because they always sit in the place of
Y/�����# (nouns) that are ��� ���% (definite). We may use � �W����X���;��3�% (detached pronouns) as the definite
�#�$���!�% (subject).
�H�R������, He is a scholar (huwa ⊂aalimun)
�H�R�M�!5 ������, He is a great scholar (huwa ⊂aalimun kabeerun)
�L�R �&�M�!5 �������, She is a great scholar (hiya ⊂aalimatun kabeeratun)
���R �=��!�5 ./�����, They are great scholars (hum ⊂ulamaa’u kibaarun)
2.1.7 The �#�$���!�% (subject) may be a definite �Z��[�% (possessed noun).
�)���*+�� ������5 ������� The book of the student is useful (kitaabu aT-Taalibi naafi⊂un)
(������5 is the �#�$���!�% (subject). It is also a �Z��[�% (possessed
noun). �)���*+�� is its �Z��[�% �V�U��� (possessor). ������� is the � �!�"
(predicate)).
�U�:����5 ������� His book is useful (kitaabuhu naafi⊂un)
����@ �N� �<�=#�@ \ ���] And the earth of Allah is wide (wa arDu allahi waasi⊂atun)
�$� ��@ �U��V ��-��'��V�@ \ ] And your God is One God (wa ilaahukum ilaahun waaHidun)
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2.1.8 The � �!�" (predicate) may also be an indefinite �Z��[�% (possessed noun).
�S�6�R -����5_B� This is a word of truth (haadhihi kalimatu Haqqin)
2.1.8 Both the �#�$���!�% (subject) and � �!�" (predicate) may have a ����� �U!�P (quasi sentence) attached to it.
(a) Attachment to a �#�$���!�% (subject):
�&�M�;I �<�=>?� L�� -&����a��� Life on the earth is short (al-Hayaatu fi al-arDi qaSeeratun)
(‘on the earth’ is expressed as �<�=>?� L�� not b��,�<�=>?� )
(b) Attachment to a � �!�" (predicate):
��<�=>?� �c�, �&�$����: �d�� C� The Sun is far from the Earth (ash-shamsu ba⊂eedatun ⊂ani al-arDi)
�� ������-# -&# �&e���L���J�� ����� L�� ���=�$�% The woman is a teacher in a school in Iraq (al-mar’atu ustaadhatun fii madrasatin fi al-⊂iraaqi)
�)���*+����� L�� �DH���H�% ����=�$�� The student is present in the school (aT-Taalibu mawjuudun fi al-madrasati)
(c) Attachment to an elliptical/omitted � �!�" (predicate):
In the last example above, the basic �������� ����� (noun sentence) is,
�)���*+���DH���H�% The student is present (aT-Taalibu mawjuudun)
We can think of the ����� �U!�P (quasi sentence) ��� L������=�$�� being attached in response to the question,
‘where is the boy present?’ We may reply,
�)���*+����� L�� �DH���H�% ����=�$�� The student is present in the school (aT-Taalibu mawjuudun fi al-madrasati)
If we remove �DH���H�% from the above sentence, we are left with,
�)���*+����� L�� ����=�$�� The student is in the school (aT-Taalibu fi al-madrasati)
(Note that this can also be interpreted as a phrase
meaning ‘the student in the school’ cf. Chapter 1.1)
�DH���H�% remains the elliptical/omitted � �!�" (predicate) to which the �!�P����� �U (quasi sentence) is attached.
In general we import the word �DH���H�% (present) or �c�W�5 (existent), to make sense of all such ������ �� �����
(noun sentences) in which the � �!�" (predicate) appears to be a �!�P����� �U (quasi sentence).
37
�H�R��� L������=�$�� He is in the school (huwa fi al-madrasati)
(grammatically: �DH���H�% �H�R��� L�� ����=�$�� )
�6�R��� L������=�$�� This is in the school (haadhaa fi al-madrasati)
(grammatically: �DH���H�% �6�R��� L�� ����=�$�� )
���������� L�� -�������� The word is in the book (al-kalimatu fi al-kitaabi)
2.4 Emphasising the ���������������� (noun sentence) using ����
The �������� ������ � (noun sentence) can be emphasised by placing ���� before it. In classical Arabic ���� is a
strong emphatic particle which we may translate as ‘indeed’ or ‘verily’. In Modern Arabic, ���� has lost
much of its emphatic strength and is used simply as a stylistic device. Very often it is not translated.
� ���� changes the ending of the �������� � (subject) from ������ to �������� .
������������ ��!���" � Indeed the student is diligent (inna aT-Taaliba mujtahidun)
Renamed Renamed
���� #���$ ���� %��
�������������� �&���!���" � Indeed the (f) student is diligent (inna aT-Taalibata mujtahidatun)
(a) When the �������� � (subject) is a �'�(�)�* � +���� (detached pronoun) as in ��!���" � �, - (he is diligent) and �.�-�&���!���" � (she is diligent), it changes to a �'�(�� � +���� (attached pronoun) and attaches to ���� .
/�0�� ��!���" � Indeed he is diligent (innahu mujtahidun)
��!�0���&���!���" � Indeed she is diligent (innahaa mujtahidatun)
(b) When the �������� � (subject) is one of the 12��������&�3��4�5 (demonstrative pronouns) that we have
encountered, the effect of ���� is not visible on the 12��������&�3��4�5 (demonstrative pronouns) because they
are 6.�*���� (indeclinable), but is visible on the �/����� 3��7 � (demonstrated noun).
����68�9 �:�;�<=� �>�- Indeed this speech is true (inna haadhaa al-kalaama Haqqun)
����68�9 �>�- Indeed this is true (inna haadhaa Haqqun)
���� 3����? 12����� @ �A���B#� �2�C D�- Indeed these men are great scholars (inna haa’ulaa’i ar-rijaalu ⊂ulamaa’u kibaarun)
44
(c) When the �������� ������ � (noun sentence) is an indefinite �������� � (subject) preceded by a E����� � /��4 (quasi
sentence), ���� makes the indefinite �������� � (subject) end in �������� .
����F������G �����3����=� .�� Indeed there is a student in the school (inna fi al-madrasati Taaliban)
����F�������G �����3����=� .�� Indeed there is a (f) student in the school (inna fi al-madrasati Taalibatan)
If the #���$ (predicate) were visible in the above sentences, they would read, ���� H, ��,�� ��F������G �����3����=� .
and ���� �H, ��,���& F�������G �����3����=� .�� .
(d) When ���� enters upon a �������� ������ � (noun sentence) that has a definite #���$ (predicate), we have the
option of introducing the +�����'�(�)=� (pronoun of separation) or omitting it because there is no danger
of the #���$ (predicate) looking like a ���)�I (adjective) of the �������� � (subject)
�, - �' ��#� ���� %����J=� The man is the scholar (inna ar-rajula huwa al-⊂aalimu)
�' ��#� ���� %����J=� The man is the scholar (inna ar-rajula al-⊂aalimu)
%�-��)=� �, - �%����J=� ���� Indeed the scholar is the one who understands (inna al-⊂aalima huwa al-faahimu)
%�-��)=� �%����J=� ���� Indeed the scholar is the one who understands (inna al-⊂aalima al-faahimu)
�.B0�� K 1 L ��0��M Indeed I am Allah (innii ana allahu)
Morphology
When ���� is attached to the first person attached pronouns, we have two
alternative spellings.
��*�0�� / ��0�� Indeed we …
.�*�0�� / .B0�� Indeed I …
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45
2.5 Transporting the ���������������� (noun sentence) to the past using �����
The �������� ������ � (noun sentence) can be transported to the past by placing ����? before it when the �������� �
(subject) is masculine. When �������� � (subject) is feminine, we use the feminine �O�0��?. We can think of
����? as our Arabic ‘time machine’.
We will deal with ����? fully later. For the moment, let us confine ourselves to transporting only singular
�'�� ��������� (noun sentences) to the past.
� ����? changes the ending of the #���$ (predicate) from ������ to �������� . We can think of it as having the
opposite effect to ���� .
����? ������� F��!���" � The student was diligent (kaana aT-Taalibu mujtahidan)
Renamed Renamed
#���$����? %������?
�O�0��? P��������� F&���!���" � The (f) student was diligent (kaanati aT-Taalibatu mujtahidatan)
(the �&�#�Q�? on �O�0��? is a liaison vowel
introduced to avoid 12��R��=� �S���*�?��Q� cf. P6).
(a) If the �������� � (subject) is a +���� (pronoun) as in ��!���" � �, - (he is diligent) and �&���!���" � �.�- (she is
diligent), the +���� (pronoun) must be dropped when the ������ ��������� (noun sentence) is transported to
the past by ����? .
����?F��!���" � He was diligent (kaana mujtahidan)
�O�0��?F&���!���" � She was diligent (kaanat mujtahidatan)
We can emphasise these sentences by placing before them ���� with a �'�(�� � +���� (attached pronoun).
����? /�0��F��!���" � Indeed he was diligent (innahu kaana mujtahidan)
�O�0��? ��!�0��F&���!���" � Indeed she was diligent (innahaa kaanat mujtahidatan)
�������� ���� ����?F��!���" � Indeed the student was diligent (inna aT-Taaliba kaana mujtahidatan)
46
(b) If the �������� ������ � (noun sentence) is an indefinite �������� � (subject) preceded by a E����� � /��4 (quasi
sentence), ����? must agree with the indefinite �������� � (subject).
����? �����G �����3����=� .�� There was a student in the school (kaana fi al-madrasati Taalibun)
�O�0��?��������G �����3����=� .�� There was a (f) student in the school (kaanat fi al-madrasati Taalibatun)
In the above sentences, the #���$ (predicate) is omitted so ����? does not bring about any visible change.
If the #���$ (predicate) were visible, the sentences would read, ����? H, ��,��F �����G �����3����=� .�� and
�O�0��? �H, ��,��F& ��������G �����3����=� .�� .
Kaana confusion
Note the difference in the following two sentences. If you grasp these two
simple structures now, it will save you a lot of confusion later.
����? ����,=�F������G He was a student
����?�����3����=� .�� �����G There was a student
2.6 Negating the ���������������� (noun sentence) using ������
The �������� ������ � (noun sentence) can be negated by placing before it �T���� when the �������� � (subject) is
masculine. When �������� � (subject) is feminine, we use the feminine �Q�����O . (Note that sentences are
negated and words are negativised).
We will deal with �T���� fully later. For the moment, let us confine ourselves to negating only singular
�'�� ��������� (noun sentences).
� �T���� is a ‘sister’ of ����? and likewise changes the ending of the #���$ (predicate) from ������ to �������� .
�T���� ������� FC, Q�? The student is not lazy (laysa aT-Taalibu kasuulan)
Renamed Renamed
#���$�T���� %���T����
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47
�O�Q���� P���������FC, Q�? The (f) student is not lazy (laysati aT-Taalibatu kasuulan)
�T����FC, Q�? He is not lazy (laysa kasuulan)
�O�Q����FC, Q�? She is not lazy (laysat kasuulan)
�T���� /�0��FC, Q�? Indeed he is not lazy (innahu laysa kasuulan)
�O�Q���� ��!�0��FC, Q�? Indeed she is not lazy (innahaa laysat kasuulan)
�T���� �����G �����3����=� .�� There is not a student in the school (laysa fi al-madrasati Taalibun)
�O�Q������������G �����3����=� .�� There is not a (f) student in the school (laysat fi al-madrasati Taalibatun)
2.7 ��� ���� �!��"�#�$�� (The interrogative particle)
The �������� ������ � (noun sentence) can be rendered interrogative simply by intonation of the voice. We do
not have to change sentence structure as we de in English. This is why we often find Arabic speakers
asking questions in English using declarative sentences. When translating interrogative sentences from
English to Arabic, we simply turn them into declarative sentences.
#����=� ���J�V The sea is far? (al-bahru ba⊂eedun)
)�, - (68�9 It is true? (huwa Haqqun)
Often, intonation is reinforced by placing one of the interrogative particles ='�- and �� before the ������ �
(sentence). ='�- and �� are generally interchangeable. Modern Arabic often uses an inverted question mark
Y which it has borrowed from English.
�'�- #����=� ���J�V Is the sea far? (hali al-bahru ba⊂eedun)
(the �&�#�Q�? on �'�- is a liaison vowel cf. P6)
�, -��68�9 Is it true? (ahuwa Haqqun)
������?�����I F� Was it correct? (akaana SaHeeHan)
�� �����G �����3����=� .�� Is there a student in the school? (afi al-madrasati Taalibun)
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������? �����G �����3����=� .�� Was there a student in the school? (akaana fi al-madrasati Taalibun)
% ��0���� H�C�Z[\. �C S���0 PA���B#� Are you the boys? No, we are the men (a’antumu al-awlaadu laa naHnu ar-rijaalu)
When �� is followed by the definite article =�] a phonetic change occurs rendering, ]=�^ (aal). It is far
more common however, to use ='�- before a definite article.
^ #����=� ���J�V.�%�J�0 _ #����=� ���J�V Is the sea far? Yes the sea is far (aal-bahru ba⊂eedun ? na⊂am al-bahru ba⊂eedun)
When �� is followed by a word beginning with �'�I�,=� P&� ���- the �'�I�,=� P&� ���- is dropped.
S�Q�9 �a ��� Your name is Hasan (ismuka Hasanun)
S�Q�9 �a ����� Is your name Hasan (asmuka Hasanun)
�O����=� .�� ��* @��������� Is our meeting in the house? (ajtimaa⊂unaa fi al-bayti)
It is common with interrogatives to switch the ��������� (subject) and #���$ (predicate) around.
�, - b����I�� Y Is it correct? (aSaHeeHun huwa)
�� �, - 68�9Y Is it true? (aHaqqun huwa)
2.7.1 Negative interrogatives
To frame a question in the negative with a �������� ������ � (noun sentence) we use �T������ (not ='�-�T���� )
F������G S�Q�9 �T������Y Is Hasan not a student?
For negatively framed questions, an answer of �%�J�0 , confirms the negation, so that �%�J�0 and �C amount to
the same response
�%�J�0 Yes (he is not a student)
�C No (he is not a student)
To answer in the positive, we must say c���V (yes indeed)
c���V Yes indeed (he is a student)
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Summary Supplement The Noun Sentence
�%��&�'(�� ����������� ������)��� ��*
�������+�,
Examples
d����0 e����<=� The book is useful
d����0 �, - It is useful
d����0 e����<=� �>�- This book is useful
d����0 �>�- This is useful
�������� e����? d����0 The student’s book is useful
f8�9 P������? �g�>�- This is a word of truth
1. A �������� ������ � (noun sentence) is constructed from a definite
�������� � (subject) and an indefinite #���$ (predicate).
�����3����=� .�� ������� The student is in the school
2. An indefinite �������� � (subject) is permitted if it is preceded by
a E����� � /��4 (quasi sentence).
�����G �����3����=� .��
A student is in the school, or
There is a student in the school, or In the school (there) is a student
3. A definite #���$ (predicate) must be separated from the �������� � (subject) by a �'�(�)=� +���� (the pronoun of separation)
except when,
Ph�����1\ �, - P' ��#�
The man is the teacher
a) the ��������� (subject) is a +���� (pronoun) Ph�����1\ �, - He is the teacher
b) the #���$ (predicate) is a +���� (pronoun �, - Ph�����1\ The teacher is he
�, - �, - He is he
c) the #���$ (predicate) is a i��j � (possessed noun)
�����P� P' ��#������,=� Ph The man is the boy’s teacher
��!���" � �������� ����
Indeed the student is diligent
��!���" � /�0�� Indeed he is diligent
�����>�-68�9 �:�;�<=� Indeed this speech is true
����F������G �����3����=� .�� Indeed there is a student in the school
4. The �������� ������ � (noun sentence) can be emphasised by
placing ���� before it, which
Ph�����1\ �' ��#� ���� Indeed the man is the teacher
F��!���" � ������� ����?
The student was diligent
F��!���" � ����? He was diligent
F��!���" � ����? /�0�� Indeed he was diligent
5. The �������� ������ � (noun sentence) can be transported to the
past by placing ����? before it, which changes the ending of
the #���$ (predicate) from ������ to ��������
�? ��� �����G �����3����=� .�� There was a student in the school
��!���" � ������� �T����F
The student is not diligent
F��!���" � �T���� He is not diligent
F��!���" � �T���� /�0�� Indeed he is not diligent
6. The �������� ������ � (noun sentence) can be negated by placing
�T���� before it, which changes the ending of the #���$
(predicate from ������ to ��������
�T���� �����G �����3����=� .�� There is not a student in the school
50
�-��.���#���
Vocabulary
Chapter 2.4 – The Noun Sentence
���� Indeed inna
����? was (transports noun sentence to the
past) kaana
�T���� is/are not (negates noun sentence) Laysa
�A, Q�?)c����QP?( very lazy (m & f) kasuulun (kusaalaa)
(a) In the above sentences, the ���&�� (subject) is a �'���# (pronoun). With third person (not second and
first person) verbs where the ���&�� (subject) is a ����� (noun), the �M�N ��)������ (object) usually comes after the
���&�� (subject) keeping to the O � S � V order.
���5�T!�)�!� �D��%�P�!� The boy read the book (qara’a al-waladu al-kitaaba)
�/�.�%��:����� Q����� A woman wrote a word (katabat mar’atun kalimatan)
��� ��� A�!� �$�%�QE The men wrote sentences (kataba ar-rijaalu jumalan)
�SEP�!� ;<��(A?!� �/���C� The women understood the speech (fahimati al-nisaa’u al-kalaama)
(b) When the �M�N ��)������ (object) is a �'���# (pronoun), we use a ���1�%�� �'���# (attached pronoun), not �'���# ���1��?�� (detached pronoun) (cf. P13). The ���1�%�� �'���# (attached pronoun) attaches directly to the ������ (verb). The word order continues to be O � S � V.
�U���5 He read it (qara’ahu)
��?���C� He understood us (fahimanaa)
(Note that ��?���C� means ‘we understood’)
55
�M�%�.�%� She wrote it (katabathu)
���C��V�% I understood you (fahimtuka)
Morphology
When the ��)�������M�N (object) is a �'���#�����1�% (attached pronoun) the following relate to
�JK����� � ����#����! � (perfect verbs):
(i) When the pronoun W�X is the ��)�������M�N (object) of a verb it becomes �," .
Rather than "���C� , we say:
"�?���C� He understood me
We add a �H between the ������ (verb) and the pronoun W�X to carry the �:���(� . This
�H is called ���Y�5�)�!� H)�, (the nun of protection) because it protects the vowels of the
������ (verb) from any change.
(ii) The final alif of the third person masculine plural is dropped when a �'���# (pronoun) is attached to it.
�7�Z��5�D��%�P�!� � They read the book
(Notice that the hamza of ���5 sits on a 7 in ��7�Z��5 )
7�Z��5�U They read it
(iii) When a �'���# (pronoun) is attached to the second person masculine plural, a
�7 is inserted in between.
���%���C� You (pl.) understood
���%���C� �$�% P�!� You (pl.) understood the books
��*)���%���C� You (pl.) understood them
(Note: P�!��$�% is [��5��& �'\ (irrational) and therefore
grammatically feminine singular)
i
56
(c) With third person (not second and first person) verbs where the �M�N ��)������ (object) is a ���1�%�� �'���#
(attached pronoun) and the ���&�� (subject) is a ����� (noun), we have no recourse but to place the ���&�� (subject) after the �M�N ��)������ (object), rendering a S � O � V word order. Remember also that if the ���&�� (subject) is �@��� (plural), the ������ (verb) before it remains �������� (singular).
�T!�)�!� �U���5 The boy read it (qara’ahu al-waladu)
(Note that �U�T!�7 ���5 means ‘His boy read’)
�.�%���C ��� A�!� The men wrote them (katabahaa ar-rijaalu)
�%�.�%��M �:����� A woman wrote it (katabathu mar’atun)
�%���C��� P;<��(A?!� The women understood you (pl.) (fahimatkumu an-nisaa’u)
(the �����# on �%���C��� P is a liaison vowel to avoid �(!� ;<�=�%�!���>�?�� )
(d) The �M�N ��)������ (object) in the above sentences are what we call in English ‘direct objects’. �������� (verbs) which take direct objects are called ]T���%�� (transitive) in Arabic. There are some �������� (verbs) that
cannot take a direct object but require a ]�� � ���_ (preposition) before the ‘object’. In English these are
called indirect objects. �������� (verbs) that can only take indirect objects are called �S� a (intransitive).
Arabic does not actually think of an ‘indirect object’ as a ��)�������M�N (object) at all and thinks of it simply
as a [���� �M�.�b (quasi sentence) attached to a ������ (verb).
�I�8JK� L�& �9� He sat on the ground (jalasa ⊂la al-arDi)
3.1.4 Negating � ������! �"�#����! (the perfect verb)
� ������! �"�#����! (the perfect verb) is negated by placing before it the negative particle ��� .
���O�� �$�%� ���Q�N��%�� �T Muhammad did not write a book
�.�%� ����) They (masc. pl.) did not write
3.1.5 Emphasising � ������! �"�#����! (the perfect verb)
� ������! �"�#����! (The perfect verb) may be emphasised by the particle �T5 or more emphatically, by �T=! . The latter is only used initially in a sentence. �T5 and �T=! must always be followed by a ������ (verb).
57
Arab linguists view these two emphatic particles as either foreclosing the possibility of anyone denying
the truth of the statement or responding firmly to any actual denial. The following dialogue illustrates
their usage,
���Y���� :�D��%�P�!� ���* �6����5 ���* Maryam: Have you read this book?
�d�(�_ :�����,e �M�R����5 �T5 Hasan : Yes, I have read it !
���Y���� : �6����5 ��� e a��b �d�� Q�f�D��%�P�!� ���* Maryam : No, you have not read anything from this book
�d�(�_ :�D��%�P�!� ���* �� � �6����5 �T=! Hasan : I did indeed read the whole of this book !
Nothing should intervene between �T5 and the ������ (verb) so we cannot say ��� �T5 or ��� �TJ=! . It also would
not make much sense because one affirms while the other negates.
3.2 Word Order
3.2.1 We have encountered the O � S � V and S � O � V structures above. There is another instance
when the S � O � V structure is preferred even when both the ���&�� (subject) and �M�N ��)������ (object) are
nouns.
When the ���&�� (subject) ends in �dY�)�?�R and the �M�N ��)������ (object) does not, it is better to put the ���&�� (subject) after the �M�N ��)������ (object). This is to engender better euphonic harmony.
��� �8 �D��%�P�!� �$�%� A man wrote the book
rather than
�D��%�P�!� ��� �8 �$�%�
and
�D��%�P�!� �$�%��d�(�_ Hasan wrote the book
rather than
�$�%��d�(�_�D��%�P�!�
3.2.2 The S � V � O structure
We may even bring the �M�N ��)������ (object) before the ������ (verb). This is used especially in poetry as a
rhetorical device to emphasise the �M�N ��)������ (object). The sentence is still considered to be a ��������� �����
(verb sentence).
��%�� �$�%� Q�N�d�(�_ A book did Hasan write
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3.2.3 The O � V � S structure
We have seen above that if a ����� (sentence) begins with the ������ (verb) or the �M�N ��)������ (object) it is a
��������� ����� (verb sentence).
If we place the �&���� (subject) before ������ (verb) in a O � V � S structure, the ����� (sentence)
becomes a ��������� ����� (noun sentence), even though it contains a ������ (verb).
��D��%�P�!� �$�%� �� ��! The man wrote the book
It is useful here to make a distinction between ‘grammar’ and ‘meaning’. Grammatically, in this
sentence, � �� ��! is the ���T�%�.�� (subject) of a ��������� ����� (noun sentence). We say that the verb �$�%� is a
verb sentence ���.�g�!� h��O�� "�� (in the place of the predicate). The �M�N ��)������ (object) is not essential to
the ����� (sentence).
But in terms of meaning, � �� ��! remains the iX�)�?���� ���&�� or semantic subject because as far as the
meaning of the sentence is concerned � �� ��! is ‘doer’ of the action.
In general, it is better practice to use the O � S � V structure rather than the O � V � S structure, and
you should try to avoid the latter at this stage in your Arabic lives.
59
3.2 ��������� � �!��"��� (the imperfect verb)
� ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb) refers to incomplete action usually in the present or future.
� ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb) for �$�%� is:
�$�%�P�Y He is writing (continuous present), or
He writes (habitual present), or
He will write (future), or
He can write (ability)
�$�%�P�Y is produced by prefixing JY to the root, putting �H) P�� on the first root letter and �����# on the
second and last root letters. Verbs never end in �dY�)�?�R . The prefixed letter changes as � ������! ��j�8��k���! (the
imperfect verb) is conjugated into the different persons. They have been shaded in grey in the table
below. The four letters used can be summarised in the formula, �/�Yl�, .
The table below gives the full conjugation of �$�%�P�Y in the imperfect. The �'���#�� ���%�%�( (implied pronoun)
for those persons that have an implied pronoun ���&�� (subject) is given in brackets. The �'���#���1�%��
(attached pronoun) for the others is shaded in grey.
DRILL #4
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�# ��$���%
They write
(2)
�#� ��$��%
They (two) write
(1)
)�)�*( �#���$
He writes
Masc.
(6)
�#� ��$��
They write
(5)
�&� ��$��%
They (two) write
(4)
)�"�*( �&���$
She writes
Fem.
Third
Person
(9)
�& ��$���%
You write
(8)
�&� ��$��%
You (two) write
(7)
)�/�,�( �&���$
You write
Masc.
(12)
�&� ��$��
You write
(11)
�&� ��$��%
You (two) write
(10)
�&� ��$�'��
You write
Fem.
Second
Person
(14)
)�d�O�,( �(���$
We write
(13)
)��,�( �)����
I write
Masc. First
Person
The points relating to verb, subject and object apply to the � ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb).
60
If a [I��� ������ (perfect verb) has a ���O�%� on the middle root letter, such as �$�%� , the vowel above the
middle root letter in � ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb) is different for different �������� (verbs). These
vowels will be indicated in the vocabulary lists in brackets after the perfect, as illustrated below.
Imperfect Perf.
�$�%�P�Y � )m( �$�%� He wrote
�9��n�Y � )o( �9� He sat
����=�Y � )p( ���5 He read
If a [I��� ������ (perfect verb) has a �:���(� under the middle root letter, like ���C� , the vowel above the
middle root letter in ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect) is nearly always ���O�%� .
���C���Y � )p( ���C� He understood
If a [I��� ������ (perfect verb) has a �����# over the middle root letter, like ���.�, the vowel above the middle
root letter in ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect) is always �����# .
���.�P�Y � )m( ���.� He grew
The )W�( �$�(�_ form is very rare.
�$�(�O�Y � )o( �$�(�_ He considered
You should learn ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect) of each ������ (verb) with �"�#����! (the perfect), just as we learn
�j)���n�!� (plurals) with �!����������6� (singulars). This is to ensure that ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect) springs to
mind the moment �����!"�# (the perfect) is mentioned.
3.2.1 Negating � ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb)
� ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb) is negated by placing before it the negative particle a .
�T���O�� ����=�Y a Muhammad is not reading, or
Muhammad does not / will not / cannot read
(laa yaqra’u muHammadun)
a���C��� I am not understanding
I do not / will not / cannot understand
(laa afhamu)
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3.2.2 The future tense
As noted above, � ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb) has a number of possible meanings. If we wish to
make the action clearly in the future, we place either q�� or � �)�� before � ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect
verb). The particle q�� attaches to the verb itself.
�$�%�P���� /�$�%�P�Y � �)�� He will write (sayaktubu / saufa yaktubu)
Nothing should intervene between � �)�� and the ������ (verb) so we cannot say � �)��a to mean, ‘He will
not’.
3.2.3 Placing �T5 before � ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb)
Placing �T5 before � ������! ��j�8��k���! (the imperfect verb) emphasises its incompleteness and makes the
probability of the action uncertain.
�$�%�P�Y �T5 He may write, or
He might write (qad yaktubu)
In poetry and literature, �T5 can be used to affirm a ������ �j�8��k�� (imperfect verb) in the same way that it
affirms a ������ [I��� (perfect verb), but this is not common.
���C��� �T5 I do indeed understand (qad afhamu)
Again, nothing should intervene between �T5 and the ������ (verb) so we cannot say a �T5 to mean ‘He may
not’. Nor can we say q�� �T5 or �T5� �)�� to mean ‘He might’, though you may frequently hear this
modern barbarism.
�T=! is not normally never placed before a ������ �j�8��k�� (imperfect verb).
62
3.3 !�*�+����� (The verbal noun)
The �8�T�1�� (verbal noun or gerund) which literally means ‘source’, is a noun to which the ������ (verb)
corresponds and may be rendered into English by suffixing ‘–ing’, ‘–tion’, ‘–ment’, ‘–ness’ or by the
infinitive verb: ‘to –’.
DRILL #5
Verbal
Noun Imperfect Perfect
Writing �%��Q��N� � �$�%�P�Y � )m( �$�%� He wrote
Sitting Q��) � � �9��n�Y � )o( �9� He sat
Reading Q:J<����5 � ����=�Y � )p( ���5 He read
Understanding Q���C� � ���C���Y � )p( ���C� He understood
Largeness ��.Q�� � ���.�P�Y � )m( ���.� He grew (in size)
Considering;
Consideration Q�N��(�_eQ�,��.�(�_ � �$�(�O�Y � )o( �$�(�_ He considered
The above �8���1�� (verbal nouns) have been presented ending in ���O�%�. This is because it is convention to
learn the �8�T�1�� (verbal noun) as though it is a ��)������ (object). This will be explained fully later.
Although �8�T�1�� (verbal noun) is essentially a noun, it has a certain verbal force, which is why we often
translate it into the English infinitive.
�t) �n�!� �9���u!� "�������� Sitting/to sit in the sun is nice (al-juluusu fii ash-shamsi jameelun)
���C��!�B<�"�b �v��O�1!� ������ Correct understanding is a beautiful thing (al-fahmu aS-SaHeehu shay’un jameelun)
Note that in the above sentences, ‘sitting’ and ‘understanding’ which are not preceded by ‘the’ are
rendered into Arabic using the definite article q�!� . This is because all verbal nouns used in this to refer
to general notions are ��������� (definite) and require q�!� .
Some �8����1�� (verbal nouns), apart from their ‘verbal’ meaning, have taken on a more concrete
‘nominal’ meaning. ���N��%�� means ‘writing’ and ‘to write’, but it also means ‘writing’ as in ‘ink on
paper’.
63
�
��N��%�P�!� �T!�)�!� ����=�Y The boy is reading the writing (yaqra’u al-waladu al-kitaabata)
� First Aid
The �8�T�1�� (verbal noun) is often confused with the ������ �j�8��k�� (imperfect verb).
We find sentences such as ‘the man is sitting’ translated as:
�t) � �� ��!� or �� ��!� �t) �
Or sentences such as ‘to sit is nice’ and ‘sitting is nice’ translated as:
�9��n�Y ������
Prescription
Remember that the verbal noun is a noun, not a verb. A ������ (verb) always has a
tense or a time in which the action happens. A �8�T�1�� (verbal noun) has no tense.
In the sentence ‘The man is sitting’, the word ‘sitting’ is in the present tense so it
must be a ������ �j�8��k�� (imperfect verb).
�� ��!� �9��n�Y
In the sentences ‘to sit is nice’ and ‘sitting is nice’, the word ‘sit/sitting’ has no
tense so it must be a �8�T�1�� (verbal noun).
�!��t) �n������
3.4 The Passive Verb
All the �������� (verbs) that we have encountered in this chapter so far are active verbs. In Arabic, an
active verb is called �������S) ������! i"�?�.�� (lit. a verb constructed for the known (subject)). It is named so
because the ���&�� (subject) of an active verb is known. A passive verb is called ����������! i"�?�.����)�C�n (lit. a
verb constructed for the unknown (subject)) because in Arabic the ���&�� (subject) of a passive verb is
not known.
We know that �$�%� is a �������S) ������! i"�?�.�� (active verb) meaning ‘he wrote’. To say, ‘it was written’ as a
����������! i"�?�.����)�C�n (passive verb), we alter the vowels and say �$�% � . This is the same for all perfect
verbs. The ����! i"�?�.����)�C�n (passive) of the imperfect �$�%�P�Y is �$�%�P�Y (it is (being) written). Verbs that are
�S� a (intransitive) such as �9� (he sat) do not have a ����! i"�?�.����)�C�n (passive). It would not make much
sense to say �9�� .
�������
64
� ����?�.���!� ������JK����! ��)�C�n (passive verbs) are conjugated in the same was as ����?�.���!� ������JK��S) ������! (active
verbs).
The �������S) ������! i"�?�.�� (active verb) as we know, has a ���&�� (subject) and may have a ��)�������M�N (object).
w��%��;K� �$�%��D��%�P�!� The professor wrote the book
When we make the verb ����! i"�?�.����)�C�n (passive), the ���&�� (subject) of the active verb disappears and
becomes ��)�C�n�� (unknown). The �M�N ��)������ (object) of the active verb takes its place and is called the
���&���!� �$�0��, (deputy of the subject).
�D��%�P�!� �$�% � The book was written
Since the �M�N ��)������ (object) has to become the ���&���!� �$�0��, (deputy of the subject), �S� a (intransitive)
active verbs that have no �M�N ��)������ (object) such as �9� (he sat) are often not used in the passive –
�9�� – form.
In Arabic the passive verb is called ��)�C�n����! x"�?�.���!� or ‘unknown’. This is because the subject of the
active verb cannot be mentioned once we make the verb passive.
In English, the subject is often mentioned with a passive verb such as in the sentence, ‘The book was
written by the professor’. We render such sentences into Arabic using a simple active verb as in the
first example above. In Arabic, the ���&�� (subject) of an active verb cannot be mentioned once we make
it passive.
3.4.1 We may introduce not the ���&�� (subject), but the instrument with which the action is carried out.
[�=�N �$�% � It was written with a pen
�N �$�% ��T���!� It was written by hand
�$�% � �T�Y L�& /�t��?!� X�T�Y� It was written by the people
The last example above is a Modern Arabic rendition of a non-Arabic phrase and is as such not a
classical Arabic expression. It is unfortunately used frequently in Modern Arabic journalese as a way
of skirting around Classical Arabic’s insistence on keeping the ���&�� (subject) of a passive verb ��)�C�n��
(unknown).
65
3.5 The ten most common verb forms
All the verbs we have encountered so far may be considered Form I – ���� . Arab grammarians call this
‘����’ �7 H� or the ‘fa⊂
ala form’. There are fifteen verb forms in Arabic derived from the triliteral root by
affixing extra letters out of which ten are most common. Each form denotes certain meaning patterns
but it is best at this stage not to delve too deep into these, nor to consider them to be written in stone.
Rather, we will take the meaning of each individual verb as it is given.
We may summarise Form I as follows:
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
Q��N��%�� �D)�%�P�� �)�C� �$�%�P�Y �$�% � �$�R�� �)�C� �$�%�P�Y �$�%� Writing Written So it is It is written It was written A writer So he is He is writing He wrote
3.5.1 Form II
Form II of the verb is ‘����’ H� �7 . It is produced by doubling the middle letter of the root, so from form I
����& (to know), we have form II ����& (to teach lit. to make someone know). It may please you to know
that there is generally only one pattern for the �8�T�1�� (verbal noun) of Form II: ��������R and occasionally
�������R . This is true for all derived forms. Note that the ���&���!� ����� (Active Participle) and ��)�������!� ����� (Passive Participle) are identical apart from the vowel on the middle letter. This is true for all derived
forms.
We may summarise Form II as follows:
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
Q�������R ������� �)�C� ������Y ��h�& ��h���� �)�C� ��h���Y ����& Teaching Taught So he is It is taught It was taught A teacher So he is He is
teaching He taught
Form II is usually the causative of Form I. If a ������ (verb) in Form I has one ��)�������M�N (direct object),
Form II of that verb can have two ��)�������M�N .
�� ��!� ����&�t�8�T!� The man knew the lesson
�T!�)�!� �� ��!� ����&�t�8�T!� The man taught the boy the lesson
66
3.5.2 Form V
Form V of the verb is ‘ �R���� ’ H� �7 . It produced from form II by affixing a taa’ with a ���O�%� on it to the
beginning, so from Form II ����& (to teach), we have Form V ������R (to learn).
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf. Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
Q��F���R ������%�� �)�C� ������%�Y ��h���R ��h���%�� �)�C� ������%�Y ������R Learning Learned So he is It is being learned It was learned A learner So he is He is learning He learned
Form V is usually the reflexive of Form II. That means that it refers to the action of the first ��)�������M�N
(object) of Form II. If Form II has two ��)�������M�N (objects), Form V takes one and if Form II has one
��)�������M�N , Form V has none.
�t�8�T!� �T!�)�!� ������R The boy learned the lesson
3.5.3 Form III
Form III of the verb is ‘��&��’ H� �7 . It is produced by inserting an alif between the first and second letter
of the root. The ���8�T�1 (verbal noun) of Form III is of the form ������� or ���&���� and occasionally both.
14. A tall boy is sitting and reading a long book and the sun is becoming red
15. Indeed I have informed you: The verb sentence is (constituted of) a verb and a subject
16. Is it not true? Yes, we read the book and we understand the book
17. When did the students read the book, what did they read and how did they understand?
18. Are you the boys? No, we are the men
SUMMARY OF VERB FORMS
Form I
Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
�������� � ������ � ��������� ��������� ����� �������� ���� � ������ ����� �������� ����� Don’t Write! Write! Writing Written So it is It is written It was written A writer So he is He is writing He wrote
���)��+���:;�� ��)��+���<�� �������+���<�� �����+���:�� ����� �����+���:�� ��)��+���< � ����)��+���: ����� ��)��+���:�� �����+���<�� Don’t Enquire! Enquire! Enquiry enquired So it is It is
enquired It was
enquired An enquirer So he is He is
enquiring He enquired
73
�������� ���� ��� Chapter 4
Government
This chapter is about Arabic syntactical society and how it is governed. The members of this society
are ������� (words) and they are divided into three classes, Regents, Subordinates and Slaves. We will
dedicate a later chapter to the Slave class. This chapter deals with Regents and their Subordinates.
The Arabic term for syntactical government is ��� ������ ��������� (lit. grammatical work or function). A
governing word or ‘Regent’ is called ������� (lit. actor) and a Subordinate is called ���� �� ������ (lit. acted
upon). Arabic syntactical society is held together by a system in which some ������� (words) govern
others and cause them to hold certain subordinate ‘ranks’. We call these ‘ranks’ � ��!���" (case). Let us
explore this notion in what we have already learned.
Review
� We know that the �#�!�$ %!�& (preposition) makes its �'(�!�)�� �*�+� (object)
end in �,�!�-. � We know that in an ��"�./��0 construction, the �#��1�� (possessed noun)
always makes the ���2��" �#��1�� (possessor) end in �,�!�- .
� We know that in a �.�2���+� �.����& (noun sentence) both the �3�4�5�6�� (subject) and
�!�6�7 (predicate) ordinarily end in �.���0 . The particle 89�" enters upon it and
makes the �3�4�5�6�� (subject) end in �.�)�5/ . The words 9� and �:�2� enter upon
it and make the �!�6�7 (predicate) end in �.�)�5/ . � We know that in the �.����&�.�2�����/ (verb sentence) the �����/ (verb) makes the
�����/ end in �.���0 and makes the ���� �� ���;�� (object) end in �.���5/ .
We can see from the above review that certain words govern or act upon others, causing them to take
on a particular vowel ending. Grammatically we say that a ������� (regent) causes its ���� �� ������ (subordinate) to have a certain � ��!���" (case) or ‘rank’ and each ‘rank’ has a �.��<�� (insignia) by way of a
vowel ending. Using a different analogy, we can think of a ������� (regent) ‘infecting’ its ���� �� ������ (subordinate) with a � ��!���" (case) or ‘virus’ and each ‘virus’ has a �.��<�� (symptom) by way of a vowel
ending.
i
74
There are four � ��!���" (cases) or ‘ranks’ / ‘viruses’ (whichever way you want to think about it) in Arabic
and each is normally indicated by one of the three vowels or the �9 �=�+ .
�������� Normal vowel ‘insignia’
or ‘symptom’
Name given to word
of that case
���������
Case
or ‘rank’ / ‘virus’
�.���0) ?@( �B �/�!�� �C�/�'
�.���5/) ?D( � �E���� �F�E�G
�,�!�-) ?�( �'(�!�)�� H!�&
�9 �=�+) ?I( �J(�K�)�� �J�K�&
If the case of a word is �C�/�' we call it �B �/�!�� . The last letter of a �B �/�!�� word normally ends in �.���0 .
If the case of a word is �F�E�G we call it � �E���� . The last letter of a � �E���� word normally ends in �.���5/ . If the case of a word is H!�& we call it �'(�!�)�� . The last letter of a �'(�!�)�� word normally ends in �,�!�- .
If the case of a word is �J�K�& we call it �J(�K�)�� . The last letter of a �J(�K�)�� word normally ends in �9 �=�+ .
The �J�K�& case never applies to LM����+3 (nouns) and the �&H! case never applied to ������/3 (verbs).
4.1 ������������ (The Regents)
A ������� (regent) that causes another word to become �B �/�!�� is called �C�/��' and the verb referring to this
action is �C/�')�C/�!�N( (lit. to raise)
A ������� (regent) that causes another word to become �'(�!�)�� is called H'��& and the verb referring to this
action is �!�&)�!�)�N( (lit. to drag).
A ������� (regent) that causes another word to become � �E���� is called �F�O��G and the verb referring to
this action is �F�E�G)�E���N�F( (lit. to erect).
A ������� (regent) that causes another word to become �J(�K�)�� is called �J�P��& and the verb referring to this
action is �J�K�&)�J�K�)�N( (lit. to cut).
4.1.1 �C�/�!�� ������ �� (Regents that govern the �C�/�' case)
These Regents are called �C�/��') �C�/��(�'( . They make their ���� �� ������ (subordinate) �B �/�!�� which normally
ends in �.���0 .
75
(a) The �����/ (verb) - makes the �����/ (subject) �B �/�!�� We say �����;�������;��� �C/�!�N
������� �F�5Q����5� �* The scholar wrote a book
In Arabic, every verb seeks a �����/ (subject).
The English infinitive verb that has no subject such as ‘to write’, is
often translated into Arabic using a �'�4�E�� (verbal noun) such as �.����5 .
(b) The ���3�4�5�6 (subject) - makes itself �B �/�!�� which normally ends in �.���0 .
- makes the �!�6�7 (predicate) �B �/�!�� We say ����3�4�5�6��� �C/�!�N ���!�6�R
�4�S�5�)�� �F���8T�� The student is diligent
(c) 89�" - makes the �!�6�7 (predicate) ���B �/�!
We say 89�" ��� �C/�!�N�!�6�R
89�"�4�S�5�)�� �F���8T�� Indeed the student is diligent
(d) 9� - makes the �3�4�5�6�� (subject) �B �/�!�� We say 9� � �C/�!�N��3�4�5�6��
9�Q�4�S�5�)�� �F���8T�� The student was diligent
(e) �:�2� - makes the �3�4�5�6�� (subject) �B �/�!�� We say �:�2� �C/�!�N���3�4�5�6��
�:�2�Q�4�S�5�)�� �F���8T�� The student is not diligent
4.1.2 �F�E���� ������ �� (Regents that govern the �F�E�G case)
These Regents are called �O��G�F) �F�O�� �G( . They make their ���� �� ������ (subordinate) � �E���� which
normally ends in �.���5/ .
The examples for the section above serve as examples for this section.
(a) The �����/ (verb) - makes the �� ���;������ (object) � �E���� We say ������;����� �F�E���N � ���;������
(b) 89�" - makes the �3�4�5�6�� (subject) � �E���� We say �F�E���N 89�"���3�4�5�6��
76
(c) 9� - makes the �!�6�7 (predicate) � �E���� We say �!�6�R��� �F�E���N 9�
(d) �:�2� - makes the ���3�4�5�6 (subject) �B �/�!�� We say �:�2� �!�6�R��� �F�E���N
4.1.3 U!�)��� ������ �� (Regents that govern the �&H! case)
These regents are called H'��& . They make their ���� �� ������ (subordinate) �'(�!�)�� which normally ends in �,�!�-.
(a) A %!�& �#�!�$ or H'��& (preposition) - makes the �*�+� (noun) after it �'(�!�)�� We say ����)�'� �!�)�N �V��*�+
� ��5�=��� W�/ In the book
(b) The �#��1�� (possessed noun) - makes the �#��1�� �"���2� (possessor) �'(�!�)�� We say ����1���#� �!�)�N ����#��1�� �"���2�
�F���8T�� � ��5� The student’s book
The �#��1�� (possessed noun) is a ������� (regent) in relation to its ���� �� ������ (subordinate) the �#��1�� �"���2�
(possessor), but is itself a ���� �� ������ (subordinate) of what precedes it,
�F���8T�� � ��5� 3�!X He read the student’s book
�F���8T�� � ��5� W�/ In the student’s book
We know that the first person singular attached pronoun ?�� , when attached to an �*�+� (noun), requires
that the letter preceding it carries a �,�!�- liaison vowel. This �,�!�- occupies the place of the vowel
indicating case and prevents it from appearing so that �W����5� (my book) is �W����5� in all three cases. We
call this Y�������� ����Z�5�[� (occupation of the position).
����5��W �C�/��G My book is useful
���3�!X �W����5� I read my book
W�/�W����5� In my book
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4.2 Case and �������� words
The notion of Case only applies to � �!���� (declinable) words. HW���6�� (indeclinable) words such as �!�\����0
(pronouns), @M����+3�,�'��[D]� (demonstrative pronouns) and �5�+�V� @M����+3��S�;�J (interrogative nouns) (apart
from ��3) do not have case but are able to sit Y����� W�/ (in the place of) words with case.
4.2.1 �!�\����0 (pronouns)
The ;���� �!�\����0�.��E (detached pronouns) that we encountered in P13 and the �5�� �!�\����0�.��E (attached
pronouns) that we used in chapter 3 to conjugate most persons of the perfect and imperfect verb sit W�/Y�����C�/�' (in the place of the �C�/�' case).
(a) as �3�4�5�6���/�!�� �B (marfuu⊂
subject)
� �_�F��� He is a student
(We parse the pronoun as follows: C�/�' Y����� W/ �a�5;��� b��� HW���6�� ���E;���� �c���0’ �3�4�5�6�� ‘ )
(b) as �!�6�7 �B �/�!�� (marfuu⊂
predicate)
�f�_� �_ This is it (We parse the pronoun as follows: C�/�' Y����� W/ �a�5;��� b��� HW���6�� ���E;���� �c���0 ’ �!�6�7‘ )
(c) as �����/�B �/�!�� (marfuu⊂
subject)
�F�5 He wrote (We parse the implied pronoun � �_ as follows: �!�5�5�-�� �c���0 ... C�/�' Y����� W/ ’ �����/‘ )
�6�5�� They wrote (We parse the attached pronoun �( as follows: �� �c���0���E�5 C�/�' Y����� W/ ’ �����/‘ )
We have been learning these words without N� ���i�g even when they are �,�!�=�G (indefinite).
h Nouns that are �#�!�E�� �g�� �B ������ (diptote), when made �'(�!�)�� (by a %!�& �#�!�$ (preposition) for
example), cannot end in the normal vowel indicator for the �'(�!�)�� case which is �,�!�-. Instead, the
�'(�!�)�� case is indicated on �#�!�E�� �g�� �B ������ (diptote) words by a �.���5/ .
�B ������ �#�!�E�� �g�� (diptote) nouns are of two types, proper noun diptotes and common noun diptotes and
there is a difference in the way they behave.
4.3.1 Proper noun diptotes
Proper nouns refer to particular things such as people and places.
h Proper noun diptotes have no �gN� ���i and no �j�� but are nevertheless always �./�!���� (definite).
N�4�� �.8=���.�� Makkah is a city (makkatu madeenatun)
h The �'(�!�)�� case on a proper noun diptote is always indicated by a �.���5/ .
We never say,
�.8=�� W�/ � �_ �
The correct expression is,
DD.8=�� W�/ � �_ He is in Makkah (huwa fi makkata)
80
�� W�/ � �_DD.8=4������ He is in Muhammad’s Makkah (huwa fi makkata muHammadin)
8=�� ����&�' �*�_. They are the men of ancient Makkah (hum rijaalu makkata al-qadeemati)
Remember that D.8=�� in the above expressions is still grammatically �'(�!�)�� even though it ends in �.���5/ . In chapter 1.3 we said that a �.;�O (adjective) must agree with the ���# �O� (described noun) in ending. In
actual fact, agreement is in � ��!���" (case), not vowel ending, which is a mere �.��<�� (indicator).
If we wish to describe D.8=�� with a triptote �.;�O (adjective), we must make it �./�!���� (definite) with j��� and
�'(�!�)�� with �,�!�- so that it agrees with D.8=�� in definition and case.
� �_� .8=�� W�/�N�4q���.�� He is in ancient Makkah (huwa fi makkata al-qadeemati)
� �_� 4������ .8=�� W�/�N�4q���.�� In Muhammad’s ancient Makkah (huwa fi makkata muHammadin al-qadeemati)
8=�� ����&�'.�.���N�4q��� The men of ancient Makkah (rijaalu makkata al-qadeemati)
4.3.2 Common Noun diptotes
Common Nouns refer to classes of things rather than particular things.
Unlike proper noun diptotes, common noun diptotes can be �,�!�=�G (indefinite) and can be made �./�!���� (definite) by attaching the definite article �j�� .
�r�f�_�.���+��( @M��!���O This is a wide desert (haadthihii SaHraa’u waasi⊂atu)
�r�f�_ ���E@M��!�� ����.���+�� This is wide desert (haadthihii aS-SaHraa’u al-waasi⊂atu)
h (a) When common noun diptotes are �,�!�=�G (indefinite), they behave in the same way as proper noun
diptotes, indicating the �'(�!�)�� case with a �.���5/ instead of �,�!�-. It is important to remember that they
are still �'(�!�)�� .
.���+��( DM��!���O W�/ � �_ It is in a wide desert (huwa fi SaHraa’a waasi⊂atin)
'��6� DM��'�P�( �g�� From senior ministers (min wuzaraa’a kibaarin)
b��" 4��( 9��l�T�� From a thirsty boy (ilaa waladin ⊂aTshaana)
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DM����4�X s ���� �g�� from ancient kings (min muluukin qudamaa’a)
(b) Common noun diptotes are only considered to be �#�!�E�� �g�� �B ������ (diptote) when they are �,�!�=�G (indefinite). When they are �./�!���� (definite), they behave like normal triptote LM����+3 (nouns).
�.���+�� ��� �M��!���E�� W�/ � �_ He is in the wide desert (huwa fi al-SaHraa’i al-waasi⊂ati)
�'��6�=��� �M��'�P� ��� �g�� From the senior ministers (min al-wuzaraa’i al-kibaari)
b��"��� �4�� ����9��l�T�� To the thirstly boy (ilaa al-waladi al-⊂aTshaanui)
�M����4�q��� �s ������� �g�� From the ancient kings (min al-muluuki al-qudamaa’i)
(c) When a common noun diptote is in a definite ��"�./��0 construction, it no longer behaves like a �B �������#�!�E�� �g�� (diptote) because it is �./�!���� (definite).
�O W�/ � �_�M��!���t��!����� �.���+�� ��� He is in the wide desert of Iraq (huwa fi SaHraa’i al-⊂iraaqi al-waasi⊂ati)
���'��6�=��� �t��!����� �M��'�P�( �g From the senior ministers of Iraq (min wuzaraa’i al-⊂iraaqi al-kibaari)
�:���)�� W�/�M��'�P� ��� In the cabinet (lit. In the council of ministers) (fi majlisi al-wuzaraa’i)
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4.4 Case and $%��#�&�'��()�*���� (weak nouns)
We encountered the two types of u��5���� �*�+� (weak noun) in the Preliminaries (cf. P8). One can guess that
since it is a problem of vowel ending that makes such nouns weak, displaying vowel ending to indicate
case will be a problem in such words.
4.4.1 �' �E�q����� (The shortened)
Words such as wbj����� (meaning) are �' �E�q�� (shortened) words that are �#�!�E���� (triptote). The final
vowel does change according to case, but it is invisible. Any adjective however, will agree with its
case and take the relevant vowel ending.
Definite Indefinite
��� �f�_�b�������a2���E�� This correct meaning
�f�_�a2���O wbj����� This is a correct meaning
�B �/�!��
��� �*�S/�b�������a2���E�� He understood the correct meaning
�*�S/ Q��2���O wbj����� He understood a correct meaning
� �E����
������b�������a2���E�� With the correct meaning
��a2���O wbj����� With a correct meaning
�'(�!�)��
Words such as �x�'����O (deserts) and �b�+ �� (moses) are �' �E�q�� (shortened) words that are �g�� �B �������#�!�E�� (diptotes). This is evident in the lack of �gN� ���i . Again, the final vowel does change according to
case, but it is invisible. Any adjective however, will agree with its case and take the relevant vowel
ending.
Definite Indefinite
�E�� �W�_�x�'����.�2���)���
They are the beautiful deserts
�x�'����O �W�_�.�2���&
They are beautiful deserts
�B �/�!��
�x�'����E�� ��7�m.�2���)���
He entered the beautiful deserts
�x�'����O ��7�mQ.�2���&
He entered beautiful deserts � �E����
�x�'����E�� W�/�.�2���)���
In the beautiful deserts
W�/�x�'����O.�2���&
In beautiful deserts
�'(�!�)��
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4.4.2 ����y �q���� (The reduced)
Words such as z��� (past), m��( (valley) and B��m (caller) are �y �q���� (reduced) words that are �#�!�E���� (triptote). As explained in the preliminaries, the anomalous ending of �y �q���� (reduced) words are
arrived at in the following way,
m��( � ���m��( )�9�m��(( Remove the N@ )�g�N�m��((
As illustrated below, the final vowel only changes when it becomes � �E���� . The �B �/�!�� and the �'(�!�)�� look identical. Any adjective however, will agree with its case and take the relevant vowel ending.
Definite Indefinite
�f�_��2���)��� ���m�� ���
This beautiful valley
�f�_��2���& m��(
This is a beautiful valley
�B �/�!��
�2���)��� ���m�� ��� ��7�m He entered the beautiful valley
Q<2���& Q�Nm��( ��7�m He entered a beautiful valley
� �E����
��2���)��� ���m�� ��� W�/ In the beautiful valley
W�/�2���& m��(
In a beautiful valley
�'(�!�)��
Words such as z��'3 (lands) and 9����� (meanings) are �y �q���� (reduced) words that are �#�!�E�� �g�� �B ������ (diptotes). This is not apparent at first instance, there being no evident difference between the words m��( and z��'3 . The difference only manifests itself when it is �,�!�=�G (indefinite) and � �E���� .
Definite Indefinite
��� �W�0��'D{� �r�f�_�.�2���)
These beautiful lands
z��'3 �r�f�_�.�2���&
These are beautiful lands
�B �/�!��
��7�m��� �W�0��'D{�.�2���)
He entered the beautiful lands
��7�m �+��,�'��Q.�2���&
He entered beautiful lands � �E����
W�/��� �W�0��'D{��.�2���)
In the beautiful lands
z��'3 W�/.�2���&
In beautiful lands
�'(�!�)��
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4.5 Case and �-����.�' (verbs)
All perfect verbs are HW���6�� (indeclinable). All imperfect verbs on the other hand are � �!���� (declinable)
apart from the two feminine plurals �g�6�5�=�N and �i�g�6�5�= which are �9 �=�-�� b��� HW���6�� (fixed on sukuun) and
do not have case. The remaining imperfect verbs we learned in chapter three are of the �B �/�!�� case. The
�C�/�!�� �.��<�� (indicator of the raf⊂
case) on the �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb) is:
� �.���0 for the imperfect verbs that end in �.���0
� �9 ���� �� �6�| (affixing of the 9) for dual, masculine plural and second person feminine
singular verbs.
4.5.1 The � �E���� imperfect verb
The particle �g� (will never) negates the �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb) in the future.
h �g� is a ������� (regent) that makes a �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb) � �E���� .
The �F�E���� �.��<�� (indicator of the naSb case) on the �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb) is:
� �.���5/ for the imperfect verbs that ended in �.���0 when �B �/�!�� � �9 ���� �#�f�$ (omission of the 9) for dual, masculine plural and second person feminine
singular verbs.
As noted above, the feminine plurals �g�6�5�=�N and �g�6�5�=�i are �9 �=�-�� b��� HW���6�� (fixed on sukuun) and do not
have case so �g� cannot make them � �E���� . The 9 on these two feminine plurals is called �� �9 �G �,� �-U�
(the nun of women) and it is never omitted.
85
The � �E���� of �F�5�=�N is conjugated as follows,
DRILL #6
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�����*�/�0 �!��� *
They will never write
(2)
����*�/�0 �!�� They (two) will never write
(1)
�0 �!���2�*�/
He will never write
Masc.
(6)
�!���!���*�/�0 **
They will never write
(5)
�!������*�/�3
They (two) will never write
(4)
�3 �!���2�*�/
She will never write
Fem.
Third
Person
(9)
�����*�/�3 �!��� *
You will never write
(8)
�3 �!������*�/
You (two) will never write
(7)
�3 �!���2�*�/
You will never write
Masc.
(12)
�!���!���*�/�3 **
You will never write
(11)
�!������*�/�3
You (two) will never write
(10)
�!�������*�/�3
You will never write
Fem.
Second
Person
(14)
�!���4�2�*�/
We will never write
(13)
�� �!�'�2�*�5
I will never write
Masc. First
Person
* An alif is added after omitting the nun on the masculine plurals.
** These are not � �E���� but HW���6���9 �=�-�� b��� (fixed on sukuun).
��S��7�4�G �g� ��G�"�( } ...~ And we shall never enter it …
�g��� ���S�;�i You (pl.) will never understand
4.5.2 The �J(�K�)�� imperfect verb
(a) The particle �*� (did not) is used to negate an imperfect verb. The peculiarity of �*� is that although it
negates an imperfect verb, the negation has a perfect meaning.
h �*� is a ������� (regent) that makes a�B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb) �J�(�K�)�� .
The �J�K�)��� �.��<�� (indicator of the jazm case) on the �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb) is:
� �9 �=�+ for the imperfect verbs that ended in �.���0 when �B �/�!�� � �9 ���� �#�f�$ (omission of the 9) for dual, masculine plural and second person feminine
singular verbs.
As noted above, the feminine plurals �g�6�5�=�N and �g�6�5�=�i are �9 �=�-�� b��� HW���6�� (fixed on sukuun) and do not
have case so �*� cannot make them �J�(�K�)�� . The 9 on these two feminine plurals is called �,� �-U��� �9 �G (the
nun of women) and it is never omitted.
86
The �J�(�K�)�� of �F�5�=�N is conjugated as follows,
DRILL #7
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�6�������*�/�0 � *
They did not write
(2)
�6������*�/�0
They (two) did not write
(1)
�6���0 �2�*�/
He did not write
Masc.
(6)
�6�� �!���*�/�0 **
They did not write
(5)
�6�� ����*�/�3
They (two) did not write
(4)
�6���3 �2�*�/
She did not write
Fem.
Third
Person
(9)
���6�����*�/�3 � *
You did not write
(8)
�6���3 ����*�/
You (two) did not write
(7)
�6���3 �2�*�/
You did not write
Masc.
(12)
�6���!���*�/�3 **
You did not write
(11)
�6������*�/�3
You (two) did not write
(10)
�6�������*�/�3
You did not write
Fem.
Second
Person
(14)
�6���4 �2�*�/
We did not write
(13)
�6���' �2�*�5
I did not write
Masc. First
Person
* An alif is added after omitting the nun on the masculine plurals.
** These are not ���J(�K�) but �9 �=�-�� b��� HW���6�� (fixed on sukuun).
�*��F�5�=�N He did not write
�� ���S�;�i �*� You did not understand
Note that �F�5�=�N �*� and �F�5 ��� bear the same meaning as do �� ���S�;�i �*� and �*�5���S/ ��� .
h The particle ���� is a sister of �*� . It too is a ������� (regent) that makes a �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb)
�J�(�K�)�� . Like �*� the particle ���� negates an imperfect verb with a perfect meaning but brings the
negation up to the present time and additionally suggests that it is imminently to happen. It may be
translated as ‘not yet but soon’.
�F�5�=�N ���� He has not yet written (but will write soon)
87
(b) The negative imperative
The negative imperative is produced by placing the particle V before a �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb).
This V is called the V�S���� �J�W (lam of prohibition) and should be distinguished from the �W�;���� �JV (lam of
negation) that we encountered in chapter three.
The �W�S���� �JV (lam of prohibition) is a ������� (regent) that makes the imperfect verb �J�(�K�)�� .
It may please you to know that the imperative is only produced in the second person. This is because
commands are only addressed in the second person. We do not command ourselves or those who are
absent.
DRILL #8
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�7�����*�/�3 �
Do not write
(2)
�7�3 ����*�/
Do not write
(1)
�7�3 �2�*�/
Do not write
Masc.
(6)
�7�!���*�/�3 *
Do not write
(5)
�7����*�/�3
Do not write
(4)
�7�����*�/�3
Do not write
Fem.
Second
Person
* This is not ���J(�K�) but �9 �=�-�� b��� HW���6�� (fixed on sukuun).
The following are the masculine singular negative imperative verbs for forms II to X. The other
persons are conjugated in the same way as the verbs above.
Imperative verbs normally only occur in the second person. We do not normally command ourselves or
those absent. However, we may have occasion to say ‘let him become’ or ‘he should become’, which is
a mild positive imperative. This is achieved by placing the particle j�� before the �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect
verb).
h j�� is called D{� �JV�!�� (the laam of command) and is a ������� (regent) that makes the imperfect verb �J�(�K�)��
Most commonly used in the third person, it means ‘let him . . .’, i.e. ‘he should . . .’
�F�5�=�2�� Let him write/He should write
j�� may also be preceded by j/ or �( to make j��/ and j���( .
Q����5� �F�5�=�2��/ Let him write a book
The mild positive imperative is rarely used in the first person or second persons. When it is used in the
first person, it means ‘let me/I should’ or ‘let us/we should’.
�F�-�$D�{ Let me consider/I should consider
����/�:���) Let us sit/We should sit
In the second person it means ‘you . . . / you should . . .’.
�:���)�5�� You sit/You should sit
Rarely and only in poetry, the j�� may be omitted.
�:���)�i You sit/You should sit
4.5.3 The HW���6�� verb
We know that the z��� �����/ (perfect verb) and the feminine plurals of the �B�'��1�� �����/ (imperfect verb)
are HW���6�� (indeclinable).
The positive imperative verb is called �!��D{� �����/ (lit. the verb of command). The �!��D{� �����/ (imperative
verb) is HW���6�� (fixed), but it looks like a �J�(�K�)�� imperfect verb because it is produced from the �J�(�K�)�� imperfect verb. We say that it is ��� b��� HW���6���B�'��1����� ���2��� �J�K�)�N (fixed on what the imperfect verb is
made �J�(�K�)�� upon). That is, it is HW���6�� (fixed) on the indicator of the �J�(�K�)�� .
89
We start with the �J�(�K�)�� imperfect �F�5�=�i . Then we drop the initial j�i . We are left with �F�5� . This is
essentially our �!��D{� �����/ (imperative verb). But this word begins with �9 �=�+ so we place a ���O� ��� �,�K���_ (cf. P5) at the beginning rendering �F�5�� . The ���O� ��� �,�K���_ has no �.�!�$ (vowel) of its own and any
preceding �.�!�$ (vowel) overrides it and goes directly to the first letter rendering �F�5���( .
When �F�5�� is initial, we supply a �.�6�+����� �.�!�$ (liaison vowel) on the ���O� ��� �,�K���_ . If the vowel on the
middle root letter of the verb is a �.���0 we supply a �.���0 on the ���O� ��� �,�K���_ . If the vowel on the middle
root letter of the verb is a ���5/�. or �,�!�- , we supply a �,�!�- on the ���O� ��� �,�K���_ . The �.���5/ is never
supplied on the ���O� ��� �,�K���_ of a �!��D{� �����/ (imperative verb).
DRILL #9
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�������*�5�
Write!
(2)
����*�5�� Write!
(1)
�2�*�5�� Write!
Masc.
(6)
���!���*�5
Write!
(5)
������*�5
Write!
(4)
�������*�5
Write!
Fem.
Second
Person
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
���@�)�B���
Sit!
(2)
�@�)�B���
Sit!
(1)
�C�)�B�� Sit!
Masc.
(6)
�!�@�)�B�� Sit!
(5)
��@�)�B�� Sit!
(4)
�@�)�B����
Sit!
Fem.
Second
Person
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�D�E���F���
Read!
(2)
���F��G
Read!
(1)
�'���F�� Read!
Masc.
(6)
�H�'���F�� Read!
(5)
���F��G
Read!
(4)
���I���F�� Read!
Fem.
Second
Person
90
The following are the masculine singular imperative verbs for forms II to X. The other persons are
The �� of the ���� � (dual) compensates for its lack of �56����G . However, when the ���� � (dual) is made F-�����$�� (definite), we simply add the definite article A��� and the �� remains: ����������"#�$ and ������5�9��"#�$ for the
masculine and ���������D��"#�$ and ������5�9�D��"#�$ for the feminine.
Orthography
� Words ending in ‘ �<=�� ’ are called ��3�H���� . If a ��3�H���� is feminine and the = is
not a root letter, the = changes into a 3 when the word is made ���� � (dual)
����3����I�J � <=����I�J
This is frequently found in female names.
���� �K����3 � <=���� �K
If the word is masculine or = is a root letter, it remains.
����=��� � L=���
� For �0��2�M�� words ending in FC��3�H���� �+���N such as �9�O��� , the FC��3�H���� �+���N changes into �3 when the word is made ���� � (dual).
������9�O�� � ��9�O��
� For �0��2�M�� words ending in FC�0��2�M�� �+���N such as �A�$�� , the FC�0��2�M�� �+���N changes into �7 when the word is made ���� � (dual).
������9��$ � �A�$��
The duals of the �C�0��P�Q� <=����@�N (demonstrative pronouns) are,
Feminine Masculine
����D� / � �9�D�5 haataani / haatayni
These two
����R� / � �6�R�5 haadhaani / haadhayni
These two
�S�O��G /�S��9�G taanika / taynika
These two
�S�O��T /�S��6�T dhaanika / dhaynika
These two
i
97
5.1.1 Use of the ���� � (dual)
A F-���J (adjective) describing a ���� � (dual) noun must be ���� � (dual).
�D�(�����H6�H�� ����U two new books
(a) We are not required to use the numeral ‘two’ because the ���� � (dual) conveys its meaning.
���.���0 ���� They are two men
�5�9�U��D�( &�� In two books
�5�9�D���#�( �N���V He read two words
We may place the number two, �����W (m) and ��W�D��� (f) which is itself a dual as a F-���J (adjective) after a
��!�@ (noun) to emphasise it.
�����W� ����U��D�( two books
�5�9�U��D�( &���W� �5�9� In two books
�5�9�D��W� �5�9�D���#�( �N���V He read two words
(b) For things that always come in twos, the ���� � (dual) must be used.
�����9�/����D�#9���� two beautiful eyes
�5�9��9�$��� ����X �5�9�#��>��� �5�� From the feet to the eyes
(c) A F-���J (adjective) describing two singular nouns is usually ����� (dual).
��Y�2�� �Z��[����3 �H�������\��� The small boy and girl
Rather than,
��C�\�Y�2�� �Z��[����3 �\�Y�2�� �H������ The small boy and the small girl
A ����� �!�@ � (dual noun) may be described �U�5�9�G�������� �5�9�D���2 (by two singular adjectives).
�\�Y�2���3 �\�[�]��� �5�9�U��D�]��� �N���V He read the two big and small books
(lit. He read the two books. The big one and the
small one)
98
5.2 ������� (The plural)
There are three types of ������ (plural) in Arabic:
1. �\� �]�D�� ������ (the broken plural)
2. ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine plural)
3. ������4�� �!���� �� � �O�a����� (the sound feminine plural)
5.2.1 �\� �]�D�� ������ (The broken plural)
The �\� �]�D�� ������ (broken plural) breaks the construction of the �������� (singular) by interpolating,
dropping letters and/or changing the vowels:
A�9�U��' � �Z�9�U �(�D�? � A�D�(��1
Most of the ������� (plurals) introduced in the vocabulary lists so far are �\� �]�D�� ������ (broken plural).
5.2.2 ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine plural)
����!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4 (the sound masculine plural), like the ���� � (dual) is produced from the �������� (singular).
% &�������4���_(�R����� ���!���� �� (in the sound masculine plural), case is not indicated by �'��(���) (vowles), but
by a �*���) (letter).
The ��������� sound masculine plural is produced by suffixing –< �3�� to the �������� (singular).
�!� ��"#�$�����
They (two) are teachers
� ��� �!"#�$��
He is a teacher
�3�������������� �-���.�/ (the �3 is the indicator of the �����0 case). The �� of ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound
masculine plural) compensates for its lack of �56����G .
The �1��2��� and �03���4�� sound masculine plural is produced by suffixing –� �6�5 to the �������� (singular).
Effectively, the �3 of the ��������� dial becomes �7 .
<=��9��>��4����3 �?�2��� �-���.�/ (the �7 is the indicator of �1��2��� and �03���4��)
�!�8�� �5�9��"#�$��
He understood teachers
� �!�8��:��"#�$��
He understood a teacher
99
5���5�9��"#�$��
From teachers
� ;!"#�$�� 5��
From a teacher
The �� compensates for the lack of �56����G on ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine plural). However,
when ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine plural) is made F-�����$�� (definite), we simply add the
definite article A��� and the �� remains: ��������"#�$�� .
��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine plural) is indicated in the dictionary by ‘pl. – nū ’ and will
henceforth be indicated in the vocabulary lists by (��3).
% ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine plural), apart from a few exceptions, is used only for ��_(�R�� (male) human beings.
(a) If a noun or adjective for a male human being has a �\� �]�D�� ������ (broken plural), the ��R����� �����4�� ��_(�!���� �� (sound masculine plural) is not normally used. The plural of Fc���0 is Fd����0 , not ����#���0 .
There are, however, a few exceptions to this. There are �\� �]�D�� ������ (broken plurals) for Fc�9�#�V and �\���(
and �?6���V and �H9�$�U , but ����#�9�#�V , �\���(��3 , ����[6���V and ��3�H9�$�U are also possible.
"#�$�� ������D���e� &�� ������(���� / �0����( /�\���(��3 There are many teachers in the meeting
����$�U �!� /��3�H9�$�U�5�/ >f�Ig��� They are far from the truth
(b) There are a number of words that do not refer to ��_(�R�� (male) human beings, but form a ������
(plural) using � ��3< . We may annex them to ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine plural).
Plural using –� ��� Broken Plural Singular
/�N�h�#� ����#� �N ;d�� �N Fc� �N Folk
���������/ /�h������/ �!������/ �!����/ World
����i�0�N /�h�i�0�N ;j��0�N �j�0�N Land
�����@ /�h��@ �'�����@ F-��@ Year
�����U / �h��U L=���U�N ��5�U Son
��5�U) �����U( does refer to male human beings but is placed in this list because the singular is broken to
produce the plural so it is not ‘sound’.
100
The Opening
The opening verse of the Quran,
‘Praise belongs to Allah, The Lord of the worlds’
��h������$��� >1�0 �m_#�� �H���I��
>1�0 agrees with �m_#�� because it is a Fd�H�U (substitute) for it. In English we call
this apposition. It is as though we are saying, ��h������$��� >1���� �H���I�� .
A Fd�H�U (substitute) or appositional word is normally interchangeable with the
word it is appositional to:
‘I saw your brother, Hasan’ � ‘I saw Hasan, your brother’.
5.2.3 ��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (The sound feminine plural)
��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (the sound feminine plural) is produced by suffixing –���' to ����������� (the singular). If
In ��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (the sound feminine plural) case is indicated by ordinary vowels.
The ��������� is indicated by F-���i .
�5� ��"#�$���'�
They are teachers (f)
� �&� ��"#�$��F-
She is a teacher
% When ��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (the sound feminine plural) is �1��2��� it is indicated by FC��� �( instead of �I�D��F- .
Here, ��?�2��� �-���.�/ �C��� �]�� (the kasra is the indicator of �1��2���). This is because the ��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (the sound feminine plural) is never able to end in F-�I�D�� .
�!�8�� ��"#�$��;'�
He understood teachers (f)
� �8���! ��"#�$��:-
He understood a teacher (f)
i ��������
;-�#���� �m[�Pattached to
elliptical ���[�n
FN�H�D�[�� ���������
�*��o���03���4��
�*��o�� �m�9���X �03���4��
101
�Z�9�[��� ����X �'��H6�H�4��� �'���[��� �T��D�@<,� � �$�U The teacher sent the new girls home
The ���03���4 is indicated by FC��� �( .
�5�� ��"#�$��;'�
From teachers (f)
� �5�� ��"#�$��;-
From a teacher (f)
������4�� �!���� �� � �O�a����� (the sound feminine plural) is indicated in the dictionary by ‘pl. –at’ and will
henceforth be indicated in the vocabulary lists by ( ��' ).
% (b) ��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (the sound feminine plural) applies to F �O�a�� (feminine) human beings, and also
to many �'����J�3 L=����@��N (nouns and adjectives) that refer to ��_(�R�� (masculine) and F �O�a�� (feminine) non-
human beings.
As a general rule, singular �'����J�3 L=����@��N (nouns and adjectives) that end in -A /C and are feminine
take ��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (the sound feminine plural). You should assume this to be so unless otherwise
indicated.
(c) ��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (the sound feminine plural) is sometimes used for _(�R���� (male) human beings as
������4��� ������ (plural of plurals), although this is rare.
Fd����0 Men
�0�'�e��� Important men, leading personalities
�p�#���0 �'�e����H�#�[��� �c� �N �p�#�4����� &�� The leaders of the townspeople (lit. people of
the town) sat in the council
% (d) As we have noted before, all ;c�V��/ ���9�q (irrational) ������� (plurals) are considered to be
grammatically ��������F �O�a�� (feminine and singular). Any Fd��$���N �'����J�3 ���r����i�3 (verbs, pronouns and
adjectives) referring to such ������� (plurals) are therefore ��������F �O�a�� (feminine singular).
�� �Z�[� �T����> The years have gone
F-�[�$�J �s��#�/ �&� They are difficult sciences
� �p9�r���� ���o�) �c� :C���9���( ;'��/����D�� Did the president attend many meetings?
In the last example above, ‘ �;'��/����D�� ’ is �1��2��� �m�U Fd��$���� (a manSuub object) but because it is a � �����4���!���� �� � �O�a����� (sound feminine plural), it is unable to end in F-�I�D�� so it ends in FC��� �( instead. :C���9���( is its
102
F-���J (adjective), so it is also �1��2��� but in the normal way with F-�I�D�� because it is �������� (singular) and
not ��!���� �� � �O�a����� �����4�� (sound feminine plural).
5.3 ����� � �!��"��������� ����� (Possession involving the dual and plural)
5.3.1 �X�-����i � �O�a����� �����4����3 �\� �]�D�� �������!���� �� (possession involving the broken plural and the sound
feminine plural) behaves no differently �5���X�-����i����������� (from possession of the singular).
� �'��9�U�d���>�� The houses of the men
� �'��/����D�������"#�$���'� The gatherings of the teachers (f)
5.3.2 Duals and Sound masculine plurals as �*��o�� �X�m�9�� (possessor) .
_t�� �1��D�(��5�9�[�� The book of the (two) students
�( �u��(�� �u���0��P �?�D�5�9�D�6�H�� �-�2�V Charles Dickens wrote ‘A tale of two cities’
��� �1��D�(�h��"#�$�� The book of the teachers
5.3.3 Duals and Sound masculine plurals as �*��o�� (possessed nouns).
We know that the �*��o�� (possessed) always loses its �56����G . A �56����G is in fact a � (nun) that is
pronounced but not written. �Z�9�U , if written as it is pronounced, is �5�D�9�U . Therefore, when we drop the
�56����G of the �*��o�� (possessed), we are in fact dropping an unwritten � (nun).
The � (nun) of ��������� (the dual) and ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine plural) compensates for
the loss of �56����G . For this reason, when ��������� (the dual) or ��!���� �� ��_(�R����� �����4�� (the sound masculine
plural) is a �*��o�� , the � (nun) is dropped.
_t��� ��U��D�(�?��� The two books of the student
Pronunciation
Note that there is �<=��M�D�� ��5�9��(�� � here: �t��� ���U��D�(�?��� . This is
avoided not by a liaison vowel, but by not pronouncing the �� so that it sounds like the �1��2��� singular: �t��� �1��D�(�?��� . The
i
103
listener deduces the fact that it is a dual from context. The �� is nevertheless written so the reader can distinguish it from
the singular.
� &�U��D�( &�� _t���?��� In the two books of the student
Pronunciation
Note that there is �<=��M�D�� ��5�9��(�� � here: �U��D�(�&�t��� �?��� . This is
avoided by placing a FC��� �( liaison vowel on the 7 .
��6�K����� �5�U� ���"#�$�� The teachers of the minister’s son
( �<=��M�D�� ��5�9��(�� � is avoided by pronouncing it like the singular: �5�U� �!"#�$��)
�Z� �#�� �!�6���� ���� &��"#�$�� �-�@�0�H����� Maryam sat with the school teachers
( �<=��M�D�� ��5�9��(�� � is avoided by pronouncing it like the singular: �-�@�0�H����� �!"#�$�� ����)
5.3.4 The first person singular pronoun ��7 as �*��o�� �X�m�9�� (possessor) of a dual and sound masculine plural.
(a) On a dual, we have the following
����D�6���V �7�.���0 My (two) legs are strong
�5�9�D�6���M��� �&�#���0 ��#�/ On my two strong legs
We cannot use ������� or ������� � in an C�2��D�/ (possession)
�������C��� �>��?@% � ������� �A��B@��� �
2. ����,�<�� ...
�#��/E. �� �<���>��?@% �
One of the women
����,�<�� �A��B@���
One of the men
Note that the above structure cannot be used for the feminine
3. ����, +�G;��/ �H��I��
�>��?@%�� .��#��/ One of the women
�A��B@��� ����, One of the men
107
6.3 Two
�������� Feminine
�������� Masculine
Case ��������
Number
�J����%�K� �J��%�K� �L)C2#���
�%�K��<#;�� �<#;�%�K� ��)�M#%�� and
�N���#O��
٢
As the table above illustrates, the number two in Arabic is �J��%�K� (m) / �J����%�K� (f) when �L)C2#��� and �<#;�%�K� (m) /
�<#;���%�K� (f) when ��)�M#%�� and �N���#O�� . In short the PQ�J� ending changes to PQ�<#" .
��J��%K may be used on its own as a ���'�( (predicate).
�J��%�K� ����* / �J����%�K� They are two
‘ ��K#<�� �J��%... ’ renders ‘two of …’.
� ���I���K�ST2 �>��N�U�)��� �<�� �J��% Only two (of the) ministers attended
� �:,��V�K�� �<�� �J����%&����� �>��?@%5� Two of the women read a book
#;�%K� �(,��� �<�� �<�8��C0 He took two of the books
�K� 3�(�W#;���%QX� �<�� �<�N�#+�D He entered two of the lands
108
6.4 Three to Ten
�������� Feminine
�������� Masculine
��������
Number
YK �K ZYK ٣
��6�&#N, �[�&#N, ٤
��?#��( �\#��( ٥
����- ]$�- ٦
��6#'�- �[#'�- ٧
��;�����K �J���K ٨
��6#?� �[#?� ٩
����_� ��#_� ١٠
�J���K is a �a)CT#%�� word and behaves the same way as �W��� . The feminine ��;�����K behaves normally.
6.4.1 When standing alone, the feminine numeral is used
�W���# QX� ����)��� ,��V : ������� , �J��%�K� , �KYK , ��6�&#N, The boy read the numbers: one, two, three, four
Numbers are written from left to right.
٥٣٩٦ 5, 396
6.4.2 Counting between three and ten
d When counting between three and ten the �W��� (number) exhibits reverse gender agreement or ‘gender
disagreement’ with the �W������ (singular) of the �W���#6�� (counted noun). The thought process is as follows:
Suppose we want to say ‘three houses’. The �W���#6�� (counted noun) we shall use is �:)�;�& . Should we use
the maculine numeral ZYK or the feminine �KYK ? To answer this, we need to look at the counted noun
(�:)�;�&) and find its singular (�$#;�&). This is masculine so we need to use the numeral that disagrees with
it, the feminine �KYK .
109
(a) There are two ways of saying ‘three houses’:
1. ���� (adjective) + ��!#- (noun)
�KYK �:)�;�&
2. indefinite �2��D�/ construction:
�:)�;�& C�KYK
Here are some further examples:
�We#�, �KYK �We#�, C�KYK Three boys
�:��%�& ZYK �:��%�& CZYK Three girls
�f)C7�� ����- �f)C7�� C����- Six kings
�:�0�7�� ]$�- �:�0�7�� g$�- Six queens
'��C� �8���5�5��;�����K 5���"���B �������"���B �8��C� ��;�����K �8 He wrote eight
new books
�:����7� ,��V ;�����K5�5�7"�)h ��7"�)h �:����7� �+�����K ,��V He read eight
long words
���!�"#����:��%�& �J���K �:Y;���B ���!�"#����:Y;���B �:��%�& +�����K Mary has eight beautiful daughters
(b) If we make these expressions definite, we have the following
����'�:)�; ���iC�KY
The three houses
C�KYK����:)�;�' Three of the houses
We can also express this as
] �<�� �KYK ����:)�;�'
Note that when we make both of these expressions definite, we are no longer counting.
Here are some further examples:
�8�������8��C0 ���i��;����� ������"���O
He wrote the eight new books
��;�����K �8�������8��C0 �������"���O/
5��;�����K �8����<�� ����8��C0 �������"���O
He wrote eight of the new books
,��V����:����70�� �i�+����� ���j�7"�)
He read the eight long words
�+�����K ,��V����:����70 ���j��7"�)/
;�����K ,��V�<�� 5� ����:����70 ���j��7"�)
He read eight of the long words
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6.5 One hundred and One thousand
�k��� (١٠٠, one hundred) and �l��, (١٠٠٠, one thousand) also work in an �2��D�/ construction.
d However, the �W���#6�� (counted noun) remains singular and there is no gender agreement.
������� C�k��� One hundred books
C�k������C0���8 A hundred of the books
�����7� C�k��� One hundred words
������� �l��, A thousand books
�����7� �l��, A thousand words
��k��� C�k��� A hundred hundreds
�l��, C�k��� A hundred thousand
��k��� �l��, A thousand hundreds
�l��,�l��, A thousand thousands
6.5.1 To count in hundreds and thousands between three and ten, we simply treat �k��� and �l��, as the �W���#6�� (counted noun). The rules of gender disagreement for counting between three and ten apply. �k��� is
feminine so we will always use the masculine numeral for it and �l��, is masculine so we will always
use the feminine numeral for it. Anomolously, m�� � remains singular when it is the �W���#6�� (counted noun)
2. Did your brother-in-law understand my two words.
3. My father took me to the school teachers (use ��RI�F� ).
4. He read the writing on the two doors of the king’s two houses.
5. He is father of two girls.
6. Did he really take the statement from your mouth?
7. In a sentence of three words (use �j���).
8. The boy’s father and mother attended.
9. My father took my brother from me.
10. My world is really difficult. Only my brothers understand me.
(B)
1. The professor sat writing his book at dawn.
2. Mary went to school today and her brother Hasan sat at home.
3. Muhammad and Abu Bakr went to Medina via the sea.
4. Man’s days on (;#�) Earth are limited. He will go from the world.
5. Are the presidents and leaders in our time (!X�� ��) men of justice?
6. Hasan read the matter (�.� �) in his father’s eyes.
7. The two students of law ( ����A��(i ) read their two books on (�%�g) human rights.
8. My teachers (use ��RI�F� ) possess precise (�{]#H�J) knowledge in their sciences.
9. He is a man of much wealth and has been to very many places.
10. Your brother will take me to his house by the sea.
11. Maryam’s father went to school for a meeting.
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��������� ���� � Chapter 8
Adverbs of Place and Time
Just as a ������ (adjective) describes an ��� (noun), a �� ����������� (adverb) describes a ����� (verb), in terms
of ������� (place) or ������� (time). That is, it tells us about when an action happened or where it happened.
Those that refer to place are called �� ����������� ������� ����� (adverbial of place) and those that refer to time
are called �� ����������� ������� ����� (adverbial of time). Adverbials of ‘how’ an action happens will be
introduced later.
The �� ����������� (adverb) in Arabic is �! �"#�� and normally ends in ���$%��.
8.1 The simple �������������� (adverb of time/place)
8.1.1 Often a �� ����������� (adverb) is produced simply by making an ��� (noun) �"#���! :
&�'��( At once (from ����()
)�*�+ Tomorrow (from �*�+)
)���� Together
)�,��-�. By day (from �,��-�. )
)/��0 At night (from ����0 )
�1��0)� For one night
)�� �2 One day
)/3�4 Previously
)�*��5 later
)67��� Once
�8��97��� Twice
�:�7��� More than twice
)6�;�<=�> �:�7��� Many times
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�.�?���4 *�@�0)/3�4 )67��� �A� We have read it once before
��$�3�0� B�0�C )�� �2 ��#3�D�E We went one day to the sea
)��F�/�F )���72�? �D�*#�G �HI�1�J /)6�;�<�> I stayed with them three days / many days (All numbers can be used as adverbs)
���� �HI�1�J )��@��4�L �� / )��G��� / )�G �3�M? / )��-�N /)��#�� I stayed with him a minute / an hour / a week /
a month / a year
8.1.2 When ��������� (definite), it usually refers to a particular time or place.
����1��1�0 Tonight (from ���1��0 )
��O ���0 Today (from �O �2 )
Exceptions to this are �P��? (yesterday) which is �����0� B�1�G QR�#3��I (fixed on kasra) and �=��S (now) which is
derived from ��T (time) and is ���U%���0� B�1�G QR�#3 (fixed on fatHa).
8.2 ��������� adverbs
8.2.1 The ������ ������� (adverbs) produced above are general. )/3�4 for example, refers generally to the past and
)�*��5 refers generally to the future. In order to be more specific and say ‘before x’ or ‘after y’ we use a
different type of �� ����������� (adverb), again produced by simply making nouns that refer to place or time
�! �"#�� . These adverbs are used only as ����V�� (possessed) in an ������W�C construction and require a
����V�� ����0C (possessor) to immediately follow them.
�X�D�E ��3�4 �O �2 He went a day ago (lit. before a day)
��Y���0� ��3�4 �Z���[ He left before dawn
��� �2 �*��5 �����\�8 He arrived after two days
�]� �*�2 ^ �_ �� 2�?2�* ` �-)48:10( The hand of Allah is over their hands
�*�J�\��-�5��%�> �H$�9 ��-�c�1�4 : She found her pen under her book
�*2�*�J �d �W �� �� �( R���/�> My talk is about a new subject
�e�1�c�0� �f��G �� �( � �I�1�J They sat around the king’s throne
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�,��-7#0� �� Mg�\ ����1�0� �� Mg R�3�%M> �:�?���4 I read my books all night and all day
��h��� � $�. �i2��hj0� B�1�G ��#J���[ We went out on the road towards Mecca
���9��5��%�> �8c�W ���9*�J�\ I found it among his essays
�!��k�c�0��\ ��"���0� �8��5 � �J���[ They left between mid-afternoon and sunset
�e�#��5�\ R�#��5 Between me and you
(�8��5 must be repeated if one of the parties is a �c�W�; (pronoun).
�Rl5�, �8��5�\ R�#��5 ���=m The matter is between me and my Lord
�e�.\�L �e���/�> Your speech is below you
���5��%�> ��\�L �����,*�c�0� B�0�C �X�D�E He went to school without his book
�O�/�> ��\�L �P�1�J�\ ���[�L He entered and sat without a word
�i2��hj0� �n��\ �A��.*�J�\ We found him in the middle of the road
(Note: when �n���\ is used as an adverb, it becomes �n��\)
�O�72�? ���F�/�F �HI�1�J I stayed three days (All numbers can be used as adverbs)
=m� ���F�/�F �HI�1�J�o���0� �O�72���6 I stayed three of the ten days
�O ���0� ��Y�� 7R�1�G ���[�L He called upon me at fajr today
����V���, ��-�N ������ �HI�1�J I stayed with him the month of Ramadan
����c�Y�0� �,��-�. ��$�3�0� B�0�C ��#3�D�E We went to the sea on Friday, during the day
����c�Y�0� ���1��0 ��$�3�0� B�0�C ��#3�D�E We went to the sea on Friday night
���0 ���\ ���@��4�L ��#�1���\ /���0 ���\ ���G��� ��#�1���\ We arrived the minute / hour he arrived
(lit. of his arrival)
Note the difference between the following two expressions:
�O �2����c�Y�0� Friday
�O �2����c�Y�0� On Friday (adv.)
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�p�� (with) and �*#�G (with/at) are two such �� ����������� (adverbs) that produce a meaning of possession.
�p�� (with) implies having the possessed article actually on one’s person.
�e���� qi�$�0� /Qi�( �e���� You are right (lit. Truth is with you)
�0�R���� �!��%�� The book is with me
�*#�G is used to refer to �=M�����c�0��\ M����7r0 (time and place), often implying ‘at home’.
�O ���0� s�*#�G �*7c�$�� Muhammad is (staying) at my place today
�t1���c�0� �*#�G �!��%���0� �?���4 He read the book at the house of/with the teacher
���#2�*�c�0� �!��5 �*#�G At the city gate
��Y���0� �*#�G At daybreak, dawn
Books of Arabic grammar written by English grammarians tend to list all the above as prepositions
because they appear to behave like prepositions. Although it may be useful at the outset for the student
to think of these as u��J ��\���( (prepositions), they are in fact not so.
8.2.2 Some �� ����������� (adverbs) require that they are followed by a ���1c�J (a sentence), usually a 7��1��� ���1c�J��
(verb sentence). This ���1c�J (sentence) is ����0�C ����V�c�0� t��$�� R�� (in the place of the possessor).
�*7c�$�� �X�D�E Mv��( �8�I�( �X�D�E Hasan went where Muhammad went
(the adverb Mv��( is anomalously fixed on ��7c�W)
�X�D�E Mv��( �8�I�( ��������\ �w,=m� Hasan went where the earth is wide
�X�D�x�2 �y�( �8�I�( �X�D�x�2�*7c�$�� Hasan will go when Muhammad goes
�y�( �8�I�( �X�D�x�2��67��c$�� �Pc7o0 Hasan will go when the Sun is red
�X�D�E Mv��( 8�G �:�?���4 I read about where he went
8.2.3 Some �� ����������� (adverbs) can be followed both by a single word as the ����V�� ����0C (possessor) or by a
���1c�J (a sentence) ����0�C ����V�c�0� t��$�� R�� (in the place of the possessor).
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����c�Y�0� �O �2 ��$�3�0� B�0�C ��#3�D�E We went to the sea on Friday
�C ��#3�D�E�%3�D�E �O �2 ��$�3�0� B�0 We went to the sea the day you went
���J\���[ �H�4�\ ����0�C ��#3�D�E�����,*�c�0� �8�� We went to him at the time of his leaving the
school
�����,*�c�0� �8�� �Z���[ �H�4�\ ����0�C ��#3�D�E We went to him at the time (when) he left the
school
�H��3�0� R�� ���� M1�J �8���� ����0�C ��#3�D�E We went to him at the time of his sitting at
home
�D�E�H��3�0� R�� �����> �8���� ����0�C ��#3 We went to him at the time (when) he was at
home
8.2.4 Often, we may precede the �� ����������� (adverb) that requires a ����V�� ����0C (possessor) after it with the
preposition R�� , as suggested by the name. This makes it �,\��Y�� and we no longer call it �� �����������
(adverb). This cannot be done all the time. For example, we cannot say ��3�4 R�� .
����c�Y�0� �O �2 R�� ��$�3�0� B�0�C ��#3�D�E We went to the sea on Friday
�i2��hj0� �n���\ R�� �A��.*�J�\ We found him in the middle of the road
(Note: when preceded by R��, �n���\ remains ���\�n )
8.2.5 A �� ����������� (adverb) that is ����V�� (possessed) followed by a ����V�� ����0C (possessor) produces a ��3�N���1c�J (quasi sentence). We may have an indefinite �?�*�%3�� (subject) after it.
���Y���0� �*��5 �P�1Y�c�0 The meeting is after fajr
�P�1Y�� ��Y���0� �*��5 There is a meeting after fajr
)�I�1Y�� ��Y���0� �*��5 h��C Indeed there is a meeting after fajr
�e���� qi�$�0� You are right (lit. The truth is with you)
Qi�( �e���� You are right (lit. There is truth with you)
h��Cz@�( �e����)� Indeed you are right (lit. Indeed there is truth with
you)
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�������������
�����\)M��"�2 ()' ���\ he arrived at waSala (yaSilu) wuSuulan
�� ���\ arrival wuSuulun
)'��( at once, immediately Haalan
����0 night laylun
���1��0)������0( a night laylatun (layaalin)
����1��1�0 tonight al-laylata
)/��0 at night laylan
�,��-�. day nahaarun
)�,��-�. by day nahaaran
�X�%�>�,��-�. ����0 he wrote night and day kataba layla nahaara
)�� �2 one day yawman
�0��O �� today al-yawma
)/3�4 previously qablan
��3�4 before qabla
)�*��5 later ba⊂dan
�*��5 after ba⊂da
�P��? yesterday amsi
�*�J�\)�2��*�Y ()�L �J�\ he found wajada (yajidu) wujuudan
�L �J�\ existence; being, presence wujuudun
�Z���[){| ( )�J\���[)8��( he went out (of) kharaja (yakhruju) khuruujan (min)
�Z\���[ exit; going out khuruujun
���[�L){| ()' �[�L) / R��( he entered dakhala (yadkhulu) dukhuulan
���[�L){| ()' �[�L) �1�GB( he entered (upon A s.o.), called (on A s.o.) dakhala (yadkhulu) dukhuulan (⊂alaa)
2. Did you inform him? Yes, we informed him many times.
3. I didn’t find four of my books yesterday. Did anyone take them? No, nobody took them.
4. Isn’t he going out tonight? Yes indeed, he is going out with his parents.
5. The (f) students read their books night and day.
6. The two students worked hard after fajr
7. Hasan and Maryam understood each other immediately.
8. The matter will be uncovered one day after much hard work.
9. We entered and left at once
10. We arrived the day you left the house
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��������� ���� � Chapter 9
Further Possession
9.1 Possession using ��
In Chapter One we introduced the ��������� construction. Possession can also be rendered using the
preposition �� which means ‘to’, ‘for’ or ‘belonging to’.
When written �� attaches to the � ��� (noun) following it. If the definite article ��� is preceded by �� , we drop the � (alif) and write ���� . When �� attaches to a word, it forms a �������� ����� (quasi sentence),
just like any other ���� ������ (preposition).
���� �!����� In the house (fi al-bayti)
��� �!���� For / To / Belonging to the house (lil-bayti)
����"���#$ For / To / Belonging to the student (liT-Taalibi)
9.1.1 This �������� ����� (quasi sentence) may attach to an elliptical ����% (predicate)
�&����'��() *+���+�,(� �!����� ��� The book is in the house (al-kitaabu fi al-bayti)
�'��(�&���) *+���+�,(�� � �!���� The book is for / belongs to the house (al-kitaabu lil-bayti)
�'��(�&���) *+���+�,( ����"���#$ The book is for / belongs to the student (al-kitaabu liT-Taalibi)
9.1.2 If we make the �.�/�(���, (subject) indefinite, it must be deferred to after the �������� ����� (quasi sentence).
'��(�0 � �!����� ��� A book is in the house /
There is a book in the house (fi al-bayti kitaabun)
������ '��(�0 � �! A book belongs to the house /
The house has a book (lil-bayti kitaabun)
��� '��(�0 �"���#$ A book belongs to the student /
The student has a book (liT-Taalibi kitaabun)
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1�2�0 �3��, �4��5���� Much wealth belongs to the man /
The man has much wealth (lir-rajuli maalun katheerun)
As illustrated above, we use �� to express ‘(the) x has (a) y’.
For example, ‘Muhammad has a book’ would be �� '��(�0 �/5��6�� .
We saw in chapter eight that possession can also be produced with �7�, (with) and �/�8�9 (with/at). �7�,
implies having the possessed article actually on one’s person and �/�8�9 (with) can but not always implies
possessing the article at home.
��� '��(�0 �"���#$ The student has a book
�7�, �� '��(�0 �"���#$ The student has a book (with him)
� �/�8�9� '��(�0 �"���#$ The student has a book (at home)
��:�;�+��� / � �/�8�9��:�;�+� =����(��� The president has a meeting
9.1.3 An �������� construction must be either completely �������>�, (definite) or completely �?���&�@ (indefinite). For
example, the expression � �'��A� �!���� means ‘the door of the house’, suggesting that the house has one
door. To say ‘a door of the house’ or produce any ‘an x of the y’ expression, we use the preposition �� and not an �������� construction.
� �!������ '��A A door of the house (baabun lil-bayti)
(Note that ��A � �!������ ' means ‘the house has a door)
B�A��A �4�%�*� �!������ He entered a door of the house (dakhala baaban lil-bayti)
This can also be expressed in the following way:
�A '�� �!����� �'��+�A�. �C�, A door of the house lit. ‘a door from among the doors of the house’
(baabun min abwaabi al-bayti)
B�A��A �4�%�*� �!����� �'��+�A�. �C�, He entered a door of the house (dakhala baaban min abwaabi al-bayti)
�8�A �C�, �8�A�/5��6�, �D� One of the daughters of Muhammad
(bintun min banaati muHammadin)
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Phonetics
The preposition �� changes to ��
���� ��8�� �E�� ��F&�� For him For us For you For you (pl)
But when attached to the first person pronoun ‘��’ , it remains ��
��� For me
�!�A ���� A house of his
lit. ‘A house belonging to him’
���G+�!�A �C�, �!�A A house of his
lit. ‘a house from among his houses’
9.2 Idiomatic use of the definite ���������
9.2.1 ��� H���� ���IJK�� F���������+�L�+�� (possession of the adjective by the noun it describes)
Suppose we were to say,
7:���� �4���M A quick man (rajulun saree⊂un)
In response, one may ask, ‘quick at what?’. This can be answered by ‘extending’ the adjective with a
���N�, �����!�� noun. The ���N�, (possessed) must be a ���I�L (adjective) and the ���!���� ���N�, (possessor) must
be an � ��� (noun).
�7:���� �4���M ���O�I��� A quick witted man (lit. a ‘quick-of-understanding’ man)
(rajulun saree⊂u al-fahmi)
�7:���� �4���M �P�Q�&��� A quick speaking man (lit. ‘a quick-of-speech’ man) (rajulun saree⊂u al-kalaami)
�4���M�P�Q�&��� �1�2�0 A talkative man (lit. a ‘much-of-speech’ man) (rajulun katheeru al-kalaami)
�4���M�3������ �1�2�0 A wealthy man (lit. a ‘much-of-wealth’ man) (rajulun katheeru al-maali)
i
137
�4���M�����+��� �C�R�� A handsome man (lit. a ‘handsome-of-face’ man) (rajulun Hasanu al-wajhi)
What we have done is simply ‘extend’ a �?���&�@ (indefinite) adjective. The adjective itself remains �?���&�@ (indefinite) despite the expression looking like a definite �������� construction. This is why it continues to
describe a �?���&�@ (indefinite) word. We may think of expressions such as �7:���� ���O�I��� as ‘extended �������� adjectives’.
S Agreement is exhibited only on the ���N�, (possessed) noun.
(a) Agreement in case:
�7:���� BQ���M �T�%�. ���O�I��� He took a quick witted man (akhada rajulan saree⊂a al-fahmi)
�7:���� �4���M �C�, ���O�I��� From a quick witted man (min rajulin saree⊂I al-fahmi)
�7:��5R�� F4��5��� ���O�I��� The quick witted man (rajulun saree⊂u al-fahmi)
The last example above may appear odd because we put the definite article ��� on a ���N�, (possessed)
noun. Think of this as the only instance of the ���N�, (possessed) noun taking a definite article ��� .
(d) Agreement in number:
�>:���� �U�Q���M ����O�I��� Two quick witted men
(Note the dropping of the U in �U��>:���� )
�>:���� �U��G�.���,� ��(���O�I��� Two quick witted women
�>:���� �3����M +���O�I��� Quick witted men
(Note the dropping of the U in �>:�����U+ )
�>:���� VW��R�@ �D����O�I��� Quick witted women
When ‘extended �������� adjectives’ describe a plural noun, the sound masculine or sound feminine plural
must be used. ‘extended �������� adjectives’ cannot be produced from broken plurals. It is incorrect to say,
�=����� �3����M ���O�I��� .
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Extended �������� adjectives may be used as an indefinite ����% .
��F4��5��3������ �1�2�0 The man is rich (lit. The man is much-of-wealth) (ar-rajulu katheeru al-maali)
9.2.2 Similar to the above, we have expressions in which we swap around a plural noun and adjective and
place them in an ��XV�X�� construction. The expressions retain their meanings.
��� YW������>����M����& The eminent scholars (al-⊂ulamaa’u al-kibaarun)
�W������>��� �M����0 The eminent scholars (kibaaru al-⊂ulamaa’i)
Unlike the earlier expressions, this expression does not change in meaning after becoming an �������� . It is not an extended �������� adjective. This �������� is also wholly �������>�, (definite). These are given
expressions and students should not attempt to be creative.
9.3 Idiomatic use of the indefinite ���������
The indefinite �������� is used idiomatically in a number of common expressions.
���6�� F��>�$�Z A piece of meat (qiT⊂atu laHmin)
���6�� �7�$�Z Pieces of meat (qiTa⊂u laHmin)
�"�[�% \�����F0 A chair of wood (kursiyyu khashabin)
F������0 �]�� A word of truth (kalimatu Haqqin)
We can dispense with � �F����� by using �C�, , which means ‘from’. It can also mean ‘of’ in a partitive
sense, such as in the sentence, ‘eat of the food’ i.e. part/some of the food.
���6�� �C�, ���>�$�Z/ �C�, � ���6���� A piece of meat (qiTatun min laHmin / min al-laHmi)
�"�[�% �C�, _�����F0/ �C�, ��"�[� �� A chair of wood (kursiyyun min khashabin / min al-khashabi)
�]�� �C�, �������0/ �C�, �J]�6�� A word of truth (kalimatun min Haqqin / min al-Haqqi)
It is better and more common to use the �������>�, (definite) of ����6���� , ��"�[� �� and J]�6��� after �C�, . The �������� expression is better than both of these.
139
Note that ���>�$�Z , _�����F0 and _]�� have C:�+�8�G . This is because we are not using an �������� construction.
��������� words in ��������� constructions
When a+Fb�8�, words are a ���N�, (possessed) noun, a �c is appended to them.
H���+�, �c�*��d The valley of Moses (waadii Muusaa)
�4�%�*H���+�, �c�*��d He entered the valley of Moses (dakhala waadia Muusaa)
�e����>��� �����M�. The lands of Iraq (araaDi al-⊂iraaqi)
1. Did anyone other than him enter? No, not before him and nor after him.
2. Non-being is the absence of being.
3. In any case, all our money is at your disposal at all times.
4. The matter is between him and his Lord.
5. We went where all the people went and arrived between mid-afternoon and sunset.
6. We found in his statement both the good and the not-good so we took only the good.
7. Hasan sat reading his six books throughout the night / all night.
8. We found a number of reasons for our lack of mutual understanding.
9. He said an incorrect word to me and didn’t say any other word (lit. any word other than it).
10. He is a strong man and the likes of him are few in our time.
11. He hit him a number of times without reason.
12. Some people think you are not good, and I have found you (to be) very good.
13. Your son is like you in both your traits (qualities): patience and trust.
14. I read his statement a thousand times in several books by authors from all over the world.
152
������������ � �������� Chapter 11
Doubled and Hamzated Verbs
In the Preliminaries chapter we learned that the letters � , � and � are weak letters. A weak letter is
called ������� � ���� (lit. letter of weakness). When a verb is produced from a root containing a ������� � ����
(weak letter), we call it a �������� ������ (weak verb). We shall learn about ���������� �������� (weak verbs) in chapter
twelve.
When the root of a verb does not contain any ������� � ����� (weak letters), we call it a ������������ (strong
verb). All the �������� (verbs) we have encountered so far are ������ (strong). The ������������ (strong verb)
is of three types,
1. �!���" (sound: the root is made up of three different ������ (strong) letters and does not
contain a �#�$�%�& ) 2. �'(��)�� (doubled: the second and third root letters are the same)
3. �*+�%�,�� (hamzated: the root contains a hamza)
11.1 ����������� ��������� (The doubled verb)
A ������ (verb) in which the second and third root letters are the same is called a �'(��)�� ������ (doubled
verb). We have already encountered nouns derived from ‘doubled’ roots such as, �-.�-�/ (from 0 - /),
������1 (from � � 1) and ��(%�2 (from ! % 2). In �������� (verbs) derived from ‘doubled’ roots, the identical
second and third letters are assimilated. This is called �3��4�0�5 (assimilation) and is indicated by the
symbol 67 called a �#(-�8 above the doubled letter. Using the � � � root template, we say that the �������'(��)�� (doubled verb) derives from a �� � root and assimilates to render ���� . The �9�:��)�� (imperfect) is
;�<=�. , ;��=�. or ;��=�. .
11.1.1 Form I
From the root - : 0 we have the verb (0�:)?0���.( (to return; reject) which unassimilated would have
read �0�0�:)�0�0���. ( like ���A�B) �B��C�.( .
153
(0�:)?0���. (�0�: D E�F0�:��E�0 (to return) is conjugated � G���G�2��% (in the perfect) as follows.
DRILL #9
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
������� They returned
(2)
����� They (two) returned
(1)
���� He returned
Masculine
(6)
�������� They returned
(5)
������� They (two) returned
(4)
����� She returned
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
�������!��
You returned
(8)
����������� You (two) returned
(7)
������� You returned
Masculine
(12)
�������"�� You returned
(11)
����������� You (two) returned
(10)
������� You returned
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
��������# We returned
(13)
������� I returned
Masculine and
Feminine
First
person
Notice that from the third person feminine plural (box 6) onwards, the second and third root letters are
not assimilated.
(0�:)?0���. (�0�: D E�F0�:��E�0 (to return) is conjugated � G���9�:��)�% (in the imperfect) as follows.
DRILL #10
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
����$��� They return
(2)
����$��� They (two) return
(1)
����$ He returns
Masculine
(6)
������$�� They return
(5)
�������� They (two) return
(4)
����� She returns
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
��������
You return
(8)
�������� You (two) return
(7)
����� You return
Masculine
(12)
��������� You return
(11)
�������� You (two) return
(10)
%�����"$ You return
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
����# We return
(13)
�����& I return
Masculine and
Feminine
First
person
154
The �H+�I�J�� of the �'(��)�� ������ (doubled verb) obeys the same principle as the ������ �������!���" (sound
strong verb).
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
����$ �"���� They will never return
(2)
����$ �"��� They will never return
(1)
����$ �"�� He will never return
Masculine
(6)
������$ �"���� They will never return
(5)
����� �"��� They will never return
(4)
�"�� ����� She will never return
Feminine
Third person
(9) (8)
(7)
The �3��$�K�� of the �'(��)�� ������ (doubled verb) can be produced in two ways. We can use the regular
method and say �0�0���. �!� (which is the most commonly found in the Quran) or we can say (0���. �!� in which
the �3��$�K�� is indicated by a �������� so that it looks identical to the �H+�I�J�� . The first unassimilated method
does not occur with <��L�%�M� <�����NO� (the five verbs) in which the �3��$�K�� is indicated by �P+?J� � Q��
(omission of the nun).
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
����$ �!����� They did not return
(2)
����$ �!��� They did not return
(1)
�!�� ������$ /����$ He did not return
Masculine
(6)
������$ �!���� They did not return
(5)
����� �!��� They did not return
(4)
�!�� ������� / ����� She did not return
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
����� �!�����
You did not return
(8)
����� �!��� You did not return
(7)
������� �!��/ ����� You did not return
Masculine
(12)
������� �!���� You did not return
(11)
����� �!��� You did not return
(10)
� %���� �!�� You did not return
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
������# �!�� /����# We did not return
(13)
�!�� �������& /�����& I did not return
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person
The ���R��=� �!�"� (Active Participle) of the �'(��)�� ������ (doubled verb) is of the form ����� so from (0�: we
have S0��: (one who returns; rejects).
155
The ��+�,�K�%�� SG�J�T�� (passive) of (0�:)?0���.( is (0�:)?0���.( (it was returned). From the third person feminine
plural (box 6) onwards, the second and third root letters are not assimilated. For example, for the first
person, we have �U�0�0�: (I was returned).
The ��+��=�%� �!�"� (Passive Participle) of the �'(��)�� ������ (doubled verb) is of the form ��+<�=�� so from (0�: we have �0��0���� (returned; rejected).
The �G�,(J� <����� (negative imperative verb) being �3��$�K�� is of the form �<�=�V �W or ��<=�V �W .
(3)
����� �(��
Do not return!
(2)
����� �(� Do not return!
(1)
�( ������� /����� Do not return!
Masculine
(6)
������� �(�� Do not return!
(5)
����� �(� Do not return!
(4)
%���� �(� Do not return!
Feminine
Second person
The ����NO� <����� (imperative verb) being �. ��� X���R SG�J�T���Y�R�:��)�� �Y�����R �3�$�K (fixed on what the imperfect is
made �3��$�K�� upon) is of the form �<��<� or ��<� rendering �0�0�:<� or (0�: (return!). Notice that it looks exactly
the same as the ��+�,�K�%�� SG�J�T�� (passive), (0�: (it was returned).
(3)
�������
Return!
(2)
����� Return!
(1)
��������/���� Return!
Masculine
(6)
���������� Return!
(5)
����� Return!
(4)
%���� Return!
Feminine
Second person
�: �Z(0(G��5 Return in to me
�:?0 �Z��[� G��5 Refer it to Allah
We may summarise the above as follows.
Negative Imper. Positive
Imper. Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
�W �0�0���V /(0���V �0�0�:<�/(0�: E�0��0�: D E�F0�: �0��0���� �+�,�� ?0���. (0�: S0��: �+�,�� ?0���. (0�: Don’t return! Return! Return Returned So he
is
He is
returned He was
returned A returner So he
is He
returns He
returned
156
Like the �!���" ������ ������ (sound strong verb), there is variation in the vowelling of the �9�:��)�� (imperfect). We have,
(!�V)�.?!�� (E����%�V (to be complete) which unassimilated would have read �!�%�V)�!�%���.( like �]���/)�]���K�.( .
���) ;��_�. (EW+<�< (to continue to be) which unassimilated would have read �����) <���_�.( like �!�,��) �!�,=�.( .
The first person is � ���� (I continued to be) like � �%�,�� .
You should assume that ���=(��)�� �������� (doubled verbs) are conjugated in the perfect like (��� i.e. �U�:���� . Verbs of the ��� type are indicated in the dictionary and vocabulary lists by providing the first person
perfect in brackets after the imperfect in the following way, � ��)6N) (�� ���( . In derived forms II
onwards, the variations that exist in the perfect and imperfect of Form I do not occur.
11.1.2 Form II
Form II of the (��)�� �������' (doubled verb) behaves in the same was as the �!���" ������ ������ (sound strong
verb).
�0(-�/)�0a-�K�. (E�-.�-�K�V (To renew)
Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
�0a-�K�V �W �0a-�/ E�-.�-�K�V �0(-�K�� �+�,�� �0(-�K�. �0a-�/ �0a-�K�� �+�,�� �0a-�K�. �0(-�/ Don’t renew! Renew! Renewal Renewed So it
is
It is
renewed It was
renewed A renewer So he
is He
renews He
renewed
11.1.3 Form V
Form V of the �'(��)�� ������ (doubled verb) also behaves in the same was as the �!���" ������ ������ (sound
When �P��V�$�%�& (two hamzas) are consecutive, the first �oa������� (vowelled) and
the second �p�A��" (vowelless), the second changes to a long vowel � , � or �
corresponding to the vowel on the first �#�$�%�& . This is called ����,�L�V (pronouncing a long vowel in the place of �#�$�%�& , lit. making easy).
����,�L�V (pronouncing a long vowel in the place of �#�$�%�&) occurs in first person imperfect of initial �#�$�%�& verbs, rendering,
<Q�lq (I take)rather than <Q�l��� <�<Aq (I eat) rather than <�<A��� <���q (I hope) rather than <������ <P�nq (I permit) rather than <P�n��� and
����q (I order) rather than �������.
Orthography
When a �#�$�%�& carrying a �������� is followed by an � , the two are assimilated
and a �#(-�� (symbol representing elongation) is placed over the alif q .
i
i
160
The above orthography change occurs in the ���R��=� �!�"� (Active Participle) of the initial �#�$�%�& verb
rendering,
�Q�lq (taker) for �Q�l��� ���Aq (one who eats) for ���A��� ����q (one who hopes) for ������� �P�nq (one who permits) for �P�n��� and
����q (one who orders) for �������
The ��+��=�%� �!�"� (Passive Participle) of the initial �#�$�%�& verb is regular. We have m���n+�l (taken), ��+<Am�� (eaten), ��+��m�� (hoped), �P�<nm�� (permitted) and �:+��m�� (ordered).
The ����NO� <����� (imperative verb) of initial �#�$�%�& verbs usually follows the regular form. When it is at the
beginning of a �����%�/ (sentence) and not preceded by any ���A���� (vowel) the �#�$�%�& undergoes ����,�L�V (pronouncing a long vowel in the place of �#�$�%�&). From ������ we have �����<� (hope!) for ����r<� and from �P�n�� we have P�Q�.�� (Permit!) for P�Qs�� . When it is preceded by a ���A���� (vowel) there is no ����,�L�V and the �#�$�%�& is retained, sitting on its seat, rendering 6����r� (hope!) and 6P�Qs� (permit!). When preceded by �� or t�� the �#�$�%�& sits on an alif and the ��� �+� <#�$�%�& is omitted rendering ����� � (and hope!) and P�nm�� (so permit!).
�� u �G� P�Qs� <�+<h�. �p�� �!�,�J��...w And among them are those who say, ‘permit me …’ (al-Quran 9:49)
The ����NO� <����� (imperative verb) of the two verbs �Q�l�� (to take) and ���A�� (to eat) is truncated by dropping
the initial �#�$�%�& rendering Q�l (take!) rather than Q�l�r<� and �<A (eat!) rather than �<A�r<� .
E����d�:�� Q�M�� u... w So take four … (al-Quran 2:260)
u �x�:NO� G�� �(%�� �+<�<A...w Eat of what is on the earth …’ (al-Quran 2:168)
The ����NO� <����� (imperative verb) of ������ (to order) can be produced using both the regular and the
truncated form. When it is at the beginning of a �����%�/ (sentence) and not preceded by any ���A���� (vowel)
it is obligatory to use the truncated form ���� (order!). When it is preceded by a ���A���� (vowel), we are
given the choice of using the truncated form ���� or the regular form 6�����r� and ������� .
w ��,�����R ���T� ��� �#�j(I��d �y���&�� ������� u And command your folk to pray and persevere upon it (al-Quran 20:132)
161
We may summarise the above as follows:
Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
Q�lm�V �W Q�l E�Q�l�� �n+�lm�� �+�,�� <Q�l�z�. �Q�l<� �Q�lq �+�,�� <Q�lm�. �Q�l�� Don’t take! Take! Taking Taken So it
Verbs with medial �#�$�%�& are in general regular.
An anomaly occurs with the ����NO� <����� (imperative verb) of ���m�" (to ask). It can be prouduced using the
regular form rendering ��m�"�� (ask!) and also by truncating it by dropping the �#�$�%�& and shifting the �������� forward onto the t" rendering ��" (ask!). When it is at the beginning of a �����%�/ (sentence) and not
preceded by any ���A���� (vowel) it is obligatory to use the truncated form ��" (ask!). When it is preceded
by a ���A���� (vowel), we are given the choice of using the truncated form ����L (so ask!)or the regular
form 6��m�"� or 6��m�" .
����s����"�5 �G�J�d ��" u... w Ask the children of Israel … (al-Quran 2:211)
����s����"�5 �G�J�d ��~�L�� u... w So ask the children of Israel … (al-Quran 17:101)
u N [� �+<��~�"��... w And ask Allah … (al-Quran 4:32)
164
������ ������ ������ Chapter 12
Weak Verbs
In the Preliminaries chapter we learned that the letters � , � and � are weak letters. A weak letter is
called ������� � ���� (lit. letter of weakness) and if positioned at the end of a noun, produces a �������������
(weak noun).
When a verb is produced from a root containing a ������� � ���� (weak letter), we call it a �������� ������ (weak
verb) and it undergoes certain phonetic changes. If the ������� � ���� (weak letter) is initial we call it ��������������� (initial weak). If it is medial we call it ��������� ��� �! (hollow weak) and if it is terminal we call it ���������"�#��$ (terminal weak).
12.1 ���������� �� ������ (The initial weak verb)
If the initial letter of the root is a ������� � ���� (weak letter) the verb is called ������� .
12.1.1 Form I
In form I, if the ������� � ���� (weak letter) is a � it is usually dropped �%�&��'�(� )�� (in the imperfect).
�*� ��)�*�,�-( To find
���/��)0��1�-( To arrive
�2�3��) �2���-( To trust
�4�5��)�4�'�-( To fall
However, there are some rare instances when the � is not dropped �%�&��'�(� )�� (in the imperfect).
�6�5��)�6�5���-( To be pure
If the ������� � ���� (weak letter) is a � it is not dropped ��'�(� )���%�& (in the imperfect).
�7�8�-)07�8�9�-( To wake up
165
12.1.2 Form II
Form II of the ��������������� (initial weak) verb behaves in the same way as the �:9�;�/ ������ (sound verb).
�*<���)�*=����- (>�*9�����? (To unify; declare God is One lit. make one)
Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper. Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
Verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
�*=����? �@ �*=��� >�*9�����? �*<����� ���A�� �*<����- �*=��� ���*=��� ���A�� �*=����- �*<��� Don’t unite! Unite! Unity United So it
is
It is
united It was
united A uniter So he
is He unites He united
12.1.3 Form V
Form V of the ��������������� (initial weak) verb behaves in the same way as the �:9�;�/ ������ (sound verb).
�@�K�&�����L�? �K�&������� >�K����9������ �K�&�����L�� ���A�� �K�&�����L�- �K�&�����0� �K�&�����L�� ���A�� �K�&�����L�- �K�&������� Don’t import! Import! Importation Imported So it
is
It is
imported It was
imported An
importer So he
is He
imports He
imported
12.2 ���������� �������� (The hollow weak verb)
If the medial letter of the root is a ������� � ���� (weak letter) the verb is called � ��� �! (hollow).
12.2.1 Form I
In form I the medial � or � is dropped � )���)�5��(� �����M (in the perfect verb). The root of the verb ‘to
say’ isN�N� N# (qa-wa-la). The Arabs consider this heavy on the tongue and so they drop the �� leaving:
N– NN� # (qa – ala)
�;�����P��� (two fathas) are equivalent to an alif so we arrive at ����# (qaala). The � reappears )�� ������M ��%�&��'�( (in the imperfect verb) redering, 0��08�- (he says) and also in the �&�*�1�� (verbal noun) �����#
(statement).
168
����#)08�-0�� (>@���# (to say) is conjugated � )��)�5��( (in the perfect) as follows.
DRILL #11
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
���� They said
(2)
�!� They (two) said
(1)
��� He said
Masculine
(6)
�"�#� * They said
(5)
��� �� They (two) said
(4)
��� �% She said
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
�#� �&��
You said
(8)
�#� ���� You (two) said
(7)
�#� �% You said
Masculine
(12)
�#� '"�� You said
(11)
�#� ���� You (two) said
(10)
�#� �% You said
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
�#� �( We said
(13)
�#� �% I said
Masculine and
Feminine
First
person
* originally 0#���R
����#)0��08�- (>@���# (to say) is conjugated � )���%�&��'�( (in the imperfect) as follows.
DRILL #12
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�����)�*���+ They say
(2)
��!���)�*�+ They (two) say
(1)
�����)�* He says
Masculine
(6)
�#�)�*�" They say
(5)
�!���)�,�+ They (two) say
(4)
�����)�, She says
Feminine
Third person
(9)
�����)�,���+
You say
(8)
�!���)�,�+ You (two) say
(7)
�����)�, You say
Masculine
(12)
�#�)�,�" You say
(11)
�!���)�,�+ You (two) say
(10)
���)�,�-���" You say
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
���)���� We say
(13)
��� �.�� I say
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person
169
The �S��1�T�� of the ������� ��� �! (hollow verb) obeys the same principle as the �:9�;�/ ������ (sound verb).
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�"�� �������)�* They will never say
(2)
�"����!���)�* They will never say
(1)
�"�������)�* He will never say
Masculine
(6)
�"���"�#�)�* They will never say
(5)
�"���!���)�, They will never say
(4)
�"�� �����)�, She will never say
Feminine
Third
person
(9) (8) (7)
The �U��V�,�� of the ������� ��� �! (hollow verb) undergoes a phonetic change. Placing ��� before 0��08�- renders
���08�- ��� . This suffers from WX��8��� ��R�9�T�Y�<L (the meeting of two vowelless consonants cf. P6). This is
overcome by dropping the � rendering �08�- ��� . The � remains on 0��L�(�Z� 0�����N[� )(the five verbs) in
which the �U��V�,�� case is indicated by �P�CT� � \�� (omission of the nun).
DRILL #13
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�)�* �&�������� They did not say
(2)
��!���)�* �&�� They (two) did not say
(1)
���)�* �&�� He did not say
Masculine
(6)
�#�)�* �&���" They did not say
(5)
�!���)�, �&�� They (two) did not say
(4)
�&�� ���)�, She did not says
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
�, �&�������)��
You did not say
(8)
�!���)�, �&�� You (two) did not say
(7)
���)�, �&�� You did not say
Masculine
(12)
�#�)�, �&���" You did not say
(11)
�!���)�, �&�� You (two) did not say
(10)
�������)�, �&�� You did not say
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
�����)�� �& We did not say
(13)
��� �. �&�� I did not say
Masculine and
Feminine
First
person
All the above is true for verbs in which the middle root letter is a � . From the root N4 N9 NJ we have the
verb �%��J)�49�]�- (>���9�J (to sell). The �S��1�T�� is �R��49�]�- (he will never sell) and the �U��V�,�� is �4�]�- ��� (he did not
sell).
170
The ��� ��M� ����� (Active Participle) of the ������� ��� �! (hollow verb) is of the form ����_�� so from ����# we
have ���_��# (one who says) and from �%��J we have �4�_��J (seller).
The ����A�,�(�� )�T�]�� (passive) of ����#)0��08�- ( is ��9�#)0���8�-( .
The �����M�(� ����� (Passive Participle) of the ������� ��� �! (hollow verb) is of the form 0M����� for verbs with
medial � and ��9�M�� for verbs with medial � so from ����# (to say) we have ���08�� (something said) and
from �%��J we have �49�]�� (something sold).
The �)�A<T� 0����� (negative imperative verb) being �U��V�,�� is of the form �0M�? �@ or ��M�? �@ .
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�!�, ������)
Do not say!
(2)
�, �!�!���) Do not say!
(1)
�, �!���) Do not say!
Masculine
(6)
�"�#�)�, �! Do not say!
(5)
�!�!���)�, Do not say!
(4)
�!�������)�, Do not say!
Feminine
Second
person
The ����N[� 0����� (imperative verb) is of the form �0� rendering �0# (say!) and �4�J (sell!).
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
������� Say!
(2)
�!��� Say!
(1)
��� Say!
Masculine
(6)
�"�#� Say!
(5)
�!��� Say!
(4)
������� Say!
Feminine
Second
person
We may summarise the above as follows.
Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
�08�? �@ �0# >@���# ���08�� ���A�� 0���8�- ��9�# ���_��# ���A�� 0��08�- ����# Don’t say! Say! Statement Said So it
is It is said It was said One who
says So he
is He says He said
171
If the middle weak letter is a � we have �%��J)�49�]�-) (�a���J (>���9�J (he sold),
�? �@�4�] �4�J >���9�J �49�]�� ���A�� �%��]�- �49�J �4�_��J ���A�� �49�]�- �%��J Don’t sell! Sell! Sale Sold So it
is It is sold It was sold A seller So he
is He sells He sold
Sometimes, even though the middle weak letter is a � or a � an alif is imported in its place in the
�a�/�7 �] �a�+�� >?��.�+ - ���M�� - - XQ��+ ���M�� *�.�/�% �+�-�. Don’t remain! Remain! Remaining - So he
is - - One who
remains So he
is He
remains He
remained
�a�7 �] �Q A �%����= [-������ ���M�� *�����% �-���= XQ��= ���M�� -�.�% *���= Don’t protect! Protect! Protection Protected So he
is
He is
protected He was
protected A protector So he
is He
protects He
protected
���R�7 �] ��� �� A 2P� [(���R�� ���M�� '���R�% �(��� X=�� ���M�� (���R�% '��� Don’t intend! Intend! Intention Intended So he
is
It is
intended It was
intended One who
intends So he
is He
intends He
intended
13.2 Derived Forms
It may please you to know that the �������������� (terminal weak) verb in all the derived forms has only
one pattern in each form. The ���!��N��� �L�<� (Active Participle) of all derived forms is �Y�1.�R�� and the �L�<�������N�3��� (Passive Participle) is always �8��E�.�� .
13.2.1 Form II
Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
bS���7 �] bS�8 A �P�+���7 c*d+���� ���M�� *2+���% �-b+�8 eS���� ���M�� -b+���% *2+�8 Don’t educate! Educate! Education Educated So he
is
He is
educated He was
educated An
educator So he
is He
educates He
educated
13.2.2 Form V
Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper.
Verbal
Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
2a�����7 �] 2a���7 A�Pf.���7 c*g.������ ���M�� *�.�����% �-f.1��7 ea������ ���M�� *�.�����% *�.���7 Don’t receive! Receive! Receiving Received So he
is
It is
received It was
received A receiver So he
is He
receives He
received
185
13.2.3 Form III
Negative
Imper.
Positive
Imper. Verbal Noun
Passive
Participle
(noun)
Passive
Imperf.
Verb
Passive
Perf.
verb
Active
Participle
(noun)
Active
Imperf.
Verb
Active
Perf.
Verb
�"��R�7 �] �"�� AB��"��R�� @ >?��$� c'"��R�� ���M�� '�"��R�% �(�"�� X"��R�� ���M�� (�"��R�% '�"�� Don’t call! Call! Call Called So he
1. His invitation was not clear and that prevented me from coming.
2. I have invited all my friends to my house for a meeting and they will stay tonight.
3. She has been to many places and seen many things, especially the East.
4. This invitation of his was originally for me only but the situation calls for us all to attend.
5. He mentioned your name after my name when he called our names yesterday.
6. He was a student in Egypt. After that he stayed in Damascus until his death.
7. Everything is as if it has reached its completion now.
8. He was outside, passing by his friend’s house when he heard their call from behind the door.
9. Hasan continued to be angry with me (2-���!) even though he saw clearly during our conversation
that the circumstances were difficult for me.
10. And apart from your many strange/far-fetched/outlandish ($P���+) opinions, is there any basis to
this question of yours?
11. The meeting is running now and all the ministers intend to stay in the city throughout the three
days.
12. Perhaps they intend to stay throught the night and when they wake up tomorrow, they may
refuse to go.
192
�� ����������� ������� Chapter 14
Revolution I
�����, her sisters and ‘half-sisters’
In chapter two, we learned that ����� enters upon a ������ ������� (noun sentence) and acts as a ‘time
machine’, transporting it to the past. We also learned that ��� enters upon a ������ ������� (noun sentence)
and emphasises it. The two have one thing in common. They ‘abrogate’ the ����� (grammatical
government) of the ���������� (subject). We call them ��� ���� (abrogators).
In a regular �� ����������� the ���������� (subject) is the ������ (regent), which makes itself and the � ���!
(predicate) �"�#$� �� . When ����� enters upon a ������ ������� it abrogates the ����� of the ���������� and
subordinates it. ����� makes the ���������� (subject) �"�#$� �� and the � ���! (predicate) �%��&�'�� . When ��� enters
upon a ������ ������� (noun sentence) it again abrogates the ����� of the ���������� and subordinates it. ��� makes
the ���������� (subject) �%��&�'�� and the � ���! (predicate) �"�#$� �� .
There are three groups of ��� ���� (abrogators) in Arabic,
1. �����, her sisters and half-sisters
2. ��� and her sisters
3. �(�) and her sisters
In this chapter we shall meet ����� and her sisterhood.
14.1 ����� (the verb ‘to be’)
Though we have kept it secret so far, ����� (he was), like �*��+ (he said), is a �,������ ���-$ (hollow verb). The
triliteral root of ����� is .( .� .�(ka–wa–na). The / reappears 0$ "1��2�34 (in the imperfect) #��#5�6 (he is,
will be). �1���&������� (the verbal noun of kaana) is ������ (universe)
193
�����) #��#5�6( (he was) is conjugated 0$09��34 (in the perfect) as follows:
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
������� They were
(2)
������ They (two) were
(1)
����� He was
Masculine
(6)
���*
They were
(5)
�������� They (two) were
(4)
������� She was
Feminine
Third person
(9)
�������� You were
(8)
��������� You (two) were
(7)
������ You were
Masculine
(12)
������� You were
(11)
��������� You (two) were
(10)
������ You were
Feminine
Second person
(14)
� ���
We were
(13)
������ I was
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person
�(#�* is an assimilation of �(�'#�
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
���������� They are
(2)
���������� They (two) are
(1)
������� He is
Masculine
(6)
����� They are
(5)
������� ��
They (two) are
(4)
������
She is
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
��������� You are
(8)
��������� You (two) are
(7)
������ You are
Masculine
(12)
���� You are
(11)
��������� You (two) are
(10)
�!������ You are
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
������� We are
(13)
������" I am
Masculine and
Feminine
First
person
194
����� is the Arabic verb ‘to be’. In English, the verb ‘to be’ is called an auxiliary or helping verb because
it helps us to transport sentences into the past and future. In Arabic, the verb ����� is called �;+��� ���-$ (deficient verb, not to be confused with the �;+��� <����-�� ���-$ (terminal weak verb) introduced in chapter
thirteen). ����� is called �;+��� (deficient) because it refers to ‘being’ something rather than ‘doing’
something. Although ����� is a ���-$ (verb), it does not have a �����$ (subject) and => �*��-3?�� (object) like a
���-$@A��B (a proper verb). Instead, ����� has a ���������� which we rename �C�� ����� (the subject of kaana) and a
� ���!, which we call � ���! ����� (the predicate of kaana).
We know that ����� enters upon a ������ ������� (noun sentence). Here we can distinguish between two
types of ������ ������� (noun sentence) and say that ����� is able to enter upon both,
1. A ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun). ����� makes this
� ���! (predicate) �%��&�'�� .
E �F���G�� �H4��I4 ����� The student was hard working
2. A ������ ������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a $ �������������- (verb sentence).
��F���G�6 �H4��I4 ����� The student was working hard
14.1.1 Transporting a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun).
(a) In chapter two we transported the ������� ������ (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun) into �09��34 (the past) by simply placing ����� before it.
����� �C#5�4 E ���! It was good for you
We can transport a ������� ������ (noun sentence) J�4� ���3K���L�34 (to the future) by placing #��#5�6 before it.
#��#5�6�C#5�4 E ���! It will be good for you
(b) The imperfect #��#5�6 is sometimes used *��M34 0$ (in the present tense) as a verb ‘to be’ when making
assumptions.
�N�'�>��O �P��� Your son is big now
195
�H�Q�RST�PU�� �V'� #W�'�� �X�Y��Z J�4� �N�'�>
�$��O E P��� #��#5��
Your son went to Damascus many years ago so
he will be big now.
��O ���5�� 0$ �(�L�[ #��#5�6 Hasan should/will be in Makkah (by) now
(c) In chapter two we encountered the indefinite ���������� (subject):
34 0$�H4��\ ����1��� A student is in the school; or
There is a student in the school
If we transport this ������� (sentence) J�4� 09��34 (into the past) using ����� or J�4����3K���L�34 (into the future)
using #��#5�6 , we get,
�����34 0$]���� �H4��\ ����1��� A student was in the school yesterday; or
There was a student in the school yesterday
#��#5�634 0$ �H4��\ ����1���E �� A student will be in the school tomorrow; or
There will be a student in the school tomorrow
In such ����� (sentences) where � ���! ����� is an elliptical or hidden ‘�Z�������’, ����� expresses a meaning of
simple existence which we translate as ‘there was’ or ‘there will be’ as opposed to expressing a
meaning of ‘x was y’ or ‘x will be y’. When this occurs, ����� is considered to be @A��B ���-$ (a proper verb)
and not �;+��� (deficient). �H4��\ is thus #����$����� not �C�� ����� and we may bring it forward.
����� �H4��\34 0$]���� ����1��� A student was in the school yesterday; or
There was a student in the school yesterday
196
�
� First Aid
Students often translate the sentence ����� �H4��\34 0$ ����1��� (there was a student
in the school) as ‘he was a student in the school’.
Prescription
����� may be summarised as follows:
������(�L�[ E ��4�/ Hasan was a boy
(�(�L�[ is �C�� ����� (subject) and E ��4�/ is � ���! ����� (predicate))
E ��4�/ ����� He was a boy
(The �C�� ����� (subject) is the implied pronoun ‘���Q’.
E ��4�/ is ���!� ����� (predicate)).
���4�/ �����)_����34 0$(
There was a boy (in the house)
(���4�/ is #����$ ����� and there is no �*��-3?�� (object). ����� is @A��B ���-$ (proper verb).
14.1.2 Transporting a ������ ������� (noun sentence) in which the �!� �� (predicate) is a ������-$ ������� (verb sentence)
(a) The Pluperfect
A pluperfect is a perfect of a perfect. A ������ ������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ���-$S ��� (perfect verb) is transported by ����� further � J�409��34 (into the past), usually in relation to
another event.
�H�Q�R He went
�H�Q�R #���� 4 The man went
#���� 4 ����� �H�Q�R The man had gone
#���� 4 �H�Q�R ����� The man had gone
����� �H�Q�R He had gone
�������
197
The particle ���+ (not ���K�4 which can only initiate a sentence) may be placed before the ���-$S ��� (perfect
verb) that is the � ���! ����� (the predicate of kaana) as a rhetorical flourish.
�H�Q�R ���+ #���� 4 ����� The man had gone
#���� 4 �H�Q�R ���+ ����� The man had gone
�H�Q�R ���+ #���� 4 ����� �(�L�[ ���a�/ ���4 When Hasan arrived the man had (already) gone
����Q�R ���+ �=�B���!� ����� �(�L�[ ���a�/ ���4 When Hasan arrived, his brothers had (already) gone
( ����Q�R is plural because it comes after ���C ����� )
�=�B���!� �H�Q�R ���+ ����� �(�L�[ ���a�/ ���4 When Hasan arrived, his brothers had (already) gone
(����� and �H�Q�R are singular here because they precede �C�� ����� )
(b) The past continuous
A ������ ������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ���-$ �"1��2�� (imperfect verb) is
transported by ����� into �09��34 (the past), producing a past continuous.
�H�Q3W�6 He is going / he goes
#���� 4 �H�Q3W�6 The man is going / goes
����� #���� 4 �H�Q3W�6 The man was going / used to go
������H�Q3W�6 He was going
(c) Intention in the past
A ������ ������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ���-$ �"1��2�� (imperfect verb) with the
future particle b�� attached to it is transported by ����� to �09��34 (the past), producing a past intention.
�H��35���� He will write
������H��35���� He was going to write
198
(d) The future perfect
A ������ ������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ���-$S ��� (perfect verb) is transported
by #��#5�6 into �34#���3K���L (the future). Again, the particle ���+ (not ���K�4) may be placed before the ���-$S ���
(perfect verb) that is the � ���! ����� (the predicate of kaana) as a rhetorical flourish.
�6 ������'�#�&����M�� � E � #��#5�6�H�Q�R ���+ �(�L�[ When Muhammad arrives tomorrow, Hasan will have (already) gone
199
14.2 �#�$���%����&�"����� (some sisters of kaana)
All �*��-3$�� (verbs) bearing a meaning of ‘being’, ‘becoming’, ‘not being’ or ‘not becoming’ are sisters of
�����, and like ����� are ���*��-3$�� ���&+� (deficient verbs). Sisters of ����� behave like ����� by,
1. A ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun). ����� makes this � ���!
(predicate) �%��&�'�� . 2. A ������ ������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ������-$ ������� (verb sentence).
14.2.1 �]���4
We have used the verb �]���4 ‘he is not’ to negate a ������� ������ (noun sentence). It is a S ��� ���-$ (perfect
verb) but negates only in the present tense. It has no �"1��2�� (imperfect).
Although �]���4 is a hollow root, it does not become �c�d . This is anomalous in the Arabic language.
�]���4 is conjugated as follows:
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
��L���4 They are not
(2)
��L���4 They (two) are not
(1)
�]���4 He is not
Masculine
(6)
�(�L�4 They are not
(5)
����L���4 They (two) are not
(4)
�_�L���4
She is not
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
�C���L�4 You are not
(8)
�����L�4 You (two) are not
(7)
�_�L�4 You are not
Masculine
(12)
�(���L�4 You are not
(11)
�����L�4 You (two) are not
(10)
_�L�4 You are not
Feminine
Second person
(14)
��'�L�4 We are not
(13)
�_�L�4 I am not
Masculine
and
Feminine
First
person
e (a) �]���4 like ����� makes the � ���! (predicate) �%��&�'�� and does not affect the ���������� (subject).
34�P��� �_���� The house is big
34 �]���4E P��� �_���� The house is not big
200
E P��� �]���4 It is not big
The negative particle ��� and �d are able to do the job of �]���4
���34 �� �_����E P� The house is not big
�d 34 E P��� �_���� The house is not big
If the ���������� (subject) is a �P�9 (pronoun), unlike with �]���4 it does not drop when negated by ��� .
�H4��\ ���Q He is a student
���E��4��\ ���Q He is not a student
�d E��4��\ ���Q He is not a student
The preposition >b may be placed �����+ ���! �]���4 (before the predicate of laysa) and also �����+ ���! ���
(before the predicate of maa), without changing the meaning.
34 �]���4SP��5> �_���� The house is not big
��� 34 SP��5> �_���� The house is not big
f ���C#5g>� > �_�L�4 �#4��+J���> h) 7:172( Am I not your Lord? They said, ‘yes indeed’
�i1��+ ���.���/ And I am a reciter
Si1��K> ����� ���/ And I am not a reciter
(ii) We do not use ���4�] to say ‘he/it was not’. Instead we use ����� negated by ��� .
����� ���34 �_����P���E The house was not big
f�C#54���g1 (� S��[�� ��>�� ����M�� ����� ��� h )33:40( Muhammad was not the father of any of your men folk
(iii) To say ‘he will not be’ we use �6 �d#��#5 .
201
�6 �d#��#534 �_����P���E The house will not be big
(b) �]���4 can be used, especially in poetry and literature, to negate both perfect and imperfect verbs.
�H���� �]���4 /�H���� ��� He did not write
�H��35�6 �]���4 /�H��35�6 �d He is not writing
14.2.2 �1��a) �6�P&() �k� a (ET�1/� ���a (he became) is another �,������ ���-$ (hollow verb) that is also a sister of ����� .
(a) �1��a) �6�P&( enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun).
ET�R�����#� �k�1��a She became a professor
(b) �1��a) �6�P&( enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ������-$ �������
(verb sentence) to mean ‘to come to’. The �������������-$ (verb sentence) must be a �"1��2�� ���-$ (imperfect
verb).
�1��a �C�F3?�6 He came to understand
14.2.3 �l���a��) �l��&�6( (he became) is a sister of �����. It is form IV.
(a) �l���a��) �l��&�6( enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun).
mn��L� �k��'��34 _�M���a�� The girls became women
�l���a�� Ed���1 �Z�d�/.o The boys became men
(b) �l���a��) �l��&�6( enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the �!� �� (predicate) is a ������-$ �������
(verb sentence) to mean ‘to come to’. The ������-$ ������� (verb sentence) must be a �"1��2�� ���-$ (imperfect
verb).
�l���a���C�F3?�6 He came to understand
202
14.2.4 �k��>)�_���6() �_> (�����>E��B� (he became) is another �,������ ���-$ (hollow verb) that is also a sister of ����� . The
first person perfect �_> is an assimilation of _��> .
(a) �k��>)�_���6( enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun).
���K�4E�5�p�/ �=#4��a�/ �k��> His arrival has become imminent
E������M�� �=#4��a�/ �k��> His arrival has become certain
Knowing when to use �k��> as opposed to �1��a or �����a�� comes with experience. For the moment, it is
advisable to restrict yourself to the above two given expressions when using �k��> .
(b) �k��>)�_���6( enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ������-$ �������
(verb sentence) to mean ‘to come to’. The �������������-$ (verb sentence) must be a �"1��2�� ���-$ (imperfect
verb).
E���-�a �q��G�6 �k��> He came to find it hard
203
14.2.5 �* �r ��� /�d#* �s�6 (he still is (lit. ‘he has not ceased to be’)) is only ever used negated. We may also negate
the perfect with �d and the imperfect with ��� rendering: �* �r �d /���#* �s�6 . Like �]���4 the perfect and
imperfect bear the same present tense meaning. �* �r ��� /�d#* �s�6 (he still is) should not be confused with
�* �r)#*/�s�6( (to disappear).
�* �r ��� /�d#* �s�6 (he still is) is conjugated 0$09��34 (in the perfect) as follows:
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
�#4 �r ��� They still are
(2)
�d �r ��� They still are
(1)
�* �r ��� He still is
Masculine
(6)
�(34r ��� They still are
(5)
����4 �r ��� They still are
(4)
�_�4 �r ���
She still is
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
�C��34r ��� You still are
(8)
����34r ��� You still are
(7)
�_34r ��� You still are
Masculine
(12)
�(��34r ��� You still are
(11)
����34r ��� You still are
(10)
_34r ��� You still are
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
��'34r ��� We still are
(13)
�_34r ��� I still am
Masculine
and Feminine
First
person
(a) �* �r ��� /�d#* �s�6 enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun).
�* �r ��� /E Pt�a E ��4�/ �(�L�[ #* �s�6 �d Hasan is still a little boy
_����34 0$ �C��34r ����� u Are you still at home?
�(6PU�� ��'34r ��� We are still many
��'�-�� �#4 �r ��� They are still with us
(b) �* �r ��� /�d�6 #* �s enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ������-$ �������
(verb sentence) to mean ‘to come to’. The ������-$ ������� (verb sentence) must be a �"1��2�� ���-$ (imperfect
verb).
�* �r ��� / �d #* �s�6�=����#� #�� 3K�6 He still reads / is still reading his books
204
14.2.6 �A �Z ��� (so long as, for as long as) is a sister of �����. It must be preceded by ��� which is not a negation
here. It has no �"1��2�� (imperfect) and is conjugated 0$�3409� (in the perfect) as follows:
Plural Dual Singular
(3)
��� �Z ��� So long as they are
(2)
��� �Z ��� So long as they are
(1)
�A �Z ��� So long as he is
Masculine
(6)
�(���Z ��� So long as they are
(5)
����� �Z ��� So long as they are
(4)
�_�� �Z ���
So long as she is
Feminine
Third
person
(9)
�C�����Z ��� So long as you are
(8)
�������Z ��� So long as you are
(7)
�_���Z ��� So long as you are
Masculine
(12)
�(�����Z ��� So long as you are
(11)
�������Z ��� So long as you are
(10)
_���Z ��� So long as you are
Feminine
Second
person
(14)
��'���Z ��� So long as we are
(13)
�_���Z ��� So long as I am
Masculine and
Feminine
First
person
(a) �A �Z ��� enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a �C�� (noun).
E�v��[ �_���Z ���
For as long as I am alive
#��#5�6v��[ �_���Z ��� wP�9 0$ �N���x��E� Your speech will be in my conscience for as long as I am alive
�(�M���Z ��� �C#5�-��mn����[�� ��'�� We are with you so long as we are alive
�#5�6 #�y��'�-�� z �=�-�� ��'���Z ���
Allah will be with us so long as we are with him
(b) �A �Z ��� enters upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ������-$ ������� (verb
sentence) to mean ‘to come to’. The �������������-$ (verb sentence) must be a �"1��2�� ���-$ (imperfect verb).
����_���ZE���L�� #��#���
So long as I am a Muslim
205
14.3 Half-sisters of �����
The expression ‘half-sister of �����’ is of my own coinage and is not found in Arabic grammar. I have
named these verbs so because they are only able to perform half the function of ����� . They enter upon a
������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���! (predicate) is a ������-$ ������� (verb sentence) that is a ���-$�"1��2�� (imperfect verb). They are not able to enter upon a ������������� (noun sentence) in which the � ���!
(predicate) is a �C�� (noun). These verbs in Arabic are called o #��>1��K�34 #*��-3$ (the related verbs).
14.3.1 Verbs meaning ‘to begin’
The perfect verb �����> may be placed before a ���-$ �"1��2�� (imperfect verb) to mean ‘he began to . . .’, in
the same way as we placed the perfect of ����� before an imperfect verb to mean ‘he was . . .’.
������H��35�6 He was writing
�H��35�6 �����> He began to write
�����>#�� 3K�6 He began to read
The verbs ���-�� and �W�!�� among others, also bear a meaning of ‘to begin to’ apart from their other
meanings.
����� #*�#K�6 He was saying
#K�6 ���-��#*� He began to say
�]��G�6 �W�!�� He began to sit
14.3.2 �Z���) �Z��5�6( (‘almost’)
(a) �Z���)�Z��5�6( followed by a ���-$ �"1��2�� (imperfect verb) renders ‘almost’
�q#�� 3K�6 ����� He was reading it
�q#�� 3K�6 �Z��� He almost read it
> �XU�6 �Z����CF He almost trusted them
> �XU�6 �Z��5�6F�C He almost trusts them
=�>�� ��3U� #��#5�6 �Z��� He was almost like his father
206
=�>�� ��3U� #��#5�6 �Z��5�6 He is almost like his father
S�g��� � ��� �=���x�� #��#5�6 �Z��5�6 His speech is almost bad
(b) When negated, �Z���)�Z��5�6( means ‘(can) hardly’
�q#�� 3K�6 �Z��� ��� He could hardly read it (lit. he almost couldn’t read it)
�CF> �XU�6 �Z��5�6 �d He can hardly trust them
(c) The structure �Z��� ��� / �Z��5�6 �d + ���-$+ J���[ +S ��� ���-$ means ‘hardly … when’ or ‘no sooner …
than’.
�� J���[ �q#�� 3K�6 �Z��� ����=�'� �%���534 �k3W�! He had hardly read it when
I took the book from him
�Z��� ����]���� J���[ _����34 J�4� �q�W�!���/ �q��>�� ���!�Z No sooner had he sat than his father
entered and took him home
207
��%��'��(���
�����) #��#5�6 (����E�� , E������ he was kaana (yakuunu) kawnan, kiyaanan
������) �� ��3���( universe; being kawnun (akwaanun)
������ existence kiyaanun
���4 when (before perfect verb) lammaa
������'� when (before any verb) ⊂indamaa
�]���4 not (before noun sentence) laysa
�1��a) �P&�6 (ET�1/� ���a 1. to become
2. to come to Saara (yaSeeru) Sayruuratan
�T�1/� ���a becoming Sayruuratun
�l���a��)�l��&�6 ( 1. to become
2. to come to aSbaHa (yuSbiHu)
�k��>)�_���6( 1. to spend the night
2. to become
3. to come to
baata (yabeetu)
�N�p�/ imminent washeekun
�k��>E�5�p�/ it has become imminent baata washeekan
�A����M�� certain maHtuumun
E������M�� �k��> it has become certain baata maHtuuman
�* �r �� / �s�6 �d#* still Maa zaala / laa yazaalu
2. Your presence in the council was a reason for many people leaving.
3. There were many men in the city.
4. When I arrived, Hasan had left the city four weeks ago.
5. Hasan used to go to the sea every day at ⊂
asr time.
6. When your brother takes you to the city tomorrow, Hasan will have arrived before you.
7. My book is not difficult. I have read it and understood it.
8. Maryam became an author and wrote beautiful books.
9. Their exit from the meeting became certain.
10. The book is still very difficult after many readings.
11. I am with you so long as I am alive.
12. When I entered, Hasan began to leave the meeting.
13. The boy’s statement is almost incorrect.
14. He can hardly begin to speak.
15. No sooner had be become a minister than he desired the president’s chair.
210
��� ������������ ���� �� Chapter 15
Revolution II
����� and her sisters
15.1 �����
The particle ����� is used in Classical Arabic for emphasis and may be translated as ‘indeed’ or ‘verily’. In
Modern Arabic, it has lost much of its rhetorical strength and may have no translational value.
����� is the second of our ������ (abrogators). It enters upon a ������� ������� (noun sentence), abrogates the
��� of the ������� and subordinates it. ���� makes the ������� (subject) ���� �!� and the �"�# (predicate) �$�%&�"� . We may think of it as doing the opposite of ��'�( .
)��*��+�� �,�-'�.- ��'�( The student was hard working
�������*��+�� ,�-'�.- Indeed the student is hard working
����� cannot enter upon a ������/�& ������� (verb sentence). If we wish to emphasise a ������/�& ������� (verb sentence)
using ����� , we must bring the ���'�& (subject) forward so that the ������/�& ������� (verb sentence) becomes a
������� ������� (noun sentence). The particle ���0 may be placed before the ��/�& (verb) as a rhetorical flourish.
"12 %����"- $'������3 The man attended the meeting
�����"- ����"12 ���0$'������3 Indeed the man attended the meeting
15.1.1 When the ���� �4�� (subject of inna) is a �5��6 (pronoun), ���� it must be expressed as a �5��6�� �� ��
(attached pronoun). This is because the ���� �7�!�� �"�8'�6 (detached pronouns) only sit 9:�&; <�=� >�& (in the
place of raf) and the �"�8'�6 ����� �� � (attached pronouns) only sit >�&9,� � <�=� (in the place of naSb) or >�&?"� <�=� (in the place of jarr).
�@�"�( �A���� He is generous
� �@�"�( ��B
He is generous
�C�"�( '*���� She is generous
�
�C�"�( >�B She is generous
211
�D"�( �4%E���� You (pl.) are generous
� �D"�( �4������ You (pl.) are generous
�F'C�"�( �G�*���� They (pl. fem.) are generous
�
�F'C�"�( �G�B They (pl. fem.) are generous
15.1.2 When �4�� ���� (the subject of inna) is a dual �H;'I�J �4�� (demonstrative pronoun) we have,
��'�KL��M ���NB These (two) are (two) students
��'�( �G���KL��M ���NB These (two) were (two) friends
������'�KL��M �GL�NB Indeed these (two) are (two) friends
15.1.3 We know that ����� may introduce a ������� ������� (noun sentence) in which an indefinite ������� (subject) is
preceded by a 9������� �A��I (quasi sentence).
�,�-'�O ���;���P- >�& There is a student in the school
����)'��-'�O ���;���P- >�& Indeed there is a student in the school
�+� �"�+�7P- ��/Q�R�� There is a meeting after fajr
)'S���+� �"�+�7P- ��/Q ���� Indeed there is a meeting after fajr
The indefinite �4�� ���� may be brought forward to immediately follow ����� .
���� ���;���P- >�& )'��-'�O Indeed there is a student in the school
�"�+�7P- ��/Q )'S���+� ���� Indeed there is a meeting after fajr
15.1.4 The particle T�- (not to be confused with the preposition T�- ) is another particle that may be used to
emphasise a ������� ������� (noun sentence). It is called �3�U����Q�3 �D (the lam of initiation) because, like ����� it takes its position at the beginning of the sentence. Because of its emphatic value, it is often called �D�3PV��-����( or ����- �D�3����( (the lam of emphasis).
���*��+�� W���� You are hard working
212
W���X���*��+�� Indeed you are hard working
The particle ����� may be used to further strengthen a ������� ������� (noun sentence) already emphasized by
the �U����Q�3 �D�3 (the lam of initiation). When this occurs, there is a conflict between the two particles over
who should occupy prime position at the beginning of the sentence. ����� always wins and displaces the
�U����Q�3 �D�3 (the lam of initiation) so it has to resign to preceding a later part of the sentence. It is then
called ���K���2Y��P- �D�ZP- (the displaced lam).
(a) The particle T�- may precede an indefinite ������� preceded by a ���I9������� �A (quasi sentence).
P- >�& ����)'��-'�.�- ���;��� Indeed there is a student in the school
(b) The particle T�- may precede �"�# ���� (the predicate of inna).
���*��+���- [���� Indeed you are hard working
�- "���X �����4��\/ Indeed the matter is great
(c) The particle T�- may precede a ���I9������� �A (quasi sentence) attached to an elliptical �"�# (predicate).
����,�-'�.- �- P- >�7���;��� Indeed the student is in the school
]94��\� 9 %��# _��� W���� And you are upon a mighty character
] `94��\� 9 %��# _��/�- [����a ) 4�K-68:4( And indeed you are upon a mighty character
(d) The particle T�- may precede a �"�dP- <�=� >�& �$�;'1�� ��/�& (imperfect verb in the place of the
predicate).
�������*��+��- ,�-'�.- Indeed the student does works hard
If it precedes a �"�dP- <�=� >�& 9e'� ��/�& (perfect verb in the place of the predicate) it must be
accompanied by ���0 .
�����*��� ���K�- ,�-'�.- Indeed the student did work hard
213
15.1.5 ����� is used for indirect speech to mean ‘that’ after �f'�0 (he said).
F'� ���0 �g'Q�� ���� �f'�0 He said that his father had passed away
)'1L�"� ��'�( �A���� �f'�0 He said that he was ill
It is also possible in Arabic, as we do in English, to have direct speech after �f'�0 . We simply place the
quotation after �f'�0 without ���� and without quotation marks or any punctuation.
�hL�"� '��� �f'�0 He said, ‘I am ill’
>�- �W�-'�0 �W=��M��>�i'�2>�Q�� �F��� ��/Q )���/M She said to me, ‘My life has become difficult
after the death of my father’
15.2 ������ ������������� (some sisters of inna ����� )
The �F�#������ (sisters of inna) all enter upon a ������� ������� (noun sentence) and abrogate the ��� of the
������� making it ���� �!� and the �"�# (predicate) �$�%&�"� .
15.2.1 ���� (that)
���� is used to mean ‘that’ in expressions such as ‘he mentioned that’, ‘he heard that’ and ‘the fact is
that’.
���� �"L�j�P- "�(�kF'� ���0 [���P- The minister mentioned that the king has died
)'1L�"� W�!%( [���� �W�/��� I heard that you were ill
)'KL��M ���� >�!l��Q�U'� >�- It reached me / I heard that a friend of mine came (lit. ‘that a friend of mine came reached me’)
�m�n'M )���=�� ���� �:�0�P- The fact is that Muhammad is truthful
�m�n'M �A���� �:�0�P- The fact is that he is truthful
�:�0�P-�m�n'M ��-�P- �NB ���� The fact is that this boy is truthful
>�KL��M [���� ��'B�N- G�� >�!/!� That you are my friend prevented me from going
(a) If we introduce ���� before a ������/�& ������� (a verb sentence), we must bring P-�7%���' (the subject) forward,
to act as �4�� ���� because ���� cannot be followed immediately by a ��/�& (verb).
214
>�- � L��M �U'� A friend of mine came
�U'� >�- )'KL��M ���� >�!l��Q I heard that a friend of mine came
Not: �U'� ���� >�!l��Q>�- � L��M �
)�1L�"� �W!��P- �W�'�( The girl was ill
)�1L�"� �W�'�( W�!��P- ���� �W�/��� I heard that the girl was ill
Not: )�1L�"� �W�!��P- �W�'�( ���� �W�/��� �
(b) If the �&' ��� (subject) is an implied �5��6 (pronoun), we have to insert a �5��6�� �� �� (attached
pronoun) after ���� to separate it from %��/�7P- (the verb).
)'/L�"� ��'�( He was fast
)'/L�"� ��'�( �A���� �F�"�(�k I mentioned that he was fast
_6�"� �4���!%( You (pl.) were ill
���!%( �4%E���� �W�/���_6�"� �4 I heard that you (pl.) were ill
]�"12 They attended
]�"12 �4�*���� >�!l��Q I heard that they attended
(c) We have the following idioms produced using ���� :
���� "���o However, but
�U'�, )'q��I �f'�0 '� �A���� "���o He came but he didn’t say anything
���� :� Despite, even though
���� 4Po; Despite, even though
�A���� :� �U'� /)'1L�"� ��'�( �A���� 4Po; He came even though he was ill
1. These are my two friends. They are noble of character.
2. The fact is that these subjects are very difficult.
3. Indeed I have come to your (pl.) house out of love for you and because you are my friends.
4. When I heard from my friends that they were ill, I had already left Damascus.
5. He came to me as if he had reached his death and was restless.
6. I found you (dual) to be generous so I mentioned your names to the minister. Perhaps he will
mention you to the king tomorrow.
7. I heard that you prevented your children from going to school.
Indeed you have killed their minds.
8. I heard that you came to my house yesterday but left immediately that night.
9. These teachers of mine are noble of character.
10. His statement was clear but I did not hear it.
11. He said that he was ill so he did not leave the house.
12. The fact is that we arrived yesterday but did not hear anything from you.
13. Hasan’s brother is my friend. We are friends for the sake of Allah.
14. The rich man understood that love of wealth prevented him from many good deeds.
15. Indeed the high and mighty of the world are kings and presidents, but death kills all.
16. The minister said in the cabinet meeting that the matter is very great.
17. He prevented his brother from going to school because he was ill.
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�� ����������� ������� Chapter 16
��� and her sisters
16.1 ���
The particle ���� means ‘to’ (as in ‘he requested me to stay’) or ‘that’ (as in ‘he requested that I stay’). It
must be followed by a ������ ������ (imperfect verb) which it ���� ��� . The negative of ���� is ��� which is a
conflation of ���� +�� and means ‘not to’ or ‘that … not’.
���� ��������� He requested to go / that he go
���� ��������!�� He requested me to go / that I go
�����������!�� He requested me not to go / that I do not go
�" ��#� ���� ���!�� I want to go
16.1.1 ���� is called $%��"�� �&�'( (lit. ‘verbal-nounish particle’). This is because ���� and the �)���*�+,-�������) (verb
sentence) it introduces expounds or explains a ��"�� (a verbal noun) and is therefore, interchangeable with
a ��"�� (a verbal noun).
(a) ���� and �)���*�+,-�������) (verb sentence) it introduces may be .�/ 0���12�3����4*�5�6 (in the place of the direct
object).
7�#��8�12 92��� He wanted to sit
:���8 ���� 92��� He wanted to sit
���������12 He requested to go
���� ��������� He requested to go / that he go
���� ��������!�� He requested me to go / that I go
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�����������!�� He requested me not to go / that I do not go
�:�*,;12 <�/= �>�?@�12 A"B ��@���� We requested not to remain in the sun
��@�������� C�?�@D �:�*,;12 <�/= We requested not to remain in the sun
�E�F=��B9G �6��! ��@���� We requested to go and invite them
�@�������� � ����D�E����B�"DG We requested to go and call them
(“����D” �&�#H�� C��B “�E����B�"D”
the second verb is conjuncted to the first)
�E�F�1 2�#1�IJK�-L They said something to them
�"*�12 ��6 �M� N�@ �'�I 2��D�#O ���� �E�F�1 2�#1�I�)� They said to them to be close to the city gate
�)� �"*�12 ��6 �M� N�@ �'�I 2��D�#O ���� �E�F�1 2�#1�I They said to them not to be close to the city gate
(b) ���� and the �)���*�+,-�������) (verb sentence) it introduces may be 0�����B�4�12 .�/ (in the place of the subject of
the verb). This occurs especially with the following verbs that are usually used impersonally 0��2������*�1 (in
the imperfect).
1. �+G)���8 ( (to be necessary, obligatory):
�-��B �'�OR;12 ���8 Gratitude is incumbent upon us
���8 )�-��B ('#O�;D ���� Gratitude is incumbent upon us
S�6��! ���8 Your going is necessary
����= ���� ���8 It is necessary/obligatory that you go /
You must go (lit. ‘that you go is necessary)
�8 ����= ���� �� It is necessary that you don’t go /
you must not go
����= ���� ���8 �� It is necessary that you don’t go /
you must not go
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����= ���� ���8 ���T You should have gone
(Use ���8 ���T instead of �+G )
2. ,U()RU�/ ( (to be right(ful)):
S�6��! RU�/ Your going is right(ful)
����= ���� RU�/ It is rightful that you go
����= ���� RU�/ It is rightful that you do not go
����= ���� RU�/ �� It is not rightful that you go
3. M�O� ��)�M�O�*� ( (To be possible):
A��-�12 ���� ���� �M�O�*� It is possible that he will go today
A��-�12 ���� ���� �M�O�*� It is possible that he will not go today
A��-�12 ���� ���� �M�O�*� �� It is not possible that he will go today
�*� �M�1J2"�V ���!�� ���� M�O It will not be possible for me to go tomorrow
S� ���!�� ���� �M�O�*� ���T It was possible for me to go with you
4. ���� U@W used impersonally means ‘previously’ and is used as an alternative to J?�6W . ���� here is followed
by a XY ������ (perfect verb). This is because the expression invariably refers to a complete action.
J?�6W �Z�O�12 2��� [��'�I ��� Have you read this book previously?
�Z�O�12 2��� [��'�I ���� U@W ��� Have you read this book previously?
\��� ��@��! ���� U@W We have been there previously
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(c) ���� and the �)���*�+,-�������) (verb sentence) it introduces may be .�/ 0��]'+ �&�'( "��6 ��G�'�8*�12 �E�W��2 (in the
place of the majruur noun after a preposition).
�6 0�6�� 0�D' ��1 C�1� ������)W��"*�12 My father ordered me to go to school
' ��)0�D( 0�6�� �6�_���)W��"*�12 C�1� ���!�� My father ordered me to go to school
�E�F�=��B9 �A"BG ��6��! �A"��6 ' �� He ordered that we don’t go and that they should
not be invited
' ���6�E����B�"D ����G ����D ���_ He ordered that we do not go and that we do not
call them
C�1� �%�'8�12 0�� ����@�V�' �<�-@�12 They desire to run home
C�1� 2G�'�8 ���� 0�� ����@�V�' �<�-@�12 They desire to run home
In the above sentences, we can omit the ]'+ �&�'( (preposition). The elliptical ]'+ �&�'( (preposition)
remains part of the syntax so that the �)���*�+,-�������) (verb sentence) introduced by ���� continues to be .�/ 0��]'+ �&�'( "��6 ��G�'�8*�12 �E�W��2 (in the place of the majruur noun after a preposition).
' ��)0�D( 0�6�� �����)W��"*�12 C�1� ���!�� My father ordered me to go to school
�E����B�"D ����G ����D ���� ' �� He ordered that we do not go and that we do not
call them
C�1� 2G�'�8 ���� ����@�V�' �<�-@�12 They desire to run home
(d) ���� may be placed after prepositions and �3����4 �5-�� (adverbs) to produce a number of idiomatic
expressions. This allows us to introduce a �),-������ �)���*�+ (a verb sentence) after prepositions and �3����4 �5-��
(adverbs). ���� and the sentence it introduces are .�/ 0�� �&�'( "��6 ��G�'�8*�12 �E�W��2�&��*�12 .�/ 0�� �G� ]'+�5�-�1� (in the place of the majruur noun after a preposition or in the place of the possessor).
(i) ���� C�1� (‘until’)
S�6��! C�1� ��� C�?�6�_W I will stay here until your departure
����= ���� C�1� ��� C�?�6�_W I will stay here until you go
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(ii) ���� C��B (‘on condition that’, provided that’)
�a �5�1�#?= ���� C��B S�1�! S�1 �<��#IX"( I told you that on condition that you don’t tell
anyone
(iii) ���� ���@�I /���� ���@�I �M� (‘before’)
���!�� ��� ���@�I 0�D2'= &��W You will see me before I go
(iv) ���� "��6 /���� �"��6 �M� (‘after’)
����= ���� "��6 ��� C�?�6�_W I will stay here after you go
In the above expressions, if the action in the clause introduced by ���� is complete,
we use a XY ������ (perfect verb).
�<�-@�12 M� �<�+'c ���� ���@�I 0�� �5�=��c�� I took it with me before I left the house
�<�-@�12 M� ��+'c ���� "��6 �Md( ��eG Hasan arrived after we left the house
(v) ���� �'�-�V �M� (‘without’)
/�12 2��� ���c�_D ���� ��-��B��2�-�5���Z�?D ���� �'�-�V �M� We must take this animal without killing it
(vi) ���� ���G�9 (‘without’)
��2�-/�12 2��� ���c�_D ���� ��-��B���G�9 �5���Z�?D ���� We must take this animal without killing it
���G�9 �5�6 ,'�*= ���� S�-��B\2' ���� You must pass it without it seeing you
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16.2 Sisters of ���
Like ���� , her sisters make the imperfect verb ������� :