IB Geography: Options
Option G: Urban environments
1. Urban populations
1.1. Urbanization
1.1.1. Define urbanization and explain the variation in global
growth rates and patterns.
1.1. Definitions: Urbanization: An increasing percentage of a
countrys population coming to live in towns and cities. It may
involve both rural to urban migration and natural increase.
1.1.1. The variation in global growth rates and patterns:
In most MDCs, the process of urbanization is at an end, with the
majority of the population already living in urban areas. This
makes the growth rate small, or even negative as people move to
rural or suburban areas for reasons that will be expanded on
later.
In NICs, the process of urbanization is still underway at a high
rate, as development typically begins in more industrialized
cities, drawing people from rural areas there in the belief that
they will have a better life. More developed LDCs see similar
growth rates, while less developed, poorer LDCs may still have low
urbanization rates due to low industrialization not attracting
rural migrants to cities.
1.2. Inward movement
1.2.1. Explain the processes of centripetal movements
(rural-urban migration, gentrification, re-urbanization/urban
renewal).
1.2. Definitions:
Rural- urban migration: The movement of population from rural
areas to urban areas.
Gentrification: The reinvestment of capital into inner-city
areas.
Re-urbanization/urban renewal: The revitalization of urban areas
and a movement of people back into those areas.
Brownfield sites: Abandoned, derelict, or underused industrial
buildings and land that may be contaminated but have potential for
redevelopment.
1.2.1. Explaining centripetal movements:
Factors causing rural-urban migration:
Push factors:
Limited infrastructure
Little job opportunities
Famine/drought
Overpopulation
Boredom
Difficulty of farm life
Pull factors:
A perception that cities are full of jobs
Want for better education
Better transport infrastructure
Better health infrastructure
More entertainment
Factors causing gentrification:
Lack of land (or cheap land) in cities
Overpopulation in city
Entrepreneuring real estate agencies
Factors causing re-urbanization/urban renewal:
Governmental investment
Foreign investment
Need for more land, particularly cheap land
Overpopulation
Complaints by people that decayed areas look bad
Case Study: Rural to Urban Migration from Caatinga to Sao
Paulo
Push factors:
Low unreliable rainfall leads to droughts
Difficulty of subsistence farming life
No water or electricity infrastructure
Few schools and clinics in the area
Pull factors:
The belief that there are many jobs in Sao Paulo (that are not
as back-breaking)
Better infrastructure
Better access to services such as education and health
The glamourous image of Sao Paulo with its bright lights
Positive effects:
Overpopulation problem is lessened.
Famine and drought problems lessen as there is a smaller
population
Remittances home can improve quality of life
Negative effects:
Husbands may not send money home (may just forget about
family)
Farming may be difficult for the elderly, the children, and the
women.
May eventually lead to underpopulation problems as all the young
men leave.
Destruction of traditional family structure.
Case Study: The urban renewal of Cardiff Bay, U.K.
Causes:
Previously, the docks at Cardiff were very busy- but after the
construction of a railway in 1840, the docks declined, with the
final dock slated to be closed in 1987. This is why the abandoned
docks (a brownfield site) were transformed into a residential,
manufacturing, and commercial development area.
The coastal zone of South Wales had a very large range between
high and low tides- at low tide, Cardiff Bay was a bay of mud which
looked and smelled repulsive. Thus, a barrage was constructed to
ensure that the water remained in the bay at all times.
Results:
12 000 new jobs, 3 000 new houses, and a million square metres
of office, factory, leisure, and social space.
1.3. Outward movement
1.3.1. Explain the processes of centrifugal movements
(suburbanization, counterurbanisation, urban sprawl.)
1.3. Definitions:
Counterurbanisation: The movement of a population away from
inner urban areas to a new town, a new estate, a commuter town, or
a village on the edge or just beyond the city limits/rural-urban
fringe.
Suburbanization: The outward growth of towns and cities to
engulf surrounding villages and rural area. This may result from
the outmigration of population from the inner urban area to the
suburbs or from inward rural-urban movement.
Urban sprawl: The unplanned and uncontrolled physical expansion
of an urban area into the surrounding countryside. It is closely
linked to the process of suburbanization.
1.3.1. Explaining centrifugal movements:
Factors causing suburbanization:
The affordability of motor vehicles for normal people after
WWII
Cheapness of homes (due to lowered price of farmland) and lower
interest compared to inner-city areas
Willingness of authorities to provide utilities such as
electricity, water, etc.
Expansion of public transport networks
Factors causing counter-urbanization:
Push factors:
High land prices
Congestion
Pollution
High crime rate
A lack of community
Declining services
Pull factors:
The perception that smaller settlements had:
A closer sense of community
Better environment
More safety
Factors causing urban sprawl:
Suburbanization
Low-interest loans given by American government to families that
built their own homes after WWII
Lack of adequate city planning in the mid-1900s.
Case Study: Counter-urbanization to St. Ives from London:
Factors drawing migrants:
A picturesque town with Victorian and Georgian houses and links
with Oliver Cromwell
Close to the main East Coast railway line and a major highway,
making access to London easy (although it is about 100 km north of
London.)
Worsening quality of life in London due to overpopulation and
pollution (River Thames is very polluted, occasional smog)
Better air quality
Effects:
Increased development of rural farmland into housing
developments
Increase of both young commuters (in the town centre) and old
retirees (in the more rural part of town)
A higher average income
25% of the St. Ives population commuting to work daily
The railway line being revitalized, with journey times reduced
greatly
More medium- and high-order services than previously, such as
designer clothes shops and antique dealers.
Case Study: Urban Sprawl in Houston:
Factors causing the sprawl:
State annexation laws that allowed the city to absorb
surrounding areas
Mechanisms that allow develops to create quasi-governmental
authorities to finance far-reaching utility extensions
The relative cheapness of building out rather than up
Lack of physical barriers such as rivers, lakes, or
mountains
Lack of zoning laws
Effects:
High levels of commuting (high levels of CO2 emissions and other
air pollution)
More water use and a loss of wildlife
More time used up driving from one place to another
Inefficient transport system
Increased risk of obesity (due to a higher reliance on
vehicles.)
1.4. Natural change
1.4.1. Explain the contribution of natural change to patterns of
population density within urban areas.
1.4. Definitions:
Natural change: A change in population due to increasing or
decreasing birth rates.
1.4.1. The contribution of natural change:
Only a small part of urbanization is a result of natural
increase. For example, the increase in population of Delhi, Indias
capital city, is 75% because of rural-urban migration and only 25%
by natural increase- and that natural increase is contributed to by
the young people from rural areas migrating in.
1.5. The global megacity
1.5.1. Explain the global increase in the number and location of
megacities (population over 10 million people)
1.5. Definitions:
Megacity: A city with a population of over 10 million
people.
1.5.1. Explaining the global increase:
As NICs develop, more migrants are attracted from rural areas to
cities, ballooning their populations. Furthermore, increased
development means better qualities of life, which may allow for a
lower infant mortality rate and a lower overall mortality rate,
also increasing populations. Megacities are increasing because more
and more NICs are developing, when before, it was only MDCs such as
America and Japan that had them.
Problems of megacities:
Congestion
Loss of farmland due to urban sprawl
Disease easily spreads
Slums and other makeshift housing due to a lack of housing
Bad air quality
Difficulty of implementing water and electricity
infrastructure
Unemployment and underemployment issues
2. Urban Land Use
2.1. Residential areas
2.1.1. Explain the location of residential areas in relation to
wealth, ethnicity, and family status (stage in life cycle)
2.1.2. Examine patterns of urban poverty and deprivation (such
as slums, squatter settlements, areas of low-cost housing and
inner-city areas).
2.1.3. Examine the causes and effects of the movement of
socioeconomic groups since the 1980s.
2.1. Definitions Shanty settlements: Makeshift dwellings erected
without official permission, usually of makeshift materials such as
cardboard, corrugated iron, plastic, and other such materials.
2.1.1. Explaining the location of residential areas:
Wealth:
In older European cities, low-income families tend to live in
the inner-city zone in smaller apartment building or townhouses,
while high-income families live in the suburbs in large houses.
However, if gentrification occurs low-income families may move to
other areas.
In newer North American and Australian cities, high-income
families may live in expensive inner-city apartments while low-
income families live in the suburbs.
Ethnicity:
Due to racial discrimination, people of non-white ethnicities in
European and North American countries tended to be poorer than
their white counterparts, leading to them living in low-income
areas.
Alternately, even today, migrants may group together not due to
a shared economic status, but due to a shared culture.
ex. Richmond, B.C. has a large population of Asian inhabitants,
most notably Taiwanese, Chinese, and Hong Kongers. (It used to have
a large Japanese population before WWII)
Family status:
In general, for a middle-income child, they will live in a
middle-income house, then move to a cheap rental when they set off
on their own, move to a more expensive starter home if they get
married, and may move a couple more times to more expensive homes
should they have children before moving to a cheaper retirement
home.
The same process applies to low-income families, but they are
more likely to move to cheaper homes.
2.1.2. Examine patterns of urban poverty and deprivation:
The Hoyt model of city structures
The Burgess model of city structures
Areas of low-cost housing tend to lie in the middle of town,
where the oldest and cheapest homes are found- unless these homes
have undergone urban renewal. Alternately, they may be found by
industrial areas or close to noisy transport areas such as an
airport.
Slums tend to lie on the outskirts of town, where rural-to-urban
migrants find themselves after migrating to the city. 78.2% of the
urban population in LDCs are found in slums, representing 32% of
the worlds total urban population. Slums are typically located in
areas planners do not want, such as steep slopes, floodplains, and
areas close to industrial complexes. People in slums find it
difficult to come out due to discrimination against slum dwellers,
the difficulty of finding a proper job in the formal sector, the
expenses of everyday life, among other reasons.
Case Study: The shantytown of Kibera in Nairobi, Kenya:
The shantytown Kibera, in Nairobi. It takes up an area of around
2.5 square kilometres.
Causes:
The British government importing African migrant workers, then
refusing to give them a place to live. The Kenyan government that
followed decided to go with a laissez-faire attitude with Kibera,
not providing the slum with any infrastructure but not destroying
it either.
Rural migrants also entered Kibera after coming to Nairobi.
Facts:
Contains an estimated 150 000 to 250 000 residents.
The average shanty size is 3.7 by 3.7 metres long and houses
around eight people.
They are made with mud walls screened with concrete at times,
with a corrugated tin roof.
The cost of renting a shanty is 700 Kenyan shillings a month
Electricity access is 20%
Sewage and waste is thrown into the Ngong River- which overflows
into homes and footpaths in rainy seasons, spreading disease. (Some
residents rely on the Ngong River for water supplies due to bad
water infrastructure and expensive water kiosks).
Very high disease rates
Very low education rates (37% of school-age children were not
going to school)
Ethnic violence is common between different tribes (and there is
no law enforcement due to police refusing to enter the
shantytown)
Solutions:
NGOs providing legal assistance clean drinking water, improved
sanitation, health care, and education.
The government is not providing any legal, educational, or
health services in Kibera. This means that it is dependent of the
whims of foreign organizations.
2.1.3. The causes and effects of the movement of socio-economic
groups:
[Refer to Case Studies]
2.2. Areas of economic activity
2.2.1. Explain the spatial pattern of economic activity, the
zoning or urban and suburban functions and the internal structure
of the CBD.
2.2.2. Describe the informal sector: its characteristics and
location in urban areas.
2.2.3. Examine the causes and effects of the movement of
retailing, service, and manufacturing activities to new locations,
including brownfield sites.
2.2. Definitions:
Central Business District (CBD): The commercial and economic
core of a city.
Informal sector: The section of the economy that is not
registered with the government, is not regulated and does not pay
taxes. The informal sector is sometimes called the black
market.
Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI): The point with the highest
land values in a city.
2.2.1. The spatial pattern of city sectors:
Structure of the CBD:
Concentration of department stores, chain stores, and specialist
retail outlets.
Banks of businesses
Multi-storey development (extended vertical scale)
Limited horizontal scale
Concentrated day-time population
High pedestrian density
Low residential population
May be some limited light manufacturing, derelict land,
transport terminals, office areas, and specialist services around
the core of the CBD.
CBDs may decline due to:
Urban sprawl means it is difficult for many residents to go to
the city centre
Cost of development and upkeep is too high
Too much congestion
Investors and businesses are attracted to periphery sites that
are cheaper and have similar access to markets
As time passes, the CBD ages and is perceived as dirty and
unsafe with poor infrastructure.
Consequences of CBD decline:
Change in functions (to more modern functions)
Migration of town core
Modernization of shopping functions (such as covered shopping
areas)
Transitional zone formed (where commercial activities overflow
from the CBD)
The emergence of specialized areas (ex. The entertainment
district Soho in London)
Urban renewal
The Bid-Rent Theory:
The bid-rent theory theorizes that retailers are willing to pay
the most for a key location near the CBD, while industrial and
commercial are willing to pay less, and residential the least. As
due to the principle of distance decay, the further land is from
the PLVI, the cheaper it is, residential areas tend to be located
far from the CBD while retailers tend to be found close to it.
2.2.2. The informal sector:
The informal sector is typically around the CBD where there is
street vending, as this is where pedestrian density is the
greatest. Alternately, it may be found around residential areas,
particularly within slum areas and squatter areas such as river
embankments.
Advantages:
Provides unskilled and semi-skilled migrants, with informal,
temporary but intermediate work as no qualifications or training is
typically required in the informal sector. + Unregulated Working
Hours.
The informal economy makes a significantly large contribution to
the urban wealth of city; for instance it was the basis of the
Industrial Revolution in the 19th century throughout Europe.
Handmade products from raw materials sold to tourists help
preserve the culture and traditions.
Informal businesses can be setup as opposed to setting up a
formal business which is proven to be difficult with large costs
and delays; informal businesses help provide a way out of poverty
for the poor population as people get employed and don't have to
pay tax.
Disadvantages:
Crime, prostitution, drugs, smuggling, protests and riots are
all reoccurring problems which exist within the local sectors due
to little legal civilian and job protection.
Therefore the security of the residents living with the informal
sector is often compromised and concerning; it turns away potential
visitors such as tourists and has a bad impact on the city's
image.
Informally run businesses have little or no legal aid or
protection from political issues and incidents, which are likely to
occur in the informal sector; furthermore the lack of legal
property ownership limits access to credit.
Workers within the informal economy are occasionally exposed to
health and safety risks.
Additionally workers are also deprived of rights and benefits
associated with law and regulations.
Laws and rules are often not followed through by the workers -
because they cannot afford to and/or they have no choice; an
example is the lack of protective clothing and adequate
instruction, which causes contamination by toxic chemicals and
heavy metals, found in solvents and recycled waste.
2.2.3. The causes and effects of the movement of retailing,
service, and manufacturing activities to new locations, including
brownfield sites
Retailing:
1970s: Decentralization of food shops
1980s: Decentralization of furniture shops. Development of large
out-of town regional shopping centres. The decline of the CBD.
1990s: The revival of the CBD through the development of
large-scale retailing centres in or near the CBD. Convenience
stores in the outer urban area.
Causes:
The rising prices of the CBD
The greater mobility of the population
Manufacturing:
Causes of abandonment:
1. Comparatively large size
2. Time or service factor unimportant
3. Large ground area per person required
4. Nuisance features (odours, noise, fire hazard etc.)
5. Specialised buildings required
6. Serious problem of waste disposal
7. Large quantities of fuel and / or water required
Causes of staying:
1. Time or service factor as important element
2. Specialised, highly skilled work
3. Small size
4. Obsolete buildings suitable
5. Close contact with market required
6. Style factor important
7. Established transport network (rail,ship)
8. Inertia
Manufacturing areas that leave are typically re-occupied by
services which have a higher return per net area.
3. Urban stress
3.1. Urban microclimate
3.1.1. Explain the effects of structures and human activity on
urban microclimates, including the urban heat island effect and air
pollution
3.1. Definitions: Urban heat island: The phenomenon where urban
areas tend to be hotter than the surrounding countryside by
2-4oC.
3.1.1. The effects of structures and human activity on urban
microclimates:
Radiation and sunshine:
Radiation and sunshine is diffused through reflection off of
buildings and scattering due to air pollution, causing reduced
visibility.
Clouds and fogs:
Due to increased air pollution and increased convention (Urban
Heat Island), summer sees thicker cloud covers and winter sees
radiation fogs or smogs.
Pressure and winds:
Turbulence and gusting around tall buildings creates strong
local pressure. Deep, narrow streets are calmer unless aligned with
prevailing winds to funnel. Typically lower wind speeds due to
urban roughness and building heights.
Humidity:
Due to higher temperatures and less moisture, humidity is
low.
Precipitation:
More intense storms, due to greater instability and greater
convection.
Urban heat island:
Lower wind speeds
Urban pollution trapping radiant energy
Fossil fuel burning releases heat
Buildings have low albedo and high emissivity
Heat diffusion is lessened due to airflow changes
Case Study: The Urban Microclimate of Houston, Texas
Urban heat island effect:
Has increased by 0.8oC since 1985 to 2014
Has dimensions of approximately 4 000 km2 and has increased by
650 km2 since 1985 thanks to urban sprawl
Pollution:
Houston is one of Americas most polluted cities
Coal power plant releases toxic mercury
Violates air quality standard for ozone and thus is very
smoggy
This is due to urban sprawl (and partially because of the coal
plant), which increases commuting distance and thus pollution
greatly.
Wind speeds:
The release of heat from the pavement results in weaker
convection and thus weaker offshore breezes.
This contributes to air pollution, as it takes longer for the
pollution to be blown away.
An attempted solution is the installation Grasspave, a porous
paving material- however, its coverage is very, very, small as of
2014.
Precipitation:
Precipitation levels have increased since the 1970s.
It is hypothesized that the effect of the urban heat island on
convection in the air cause this anomaly, but it is not
certain.
3.2. Other types of environmental and social stress
3.2.1. Examine the other symptoms of urban stress including
congestion, overcrowding and noise, depletion of green space, waste
overburden, poor quality housing, social deprivation, crime, and
inequality.
3.2.1. Symptoms of urban stress:
Congestion:
In MEDCs:
Increased number of motor vehicles
Increase dependence on cars as public transport declines
Major concentration of economic activities in CBDs
Inadequate provision of roads and parking
Frequent roadworks
Roads overwhelmed by sheer volume of traffic
Urban sprawl, resulting in low-density built-up areas and
increasingly long journeys to work
Developing of out-of-town retail and employment, leading to
cross-city commuting.
In LEDCs:
Lower private car ownership
Less dependence on the car, but growing
Many cars are poorly maintained and are high polluters
Growing centralization and development of CBBDs, increasing
traffic in urban areas
Heavily reliance on affordable public transport
Shorter journeys, but getting longer
Rapid growth, resulting in enormous urban sprawl and long
journeys
Emergence of out-of-town development due to economic
development
Case Study: Congestion in Nairobi, Kenya:
Has proper road capacity of one third of its 3.1 million
population
Economic effects:
Traffic jams cost the country $578 000 US a day due to lost
productivity
Fuel costs are higher for commuters (and the poorest live in the
outskirts, meaning they must pay even more)
Businesses lose out as people do not want to travel as much
Kenyans may lose their jobs due to being late
Due to corruption, foreign aid given to address this problem as
the congestion is seen as normal, if irritating.
Social effects:
Lack of communication due to lost time may lead to a loss of
power of wives and children
Stress and anger is aggravated by congestion, which can lead to
domestic violence
Physical health effects such as organ dysfunction may be caused
by stress
Crime is facilitated by congestion, as its simpler for thieves
to escape unspotted (and those desperate to get the work will let
thieves escape as they cannot risk leaving their vehicle).
Environmental effects:
Heavy air pollution (Air pollution index of 62.50)
also caused by industrial factories, but contributed to by the
congestion
When roads are widened and newly constructed, the amount of
green space is lowered
Noise:
Noise pollution typically arises from airports, train stations,
and some factories. While this is troublesome for new inhabitants,
typically people grow used to the noise pollution within a month so
long as it is not too loud. As well, noise pollution can help
create low-income housing which is otherwise in a nice area.
Depletion of green space:
This is bad for the environment. However, it is also bad
socially, as parks are a good meeting place and help keep the
spirits of urban residents up.
Case Study: Green Space in Singapore
Singapores total area is 712 km2 mean that alternative energy
sources are difficult to implement.
Still, it has attempted to at least increase its green spaces
and become a City in a Garden.
Economic benefits include boosted appeal to foreign businesses
and increased liveability attracting tax-payers
There are 1.4 million roadside trees and the Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve makes up one of two primary rainforests in the world
located within city limits.
Park connectors are used to connect residential areas to parks
and nature sites
The CEO of the National Parks Board says that community
involvement is also a major part of the City in a Garden
vision.
Waste overburden:
An example would be Kibera, Nairobi- due to a lack of
waste-collecting infrastructure, the waste builds up in the Ngong
River, spreading disease.
Poor quality housing:
This occurs due to:
A lack of quality in the housing
A lack in the quantity of housing
A lack of affordability in housing
A lack of housing tenure
It can lead to many social issues described in the Kibera case
study.
Social deprivation, crime and inequality:
Marginalized groups tend to be poorer, leading them to a life of
crime. Unemployed and uneducated people also tend to turn to crime
with no other choices. Men tend to be more likely to turn to crime
than women in many LDCs, likely because women tend to have less
physical power than men and are culturally indoctrinated to believe
themselves lesser.
Some sly examples of inequality are the fact that schools in the
US receive funding from the property taxes in the area and
stereotyping.
Overcrowding:
Overcrowding can lead to many of the aforementioned
problems.
4. The Sustainable City
4.1. The City as a System
4.1.1. Describe the city as a system in terms of:
4.1.1.1. Inputs (energy, water, people, material, products,
food)
4.1.1.2. Outputs (solid, atmospheric, and liquid waste, noise,
people)
4.1.2. Distinguish between a sustainable circular system where
inputs are reduced and outputs are recycled and an unsustainable
(open/linear city system) with uncontrolled inputs and outputs.
4.1.1. Describing the city:
Cities take in inputs and spew out outputs. Outputs may be
reused and recycled as inputs.
4.1.2. Sustainable vs. Unsustainable Cities:
Circular metabolism cities minimize new inputs and maximize
recycling. Linear metabolism cities consume and pollute at a high
rate.
Methods to improve sustainability include:
Reducing the use of fossil fuels by promoting public
transport
Keeping waste production to locally treatable levels
Providing green spaces
Reusing and reclaiming brownfield sites
Encouraging community involvement
Conserving non-renewable resources
Using renewable resources.
4.2. Case Studies
4.2.1. Referring to at least two city case studies, discuss the
concepts of:
4.2.1.1. Sustainable city management
4.2.1.2. The urban ecological footprint
Case Study: Curitiba, the Sustainable City:
Curitiba grew from 150 000 people in the 1950s to 1.8 million in
2013.
It initially suffered from problems such as mass unemployment,
transport congestion, the lack of basic services and uncontrolled
slum growth.
The redesigning of Curitiba dealt with those mistakes.
Redesigning:
In the 1960s, the mayor involved the people in a competition for
a Curitiba master plan and discussed the best entries with
everyone.
Architects took the best plan and adjusted it to make it viable,
while keeping in mind the wants of the people.
Sustainable developments:
Transport
Radial arterial roads with express lanes for express buses and
normal lanes for local buses and cars
Cheap buses used instead of subway
Only one ticket is necessary for a journey no matter how many
times they change buses
It used to be based on distance, but it was changed after it was
realized it disadvantaged low-income families who lived on the
outskirts of town.
75% of commuters use public transportation: there is now 25%
less congestion and 30% less fuel consumption compared to other
cities.
Each bus holds up to 270 people
Tube-like bus station (seen to the right) maximizes
efficiency
Land use and public services
All income ranges have easy access to public transport
Citizenship streets are built along arterial roads close to
heavily used bus terminals, offering access to public utilities
Environmental Cleanup Programme: 90% of Curitibans have access
to sewage systems and 100% have access to clean drinking water
Lighthouses of Knowledge provide access to books and the
Internet and the staff work in collaboration with the schools. At
the top is a police officer, which improves security in residential
areas (as they are placed in residential areas).
Special centres to feed street children.
Pedestrianized shopping streets have increased profits and
reduce traffic.
Recycling
Thanks to children learning about it in school, parents were
convinced to recycle.
Recycling plants employ recovering alcoholics and homeless
people
Styrofoam is shredded to stuff quilts for the poor
In favelas, in exchange for sorting their rubbish, they receive
basic food (that the city buys from local farmers)
It costs no more than landfill and improves public health,
creates jobs, and improves nutrition
20% of waste is diverted and 70% of households take part
Green space
1.5 million trees have been planted
54 m2 per resident (recommended is 16 m2 per resident :D)
Economic sustainability
An Industrial City 10 km west-south-west of the city is located
in an area that blows pollution away from the city and protects
local water sources
Housing units were built in the area so workers could cycle.
Provides 200 000 direct and indirect jobs
Case Study: Chengdu, the (Un)sustainable City:
Chengdu has undergone great urban growth in the past few
decades:
1950s, early 1960s: Industrialization due to governmental
policies
1960s and 1970s: Urban growth restricted by preventing people
from moving from rural to urban or vice versa
1980s onwards: Rapid and accelerating urban growth. 1979
economic reforms created
employment opportunities
surplus rural labour
Relaxations in the hukou system, allowing for migration
Boundary changes
Administrative boundary changes make up 40% of the urban growth
in the past fifty years.
Housing sustainability:
Issues:
Lack of housing
High-rise development overshadowing old housing
Overcrowded six, seven-storey housing made in the 1950s and
1960s
Many houses with no piped water and sanitation are in the inner
city area
Solutions:
Up-market housing is increasing as well as high-rise apartment
blocks
Renting is a solution now
Low-cost rooms and flats have been produced
Employment sustainability:
Issues:
Rising unemployment
The closure of many inefficient factories
Rural-to-urban migration after the relaxation of hukou
Poverty is an issue as increasing affluence raises the threshold
level for living standards
Female urban workers are clashing with rural migrants in the
informal sector
Solutions:
Services and construction work = important migrant jobs
High tech industrial development
Creates many jobs for highly educated Chinese but not
migrants
Transport sustainability:
Issues:
Car ownership is increasing
Separating housing from employment requires commuting
Leisure-related travel up
Cyclists and moterized traffic conflict
Air and noise pollution up
Public transport is lacking
Solutions:
Radial pattern of rings helps to easily connect different areas
of the city
Wide multi-line principal roads with bicycling lanes
Expressways out of city
Metro and light rail system planned
Environmental sustainability:
Issues:
Pollution in nearby Fu and Nan rivers
Air pollution
Solutions:
Lining roads with trees
Rehabilitation project of Fu and Nan rivers
Riverside upgrading by removing slum housing and adding green
space
Relocated displaced residents and businesses to fancy new
buildings
Flood control (before, there was flooding once every 10
years)
Improved water quality with sewers and wastewater outlets
blocked unless passing through water treatment plant
Encouraged to switch from low-quality charcoal briquettes to
electricity and solar panels.
Urban ecological footprint is still fairly large as
environmental sustainability is not at the forefront of Chinese
developers minds
4.3. Sustainable strategies
4.3.1. Evaluate one case study of each of the following:
4.3.1.1. One socially sustainable housing management
strategy
4.3.1.2. One environmentally sustainable pollution management
strategy
4.3.1.3. One strategy to control rapid city growth resulting
from immigration
Case Study: Kibera Housing Management Strategy:
600 apartments in 17 nearby buildings
Rent $10 US/month for one room
Nine years to rehouse all slum residents
Planned to have all the infrastructure cities have- green
spaces, schools, waste management, markets, sewage systems etc.
Economically sustainable:
Children receive education, which helps them break out the cycle
of poverty.
Provides jobs (for construction and upkeep) to slum
residents
Environmentally sustainable:
Reduces heavy pollution in Kibera
Green spaces produce oxygen and lower pollution-producing
buildings
Socially sustainable:
Gets rid of the eyesore of Kibera
Provides basic services to slum dwellers
However:
Economically unsustainable:
Cost the Kenyan government 3.4 trillion Ksh but only 5 000
people have been relocated (cough corruption cough)
Slum-dwellers make $2/day on average, and much is in the form of
goods and food- apartments are unaffordable
Informal sector employees find it difficult to find jobs in the
organized nature of the apartments
Middle-class Nairobians arent banned from renting the
apartments, meaning that college students are living in them
instead.
Environmentally unsustainable:
Giving the 150 000- 200 000 people in the slums access to
sewage, water, and waste infrastructure will cause a huge strain,
simply in areas outside of Kibera.
Socially unsustainable:
Only men are slotted to receive permanent housing- not
women.
20% of the people in a zone refused to relocate, making it
impossible for the government to destroy the slums to make new
buildings
Case Study: The Wadi Hanifah valley of Saudi Arabia
For years, the Wadi Hanifah valley was a rubbish dump and a
public health hazard, treated as an open sewer.
Seasonal flooding also swept pollutants into residential
neighbourhoods and left stagnant water, spreading disease.
Since 2001, the area has been imporved:
Clearing rubbish
Grading the banks
Landscaping and replanting native flora
A facility that transforms urban run-off into water clean enough
for irrigation and fishing through bioremediation- natural
processes to repair environmental damage.
A linked series of wetland habitats uses natural oxygenation to
remove harmful bacteria and other pollutants without human
intervention
It has also brought gentrification to previously unfashionable
neighbourhoods along the coast
However, there was no public consultation, and $1.5 billion US
was sunk into a scheme when 1/3 of households are unconnected to
mainline sewage.
It is also bringing social change, as people of all ethnicities
and locales mix with impunity- women are unveiling, for
example.
Case Study: Baths Population Management Strategy
Bath is a city in southwest England. Due to its historic
attraction such as Roman baths and Georgian architecture, it
attracts nearly 4 million visitors each year, leading to much
in-migration (and stress on transport due to tourists).
It is also surrounded by a green belt, which restricts urban
sprawl.
Thus, it needs to safeguard land for industrial development (due
to its reliance on the fickle tourist industry) while producing
more housing.
Strategies include:
Rejuvenating neglected inner-city areas such as the Western
Riverside
High-density residential areas integrated with leisure and
industrial sites, reached by a light rapid transit system (are
planned)
Adjusting green belt boundaries to allow a bit more urban
sprawl
However, these strategies bring the risk of creating exclusive
suburbs where wealthy people live and work, and if even more people
are attracted by the new area, the problem will only worsen.
As it located on a bend of the River Avon, there are limited
crossing points into the city centre, leading to traffic
bottlenecks. Air pollution levels are horrible at the London Road
bottleneck, for example.
Steep hills discourage walking and cycling- 48% of workers
commute by car.
However, Bath has succeeded in implementing park and ride
schemes that allow commuters to park their cars at designated lots
then take the transit.
That being said, Bath has not succeeded (socially) in
implementing a bus gate scheme which would prevent private traffic
from entering certain roads to the city centre, due to businesses
complaining about losing business and the increased congestion
caused at the city edges.
As well, the buses contribute to air pollution so they need to
be revamped- perhaps buses that use bio-diesel or by using electric
trams.
Only 28% of Baths waste was recycled- population increases,
waste will increase, leading to problems.