INDO-EUROPEAN AND THE INDO-EUROPEANS CALVERT WATKINS After the initial identification of a prehistoric language underlying the modern Indo-European family and the foundation of the science of comparative linguistics, the detailed reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European proceeded by stag- es still fascinating to observe. The main outlines of the reconstructed language were already seen by the end of the 1870’s, but it was only during the course of the 20th century that certain of these features received general acceptance. The last decades of the 20th century have happily witnessed a resurgence of Indo-European studies, catalyzed by advances in linguistic theory and by an increase in the available data, which have resulted in a picture of the reconstructed protolanguage that is, in a word, “tighter.” The grammar of Indo-European today is more tightly organized and more sharply focused, at all levels. There are fewer loose ends, fewer hazy areas, and those that do remain are more clearly identified as such. New etymologies con- tinue to be made, and older etymologies undergo revision to incorporate new evi- dence or better analyses. The attention to detail in reconstruction in this revised Roots Appendix reflects these ongoing developments in the field: Indo-European studies are alive with excitement, growth, and change. AN EXAMPLE OF RECONSTRUCTION Before proceeding with a survey of the lexicon and culture of the Indo-Europeans (see “Lexicon and Culture”), it may be helpful to give a concrete illustration of the method used to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European vocabulary, followed by a brief description of some of the main features of the Proto-Indo-European lan-
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
INDO-EUROPEAN AND THE
INDO-EUROPEANS
CALVERT WATKINS
After the initial identification of a prehistoric language underlying themodern Indo-European family and the foundation of the science of comparativelinguistics, the detailed reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European proceeded by stag-es still fascinating to observe. The main outlines of the reconstructed language werealready seen by the end of the 1870’s, but it was only during the course of the 20thcentury that certain of these features received general acceptance. The last decadesof the 20th century have happily witnessed a resurgence of Indo-European studies,catalyzed by advances in linguistic theory and by an increase in the available data,which have resulted in a picture of the reconstructed protolanguage that is, in aword, “tighter.” The grammar of Indo-European today is more tightly organizedand more sharply focused, at all levels. There are fewer loose ends, fewer hazy areas,and those that do remain are more clearly identified as such. New etymologies con-tinue to be made, and older etymologies undergo revision to incorporate new evi-dence or better analyses. The attention to detail in reconstruction in this revisedRoots Appendix reflects these ongoing developments in the field: Indo-Europeanstudies are alive with excitement, growth, and change.
AN EXAMPLE OF RECONSTRUCTION
Before proceeding with a survey of the lexicon and culture of the Indo-Europeans(see “Lexicon and Culture”), it may be helpful to give a concrete illustration of themethod used to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European vocabulary, followed by abrief description of some of the main features of the Proto-Indo-European lan-
guage. This example will serve as an introduction to the comparative method andindicate as well the high degree of precision that the techniques of reconstructionpermit.
A number of Indo-European languages show a similar word for the kinshipterm “daughter-in-law”: Sanskrit snusã, Old English snoru, Old Church Slavonicsnƒkha (Russian snokhá), Latin nurus, Greek nuós, and Armenian nu. All of theseforms, called cognates, provide evidence for the phonetic shape of the prehistoricIndo-European word for “daughter-in-law” that is their common ancestor. San-skrit, Germanic, and Slavic agree in showing an Indo-European word that beganwith sn-. We know that an Indo-European s was lost before n in other words inLatin, Greek, and Armenian, so we can confidently assume that Latin nurus, Greeknuós, and Armenian nu also go back to an Indo-European *sn-. (Compare Latin nix[stem niv-], “snow,” with English SNOW, which preserves the s.) This principle isspoken of as the regularity of sound correspondences; it is basic to the sciences of ety-mology and comparative linguistics.
Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, and Armenian agree in showing the first vowel as -u-. Weknow from other examples that Slavic ƒ regularly corresponds to Sanskrit u and thatin this position Germanic o (of Old English snoru) has been changed from an earlieru. It is thus justifiable to reconstruct an Indo-European word beginning *snu-.
For the consonant originally following *snu-, closer analysis is required. Thekey is furnished first by the Sanskrit form, for we know there is a rule in Sanskritthat s always changes to } (a sh-like sound) after the vowel u. Therefore a Sanskritsnu}- must go back to an earlier *snus-. In the same position, after u, an old schanges to kh (like the ch in Scottish loch or German ach) in Slavic; hence the Slavicword, too, reflects *snus-. In Latin always, and in Germanic under certain condi-tions, an old -s- between vowels went to -r-. For this reason Latin nurus and OldEnglish snoru may go back to older *snus- (followed by a vowel) as well. In Greekand Armenian, on the other hand, an old -s- between vowels disappeared entirely,as we know from numerous instances. Greek nuós and Armenian nu (stem nuo-)thus regularly presuppose the same earlier form, *snus- (followed by a vowel). Allthe comparative evidence agrees, then, on the Indo-European root form *snus-.
For the ending, the final vowels of Sanskrit snu}7́, Old English snoru, andSlavic snƒkha all presuppose earlier -7 (*snus-7), which is the ordinary feminineending of these languages. On the other hand, Latin nurus, Greek nuós, and Arme-nian nu (stem nuo-) all regularly presuppose the earlier ending *-os (*snus-os). Wehave an apparent impasse; but the way out is given by the gender of the forms inGreek and Latin. They are feminine, even though most nouns in Latin -us andGreek -os are masculine.
Feminine nouns in Latin -us and Greek -os, since they are an abnormal type,cannot have been created afresh; they must have been inherited. This suggests thatthe original Indo-European form was *snusos, of feminine gender. On the otherhand, the commonplace freely formed ending for feminine nouns was *-7. It is rea-sonable to suggest that the three languages Sanskrit, Germanic, and Slavic replaced
the peculiar feminine ending *-os (because that ending was normally masculine)with the normal ordinary feminine ending *-7, and thus that the oldest form of theword was *snusos (feminine).
One point remains to be ascertained: the accent. Of those four language groupsthat reflect the Indo-European accent, Sanskrit, (Balto-)Slavic, Greek, and Germanic,the first three are agreed in showing a form accented on the last syllable: snus7´,snokhá, nuós. The Germanic form is equally precise, however, since the rule is that old-s- went to -r- (Old English snoru) only if the accented syllable came after the -s-.
On this basis we may add the finishing touch to our reconstruction: the fullform of the word for “daughter-in-law” in Indo-European is *snusós.
It is noteworthy that no single language in the family preserves this word intact.In every language, in every tradition in the Indo-European family, the word hasbeen somehow altered from its original shape. It is the comparative method thatpermits us to explain the different forms in this variety of languages by the recon-struction of a unitary common prototype, a common ancestor.
PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN GRAMMAR: SOUNDS AND FORMS
A large part of the success of the comparative method with the Indo-Europeanfamily is due to the number and the precision of the agreements among the lan-guages, not only in the regular sound correspondences of the roots but even morestrikingly so in the particulars of morphology, the forms of language in their gram-matical function. Consider the partial paradigms of the words for “dog” (*kwon-)and “to kill” (*gwhen-):
Hittite Greek Vedic
nominative kuwas kúon {(u)v7́
accusative kuwanan kúna {vãnam
genitive k7nas kunós {únas
Lithuanian Old Irish Proto-Indo-European
nominative ≥uõ cú *k(u)wo(n)
accusative ≥ùni coin *kwónc
genitive ≥uñs con *kunés
Hittite Vedic PIE
third singularpresent indicative
kuenzi hánti *gwhén-ti
The agreement of detail in sound correspondences, in vowel alternations andtheir distribution, in the accent, in the grammatical forms (endings), and in thesyntactic functions is little short of astounding.
SPEECH SOUNDS AND THEIR ALTERNATIONS
The system of sounds in Proto-Indo-European was rich in stop consonants. Therewas an unvoiced series, p, t, k, kw (like the qu of quick), a voiced series, b, d, g, gw,and a voiced aspirate or “murmured” series, bh, dh, gh, gwh, pronounced like thevoiced series but followed by a puff of breath. (Some scholars would reinterpret thetraditional voiced series as an unvoiced ejective, or glottalized, one. While this new“glottalic theory” accounts for some typological difficulties, it introduces moreproblems than it solves. In this work, as in most current handbooks, Indo-Europeanforms appear in their traditional shape.) If the language was rich in stop conso-nants, it was correspondingly poor in continuants, or fricatives, such as English f,v, th, s, and z, having only s, which was voiced to z before voiced stop consonants.It had as well three so-called laryngeals or h-like sounds, all of which are writtenhere as schwa, or N (equivalent notations are H or h). The sound is preserved as such(at least in part) only in Hittite and the other Anatolian languages in cuneiformdocuments from the second millennium B.C. Compare Hittite pahs-, “to protect,”coming directly from Indo-European *paN-s- (PASTOR). In all the other languagesof the family, its former presence in a word can only be deduced from indirect ev-idence such as the contractions discussed immediately below. Elucidation of the de-tails of these laryngeals remains one of the most interesting problems confrontingIndo-Europeanists today.
Proto-Indo-European had two nasals, m and n, two liquids, r and l, and theglides w and y. A salient characteristic of Indo-European was that these soundscould function both as consonants and as vowels. Their consonantal value was as inEnglish. As vowels, symbolized c, i, _, and y, the liquids and nasals sounded muchlike the final syllables of English bottom, button, bottle, and butter. The vocalic coun-terparts of w and y were the vowels u and i. The laryngeals too could function bothas consonants and as vowels: their consonantal value was that of h-like sounds,while as vowels they were varieties of schwa, much like the final syllable of Englishsofa; hence the choice of schwa to represent laryngeals in this Appendix.
The other vowels of Indo-European were e, o, and a. These, as well as i and u,occurred both long and short, as did the diphthongs ei, oi, ai, eu, ou, au. (All vowelsare pronounced as in Latin or Italian.) Since we can distinguish chronological layers
third plural present indicative
kunanzi ghnánti *gwhn-énti
Hittite Vedic PIE
in Proto-Indo-European, it can be said that a number of the long vowels of laterIndo-European resulted from the contraction of early Indo-European short vowelswith a following N. Already in Proto-Indo-European itself, two of the three laryn-geals had the property of “coloring” an adjacent fundamental vowel e to a and o,respectively, before the contractions took place. Thus the root p7-, “to protect,” iscontracted from older *paN-, with “a-coloring”; the root do-, “to give,” iscontracted from older *doN-, with “o-coloring”; and the root dhK-, “to set, put,” iscontracted from older *dheN-, without coloring. The fundamental vowel in each ofthese roots, as in most Indo-European roots, was originally e. In scholarly usage itis now customary to write the noncoloring laryngeal as N1 (or h1), thus *dheN1-; thea-coloring laryngeal as N2 (or h2), thus *paN2-; and the o-coloring laryngeal as N3 (orh3), thus *doN3-. This typographically cumbersome notation has been simplified inthe Appendix, since the vowel before the schwa is sufficient to distinguish the threein the cases of contraction to a long vowel, and in other positions in most languagesother than Greek the three merge to one. No systematic notice has been taken in thisAppendix of word-initial laryngeals before vowels (amply attested in Hittite), sincethe root forms with initial vowel are readily convertible by the student. Thus ant-,“front, forehead,” from *N2ant-, *Nant- (Hittite hant-, “front, forehead”); op-, “towork, produce in abundance,” from *N3op-, *Nop- (Hittite happ-in-ant-, “rich”);and ed-, “to eat,” from *N1ed-, *Ned- (Hittite ed-, “to eat”).
A characteristic feature of Indo-European was the system of vocalic alterna-tions termed apophony or ablaut. This was a set of internal vowel changes expressingdifferent morphological functions. A clear reflex of this feature is preserved in theEnglish strong verbs, where, for example, the vocalic alternations between write andwrote, give and gave, express the present and past tenses. Ablaut in Indo-Europeanaffected the vowels e and o. The fundamental form was e; this e could appear as ounder certain conditions, and in other conditions both e and o could disappearentirely. On this basis we speak of given forms in Indo-European as exhibiting,respectively, the e-grade (or full grade), the o-grade, or the zero grade. The e and theo might furthermore occur as long K or o, termed the lengthened grade.
To illustrate: the Indo-European root ped-, “foot,” appears in the e-grade inLatin ped- (PEDAL), but in the o-grade in Greek pod- (PODIATRIST). Germanic *fotuz(FOOT) reflects the lengthened o-grade *pod-. The zero grade of the same rootshows no vowel at all: *pd-, a form attested in Sanskrit.
When the zero grade involved a root with one of the sounds m, n, r, l, w, or y(collectively termed resonants), the resonant would regularly appear in its vocalicfunction, forming a syllable. We have the e-grade root senkw- in English SINK, theo-grade form *sonkw- in SANK, and the zero-grade form *sikw- in SUNK.
In the paradigms cited earlier, the word for “dog,” kwon-, appears in the o-grade in the accusative case *kwón-(c), in the zero grade in the genitive case *kun-(és), and in the lengthened o-grade in the nominative case *kwo(n). Note that thenonsyllabic resonant w appears as the vowel u when it becomes syllabic. The verb“to kill,” gwhen-, appears in the e-grade in the third singular *gwhén-(ti), and in
the zero grade in the third plural *gwhn-(énti). It appears in the o-grade *gwhon- inGermanic *ban-on- (BANE). The n of the zero grade *gwhn- becomes syllabic (n)before a consonant: *gwhi(ty7́-) becoming Germanic *gundjo (GUN).
In the case of roots with long vowels arising from contraction with N, theablaut can be most clearly understood by referring to the older, uncontractedforms. Thus p7-, “to protect,” contracted from *paN-, has a zero grade *pN-; do-,“to give,” contracted from *doN-, has a zero grade *dN-; dhK-, “to place,” contractedfrom *dheN-, has a zero grade *dhN-. The fundamental vowel of the full grade dis-appears in the zero grade, and only the N remains. Long 7 and long X could also arisefrom contraction: full grade peuN-, “to purify,” has a zero grade *puN- contractedto *p¤- (PURE); full grade *peiN-, “to be fat, swell,” has a zero grade *piN- con-tracted to *pX- (IRISH).
GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND SYNTAX. Proto-Indo-European was ahighly inflected language. Grammatical relationships and the syntactic function ofwords in the sentence were indicated primarily by variations in the endings of thewords. Nouns had different endings for different cases, such as the subject and thedirect object of the verb, the possessive, and many other functions, and for the dif-ferent numbers, namely the singular, plural, and a special dual number for objectsoccurring in pairs. Verbs had different endings for the different persons (first, sec-ond, third) and numbers (singular, plural, dual), for the voices active and passive(or middle, a sort of reflexive), as well as special affixes for a rich variety of tenses,moods, and categories such as causative-transitive (*-éyo-) and stative-intransitive(*-K-) verbs. Practically none of this rich inflection is preserved in Modern English,but it has left its trace in many formations in Germanic and in other languages suchas Latin and Greek. These are noted in the Appendix where they are relevant.
With the exception of the numbers five to ten and a group of particles includ-ing certain conjunctions and quasi-adverbial forms, all Indo-European wordsunderwent inflection. The structure of all inflected words, regardless of part ofspeech, was the same: root plus one or more suffixes plus ending. Thus the word*ker-wo-s, “a stag,” is composed of the root ker-1, “horn,” plus the noun suffix -wo-, plus the nominative singular ending -s. The root contained the basic semantickernel, the underlying notion, which the suffix could modify in various ways. It wasprimarily the suffix that determined the part of speech of the word. Thus a singleroot like prek-, “to ask,” could, depending on the suffix, form a verb *prk-sko-, “toask” (Latin poscere), a noun *prek-, “prayer” (Latin precKs), and an adjective *prok-o-, “asking” (underlying Latin procus, “suitor”). Note that *prek-, *prok-, and *pyk-have, respectively, e-grade, o-grade, and zero grade.
The root could undergo certain modifications. Extensions or enlargements didnot affect the basic meaning and simply reflect formal variations between lan-guages. Suffixes had more specific values. There were verbal suffixes that madenouns into verbs and others that marked different types of action, like transitive and
intransitive. There were nominal suffixes that made agent nouns, abstract nouns,verbal nouns and verbal adjectives, and nouns of instrument and other functions.
The root plus the suffix or suffixes constituted the stem. The stems repre-sented the basic lexical stock of Indo-European, the separate words of its dictio-nary. Yet a single root would commonly furnish a large number of derivative stemswith different suffixes, both nominal and verbal, much as English love is both nounand verb as well as the base of such derivatives as lovely, lover, and beloved. For thisreason it is customary to group such collections of derivatives, in a variety of Indo-European languages, under the root on which they are built. The root entries of theAppendix are arranged in this way, with derivatives that exhibit similar suffixesforming subgroups consisting of Indo-European stems or words.
Indo-European made extensive use of suffixation in the formation of wordsbut had very few prefixes. The use of such prefixes (“preverbs”) as Latin ad-, con-,de-, ex- (ADVENT, CONVENE, DERIVE, EXPRESS) or Germanic be- (BECOME, BEGET) canbe shown to be a development of the individual languages after the breakup of thecommon language. In Indo-European such “compounds” represented two inde-pendent words, a situation still reflected in Hittite and the older Sanskrit of theVedas (the sacred books of the ancient Hindus) and surviving in isolated remnantsin Greek and Latin.
An important technique of word formation in Indo-European was composi-tion, the combining of two separate words or notions into a single word. Suchforms were and continue to be built on underlying simple sentences; an example inEnglish would be “he is someone who cuts wood,” whence “he is a woodcutter.” It isin the area of composition that English has most faithfully preserved the ancientIndo-European patterns of word formation, by continuously forming them anew,re-creating them. Thus housewife is immediately analyzable into house + wife, a so-called descriptive compound in which the first member modifies the second; thesame elements compounded in Old English, h7s + wXf, have been preserved as anindivisible unit in hussy. Modern English has many different types of compound,such as catfish, housewife, woodcutter, pickpocket, or blue-eyed; exactly similar typesmay be found in the other Germanic languages and in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Celtic,and Slavic.
The comparative study of Indo-European poetics has shown that such com-pounds were considered particularly apt for elevated, formal styles of discourse;they are a salient characteristic especially of Indo-European poetic language. Inaddition, it is amply clear that in Indo-European society the names of individualpersons—at least in the priestly and ruling (or warrior) classes—were formed bysuch two-member compounds. Greek names like Sophocles, “famed for wisdom,”Celtic names like Vercingetorix, “warrior-king,” Slavic names like Mstislav, “famedfor vengeance,” Old Persian names like Xerxes, “ruling men,” and Germanic nameslike Bertram, “bright raven,” are all compounds. The type goes as far back as Proto-Indo-European, even if the individual names do not. English family names con-
tinue the same tradition with such types as Cartwright and Shakespeare, as do thoseof other languages, like Irish (O’)Toole, “having the people’s valor.”
SEMANTICS. A word of caution should be entered about the semantics of theroots. It is perhaps more hazardous to attempt to reconstruct meaning than toreconstruct linguistic form, and the meaning of a root can only be extrapolated fromthe meanings of its descendants. Often these diverge sharply from one another, andthe scholar is reduced in practice to inferring only what seems a reasonable, or evenmerely possible, semantic common denominator. The result is that reconstructedwords and particularly roots are often assigned hazy, vague, or unspecific meanings.This is doubtless quite illusory; a portmanteau meaning for a root should not be con-fused with the specific meaning of a derivative of that root at a particular time andplace. The apparent haziness in meaning of a given Indo-European root often simplyreflects the fact that with the passage of several thousand years the different wordsderived from this root in divergent languages have undergone semantic changes thatare no longer recoverable in detail.
LEXICON AND CULTURE
The reconstruction of a protolanguage—the common ancestor of a family of spo-ken or attested languages—has a further implication. Language is a social fact; lan-guages are not spoken in a vacuum but by human beings living in a society. Whenwe have reconstructed a protolanguage, we have also necessarily established the ex-istence of a prehistoric society, a speech community that used that protolanguage.The existence of Proto-Indo-European presupposes the existence, in some fashion,of a society of Indo-Europeans.
Language is intimately linked to culture in a complex fashion; it is at once theexpression of culture and a part of it. Especially the lexicon of a language—its dic-tionary—is a face turned toward culture. Though by no means a perfect mirror, thelexicon of a language remains the single most effective way of approaching andunderstanding the culture of its speakers. As such, the contents of the Indo-Euro-pean lexicon provide a remarkably clear view of the whole culture of an otherwiseunknown prehistoric society.
The evidence that archaeology can provide is limited to material remains. Buthuman culture is not confined to material artifacts alone. The reconstruction ofvocabulary can offer a fuller, more interesting view of the culture of a prehistoricpeople than archaeology precisely because it includes nonmaterial culture.
Consider the case of religion. To form an idea of the religion of a people,archaeologists proceed by inference, examining temples, sanctuaries, idols, votiveobjects, funerary offerings, and other material remains. But these may not be forth-coming; archaeology is, for example, of little or no utility in understanding the reli-gion of the ancient Hebrews. Yet, for the Indo-European-speaking society, we canreconstruct with certainty the word for “god,” *deiw-os, and the two-word name of
the chief deity of the pantheon, *dyeu-pNter- (Latin J7piter, Greek Zeus patKr, San-skrit Dyaus pitar, and Luvian Tatis Tiwaz). The forms *dyeu- and *deiw-os are bothderivatives of a root deiw-, meaning “to shine,” which appears in the word for“day” in numerous languages (Latin diKs; but English DAY is not related). Thenotion of deity was therefore linked to the notion of the bright sky.
The second element of the name of the chief god, *dyeu-pNter-, is the generalIndo-European word for FATHER, used not in the sense of father as parent but withthe meaning of the adult male who is head of the household, the sense of Latin paterfamilias. For the Indo-Europeans the society of the gods was conceived in the imageof their own society as patriarchal. The reconstructed words *deiw-os and *dyeu-pNter- alone tell us more about the conceptual world of the Indo-Europeans than aroomful of graven images.
The comparative method enables us to construct a basic vocabulary for thesociety of speakers of Proto-Indo-European that extends to virtually all aspects oftheir culture. This basic vocabulary is, to be sure, not uniform in its attestation.Most Indo-European words are found only in some of the attested languages, notin all, which suggests that they may well have been formed only at a period laterthan the oldest common Indo-European we can reconstruct. There are also dialec-tal words that are limited in the area of their extension, as in the case of an impor-tant sociological term such as the word for “people,” teut7-, which is confined tothe western branches: Italic, Celtic, and Germanic. (It is the base of German Deutschand of DUTCH and TEUTONIC.) In cases such as these, where a word is attested inseveral traditions, it is still customary to call it Indo-European, even though it maynot date from the remotest reconstructible time. It is in this sense, universallyaccepted by scholars, that the term Indo-European has been used in this Appendix.
We may examine the contents of this Indo-European lexicon, which asidefrom its inherent interest permits us to ascertain many characteristics of Indo-European society. It is remarkable that by far the greater part of this reconstructedvocabulary is preserved in native or borrowed derivatives in Modern English.
GENERAL TERMS. It is appropriate to begin with a sampling of basic terms inthe lexicon, which have no special cultural value but attest to the richness of the tra-dition. All are widespread in the family. There are two verbs expressing existence,es- and bheuN-, found in English IS, Latin esse, and English BE, Latin fu-t7rus(FUTURE), respectively. There are verbs meaning “to sit” (sed-), “to lie” (legh-,kei-1), and “to stand” (st7-). There are a number of verbs of motion, like gw7-,“to come,” ei-, “to go,” terN-2, “to cross over,” sekw-1, “to follow,” kei-, “to set inmotion,” and the variants of “rolling or turning motion” in wel-, wer-, andkwel-1.
Reconstructions are by no means confined to general, imprecise meaningssuch as these; we have also such specific semantic values as nes-1, “to return safelyhome” (NOSTALGIA).
The notion of carrying is represented by the widespread root bher-1 (BEAR1),found in every branch except Anatolian. This root is noteworthy in that it formeda phrase npmen- bher-, “to bear a name,” which is reconstructible from severaltraditions, including English. This phrase formed a counterpart to np-men- dhK-,“to give a name,” with the verb dhK-, “to set, put,” in Sanskrit, Greek, and Slavictradition. The persistence of these expressions attests the importance of the name-giving ritual in Indo-European society.
For the notions of eating and drinking, the roots ed- and po(i)- are mostwidespread. The metaphor in “drunk, intoxicated,” seems to have been createdindependently a number of times in the history of the Indo-European languages;Latin Kbrius, “drunk” (INEBRIATED), was without etymology until a cognate turnedup in the Hittite verb meaning “to drink”; both are derived from the root Kgwh-.
The verb “to live” was gwei-; it formed an adjective *gwX-wos, “alive,” whichsurvives in English QUICK, whose original sense is seen in the biblical phrase thequick and the dead. For the notion of begetting or giving birth there are two roots,tek- and the extremely widely represented genN-, which appears not only as a verbbut also in various nominal forms like *gen-os, “race,” and the prototypes ofEnglish KIN and KIND.
A number of qualitative adjectives are attested that go back to the protolan-guage. Some come in semantic pairs: sen-, “old,” and newo-, “new”; also sen-,“old,” and yeu-, “youthful vigor”; *tenu-, “thin” (under ten-), and tegu-, “thick”;gwerN-1, “heavy,” and legwh-, “light.” There are also the two prefixes su-, “good,well-,” and dus-, “bad, ill-,” in the Greek forms borrowed as EU- and DYS-. But nor-mally adjectives denoting value judgments like “good” and “bad” are not wide-spread in the family and are subject to replacement; English good, Latin bonus, andGreek agathos have nothing to do with each other, and each is confined to its ownbranch of the family.
The personal pronouns belong to the very earliest layer of Indo-European thatcan be reached by reconstruction. Their forms are unlike those of any other para-digms in the language; they have been called the “Devonian rocks” of Indo-Euro-pean. The lack of any formal resemblance in English between the subject case(nominative) I and the object case (accusative) ME is a direct and faithful reflectionof the same disparity in Proto-Indo-European, respectively eg (*ego) and me-1.The other pronouns are tu- (*te-), “thou,” nes-2 or we-, “we,” and yu-, “you.” Nopronouns for the third person were in use.
The cognate languages give evidence for demonstrative and interrogative pro-nouns. Both have also developed into relative pronouns in different languages. Themost persistent and widespread pronominal stems are to- and kwo-, which are pre-served in the English demonstrative and interrogative-relative pronouns andadverbs beginning with th- (THIS, THEN) and wh- (WHO, WHICH, WHEN).
All the languages of the family show some or all of the Indo-European numer-als. The language had a decimal system. There is complete agreement on the numer-als from two to ten: dwo- (*duwo), trei- (*treyes), kwetwer- (*kwetwores),
penkwe, s(w)eks, sept, okto(u), newn˚, dekc. For the numeral “one” the dia-
lects vary. We have a root sem-1 in some derivatives, while the western Indo-Euro-pean languages Germanic, Celtic, and Latin share the form oi-no-. The word for“hundred,” formed from dekc, “ten,” was *(d)kctom. No common form for“thousand” or any other higher number can be reconstructed for the protolanguage.
NATURE AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. A large number of termsrelating to time, weather, seasons, and natural surroundings can be reconstructedfrom the daughter languages, some of which permit certain inferences about thehomeland of the Indo-European-speaking people before the period of migrationstook them to the different localities where they historically appear.
There are several words for “year,” words that relate to differing conceptionsof the passage of time. Such are yKr- (YEAR), related to words denoting activity;wet-2, the year as a measure of the growth of a domestic animal (WETHER, basically“yearling”); and at- in Latin annus (ANNUAL), from a verb meaning “to go,” refer-ring to the year as passage or change. The seasons were distinguished in Indo-Euro-pean: ghei-, “winter,” wes-y, “spring,” and sem-2, “summer.”
The lunar month was a unit of time. The word for “month” (*mKns-) is insome languages identical with the word for “moon,” in others a derivative of it, asin Germanic *mKnoth- from *mKnon-. “Moon/month” in Indo-European is a deriv-ative of the verb “to measure,” mK-2. The adjective sen- (*seno-), “old,” was alsoused for the waning of the moon, on the evidence of several languages.
The other celestial bodies recognized were the sun, s7wel-, and the stars,ster-3. There is evidence from several traditions for similar designations of theconstellation Ursa Major, though these may not go back to the earliest Indo-Euro-pean times. The movement of the sun dictated the names for the points of the com-pass. The word EAST is derived from the verbal root aus-, “to shine,” as is the wordfor “dawn” (Latin Aurora), deified since Indo-European times on the evidence ofGreek, Lithuanian, and Sanskrit. The setting sun furnished the word for “evening”and “west”: wes-pero-. The most widespread of the words for “night” was nekw-t-. Words for “day” include agh- and such dialectal creations as Latin diKs.
The Indo-Europeans knew snow in their homeland; the word sneigwh- isnearly ubiquitous. Curiously enough, however, the word for “rain” varies amongthe different branches; we have words of differing distribution such as seuN-2.
Conceptions of the sky, or heaven, were varied in the different dialects. As wehave seen, the root deiw- occurs widely as the divine bright sky. On the other hand,certain languages viewed the heavens as basically cloudy; nebh- is “sky” in Balto-Slavic and Iranian, but “cloud” elsewhere. Another divine natural phenomenon isillustrated by the root (s)tenN-, “thunder,” and the name of the Germanic godTHOR.
A word for the earth can be reconstructed as dhghem- (*dheghom). Otherterms of lesser distribution, like kaito-, designated forest or uncultivated land.Swampy or boggy terrain was apparently also familiar, judging from the evidence
of the root pelN-1. But since none of these runs through the whole family, it wouldnot be justifiable to infer anything from them regarding the terrain of a hypothet-ical original homeland of the Indo-Europeans.
On the other hand, from the absence of a general word for “sea” we maydeduce that the Indo-Europeans were originally an inland people. The root mori-is attested dialectally (MERE), but it may well have referred to a lake or other smallerbody of water. Transportation by or across water was, however, known to the Indo-Europeans, since most of the languages attest an old word for “boat” or “ship,”nãu-, probably propelled by oars or a pole (erN-, “to row”).
The names for a number of different trees are widely enough attested to beviewed as Proto-Indo-European in date. The general term for “tree” and “wood”was deru-. The original meaning of the root was doubtless “to be firm, solid,” andfrom it is derived not only the family of English TREE but also that of English TRUE.Note that the semantic evolution has here been from the general to the particular,from “solid” to “tree” (and even “oak” in some dialects), and not the other wayaround.
There are very widely represented words for the beech tree, bh7go-, and thebirch, bherNg-. These formerly played a significant role in attempts to locate theoriginal homeland of the Indo-Europeans, since their distribution is geographicallydistinct. But their ranges may have changed over several millenniums, and, moreimportant, the same word may have been applied to entirely different species oftree. Thus the Greek and Latin cognates of BEECH designate a kind of oak found inthe Mediterranean lands.
Indo-European had a generic term for “wild animal,” ghwer- (FERAL). Thewolf was known and evidently feared; its name is subject to taboo deformation (theconscious alteration of the form of a tabooed word, as in English gol-derned, dad-burned). The variant forms w_kwo-, *lupo-, and w_p- (also “fox”) are all found.The name of the bear was likewise subject to a hunter’s taboo: the animal could notbe mentioned by its real name on the hunt. The southern Indo-European languageshave the original form, ytko- (Latin ursus, Greek arktos), but all the northern lan-guages have a substitute term. In Slavic the bear is the “honey-eater,” in Germanicthe “brown one” (BEAR2, and note also BRUIN).
The BEAVER was evidently known (*bhi-bhru-, from bher-2), at least inEurope, and the MOUSE (m s-) then as now was ubiquitous. The HARE, probablynamed from its color (kas-, “gray”), is also widespread. Domesticated animals arediscussed below.
A generic term for “fish” existed, *dhgh7-(also *peisk- in Europe). The salmon(laks-) and the eel (*angwi-) were known, the latter also in the meaning “snake.”Several birds were known, including the crane (gerN-2) and the eagle (or-). Thegeneric term for “bird” was awi- (Latin avis), and from this was derived the well-represented word for “egg,” *owyo-.
The names for a number of insects can be reconstructed in the protolanguage,including the wasp (*wops7), the hornet (*krNs-yo-, a derivative of ker-1, “head,”
from the shape of the insect), and the fly (*m7-). The bee (bhei-) was particularlyimportant as the producer of honey, for which we have the common Indo-Euro-pean name melit- (MILDEW). Honey was the only source of sugar and sweetness(sw7d-, “sweet,” is ancient), and notably was the base of the only certain Indo-European alcoholic beverage, medhu-, which in different dialects meant bothMEAD (“wine” in Greece and Anatolia) and “honey.”
PEOPLE AND SOCIETY. For human beings themselves, a number of termswere employed, with different nuances of meaning. The usual terms for “man” and“woman” are wX-ro- (VIRILE) and *gwen7- from gwen- (GYNECOLOGY). For “per-son” in general, the oldest word was apparently *manu- (man-1), as preserved inEnglish MAN and in Slavic and Sanskrit. In other dialects we find interesting meta-phorical expressions, which attest a set of religious concepts opposing the gods asimmortal and celestial to humankind as mortal and terrestrial. Humans are either*mortos, “mortal” (mer-, “to die”), or *dhghomyo-, “earthling” (dhghem-, “earth”).
The parts of the body belong to the basic layer of vocabulary and are for themost part faithfully preserved in Indo-European languages. Such are ker-1, “head”(also kaput- in dialects, doubtless a more colloquial word), genu-2, “chin, jaw,”dent-, “tooth,” okw-, “to see,” whence “eye,” ous-, “ear,” nas-, “nose,” leb-, “lip,”bhr -, “brow,” os-, “mouth,” and dn
˚gh -, “tongue.” The word for “foot” is
attested everywhere (ped-), while that for “hand” differs according to dialect; themost widespread is *ghes-y- (CHIRO-).
Internal organs were also named in Indo-European times, including the heart(kerd-), womb (*gwelbh-), gall (ghel-2), and liver (yekw). The male sexual organs,pes- and *ergh-, are common patrimony, as is ors-, “backside.”
A large number of kinship terms have been reconstructed. They are agreed inpointing to a society that was patriarchal, patrilocal (the bride leaving her house-hold to join that of her husband’s family), and patrilineal (descent reckoned by themale line). “Father” and “head of the household” are one: pNter-, with his spouse,the m7ter-. These terms are ultimately derived from the baby-talk syllables pa(pa)and ma(ma), but the kinship-term suffix -ter- shows that they had a sociologicalsignificance over and above this in the Indo-European family. Related terms arefound for the grandfather (awo-) and the maternal uncle (*awon-), and corre-spondingly the term nepot- (feminine *neptX-) applied to both grandson (perhapsoriginally “daughter’s son”) and nephew (“sister’s son”). English SON and DAUGH-
TER clearly reflect Indo-European *s7nu- (from seuN-1) and dhughNter-.Male blood relations were designated as bhr7ter- (BROTHER), which doubtless
extended beyond those with a common father or mother; the Greek cognate means“fellow member of a clan-like group.” The female counterpart was swesor-(SIS-
TER), probably literally “the female member of the kin group,” with a feminine suf-fix *-sor- and the root s(w)e-, designating the self, one’s own group.
While there exist many special terms for relatives by marriage on the hus-band’s side, like daiwer-, “husband’s brother,” fewer corresponding terms on the
wife’s side can be reconstructed for the protolanguage. The terms vary from dialectto dialect, providing good evidence for the patrilocal character of marriage.
The root dem- denoted both the house (Latin domus) and the household as asocial unit. The father of the family (Latin pater familias) was the “master of thehouse” (Greek despotKs) or simply “he of the house” (Latin dominus). A larger unitwas the village, designated by the word weik-1. The community may have beengrouped into divisions by location; this seems to be the basic meaning of the *d7-mo- (from d7-) in Greek dKmos, people (DEMOCRACY).
Human settlements were frequently built on the top of high places fortifiedfor defense, a practice taken by Indo-European migrants into central and westernEurope and into Italy and Greece, as confirmed by archaeological finds. Words forsuch fortified high places vary; there are pelN-3, variant *poli- (ACROPOLIS), theCeltic word for “ring fort,” dh no- (TOWN), and bhergh-2 (-burg in placenames).
ECONOMIC LIFE AND TECHNOLOGY. A characteristic of Indo-Europeanand other archaic societies was the principle of exchange and reciprocal gift-giving.The presentation of a gift entailed the obligation of a countergift, and the acts of giv-ing and receiving were equivalent. They were simply facets of a single process of gen-eralized exchange, which assured the circulation of wealth throughout the society.
This principle has left clear traces in the Indo-European vocabulary. The rootdo- of Latin don7re means “to give” in most dialects but in Hittite means “to take.”The root nem- is “to distribute” in Greek (NEMESIS), but in German it means “totake,” and the cognate of English GIVE (ghabh-) has the meaning “to take” in Irish.The notion of exchange predominates in the roots mei- and gher-2. The GUEST
(ghos-ti-) in Indo-European times was the person with whom one had mutualobligations of hospitality. But he was also the stranger, and the stranger in an uncer-tain and warring tribal society may well be hostile: the Latin cognate hostis means“enemy.”
The Indo-Europeans practiced agriculture and the cultivation of cereals. Wehave several terms of Indo-European antiquity for grain: gyN-no- (CORN), yewo-,and *p7ro-, which may have designated wheat or spelt. Of more restricted distribu-tion is bhares-, “barley.” A root for grinding is attested, melN- (MEAL2, mill).Another Indo-European term is sK-, “to sow,” not found in Greek, Armenian, orIndo-Iranian. The verb “to plow” is *arN-, again a common European term, with thename of the plow, *arN-trom. Other related roots are yeug-, “to yoke,” and kerp-,“to gather, pluck” (HARVEST). The root gwerN-1, “heavy,” is the probable base of*gwerN-n7-, “hand mill” (QUERN). The term is found throughout the Indo-Euro-pean-speaking world, including India.
Stockbreeding and animal husbandry were an important part of Indo-Euro-pean economic life. The names for all the familiar domesticated animals are presentthroughout the family: gwou-, “cow” and “bull,” owi-, “sheep,” *agwh-no-,“swine,” and porko-, “farrow.” The domestic dog was ancient (kwon-). The com-
mon Indo-European name of the horse, ekwo-, is probably derived from theadjective oku-, “swift.” The expansion and migration of the Indo-European-speaking peoples in the later third and early second millenniums B.C. is intimatelybound up with the diffusion of the horse. The verbal root demN-, “to force,”acquired the special sense of “to tame horses,” whence English TAME. Stock was asource and measure of wealth; the original sense of peku- was probably “wealth,riches,” as in Latin pecunia, which came to mean “wealth in cattle” and finally “cat-tle” proper.
The verbal roots p7-, “to protect,” and kwel-1, “to revolve, move around,” arewidely used for the notion of herding or watching over stock, and it is interestingto note that the metaphor of the god or priest watching over humankind like ashepherd (Latin p7stor) over his flock occurs in many Indo-European dialects aswell as outside Indo-European.
Roots indicating a number of technical operations are attested in most of thelanguages of the family. One such is teks-, which in some dialects means “to fabri-cate, especially by working with an ax,” but in others means “to weave” (TEXTILE).The root dheigh-, meaning “to mold, shape,” is applied both to bread (DOUGH) andto mud or clay, whence words for both pottery and mud walls (Iranian *pari-daiza,“walled around,” borrowed into Greek as the word that became English PARADISE.)
The house (dem-) included a dhwer- (DOOR), which probably referred orig-inally to the gateway into the enclosure of the household. The house would havehad a central hearth, denoted in some languages by as- (properly a verb, “to burn”).Fire itself was known by two words, one of animate gender (*egni-, Latin ignis) andone neuter (p r-, Greek pur).
Indo-European had a verb “to cook” (pekw-, also having the notion “toripen”). Other household activities included spinning ((s)nK-), weaving (webh-),and sewing (sy -). The verb wes-2 (WEAR) is ancient and everywhere attested.
The Indo-Europeans knew metal and metallurgy, to judge from the presenceof the word *ayes- in Sanskrit, Germanic, and Latin. The term designated copperand perhaps bronze. Iron is a latecomer, technologically, and the terms for it varyfrom dialect to dialect. Latin has ferrum, while the Germanic and Celtic term was*isarno-, properly “holy (metal),” from eis-, doubtless so called because the firstiron was derived from small meteorites. Gold, ghel-2, probably “yellow (metal),”was known from ancient times, though the names for it vary. Silver was arg-, withvarious suffixes, doubtless meaning “white (metal).”
It was probably not long before the dispersal of the Proto-Indo-Europeancommunity that the use of the wheel and wheeled transport was adopted. Despitethe existence of widespread word families, most terms relating to wheeled vehiclesseem to be metaphors formed from already existing words, rather than original,unanalyzable ones. So NAVE, or hub of the wheel (nobh-), is the same word asNAVEL. This is clearly the case with WHEEL itself, where the widespread *kw(e)-kwl-o- is an expressive derivative of a verb (kwel-1) meaning “to revolve or go around.”Other words for “wheel” are dialectal and again derivative, such as Latin rota from
a verbal root ret-, “to run.” The root wegh-, “to go, transport in a vehicle”(WAGON), is attested quite early, though not in Hittite. This evidence for the lateappearance of the wheel agrees with archaeological findings that date the distribu-tion of the wheel in Europe to the latter part of the fifth millennium B.C., the latestposssible date for the community of Proto-Indo-European proper.
IDEOLOGY. We pointed out earlier that the great advantage of the lexicon as anapproach to culture and history is that it is not confined to material remains. Wordsexist for natural phenomena, objects, and things that can be found in nature oridentified from their material remains. But there are also words for ideas, abstrac-tions, and relations. The Indo-European protolanguage is particularly rich in suchvocabulary items.
A number of verbs denoting mental activity are found. The most widespreadis men-1, preserved in English MIND. Other derivatives refer to remembering,warning (putting in mind), and thinking in general. A root notable for the diversityof its derivatives is med-, which may be defined as “to take the appropriate mea-sures.” Reflexes of this verb range in meaning from “rule,” through “measure”(MODICUM, from Latin), to “physician” (Latin medicus).
The notions of government and sovereignty were well represented. The pres-ence of the old word for tribal king, *reg- (reg-), only in the extreme east (RAJAH)and the extreme west (Latin rKx, Celtic -rXx) virtually guarantees its presence in theearliest Indo-European society. (Here is an example of the phenomenon of mar-ginal or peripheral conservation of a form lost in the central innovating area.)Roman tradition well attests the sacral character of kingship among the Indo-Euro-peans. The functions of king and priest were different aspects of a single functionof sovereignty. It is this that is symbolized by the divine name *dyeu-pNter- (deiw-),the chief of the gods.
Another aspect of the function of sovereignty is the sphere of the law. There isan old word, yewes-, probably for “religious law,” in Latin i7s. Latin lKx is alsoancient (leg- or legh-), though the details of its etymology are uncertain. In a soci-ety that emphasized the principle of exchange and reciprocity, it is scarcely surpris-ing that the notion of contractual obligation should be well represented. Severalroots specify the notion of “bond”: bhendh-, ned-, and leig-, all of which havederivatives with technical legal meanings in various languages. The verb kwei-1
meant “to pay compensation for an injury.” Its derivative noun *kwoin7 was bor-rowed from Doric Greek into the most ancient Roman law as Latin poena andp7nXre, whence English PUNISH and a host of legal terms. The Greek word for “jus-tice,” dikK, is derived from the notion of “boundary marker” (deik-).
Indo-European is particularly rich in religious vocabulary. An importantform, which is also found only in the peripheral languages Sanskrit, Latin, andCeltic, is the two-word metaphoric phrase *kred-dhK-, literally “to put (dhK-) heart(kerd-).” The two words have been joined together in the western languages, as inLatin crKdo, “I believe.” Here a term of the most ancient pagan religion has been
taken over by Christianity. A common word for religious “formulation,” *bhregh-men-, is preserved in Brahmin, a member of the priestly class, from Sanskrit.
Oral prayers, requests of the deity, and other ritual utterances must haveplayed a significant role in Indo-European religion. We have already seen prek-(PRAY), and note also the roots *wegwh- (in Latin vovKre, to vow), sengwh- (SING),and gWerN-2, which in Latin gr7tia (GRACE) has had a new life in Christianity.
The root spend- has the basic meaning of “to make an offering or perform arite,” whence “to engage oneself by a ritual act.” Its Latin derivative spondKre means“to promise” (SPOUSE).
A hint of Indo-European metaphysics appears in the word aiw-, “vital force,”whence “long life, the eternal re-creation of life, eternity” (EON). It is noteworthythat the idea of “holy” is intimately bound up with that of “whole, healthy,” in anumber of forms: kailo- (WHOLE and HOLY) and solN-, whence Latin salvus (SAL-
VATION). An ancient root relating solely to religion is sak- (SACRED).In conclusion we may add that poetry and a tradition of poetics are also com-
mon patrimony in most of the Indo-European traditions. The hymns of the Rig-Veda are composed in meters related to those used by the Greek poets, and the ear-liest verse forms found among the Celts and the Slavs go back to the same Indo-European source. Many, perhaps most, of the stylistic figures and embellishments ofpoetic language that we associate with “classical” poetics and rhetoric can be shown,by the comparative method, to have their roots in Indo-European poetics itself.
A number of metaphorical expressions appear to be creations of ancient, evenIndo-European date. Latin terra, “earth” (TERRAN), is historically a transferred epi-thet, “dry (land),” from ters-, “to dry,” whose English descendant is THIRST. Onesecurely reconstructible Indo-European place name rests squarely on a metaphor:*PXwer-i7 in Greek Pieria (PIERIAN SPRING) and ‚wer-ion-, the prehistoric Celticname for Ireland (Gaelic Éire, Érin), both continue an Indo-European feminineadjective *pXwer-iN, “fat,” metaphorically “fertile,” from peiN-, the same root thatgives English FAT.
Most interesting are the cases where it is possible to reconstruct from two ormore traditions (usually including Homer and the Rig-Veda) a poetic phrase or for-mula consisting of two members. Such are the expressions “imperishable fame,”*klewos idhgwhitom (kleu-); “holy (mental) force,” *isNrom menos (eis-, men-1);and the “weaver (or crafter) of words,” the Indo-European poet himself, *wekwomteks-on (wekw-, teks-). The immortality of the gods (*i-mrto-, from mer-) isemphasized anew by the vivid verb phrase nek-1 terN-2, “to overcome death,”appearing in the Greek word nektar, the drink of the gods. And at least one three-member formula (in the sense of the word in traditional oral poetry) can be recon-structed for the poetic language of prayer, on the combined evidence of four lan-guages, Latin, Umbrian, Avestan, and Sanskrit: “Protect, keep safe, man and cattle!”(p7- wX-ro- peku).
CONCLUSION
This survey has touched on only a representative sample of the available recon-structed Indo-European lexicon and has made no attempt to cite the mass of evi-dence in all the languages of the family, ancient and modern, for thesereconstructions.
For this essay, we have given only the information about Indo-European cul-ture that could be derived from language and lexicon alone. Other disciplines serveto fill out and complete the picture to be gathered from the study of vocabulary:archaeology, prehistory, comparative religion, and the history of institutions.
Archaeologists have not in fact succeeded in locating the Indo-Europeans. Anartifact other than a written record is silent on the language of its user, and prehis-toric Eurasia offers an abundant choice of culture areas. Archaeologists are gener-ally agreed that the so-called Kurgan peoples, named after the Russian word fortheir characteristic “barrow” or “tumulus” grave structure, spoke an Indo-Euro-pean language. The correlation between the Kurgan cultural features described byarchaeologists and the Indo-European lexicon are striking: for example, small tribalunits (teut7-) ruled by powerful chieftains (reg-), a predominantly pastoral (p7-)economy including horse (ekwo-) breeding (demN-) and plant cultivation(yewo-), and architectural features such as a small subterranean or abovegroundrectangular hut (*dom-, dem-) of timber uprights (*kli-t-, klei-, and *stu-t-, st7-,still with us in English STUD).
Some time around the middle of the fifth millennium B.C., these peopleexpanded from the steppe zone north of the Black Sea and beyond the Volga intothe Balkans and adjacent areas. These Kurgan peoples bore a new mobile andaggressive culture into Neolithic Europe, and it is not unreasonable to associatethem with the coming of the Indo-Europeans. But the Kurgan peoples’ movementinto Europe took place in distinct waves from the fifth to the third millennium B.C.The earliest so far discovered might be compatible with a reasonable date for Proto-Indo-European, that is, a date sufficiently long ago for a single language to developinto forms as divergent as Mycenaean Greek and Hittite as they are historicallyattested by the middle of the second millennium B.C. But the subsequent Kurganimmigrations, after 4000 B.C., are too late to be regarded as incursions of speakersof undifferentiated Proto-Indo-European. The archaeological evidence for thelater waves of Kurgan migrations points to their having had an Indo-European cul-ture, but the languages spoken by the later Kurgan peoples must have been alreadydifferentiated Indo-European dialects, some of which would doubtless evolve intosome of the historical branches of the family tree. We must be content to recognizethe Kurgan peoples as speakers of certain Indo-European languages and as sharinga common Indo-European cultural patrimony. The ultimate “cradle” of the Indo-Europeans may well never be known, and language remains the best and fullest evi-dence for prehistoric Indo-European society. It is the comparative method in his-
torical linguistics that can illumine not only ancient ways of life but also ancientmodes of thought.
GUIDE TO THE APPENDIX
This Dictionary carries the etymology of the English language to its logical and nat-ural conclusion, for if the documentary history of words is of interest and value, sois their reconstructed prehistory. The historical component is given in the etymol-ogies, after the definitions in the main body of the Dictionary. This Appendix sup-plies the prehistoric component, tracing the ultimate Indo-European derivations ofthose English words that are descended from a selected group of Indo-Europeanroots.
The form given in boldface type at the head of each entry is, unless otherwiseidentified, an Indo-European root in its basic form; this is followed by a list of someof its more important Modern English descendants. The entry proper begins witha repetition of the basic root form, followed in some cases by one or more variants,also in boldface type. The basic meaning or meanings of the root are given imme-diately after the entry form and its variants (but see the cautionary note under“Semantics” in the preceding essay). Meanings that are different parts of speech areseparated by a semicolon:
kei-1. To lie; bed, couch; beloved, dear.
pelN-2. Flat; to spread.
leg-. To collect; with derivatives meaning “to speak.”
After the basic meaning there may appear further information about the pho-nological shape or nature of the root:
skei-. To cut, split. Extension of sek-.
kwmi-. Worm. Rhyme word to *wrmi-, worm (see wer-2).
p7-. To protect, feed. Contracted from *paN-.
lXk-. Body, form; like, same. Germanic root.
Most, but not all, of the additional information is self-explanatory. In the firsttwo examples, the boldface forms sek- and wer-2 are cross-references to thoseroots, which are main entries in this Appendix. Every boldface form appearing inthe text of an entry is such a cross-reference. In the example p7- the form *paN- rep-resents an older root form; the nature of these contractions is explained in the pre-ceding essay under “Speech Sounds and their Alternations” (page 0000). The entrieslXk-, nKhw-iz, and re- are not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since they arerepresented in only one branch of the family, but they are included within boldfacebrackets because of the number of English words among their descendants.
The text of each entry describes in detail the development of Modern Englishwords from the root. Each section of an entry begins with a list, in SMALL CAPITALS,of the Modern English words derived from a particular form of the root. The sim-ple (uncompounded) derivatives are given first; the compounds follow, separatedfrom them by a semicolon. Parentheses indicate that the etymology of a word in themain body of the Dictionary contains a cross-reference to the etymology at anotherentry. In some cases no further semantic or morphological development needs tobe explained, and the lemma, the historically attested representative of the root, isimmediately given:
awi-. Bird. I. 1. AVIAN . . . from Latin avis, bird.
Much more commonly, however, intermediate developments require expla-nation. These intermediate stages are reconstructions representing a word stem inIndo-European that is necessary to explain the lemma following it (see the section“Grammatical Forms and Syntax” in the preceding essay). The reconstructed formsare not historically attested; they are preceded by an asterisk (*) to note this fact.Sometimes earlier or later developments of the intermediate forms are given inparentheses, as in the example of st7- below. In these cases the symbol < is used tomean “derived from” and the symbol > is used to mean “developed into.” The fol-lowing terms are used to describe typical morphological processes of Indo-Euro-pean:
Full-grade form: A form with e-vocalism (the basic form); so identified fordescriptive contrast
O-grade form: A form with o-vocalism:
nekw-t-. O-grade form *nokw-t-.
Zero-grade form: A form with zero-vocalism:
men-1. I. Zero-grade form *m-.
Lengthened-grade form: A form with lengthened vocalism:
ked-. 1. Lengthened-grade form *kKd-.
Secondary full-grade form: A new full-grade form created by inserting the fun-damental vowel e in the zero-grade form of an extended root:
st7-. V. Zero-grade extended root *st7- (< *stuN-). . . . VI. Secondary full-grade form
*steuN-.
Basic form: The unchanged root; so identified for descriptive contrast.
Suffixed form: A form with one or more suffixes, written with an internalhyphen:
laks-. Suffixed form *laks-o-.
maghu-. Suffixed form *magho-ti-.
mel-2. 1. Suffixed (comparative) form *mel-yos-.
Prefixed form: A form with a prefix, written with an internal hyphen:
op-. 6. . . . from prefixed form *co-op-.
Extended form: A form with an extension or enlargement, written without inter-nal hyphens:
pel-5. II. Extended form *pelN-.
Nasalized form: A form with a nasal infix, written with internal hyphens:
tag-. 1. Nasalized form *ta-n-g-.
Reduplicated form: A form prefixed by its own initial consonant followed by avowel:
segh-. 5. Reduplicated form *si-sgh-.
Expressive form: A form with “expressive gemination” (doubling of the finalconsonant), written without internal hyphens:
gal-. 3. Expressive form *gall-.
Compound form. A form compounded with a form of another root, writtenwith internal hyphens:
dem-. 3. Compound form *dems-pot-.
Shortened form. A form with shortened vocalism:
sy -. III. Suffixed shortened form *syu-men-.
Reduced form. A form with loss of one or more sounds:
ghesor-. Reduced form *ghesr-.
Oldest root form. A root form showing a laryngeal (N) in a position, typically atthe beginning or end of a root, where it is preserved in only a few Indo-Europeanlanguages, such as Greek or Hittite:
ster-3. 3. Oldest root form *Nster-.
Variant form. A form altered in any way other than those described in the abovecategories:
deru-. 2. Variant form *dreu-.
These terms can be combined freely to describe in as much detail as necessary the devel-
opment from the root to the lemma.
dhK(i)-. 1. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-mn7–. FEMALE, FEMININE; EFFEMINATE, from
Latin fKmina, woman (< “she who suckles”).
gerN-1. 1. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *gKrN-s-. AGERATUM, GERIATRICS, from
Greek gKras, old age.
petN-. 2. Suffixed (stative) variant zero-grade form *pat-K-. PATENT, PATULOUS, from
Latin patKre, to be open.
In order to emphasize the fact that English belongs to the Germanic branch ofIndo-European and give precedence to directly inherited words in contrast towords borrowed from other branches, the intermediate stages in Germanic etymol-ogies are covered in fuller detail. The Common or Proto-Germanic (here calledsimply Germanic) forms underlying English words are always given. Where noother considerations intervene, Germanic is given first of the Indo-European
groups, and Old English is given first within Germanic, although this order of pre-cedence is not rigidly applied.
The final item in most entries is an abbreviated reference, in brackets, to JuliusPokorny’s Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch (Bern, 1959). This, thestandard work of reference and synthesis in the Indo-European field, carries a fullrange of the actual comparative material on which the roots are reconstructed. OurAppendix presents only those aspects of the material that are directly relevant toEnglish. For example, the English word MANY is found at the root menegh-, “copi-ous.” This entry describes the transition of the Indo-European form through Ger-manic *managa- to Old English manig, mænig, “many.” It does not cite the evidenceon which this assertion is based, but it refers to “Pokorny men(e)gh- 730.” The entrymen(e)gh- on page 730 in Pokorny’s dictionary cites, in addition to the Old Englishword, the forms attested in Sanskrit, Celtic, Gothic, Old High German, Old Norse,Slavic, and Lithuanian, from which the reconstruction of the root was made. Thesereferences should serve as a reminder that the information given in this Appendixis assertive rather than expository and that the evidence and evaluation upon whichits assertions are based are not presented here.
Symbols: * unattested< derived from> developed into
1. ACRE, from Old English æcer, field, acre, from Germanic *akraz.
2. AGRARIAN; AGRICULTURE, PEREGRINE, (PILGRIM), from Latin ager(genitive agrX), earlier *agros, district, property, field.
3. AGRIA, AGRO-; (AGROSTOLOGY), ONAGER, STAVESACRE, from Greekagros, field, and agrios, wild.
[In Pokorny a´- 4.]
ais-An important derivative is: ask.To wish, desire.
Suffixed form *ais-sk-. ASK, from Old English 7scian, 7csian, to ask, seek, fromGermanic *aiskon.
[Pokorny 1. ais- 16.]
aiw-Important derivatives are: no1, ever, every, never, medieval, age, eternal, eon.Vital force, life, long life, eternity; also “endowed with the acme of vital force,young.”
1.
a. NO1, from Old English 7, ever;
b. AUGHT1, from Old English 7wiht, 7uht, anything, “ever acreature”;
c. EVER; EVERY, NEVER, from Old English <fre (secondelement obscure), ever;
d. AYE2; NAY, from Old Norse ei, ever. a, c, and d all fromextended form in Germanic *aiwi; b from Germanic*aiwi + *wihti, “ever a thing, anything” (*wihti-, thing;see wekti-).
2.
a. Suffixed form *aiw-o-. COEVAL, LONGEVITY, MEDIEVAL,PRIMEVAL, from Latin aevum, age, eternity;
b. suffixed form *aiwo-t7(ti)-. AGE; COETANEOUS, from Latinaet7s (stem aet7ti-), age;
c. suffixed form *aiwo-t-erno-. ETERNAL; SEMPITERNAL, fromLatin aeternus, eternal.
3. Suffixed form *aiw-en-. EON, from Greek aion, age, vital force.
a. EDGE, from Old English ecg, sharp side, from Germanic*agjo;
b. EGG2, from Old Norse eggja, to incite, goad, fromGermanic *agjan.
2. Suffixed form *ak-u-.
a. EAR2, from Old English æhher, Kar, spike, ear of grain,from Germanic *ahuz-;
b. ACICULA, (ACUITY), ACUMEN, ACUTE, AGLET, EGLANTINE, fromLatin acus, needle;
c. ACEROSE, from Latin acus, chaff.
3. Suffixed form *ak-i-. ACIDANTHERA, from Greek akis, needle.
4. Suffixed form *ak-men-, stone, sharp stone used as a tool, withmetathetic variant *ka-men-, with variants:
a. *ka-mer-. HAMMER, from Old English hamor, hammer,from Germanic *hamaraz;
b. *ke-men- (probable variant). HEAVEN, from Old Englishheofon, hefn, heaven, from Germanic *hibin-, “thestony vault of heaven,” dissimilated form of *himin-.
5. Suffixed form *ak-on7-, independently created in:
a. AWN, from Old Norse ˆgn, ear of grain, and Old Englishagen, ear of grain, from Germanic *agano, and
b. PARAGON, from Greek akonK, whetstone.
6. Suffixed lengthened form *7k-ri-. ACERATE, ACRID, ACRIMONY,EAGER1; CARVACROL, VINEGAR, from Latin 7cer, sharp, bitter.
7. Suffixed form *ak-ri-bhwo-. ACERBIC, EXACERBATE, from Latinacerbus, bitter, sharp, tart.
8. Suffixed (stative) form *ak-K-. ACID, from Latin acKre, to besharp.
9. Suffixed form *ak-Kto-. (ACETABULUM), (ACETIC), ACETUM; ESTER,from Latin acKtum, vinegar.
10. Suffixed form *ak-m7-. ACME, (ACNE), from Greek akmK, point.
11. Suffixed form *ak-ro-. ACRO-; (ACROBAT), ACROMION, from Greekakros, topmost.
12. Suffixed o-grade form *ok-ri-. MEDIOCRE, from Latin ocris,rugged mountain.
13. Suffixed o-grade form *ok-su-. AMPHIOXUS, OXALIS, OXYGEN,OXYURIASIS, PAROXYSM, from Greek oxus, sharp, sour.
[Pokorny 2. aˆ- 18, 3. ˆem- 556.]
akw-7-Important derivatives are: island, aquatic, ewer, sewer1.Water.
1. ISLAND, from Old English Xg, Xeg, island, from Germanic *aujo,“thing on the water,” from *agwjo.
a. Suffixed forms *ol-se-, *ol-so-. ALARM, ALERT, ALLIGATOR, EL
NIÑO, VOIL‡, from Latin ille (feminine illa, neuter illud),“yonder,” that, from Old Latin ollus;
b. suffixed forms *ol-s, *ol-tero-. OUTRÈ, ULTERIOR, ULTIMATE,ULTRA-, UTTERANCE2, from Latin uls, *ulter, ultr7, beyond.
2. Suffixed form *al-tero-, “other of two.”
a. ALTER, ALTERCATE, ALTERNATE, ALTRUISM; SUBALTERN, from
Latin alter, other, other of two;
b. ADULTERATE, (ADULTERINE), (ADULTERY), from Latinadulter7re, to commit adultery with, pollute, probablyfrom the phrase ad alterum, “(approaching) another(unlawfully)” (ad-, to; see ad-);
c. variant suffixed form *an-tero-, “other (of two).”OTHER, from Old English other, other, from Germanic*antharaz.
3. Extended form *alyo-, “other of more than two.”
a. ELSE; ELDRITCH, from Old English el-, elles, else, otherwise,from Germanic *aljaz (with adverbial suffix);
b. ALIAS, ALIEN; ALIBI, ALIQUOT, HIDALGO, from Latin alius,other of more than two;
c. ALLO-; ALLEGORY, ALLELOMORPH, ALLELOPATHY, MORPHALLAXIS,PARALLAX, PARALLEL, TROPHALLAXIS, from Greek allos, other.
a. ALDERMAN, OLD, from Old English eald, ald, old;
b. ELDER1, from Old English (comparative) ieldra, eldra,older, elder;
c. ELDEST, from Old English (superlative) ieldesta, eldesta,eldest;
d. (see wX-ro-) Germanic compound *wer-ald-, “life orage of man.” a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *alda-.
2. ALT, ALTO, HAUGHTY, HAWSER; ALTIMETER, ALTIPLANO, ALTITUDE,ALTOCUMULUS, ALTOSTRATUS, ENHANCE, EXALT, (HAUTBOY), from Latin
altus, high, deep.
II. ADOLESCENT, (ADULT), ALIBLE, ALIMENT, ALIMONY, ALTRICIAL, ALUMNUS; COALESCE,from Latin alere, to nourish.
III. Suffixed (causative) form *ol-eye-. ABOLISH, from Latin abolKre, toretard the growth of, abolish (ab-, from; see apo-).
IV. Compound form *pro-al- (pro-, forth; see per1). PROLAN, PROLETARIAN,PROLIFEROUS, PROLIFIC, from Latin prolKs, offspring.
V. Extended form *aldh-. ALTHEA, from Greek althein, althainein, to getwell.
[Pokorny 2. al-26.]
al-3
Important derivatives are: all, also.All.
Germanic and Celtic root.
1. Suffixed form *al-na-. ALL; ALSO, from Old English all, eall, eal-,al-, all, from Germanic *allaz.
2. (see man-1) Germanic prefix *ala-, all, in *Ala-manniz, “allmen.”
albho-Important derivatives are: elf, oaf, albino, album, auburn, daub.White.
a. ELF, from Old English ælf, elf;
b. OAF, from Old Norse alfr, elf;
c. OBERON, from Old French Auberon, from a source akinto Old High German Alberich. a, b, and c all possiblyfrom Germanic *albiz, *albaz, if meaning “whiteghostly apparitions.”
1. ELFIN, from Old English -elfen, elf, possibly from Germanic*albinjo.
2. ABELE, ALB, ALBEDO, ALBESCENT, ALBINO, ALBITE, ALBUM, ALBUMEN,AUBADE, AUBURN; DAUB, from Latin albus, white.
[Pokorny albho- 30.]
alu-An important derivative is: ale.In words related to sorcery, magic, possession, and intoxication.
Suffixed form *alu-t-. ALE, from Old English (e)alu, ale, from Germanic*aluth-.
1. AGNAIL, (HANGNAIL), from Old English ang-nægl, “painful spike(in the flesh),” corn, excrescence (nægl, spike; see nogh-),from Germanic *ang-, compressed, hard, painful.
2. Suffixed form *angh-os-. ANGER, from Old Norse angr, sorrow,grief, from Germanic *angaz.
3. Suffixed form *angh-os-ti-. ANGST1, from Old High Germanangust, anxiety, from Germanic *angusti-.
4. ANXIOUS, from Latin angere, to strangle, torment.
5. Suffixed form *angh-os-to-. ANGUISH, from Latin angustus,narrow.
6. QUINSY, from Greek ankhein, to squeeze, embrace.
I. Inflected form (locative singular) *anti, “against,” with derivatives
meaning in front of, before; also end.
1. UN-2; ALONG, from Old English and-, indicating opposition, fromGermanic *andi- and *anda-.
2. END, from Old English ende, end, from Germanic *andja-.
3. ANCIENT1, ANTE, ANTE-, ANTERIOR; ADVANCE, from Latin ante, before,in front of, against.
4. ANTI-; ENANTIOMER, ENANTIOMORPH, from Greek anti, against, andenantios, opposite.
5. Compound form *anti-Nkwo-, “appearing before, having prioraspect” (*Nkw-, appearance; see okw-). ANTIC, ANTIQUE, from LatinantXquus, former, antique.
6. Reduced form *iti-.
a. UNTIL, from Old Norse und, until, unto;
b. ELOPE, from Middle Dutch ont-, away from. Both a andb from Germanic *und-.
7. Variant form *anto-. VEDANTA, from Sanskrit antaU, end.
II. Probable inflected form (ablative plural) *antbhi, “from both sides,”whence *ambhi. See ambhi-.
a. ARM1, from Old English earm, arm, from Germanic*armaz;
b. ARM2, (ARMADA), ARMADILLO, ARMATURE, ARMOIRE, ARMY;
ALARM, DISARM, from Latin arma, tools, arms;
c. ARMILLARY SPHERE, from Latin armus, upper arm.
2. Suffixed form *ar(N)-smo-. HARMONY, from Greek harmos, joint,shoulder.
3. Suffixed form *ar(N)-ti-.
a. ART1, ARTISAN, ARTIST; INERT, (INERTIA), from Latin ars (stemart-), art, skill, craft;
b. further suffixed form *ar(N)-ti-o-. ARTIODACTYL, fromGreek artios, fitting, even.
4. Suffixed form *ar(N)-tu-. ARTICLE, from Latin artus, joint.
5. Suffixed form *ar(N)-to-. COARCTATE, from Latin artus, tight.
6. Suffixed form *ar(N)-dhro-. ARTHRO-; ANARTHROUS, DIARTHROSIS,ENARTHROSIS, SYNARTHROSIS, from Greek arthron, joint.
7. Suffixed (superlative) form *ar(N)-isto-. ARISTOCRACY, fromGreek aristos, best.
II. Possibly suffixed variant form (or separate root) *or-dh-.
1. ORDAIN, ORDER, ORDINAL, ORDINANCE, ORDINARY, ORDINATE, ORDO;COORDINATION, INORDINATE, SUBORDINATE, from Latin ordo, order(originally a row of threads in a loom).
2. EXORDIUM, PRIMORDIAL, from Latin ordXrX, to begin to weave.
3. ORNAMENT, ORNATE; ADORN, SUBORN, from Latin orn7re, to adorn.
III. Variant or separate root *rK- (< *reN-).
1. RATE1, RATIO, REASON; (ARRAIGN), from Latin rKrX, to consider,confirm, ratify.
2. Suffixed form *rK-dh-.
i. READ, REDE, from Old English r<dan, to advise;
ii. HATRED, KINDRED, from Old English r<den,condition. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic*rKdan;
i. RATHSKELLER, from Old High German r7t,counsel;
ii. RIDDLE2, from Old English r<dels(e), opinion,riddle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *rKdaz.
3. Zero-grade form *rN-. (see dekc) Germanic *radam, number.
IV. Variant (or separate root) *rX-.
1. Suffixed form *rX-tu-. RITE, from Latin rXtus, rite, custom, usage.
2. Suffixed form *(a)rX-dhmo-. ARITHMETIC, LOGARITHM, from Greekarithmos, number, amount.
3. RHYME, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German rXm,number, series.
[Pokorny 1. ar- 55.]
arg-An important derivative is: argue.To shine; white; the shining or white metal, silver.
1. Suffixed form *arg-ent-. ARGENT, ARGENTINE, from Latinargentum, silver.
2. Suffixed form *arg-i-l(l)-. ARGIL, from Greek argillos, white clay.
3. Suffixed form *arg-u-ro-. LITHARGE, (PYRARGYRITE), from Greekarguros, silver.
4. Suffixed form *arg-i-n-. ARGININE, from Greek arginoeis,brilliant, bright-shining.
5. Extended form *argu-, brilliance, clarity, ARGUE, from Latindenominative arguere, to make clear, demonstrate.
1. Extended form *asg-. ASH1, from Old English æsce, asce, ash,from Germanic *askon-.
2. Suffixed form *7s-7-. ARA, from Latin 7ra, altar, hearth.
3. Suffixed (stative) form *7s-K-.
a. ARID, from Latin 7ridus, dry, parched, from 7rKre, to bedry;
b. ARDENT, ARDOR, ARSON, from Latin 7rdKre, to burn, be onfire, from 7ridus, parched.
4. Extended form *asd-.
a. ZAMIA, from Greek azein, to dry;
b. AZALEA, from Greek azaleos, dry.
[Pokorny as- 68.]
at-Important derivatives are: annual, anniversary, millennium, perennial.To go; with Germanic and Latin derivatives meaning a year (conceived as “theperiod gone through, the revolving year”).
Suffixed form *at-no-. ANNALS, ANNUAL, ANNUITY; ANNIVERSARY, BIENNIUM,DECENNIUM, MILLENNIUM, PERENNIAL, QUADRENNIUM, QUINDECENNIAL, QUINQUENNIUM,SEPTENNIAL, SEXENNIAL, SUPERANNUATED, TRIENNIUM, VICENNIAL, from Latin annus,year.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *7tr-o-. ATRABILIOUS, from Latin 7ter(feminine 7tra), black (
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *7tr-yo-. ATRIUM, from Latin 7trium,forecourt, hall, atrium (perhaps originally the place where thesmoke from the hearth escaped through a hole in the roof).
3. Compound shortened zero-grade form *atro-Nkw- (*Nkw-,“looking”; see okw-). ATROCIOUS, from Latin 8trox, “black-looking,” frightful.
Compound forms *aw-dh-, *awis-dh-, “to place perception” (see dhK-).
1. Suffixed form *awisdh-yo- or *awdh-yo-. AUDIBLE, AUDIENCE,AUDILE, AUDIO-, AUDIT, AUDITION, AUDITOR, AUDITORIUM, AUDITORY,OYEZ; OBEY, SUBAUDITION, from Latin audXre, to hear.
2. AESTHETIC; ANESTHESIA, from Greek aisthanesthai, to feel.
b. BECKON, from Old English denominative bKcnan,bKcnian, to make a sign, beckon;
c. BUOY, from Old French boue, buoy. a, b, and c all fromGermanic *baukna-, beacon, signal.
d. BERRY; MULBERRY, from Old English berie, berige, berry,and Old High German beri, berry;
e. FRAMBESIA, from Old French framboise, raspberry,alteration of Frankish *br7m-besi, “bramble berry.”Both a and b from Germanic *bazja-, berry (bh7-1.
f. BANDOLEER, from Spanish banda, sash;
g. BANNER, (BANNERET1), (BANNERET2), from Late Latinbandum, banner, standard. Both a and b fromGermanic *bandwa-, “identifying sign,” banner,standard, sash, also “company united under a(particular) banner.”
3. Extended and suffixed form *bhN-n-yo-. FANTASY, (PANT), -PHANE,PHANTASM, (PHANTOM), PHASE, PHENO-, PHENOMENON; DIAPHANOUS,EMPHASIS, EPIPHANY, HIEROPHANT, PHANEROGAM, (PHANTASMAGORIA),PHOSPHENE, SYCOPHANT, THEOPHANY, (TIFFANY), from Greekphainein, “to bring to light,” cause to appear, show, andphainesthai (passive), “to be brought to light,” appear, withzero-grade noun phasis (*bhN-ti-), an appearance.
4. FABLE, FATE; AFFABLE, (FANTOCCINI), INEFFABLE, INFANT, (INFANTRY),PREFACE, from Latin f7rX, to speak.
5. -PHASIA; APOPHASIS, PROPHET, from Greek phanai, to speak.
a. BAN1, from Old English bannan, to summon, proclaim,and Old Norse banna, to prohibit, curse;
b. BANAL, BANNS; ABANDON, from Old French ban, feudaljurisdiction, summons to military service,proclamation, Old French bandon, power, and OldEnglish gebann, proclamation;
c. BANISH, from Old French banir, to banish;
d. CONTRABAND, from Late Latin bannus, bannum,proclamation;
e. BANDIT, from Italian bandire, to muster, band together(a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic suffixed form*ban-wan, *bannan, to speak publicly (used ofparticular kinds of proclamation in feudal or prefeudalcustom; “to proclaim under penalty, summon to thelevy, declare outlaw”).
6. Suffixed form *bh7-ni-.
a. BOON1, from Old Norse bon, prayer, request;
b. BEE1, perhaps from Old English bKn, prayer, from aScandinavian source akin to Old Norse bon, prayer.Both a and b from Germanic *boni-.
7. Suffixed form *bh7-ma.
a. FAME, FAMOUS; DEFAME, INFAMOUS, from Latin f7ma, talk,reputation, fame;
b. EUPHEMISM, from Greek phKmK, saying, speech.
8. Suffixed o-grade form *bho-n7. PHONE2, -PHONE, PHONEME,PHONETIC, PHONO-, -PHONY; ANTHEM, (ANTIPHON), APHONIA,CACOPHONOUS, EUPHONY, SYMPHONY, from Greek phonK, voice,sound, and (denominative) phonein, to speak.
9. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhN-to-. CONFESS, PROFESS, from LatinfatKrX, to acknowledge, admit.
10. (BLAME), BLASPHEME, from Greek blasphKmos, evil-speaking,blasphemous (first element obscure).
[Pokorny 2. bh7- 105.]
bha-bh7-An important derivative is: bean.Broad bean.
4. FAVA BEAN, from Latin faba, broad bean.
5. Variant form *bha-un-. BEAN, from Old English bKan, broadbean, bean of any kind, from Germanic *bauno.
6. Possible suffixed form *bha-ko-. PHACOEMULSIFICATION, fromGreek phakos, lentil.
[Pokorny bhabh7 106.]
bhad-Important derivatives are: better, best.
Good.
14. BETTER, from Old English betera, better, from Germanic(comparative) *batizo.
15. BEST, from Old English bet(e)st, best, from Germanic(superlative) *batistaz.
16. BOOT2, from Old English bot, remedy, aid, from Germanic noun*boto.
17. BATTEN1, ultimately from Old Norse batna, to improve, fromGermanic verb *batnan, to become better.
[Pokorny bh7d- 106.]
bhag-Derivatives are: phago-, -phagous.To share out, apportion, also to get a share.
3. -PHAGE, -PHAGIA, PHAGO-, -PHAGOUS, from Greek phagein, to eat (
4. NEBBISH, from a Slavic source akin to Czech neboh, poor,unfortunate, from Common Slavic *ne-bogƒ, poor (“un-endowed”).
5. PAGODA; BHAGAVAD-GITA, from Sanskrit bhagaU, good fortune.
6. Extended form *bhags-. BAKSHEESH, (BUCKSHEE), from PersianbakhshXdan, to give, from Avestan bakhsh-.
[Pokorny 1. bhag- 107.]
bh7ghu-An important derivative is: bough.Arm.
BOUGH, from Old English bog, boh, bough, from Germanic *boguz.
d. BOOK, from Old English boc, written document,composition;
e. BUCKWHEAT, from Middle Dutch boek, beech;
f. BOKMÂL, from Norwegian bok, book. a, b, and c all fromGermanic *boko, beech, also “beech staff for carvingrunes on” (an early Germanic writing device).
4. BEECH, from Old English bKce, beech, from Germanic *bokjon-.
3. BEAT, from Old English bKatan, to beat, from Germanic*bautan.
4. BEETLE3, from Old English b«tl, hammer, mallet, from Germanic*bautilaz, hammer.
5. BASTE3, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norsebeysta, to beat, denominative from Germanic *baut-sti-.
6. BUTTOCK, from Old English diminutive buttuc, end, strip ofland, from Germanic *b7taz.
a. HALIBUT, from Middle Dutch butte, flatfish;
b. TURBOT, from a Scandinavian source akin to OldSwedish but, flatfish. Both a and b from Germanic*butt-, name for a flatfish.
7. (BOUTON), BUTT1, BUTTON, BUTTRESS; ABUT, REBUT, SACKBUT, from OldFrench bo(u)ter, to strike, push, from Germanic *buttan.
8. Zero-grade form *bh7- (*bhuN-) with verbal suffix -t7-.
a. CONFUTE, from Latin conf7t7re, to check, suppress,restrain (com-, intensive prefix; see kom);
b. REFUTE, from Latin ref7t7re, to drive back, rebut (re-,back; see re-).
9. Possibly reduced suffixed form *bhu-tu- (*bhNu-). FOOTLE, fromLatin futuere, to have intercourse with (a woman).
[Pokorny 1. bhau- 112.]
bhegw-
Derivatives are: -phobe, -phobia.To run.
4. BECK2, from Old Norse bekkr, a stream, from Germanic *bakjaz,a stream.
5. -PHOBE, -PHOBIA, from Greek phobos, panic, flight, fear, fromphebesthai, to flee in terror.
[Pokorny bheg¯- 116.]
bhei-An important derivative is: bee1.A bee.
BEE1, from Old English bKo, a bee, from Germanic suffixed form *bXon-.
[Pokorny bhei- 116.]
bheid-Important derivatives are: beetle1, bite, bit1, bitter, bait1, boat, fission.To split; with Germanic derivatives referring to biting (hence also to eating and tohunting) and woodworking.
a. BEETLE1, BITE, from Old English bXtan, to bite;
b. TSIMMES, from Old High German bXzan, bizzan, to bite.Both a and b from Germanic *bXtan.
2. Zero-grade form *bhid-.
a. BIT2, from Old English bite, a bite, sting, from Germanic*bitiz;
b. (i) BIT1, from Old English bita, a piece bitten off, morsel;(ii) BITT, from a Germanic source akin to Old Norse biti,bit, crossbeam. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *biton-;
c. suffixed form *bhid-ro-. BITTER, from Old Englishbit(t)er, “biting,” sharp, bitter.
3. O-grade form *bhoid-.
a. BAIT1, from Old Norse beita (verb), to hunt with dogs,and beita (noun), pasture, food;
b. ABET, from Old French beter, to harass with dogs. Both aand b from Germanic *baitjan.
4. BATEAU, BOAT; (BOATSWAIN), from Old English b7t, boat, fromGermanic *bait-, a boat (
5. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhi-n-d-. -FID, FISSI-, (FISSILE),(FISSION), (FISSURE), from Latin findere, to split.
Important derivatives are: bowl1, bulk1, boulevard, boulder, bull1, phallus, ball1,balloon, ballot, bold, fool.To blow, swell; with derivatives referring to various round objects and to thenotion of tumescent masculinity.
3. Zero-grade form bh_-.
a. BOWL1, from Old English bolla, pot, bowl;
b. BOLE, from Old Norse bolr, tree trunk;
c. BULK, from Old Norse bulki, cargo (
d. ROCAMBOLE, from Old High German bolla, ball;
e. (BOULEVARD), BULWARK, from Middle High German bole,beam, plank;
f. BOLL, from Middle Dutch bolle, round object;
g. BILTONG, from Middle Dutch bille, buttock;
h. BOULDER, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedishbullersten, “rounded stone,” boulder, from *buller-,“round object.” a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h all fromGermanic *bul-.
4. Suffixed zero-grade form *bh_-n-.
a. BULL1, from Old Norse boli, bull, from Germanic*bullon-, bull;
b. BULLOCK, from Old English bulluc, bull, from Germanic*bulluka-;
c. PHALLUS; ITHYPHALLIC, from Greek phallos, phallus;
d. FULL2, from Latin fullo, a fuller, possibly from bhel-2.
5. O-grade form *bhol-.
a. BOLLIX, from Old English beallucas, testicles;
b. BALL1, from Old English *beall, ball;
c. BILBERRY, probably from a Scandinavian source akin toDanish bolle, round roll;
d. BALLOON, BALLOT, (BALLOTTEMENT), from Italian dialectalballa, ball;
e. PALL-MALL, from Italian palla, ball;
f. BALE1, from Old French bale, rolled-up bundle. a, b, c,d, e, and f all from Germanic *ball-.
6. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *bhol-to-.
a. BOLD, from Old English bald, beald, bold;
b. BAWD, from Old Low German bald, bold. Both a and bfrom Germanic *balthaz, bold.
7. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-n-. FILS2, FOLLICLE, FOOL;(FOLLICULITIS), from Latin follis, bellows, inflated ball.
8. BALEEN, from Greek phal(l)aina, whale, possibly from bhel-2.
9. PHELLEM; PHELLODERM, PHELLOGEN, from Greek phellos, cork, corkoak, conceivably from bhel-2 (but more likely unrelated).
[Pokorny 3. bhel- 120. (The following derivatives of this root are enteredseparately: bhel-3, bhelgh-, bhleu-.)]
bhel-3
Important derivatives are: foliage, folio, bloom1, blossom, flora, flour, flourish,flower, bleed, blood, bless, blade.To thrive, bloom. Possibly from bhel-2.
a. suffixed form *bhlo-w-. BLOW3, from Old Englishblowan, to flower, from Germanic *blo-w-;
i. BLOOM1, from Old Norse blom, blomi, flower,blossom;
ii. BLOOM2, from Old English bloma, a hammeredingot of iron (semantic development obscure).Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic suffixed form*blo-mon-;
b. BLOSSOM, from Old English blostm, blostma, flower,blossom, from Germanic suffixed form *blo-s-;
c. FERRET2, (FLORA), FLORA, (FLORAL), FLORIATED, FLORID, FLORIN,FLORIST, -FLOROUS, (FLOUR), FLOURISH, FLOWER; (CAULIFLOWER),DEFLOWER, EFFLORESCE, ENFLEURAGE, FLORIGEN, from Latin flos(stem flor-), flower, from Italic suffixed form *flo-s-;
d. suffixed form bhlo-to-;
i. BLEED, BLOOD, from Old English blod, blood;
ii. BLESS, from Old English bloedsian, blKtsian, toconsecrate, from Germanic *blodison, to treat orhallow with blood. Both (i) and (ii) fromGermanic *blo-dam, possibly from bhel-3 in themeaning “swell, gush, spurt.”
2. EMBLEMENTS, from Medieval Latin bl7dum, bladium, produce ofthe land, grain, from Germanic suffixed form *blK-da-.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhlN-to-. BLADE, from Old Englishblæd, leaf, blade, from Germanic *bladaz.
4. BRIGHT, from Old English beorht, bright, from Germanic*berhtaz, bright.
5. “The white tree,” the birch (also the ash).
a. BIRCH, (BIRK), from Old English birc(e), birch, fromGermanic *birkjon-;
b. probably suffixed zero-grade form *bhrag-s-. FRAXINELLA,from Latin fraxinus, ash tree.
[Pokorny bherNg- 139.]
bhergh-1
Important derivatives are: bury, burial, borrow, bargain.
To hide, protect.
a. (see kwel-1) Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg-,“neck-protector,” gorget (*h(w)alsaz, neck);
b. (see sker-1) Germanic compound *skKr-berg-, “sword-protector,” scabbard (*skKr-, sword). Both a and b fromGermanic *bergan.
3. Zero-grade form *bhygh-.
a. BURY, from Old English byrgan, to bury, from Germanic*burgjan;
b. BURIAL, from Old English byrgels, burial, from Germanicderivative *burgisli-.
c. BORROW, from Old English borgian, to borrow, fromGermanic *borgKn, to pledge, lend, borrow;
d. BARGAIN, from Old French bargaignier, to haggle, fromGermanic derivative *borganjan.
[Pokorny bhergh- 145.]
bhergh-2
Important derivatives are: iceberg, bourgeois, burglar, force, fort, comfort, effort,enforce, fortify.High; with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts.
c. BARROW2, from Old English beorg, hill;
d. ICEBERG, from Middle Dutch bergh, mountain. Both aand b from Germanic *bergaz, hill, mountain.
7. (see koro-) Germanic compound *harja-bergaz, “army-hill,”hill-fort (*harjaz, army).
8. BELFRY, from Old French berfroi, tower, from Germaniccompound *berg-frij-, “high place of safety,” tower (*frij-,peace, safety; see prX-).
9. Zero-grade form *bhygh-.
a. BOROUGH, BURG, from Old English burg, burh, byrig,(fortified) town;
b. BURGHER, from Old High German burg, fortress;
c. BURGOMASTER, from Middle Dutch burch, town;
d. BOURG, (BOURGEOIS), BURGESS, BURGLAR; FAUBOURG, from LateLatin burgus, fortified place, and Old French burg,borough. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *burgs, hill-fort.
10. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhygh-to-. FORCE, FORT,(FORTALICE), FORTE1, FORTE2, FORTIS, (FORTISSIMO), FORTITUDE, FORTRESS;COMFORT, DEFORCE, EFFORT, (ENFORCE), FORTIFY, (PIANOFORTE),(REINFORCE), from Latin fortis, strong (but this is also possiblyfrom dher-).
Zero-grade form *bhs-. PSYCHE, PSYCHIC, PSYCHO-; METEMPSYCHOSIS, from GreekpsukhK, spirit, soul, from psukhein (< *bhs-7-kh-), to breathe.
[Pokorny 2. bhes- 146.]
bheudh-Important derivatives are: bid, forbid, bode1, Buddha2.To be aware, to make aware.
c. BID, from Old English bKodan, to proclaim;
d. FORBID, from Old English forbKodan, to forbid;
e. VERBOTEN, from Old High German farbiotan, to forbid.a, b, and c all from Germanic *(for)beudan (*for,before; see per1).
4. BODE1, from Old English bodian, to announce, from boda,
messenger, from Germanic *budon-.
5. BEADLE, from Old English bydel, herald, messenger, and OldHigh German butil, herald, both from Germanic *budilaz,herald.
6. OMBUDSMAN, from Old Norse bodh, command, from Germanic*budam.
7. BUDDHA2; BODHISATTVA, BO TREE, from Sanskrit bodhati, he awakes,is enlightened, becomes aware, and bodhiU, perfect knowledge.
[Pokorny bheudh- 150.]
bheuN-Important derivatives are: be, husband, booth, build, future, neighbor, beam.Also bheu-To be, exist, grow.
III. Extended forms *bhwiy(o)-, *bhwX-.
1. BE, from Old English bKon, to be, from Germanic *biju, I am,will be.
2. FIAT, from Latin fierX, to become.
3. Possibly suffixed form *bhwX-lyo-. (see dhK(i)-) Latin fXlius,son.
IV. Lengthened o-grade form *bhow-.
a. BONDAGE, BOUND4; BUSTLE1, HUSBAND, from Old Norse b7a,to live, prepare, and b7ask, to make oneself ready (-sk,reflexive suffix; see s(w)e-);
b. BAUHAUS, from Old High German b7an, to dwell;
c. BOOTH, from Middle English bothe, market stall, from aScandinavian source akin to Old Danish both, dwelling,stall. a, b, and c all from Germanic *bowan.
V. Zero-grade form *bhu-.
a. BUILD, from Old English byldan, to build, from bold,dwelling, house, from Germanic *buthla;
b. BOODLE, from Middle Dutch bodel, riches, property,from alternate Germanic form *bothla.
3. Suffixed form *bhu-t7-. EISTEDDFOD, from Welsh bod, to be.
4. Suffixed form *bhu-tu-. FUTURE, from Latin fut7rus, “that is tobe,” future.
VI. Zero-grade form *bh7- (< *bhuN-).
a. BOWER1, from Old English b7r, “dwelling space,” bower,room;
b. NEIGHBOR, from Old English geb7r, dweller (ge-,collective prefix; see kom);
c. BOER, BOOR, from Middle Dutch gheboer, ghebuer,peasant. a, b, and c all from Germanic *b7ram, dweller,especially farmer.
2. BYRE, from Old English b«re, stall, hut, from Germanic *b7rjam,dwelling.
3. BYLAW, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse b«r,settlement, from Germanic *b7wi-.
4. Suffixed form *bh7-lo-. PHYLE, PHYLETIC, PHYLUM; PHYLOGENY, fromGreek phulon, tribe, class, race, and phulK, tribe, clan.
VII. Suffixal forms in Latin.
1. (see dwo-) Latin dubius, doubtful, and dubit7re, to doubt,from *du-bhw-io-.
2. (see per1) Latin probus, upright, from *pro-bhw-o-, “growingwell or straightforward.”
3. (see uper) Latin superbus, superior, proud, from *super-bhw-o-, “being above.”
a. BEAM, from Old English bKam, tree, beam;
b. BOOM2, from Middle Dutch boom, tree;
c. BUMPKIN1, from Flemish boom, tree. a, b and c all fromGermanic *baumaz (and *bagmaz), tree (? bheuN-.
[Pokorny bheu- 146.]
bheug-Important derivatives are: bow3, bow2, bog.To bend; with derivatives referring to bent, pliable, or curved objects.
I. Variant form *bheugh- in Germanic *beug-.
a. BEE2, from Old English bKag, a ring;
b. BAGEL, from Old High German boug, a ring. Both a andb from Germanic *baugaz.
c. BOW3, from Old English boga, a bow, arch;
d. (see el-) Germanic compound *alino-bugon-, “bend ofthe forearm,” elbow (*alino-, forearm);
e. BOW1, from a source akin to Middle Low German boog,bow of a boat. a, b, and c all from Germanic *bugon-.
2. BOW2, BUXOM, from Old English b7gan, to bend, from Germanicb7gan.
3. BAIL3, from Middle English beil, a handle, perhaps from OldEnglish *bKgel or from a Scandinavian source akin to OldSwedish *b¯ghil, both from Germanic *baugil-.
4. BIGHT, from Old English byht, a bend, angle, from Germanic*buhtiz.
II. BOG, from Scottish and Irish Gaelic bog, soft, from Celtic *buggo-,“flexible.”
[Pokorny 3. bheug- 152.]
bhlK-Important derivatives are: blow1, bladder, blast, flavor, inflate.Also bhl7-To blow. Possibly identical to bhel-3 II *bhlK- above.
2. BLOW1, from Old English bl7wan, to blow, from Germanicsuffixed form *blK-w-.
a. BLADDER, from Old English bl<dre, blister, bladder;
b. BLATHER, from Old Norse bladhra (noun), bladder, andbladhra (verb), to prattle. Both a and b from Germanicsuffixed form *blKdram, “something blown up.”
c. BLAST, from Old English bl<st, a blowing, blast;
d. ISINGLASS, from Middle Dutch blas(e), a bladder;
e. BLASÈ, BLAZE3, from Middle Dutch bl7sen, to blow up,swell. a, b and c all from Germanic extended form*blKs-.
3. Variant form *bhl7-. FLABELLUM, FLATUS, FLAVOR; AFFLATUS,CONFLATE, (DEFLATE), INFLATE, SOUFFLÈ, from Latin fl7re, to blow.
c. (BRASH2), BRECCIA, from Italian breccia, breccia, rubble,
breach in a wall, from Old High German *brehha, frombrehhan, to break;
d. BRAY2, from Old French breier, to break;
e. BRIOCHE, from Old French brier, dialectal variant ofbroyer, to knead. a, b, c, d, and e all from Germanic*brekan.
1. BRACKEN, (BRAKE4), from Middle English brake(n), bracken, probablyfrom a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *brakni,undergrowth;
a. BRAKE5, from Middle Low German brake, thicket. Both aand b from Germanic *brak-, bushes (
2. BRAKE2, from Middle Low German brake, flax brake, from Germanic*br7k-, crushing instruments.
3. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhy-n-g-. (FRACTED), FRACTION,(FRACTIOUS), FRACTURE, FRAGILE, FRAGMENT, FRAIL1, FRANGIBLE;ANFRACTUOUS, CHAMFER, DEFRAY, DIFFRACTION, (INFRACT), INFRANGIBLE,INFRINGE, OSSIFRAGE, REFRACT, (REFRAIN2), (REFRINGENT), SAXIFRAGE,SEPTIFRAGAL, from Latin frangere, to break.
a. SUFFRAGAN, SUFFRAGE, from Latin suffr7gium, the right tovote, from suffr7g7rX, to vote for (?
b. IRREFRAGABLE, from Latin refr7g7rX, to vote against.
[Pokorny 1. bhreQ- 165.]
bhreu-Important derivatives are: brew, bread, broth, brood, breed, ferment, fervent.To boil, bubble, effervesce, burn; with derivatives referring to cooking andbrewing.
1. BREW, from Old English brKowan, to brew, from Germanic*breuwan, to brew.
2. BREAD, from Old English brKad, piece of food, bread, fromGermanic *braudam, (cooked) food, (leavened) bread.
a. BROTH, from Old English broth, broth;
b. BREWIS, BROIL2, from Vulgar Latin *brodum, broth. Both aand b from Germanic *brudam, broth.
II. Variant form *bhrK-.
a. BROOD, from Old English brod, offspring, brood;
b. BREED, from Old English brKdan, to beget or cherishoffspring, breed, from Germanic denominative*brodjan, to rear young. Both a and b from Germanicderivative *brod-o, “a warming,” hatching, rearing ofyoung.
c. BRATWURST, SAUERBRATEN, from Old High German br7t,br7to, roast meat;
d. BRAWN, from Old French braon, meat. Both a and bfrom Germanic derivative *brKd-on-, roast flesh. Both 1and 2 from Germanic *brKdan, to warm.
e. Variant form *bhres-. BRAISE, BRAZE2, (BRAZIER2), BREEZE2,from Old French brese, burning coal, ember;
f. BRACIOLA, from Italian dialectal bras'a, burning coal.Both a and b from Germanic *bres-.
III. Reduced form *bher-, especially in derivatives referring tofermentation.
a. Suffixed form *bher-men-, yeast. BARM, (BARMY), fromOld English beorma, yeast, from Germanic *bermon-;
b. further suffixed form *bhermen-to-. FERMENT, fromLatin fermentum, yeast.
2. Extended form *bherw-. FERVENT, FERVID, (FERVOR); DEFERVESCENCE,EFFERVESCE, from Latin fervKre, to be boiling or fermenting.
IV. As a very archaic word for a spring.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhru-n(e)n-. BOURN1, BURN2, from OldEnglish burn, burna, spring, stream, from Germanic *brunnon-.
2. Suffixed form *bhrKw-y. PHREATIC, from Greek phrear, spring.
1. BROW, from Old English br7-, eyebrow, eyelid, eyelash, fromGermanic *br7s.
2. Possibly in the sense of a beam of wood, and perhaps a log bridge.BRIDGE1, from Old English brycg(e), bridge, from Germanic *brugjo(with cognates in Celtic and Slavic).
13. Diminutive *dw-en-elo-. BEAU, BEAUTY, BELLE; BELDAM, BELLADONNA,BELVEDERE, EMBELLISH, from Latin bellus, handsome, pretty, fine.
14. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *dw-eye-. (BEATITUDE);BEATIFIC, (BEATIFY), from Latin be7re, to make blessed.
15. Possible (but unlikely for formal and semantic reasons)suffixed zero-grade form *du-nN-. DYNAMIC, (DYNAMITE), DYNAST,(DYNASTY); AERODYNE, from Greek dunasthai, to be able.
[Pokorny 2. deu- 218.]
deuN-Important derivatives are: durable, duration, during.Also dwaN-Long (in duration).
Suffixed zero-grade form *d7-ro- (< *duN-ro-). DURABLE, DURANCE, DURATION,DURING; PERDURABLE, THERMODURIC, from Latin d7r7re, to last.
b. FAÁADE, FACE, (FACET), (FACIAL), FACIES; (DEFACE), EFFACE,
(SURFACE), from Latin derivative faciKs, shape, face (
c. OFFICE, from Latin compound officium (< *opi-fici-om),service, duty, business, performance of work (*opi-,work; see op-);
d. further suffixed form *dhN-k-li-. FACILE, (FACILITATE),FACULTY, DIFFICULTY, from Latin facilis (facul), feasible,easy.
20. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhN-s- (probably identical withzero-grade of dhKs-). NEFARIOUS, from Latin f7s, divine law,right.
21. MULTIFARIOUS, OMNIFARIOUS, from Latin -f7riam, adverbial suffix,as in bif7riam, in two places, parts, double, from *dwi-dh(N)-,“making two” (*dwi-, two; see dwo-).
22. Reduplicated form *dhi-dhN-. THESIS, THETIC; ANATHEMA,ANTITHESIS, DIATHESIS, EPENTHESIS, EPITHET, HYPOTHESIS, METATHESIS,PARENTHESIS, PROSTHESIS, PROTHESIS, SYNTHESIS, from Greek tithenai,to put, with zero-grade noun thesis (*dhN-ti-), a placing, andverbal adjective thetos (*dhN-to-), placed.
23. Suffixed form *dhK-k-. THECA, TICK3; AMPHITHECIUM, APOTHECARY,(APOTHECIUM), BIBLIOTHECA, (BODEGA), (BOUTIQUE), CLEISTOTHECIUM,ENDOTHECIUM, PERITHECIUM, from Greek thKkK, receptacle.
25. Reduplicated form *dhe-dhK-. SANDHI, from Sanskrit dadh7ti, heplaces.
26. Basic form *dhK-. PURDAH, from Old Persian d7-, to place.
27. Suffixed form *dhK-to-, set down, created. (see s(w)e-) OldIranian compound *khvato-d7ta-, created from oneself.
28. Reduced form *dh-. (see au-)
[Pokorny 2. dhK- 235.]
dhK(i)-
Important derivatives are: female, feminine, fawn2, fetus, fennel, affiliate.To suck.
Contracted from *dheN(i)-.
9. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-mn7-. FEMALE, FEMININE; EFFEMINATE,from Latin fKmina, woman (
10. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-to-. FAWN2, (FETAL), FETUS; EFFETE,(FETICIDE), SUPERFETATE, from Latin fKtus, pregnancy,childbearing, offspring, with adjective fKtus, fKta, pregnant.
11. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-kwondo-. FECUND, from LatinfKcundus, fruitful.
12. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-no-. FENNEL, FINOCHIO; (FENUGREEK),SAINFOIN, from Latin fKnum, faenum, hay (< “produce”).
13. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *dhX-lyo- (< *dhiN-lyo-).FILIAL, FILIATE; FILS1; AFFILIATE, HIDALGO, from Latin fXlius, son, andfXlia, daughter (but these are equally possibly from the rootbheuN-).
14. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-lo-. FELLATIO, from Latin fKl7re,fell7re, to suck.
15. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-l-Xk-. FELICITATE, FELICITY; FELICIFIC,INFELICITY, from Latin fKlXx, fruitful, fertile, lucky, happy.
16. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-l7-. ENDOTHELIUM, EPITHELIUM,(MESOTHELIUM), from Greek thKlK, nipple.
17. Suffixed reduced form *dhK-l-u-. THEELIN, from Greek thKlus,female.
6. DAIRY, from Old English d<ge, bread kneader, from Germanic*daigjon-.
7. LADY, from Old English compound hl<fdige, mistress of ahousehold (hl7f, bread, loaf), from Germanic *dXg-.
8. Suffixed o-grade form *dhoigh-o-.
a. DOUGH, from Old English d7g, dough;
b. TEIGLACH, from Old High German teic, dough. Both aand b from Germanic *daigaz.
9. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhigh-7r7. FIGURE; CONFIGURE,DISFIGURE, PREFIGURE, TRANSFIGURE, from Latin fig7ra, form, shape (
10. Nasalized zero-grade form *dhi-n-gh-. (FAINT), FEIGN, (FEINT),FICTILE, FICTION, FIGMENT; EFFIGY, from Latin fingere, to shape.
11. Probable nasalized zero-grade form *dhi-n-g(h)-. THIGMOTAXIS,THIXOTROPY, from Greek thinganein, to touch.
12. Suffixed o-grade form *dhoigh-o-. PARADISE, from AvestandaKza-, wall (originally made of clay or mud bricks).
[Pokorny dheigh- 244.]
dher-Important derivatives are: farm, firm1, confirm, throne.To hold firmly, support.
4. Suffixed form *dher-mo-. FARM, FERMATA, FIRM1, FIRM2,(FIRMAMENT); AFFIRM, CONFIRM, INFIRM, (INFIRMARY), from Latinfirmus, firm, strong.
5. Perhaps extended form *dhergh-. (see bhergh-2) Latin fortis,strong (but this is also possibly from bhergh-2).
6. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhr-ono-. THRONE, from Greekthronos, seat, throne (< “support”).
7. Suffixed form *dher-mi. DHARMA, from Sanskrit dharma,statute, law (
8. Suffixed form *dher-eno-. DHARNA, from Prakrit dharaha, aholding firm.
9. Suffixed o-grade form *dhor-o-. SIRDAR, TAHSILDAR, ZAMINDAR,from Iranian d7ra-, holding, whence Persian -d7r.
[Pokorny 2. dher- 252.]
dhers-An important derivative is: dare.To venture, be bold.
O-grade form *dhors- and zero-grade form *dhys-. DARE, (DURST), from OldEnglish dearr and durst, first and third person singular present and pastindicative of durran, to venture, respectively from Germanic *dors- and *durs-.
[Pokorny dhers- 259.]
dhKs-Important derivatives are: fair2, feast, festival, fanatic, profane, atheism,enthusiasm.Root of words in religious concepts.
Contracted from dheNs-. Possibly an extension of dhK-.
11. Suffixed form *dhKs-y7. FAIR2, FERIA, from Latin fKriae (fKsiae),holidays.
12. Suffixed form *dhKs-to-. FEAST, (-FEST), (FESTAL), FESTIVAL, FESTIVE,(FESTOON), (FETE), (FIESTA); (GABFEST), OKTOBERFEST, from LatinfKstus, festive.
13. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhNs-no-. FANATIC; PROFANE, fromLatin f7num, temple.
14. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhNs-o-. THEO-; APOTHEOSIS, ATHEISM,ENTHUSIASM, PANTHEON, POLYTHEISM, from Greek theos (< *thes-os),god.
[Pokorny dhKs- 259.]
dheu-1
An important derivative is: dew.To flow.
a. DEW, from Old English dKaw, dew;
b. SUNDEW, from Middle Dutch dau, dew;
c. (see melit-) Germanic compound *melith-dauwaz,“honeydew.” a, b, and c all from Germanic *dauwaz,dew.
[Pokorny 1. dheu- 259.]
dheu-2
Important derivatives are: dead, death, die1, dwindle.To die.
1. Suffixed o-grade form *dhou-to-. DEAD, from Old English dKad,dead, from Germanic *daudaz.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *dhou-tu-. DEATH, from Old EnglishdKath, death, from Germanic *dauthuz.
3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhow-yo-. DIE1, from Old Norse deyja,to die.
4. Suffixed extended zero-grade form *dhwX-no-. DWINDLE, fromOld English dwXnan, to diminish, languish, from Germanic*dwXnan.
4. DRIVE, DROVE2, from Old English drXfan, to drive, rush, fromGermanic *drXban.
5. DRIFT, from Middle English drift, drove, herd, akin to Old Norsedrift, snowdrift, and Middle Dutch drift, herd, from Germaniczero-grade suffixed form *driftiz.
1. Extended form *dhreus-. DRIZZLE, from Old English -drysnian(in gedrysnian, to pass away, vanish), from zero-gradeGermanic derived verb *drus-inon.
2. Extended o-grade form *dhrous-.
a. DREARY, from Old English drKor, flowing blood, fromGermanic *drauzaz;
b. DROWSE, from Old English dr7sian, to be sluggish, fromGermanic *dr7sjan.
3. Extended zero-grade form *dhrub-.
a. DROP, from Old English dropa, drop, from Germanic*drupan;
b. DROOP, from Old Norse dr7pa, to hang down, fromGermanic *dr7pon, to let fall;
c. DRIP, from Middle English drippen, to drip, drop, froman unattested Old English *dryppan or another sourceakin to Old English droppa, drop, from Germanicgeminated *drupp-.
4. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhrubh-yo-. LITHOTRIPTER,(LITHOTRITY), from Greek thruptein, to crumble.
[Pokorny dhreu- 274.]
dhughNter-An important derivative is: daughter.Daughter.
DAUGHTER, from Old English dohtor, daughter, from Germanic *dohtKr.
Derivative of a verb *dhuN-, “to close, finish,” probably related to dheu-2,“to die.”
a. DOWN1, DOWN3, from Old English d7n, hill;
b. DUNE, from Middle Dutch d7ne, sandy hill. Both a andb from Germanic *d7naz, possibly from dh7-no-.
3. TOWN, from Old English t7n, enclosed place, homestead, village,from Germanic *t7naz, fortified place, borrowed from Celtic*d7n-o-, hill, stronghold.
Originally an apophonic noun *dhwor, *dhur-, in the plural, designatingthe entrance to the enclosure (*dhwor-o-) surrounding the house proper.
1. Zero-grade form *dhur- in suffixed forms *dhur-is (accusativeplural) and *dhur-o- (neuter). DOOR, from Old English duru,door (feminine, originally plural), and dor, door (neuter),respectively from Germanic *durunz and *duram.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-7ns (accusative plural). FOREIGN,from Latin for7s, (toward) out of doors, outside.
3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-ois (locative plural). FOREST;(AFFOREST), FAUBOURG, FORECLOSE, FORFEIT, from Latin forXs, (being)out of doors.
4. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-o-. FORENSIC, FORUM, from Latinforum, marketplace (originally the enclosed space around ahome).
5. DURBAR, from Old Persian duvara-, door, gate.
6. Zero-grade form *dhur-. THYROID, from Greek thura, door.
a. Zero-grade form *dN-. DADO, DATE1, DATIVE, DATUM, DIE2;ADD, (BETRAY), EDITION, PERDITION, RENDER, (RENT1),(SURRENDER), TRADITION, (TRAITOR), (TREASON), VEND, fromLatin dare, to give;
b. (see 4) Greek dosis, something given.
1. Suffixed form *do-no-. DONATION, (DONATIVE), (DONOR); CONDONE,PARDON, from Latin donum, gift.
2. Suffixed form *do-t(i)-.
a. DOT2, DOWAGER, DOWER, (DOWRY); ENDOW, from Latin dos(genitive dotis), dowry;
b. DACHA, from Russian dacha, gift, dacha, from Slavic*datja;
c. SAMIZDAT, from Russian samizdat, samizdat, from dat',to give.
3. Suffixed form *do-ro-. LOBSTER THERMIDOR, from Greek doron,gift.
4. Reduplicated form *di-do-. DOSE; ANECDOTE, ANTIDOTE, APODOSIS,EPIDOTE, from Greek didonai, to give, with zero-grade noun dosis(< *dN-ti-), something given.
[Pokorny do- 223.]
dus-A derivative is: dys-.Bad, evil; mis- (used as a prefix).
a. TWO, from Old English tw8, two (nominative feminineand neuter);
b. TWAIN, from Old English twKgen, two (nominative andaccusative masculine). Both a and b from Germanic*twa, two.
2. TWELFTH, TWELVE, from Old English twelf, twelve, and twelfta,twelfth, from Germanic compound *twa-lif-, “two left (overfrom ten),” twelve (*-lif-, left; see leikw-).
II. Adverbial form *dwis and combining form *dwi-.
a. TWIBILL, TWILIGHT, from Old English twi-, two;
b. ZWIEBACK, ZWITTERION, from Old High German zwi-,twice. Both a and b from Germanic *twi-.
2. BI-1, BIS; BALANCE, BAROUCHE, BEZEL, BISCUIT, from Latin bis(combining form bi-), twice.
3. DI-1, from Greek dis (combining form di-), twice.
4. TWIST, from Old English -twist, divided object, fork, rope, fromGermanic *twis.
5. TWICE, from Old English twige, twiga, twice, from Germanic*twiyes.
6. TWENTY, from Old English twKntig, twenty, from Germaniccompound *twKgentig, “twice ten” (*-tig, ten; see dekc).
7. TWINE, from Old English twXn, double thread, from Germanic*twXhna, double thread, twisted thread.
8. BETWEEN, BETWIXT, (TWIXT), from Old English betwKonum andbetweox, betwix, between, from Germanic compounds *bi-twXhna and *bi-twisk, “at the middle point of two” (bi, at, by;see ambhi).
9. TWILL, from Old English twilic, woven of double thread, fromGermanic compound *twilic-, “two-threaded fabric.”
10. Suffixed form *dwis-no-.
a. TWIN, from Old English twinn, getwinn, two by two,twin, from Germanic *twisnaz, double;
b. BI-, BINAL, BINARY; COMBINE, from Latin bXnX, two by two,two each.
11. Suffixed form *dwi-ko-. TWIG1, from Old English twigge, abranch, from Germanic *twig(g)a, a fork.
12. Compound *dwi-plo-, twofold (*-plo-, -fold; see pel-2). DIPLO-,DIPLOE, DIPLOID, DIPLOMA; ANADIPLOSIS, from Greek diploos, diplous,twofold.
13. Suffixed reduplicated form *dwi-du-mo-. DIDYMIUM, DIDYMOUS;EPIDIDYMIS, TETRADYMITE, from Greek didumos, double, thetesticles.
14. Suffixed form *dwi-gha. DICHASIUM, DICHO-, from Greek dikha,in two.
III. Inflected form *duwo.
1. DEUCE1, DOZEN, DUAL, DUET, DUO, DUO-; DUODECIMAL, from Latin duo,two.
2. DUAD, DYAD; DODECAGON, HENDIADYS, from Greek duo, duo, two.
IV. Variant form *du-.
1. Compound *du-plo-, twofold (*-plo-, -fold; see pel-2). DOUBLE,(DOUBLET), DOUBLOON, DUPLE, from Latin duplus, double.
2. Compound *du-plek-, twofold (*-plek-, -fold; see plek-).DUPLEX, DUPLICATE, DUPLICITY; CONDUPLICATE, from Latin duplex,double.
3. Suffixed form *du-bhw-io-. DOUBT, DUBIOUS; (REDOUBTABLE), fromLatin dubius, doubtful (dubit7re, to be in doubt.
[Pokorny d¯o(u)- 228.]
ed-Important derivatives are: eat, etch, edible.To eat; original meaning “to bite.” See dent-.
a. EAT, from Old English etan, to eat;
b. ETCH, from Old High German ezzen, to feed on, eat;
c. ORT, from Middle Dutch eten, to eat;
d. FRET1, from Old English fretan, to devour, fromGermanic compound *fra-etan, to eat up (*fra-,completely; see per1). a, b, c, and d all from Germanic*etan.
5. EDACIOUS, EDIBLE, ESCAROLE, ESCULENT, ESURIENT; COMEDO, COMESTIBLE,OBESE, from Latin edere, to eat.
6. PRANDIAL, from Latin compound prandium (syncopated from*pram-ed-ium), “first meal,” lunch (*pram-, first; see per1).
7. Suffixed form *ed-un-7. ANODYNE, PLEURODYNIA, from GreekodunK, pain (
8. SAMOYED, from Russian -ed, eater.
[Pokorny ed- 287.]
egImportant derivatives are: I, ego.I.
Nominative form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. Foroblique forms see me-1.
12. I, from Old English ic, I, from Germanic *ek.
13. Extended form *ego. EGO, (EGOIST), (EGOTISM), from Latin ego, I.
a. EX1, EX-, from Latin ex, ex-, out of, away from;
b. ECTO-, EXO-, EXOTERIC, EXOTIC; ELECTUARY, SYNECDOCHE, fromGreek ex, ek, out of, from.
6. Suffixed (comparative) variant form *eks-tero-. EXTERIOR,EXTERNAL, EXTRA-, STRANGE, from Latin exter, outward (feminineablative exter7, extr7, on the outside).
7. Suffixed (superlative) form. EXTREME, from Latin extrKmus,outermost (*-mo-, superlative suffix).
8. Suffixed form *eghs-ko-. ESCHATOLOGY, from Greek eskhatos,outermost, last.
9. EISTEDDFOD, from Welsh eistedd, sitting, from Celtic *eks-dX-sedo-.
10. SAMIZDAT, from Russian iz, from, out of, from Balto-Slavic *iz.
[Pokorny e´hs 292.]
Kgwh-A derivative is: inebriate.To drink.
Suffixed form *Kgwh-r-yo-.
a. INEBRIATE, from Latin Kbrius, drunk;
b. (see s(w)e-) Latin compound sobrius (sK, without).
1. OUGHT1, OWE, from Old English 7gan, to possess, from Germanic*aigan, to possess.
2. OWN, from Old English 7gen, one's own, from Germanicparticipial form *aiganaz, possessed, owned.
3. FRAUGHT, FREIGHT, from Middle Low German and Middle Dutchvrecht, vracht, “earnings,” hire for a ship, freight, fromGermanic prefixed form *fra-aihtiz, absolute possession,property (*fra-, intensive prefix; see per1).
[Pokorny Kik- 298.]
eis-Important derivatives are: irate, hierarchy, iron.In words denoting passion.
14. Suffixed form *eis-7-. IRASCIBLE, IRATE, IRE, from Latin Xra, anger.
15. Suffixed zero-grade form *is-(N)ro-, powerful, holy. HIERATIC,HIERO-; HIERARCH, (HIERARCHY), HIEROGLYPHIC, HIEROPHANT, fromGreek hieros, “filled with the divine,” holy.
a. IRON, from Old English Xse(r)n, Xren, iron;
b. GISARME, SPIEGELEISEN, from Old High German Xsarn, Xsan,iron. Both a and b from Germanic *Xsarno-, “holymetal” (possibly from Celtic).
7. ADEMPTION, EXAMPLE, (EXEMPLARY), (EXEMPLIFY), (EXEMPLUM),(EXEMPT), (IMPROMPTU), PEREMPTORY, PREEMPTION, PREMIUM, PROMPT,(RANSOM), REDEEM, (REDEMPTION), (SAMPLE), VINTAGE, from Latinemere, to obtain, buy.
8. SUMPTUARY, (SUMPTUOUS); ASSUME, CONSUME, PRESUME, RESUME,SUBSUME, from Latin s7mere (< *sus(e)m-), to take, obtain, buy(sus-, variant of sub-, up from under; see upo).
b. IN1 (adverb), from Old English inn, into, inne, inside;
c. INN, from Old English inn, habitation, inn;
d. TSIMMES, from Old High German in, in;
e. INNER, from Old English innera, farther in, inner, fromGermanic (comparative) *inn(e)ra;
i. BEN, from Old English binnan, within;
ii. BILANDER, from Middle Dutch binnen, within (be,by; see ambhi + innan, in, within). Both (i) and(ii) from Germanic *innan. a, b, c, d, e, and fall from Germanic *in.
2. EN-1, IN-2, from Latin in, in-, in, into.
3. EN-2; ENKEPHALIN, PARENCHYMA, PARENTHESIS, from Greek en, en-.
4. Suffixed form *en-t(e)ro-.
a. INTRO-; INTRODUCE, INTROIT, INTROMIT, INTRORSE, INTROSPECT,from Latin intro, inward, within;
b. ENTER, INTRA-; (INTRADOS), from Latin intr7, inside, within;
c. INTERIM, INTRINSIC, from Latin interim, meanwhile, withablative suffix -im; intrXnsecus, on the inside, fromint(e)rim + secus, alongside (see sekw-1).
6. INTIMA, INTIMATE2, from Latin (superlative) intimus, innermost(*-mo-, superlative suffix).
7. Extended form *en-do.
a. INDUSTRY, from Latin industrius, diligent (*stru-, toconstruct; see ster-2);
b. INDIGENT, from Latin indigKre, to be in need (egKre, to bein need). Both a and b from indu-, within, from OldLatin endo;
c. ENDO-, from Greek endo, endo-, within.
8. Suffixed form *en-tos.
a. DEDANS, INTESTINE, INTINE, INTUSSUSCEPTION, from Latinintus, within, inside;
b. ENTO-, from Greek entos, within.
9. Suffixed form *en-tero-. (ENTERIC), ENTERO-, ENTERON; DYSENTERY,EXENTERATE, MESENTERY, from Greek enteron, intestine.
10. Extended form *ens.
a. EPISODE, from Greek eis, into;
b. suffixed form *ens-o. ESOTERIC, from Greek eso, within.
11. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *i-dha. AND, from OldEnglish and, and, from Germanic *anda, *unda.
[Pokorny 1. en 311.]
epiAn important derivative is: epi-.Also opiNear, at, against.
10. OB-, from Latin ob, ob-, before, to, against.
11. EPI-, from Greek epi, on, over, at.
12. OPISTHOBRANCH, OPISTHOGNATHOUS, from Greek opisthen, behind,at the back.
13. Zero-grade *pi, on. (see sed-) Greek piezein, to press tight.
14. OBLAST, from Russian oblast', oblast, from Old Church Slavonicob, on.
15. Prefix *op- in *op-wer-yo-, to cover over (see wer-4).
[Pokorny epi 323.]
er-1
Important derivatives are: are1, earnest1, orient, origin, original, abort.To move, set in motion.
9. ARE1, ART2, from Old English eart and aron, second personsingular and plural present of bKon, to be, from Germanic *ar-,*or-, *art(a), to be, exist, probably from er-1.
10. EARNEST1, from Old English eornoste, zealous, serious, fromGermanic suffixed form *er-n-os-ti-, perhaps from er-1.
11. Suffixed form *or-yo-. ORIENT, ORIGIN, (ORIGINAL); ABORT, fromLatin orXrX, to arise, appear, be born.
12. Suffixed form *or-sm7-. HORMONE, from Greek hormK, impulse,onrush.
[Pokorny 3. er- 326; ergh- 339.]
er-2
An important derivative is: earth.Earth, ground.
Extended form *ert-.
a. EARTH, from Old English eorthe, earth;
b. AARDVARK, AARDWOLF, from Middle Dutch aerde, eerde,earth. Both a and b from Germanic *ertho.
ers-Important derivatives are: race2, erratic, error.To be in motion.
21. Variant form *rKs-. RACE2, from Old Norse r7s, rushing, fromGermanic *rKs-.
22. Form *ers-7-. ERR, ERRATIC, ERRATUM, ERRONEOUS, ERROR; ABERRATION,from Latin err7re, to wander.
[Pokorny 2. ere-s- 336.]
es-Important derivatives are: am1, is, yes, soothe, sin1, essence, absent, interest, present1,proud.To be.
3. Athematic first person singular form *es-mi. AM1, from OldEnglish eam, eom, am, from Germanic *izm(i).
4. Athematic third person singular form *es-ti. IS, from OldEnglish is, is, from Germanic *ist(i).
5. Optative stem *sX-. YES, from Old English gKse, yes, (gKa, yea; seei- + sXe), from sXe, may it be (so), from Germanic *sijai-.
6. Participial form *sont-, being, existing, hence real, true.
a. SOOTH, SOOTHE, from Old English soth, true, from
Germanic *santhaz;
b. suffixed (collective) zero-grade form *sit-y7, “thatwhich is.” SIN1, from Old English synn, sin, fromGermanic *sun(d)jo, sin (
c. SUTTEE; BODHISATTVA, SATYAGRAHA, from Sanskrit sat-, sant-, existing, true, virtuous.
7. Basic form *es-. ENTITY, ESSENCE; ABSENT, (IMPROVE), INTEREST, OSSIA,PRESENT1, (PRESENT2), PROUD, (QUINTESSENCE), (REPRESENT), from Latinesse, to be.
8. Basic form *es-. -ONT, ONTO-; (-BIONT), HOMOIOUSIAN, PAROUSIA,(SCHIZONT), from Greek einai (present participle ont-, being), tobe (in pareinai, to be present).
9. Suffixed form *es-ti-. SWASTIKA, from Sanskrit sv-as-ti-, “well-being” (see su-).
[Pokorny es- 340. See extension (e)su-.]
(e)su-A derivative is: eu-.Good.
Suffixed form of es-. EU-, from Greek eu-, well, combining form of eus, good.
[Pokorny esu-s 342. See su-.]
eu-1
A derivative is: endue.To dress.
16. ENDUE, from Latin induere, to don (ind-, variant of in-, in, on;see en).
17. EXUVIAE, from Latin exuere, to doff (ex-, off; see eghs).
18. REDUVIID, from Latin reduvia, fragment (red-, back, in reverse;see re-).
9. CALL, from Old Norse kalla, to call, from Germanic expressiveform *kall-.
10. CLATTER, from Old English *clatrian, to clatter, from Germanic*klat-.
11. Expressive form *gall-. GALLINACEOUS, (GALLINULE), from Latingallus, cock (Gallus, Gallic, as if to mean “the bird of Gaul,” thecock being archaeologically attested as an important symbol inthe iconography of Roman and pre-Roman Gaul).
12. Suffixed form *gal-so-. GLASNOST, from a Slavic source akin toOld Church Slavonic glasƒ, voice.
13. Reduplicated form gal-gal-. GLAGOLITIC, from a Slavic sourceakin to Old Church Slavonic glagolƒ, word.
[Pokorny 2. gal- 350.]
g7u-Important derivatives are: gaudy1, joy, enjoy, rejoice.To rejoice; also to have religious fear or awe.
Contracted from *gaNu-.
14. Suffixed form *gau-d-K-. GAUD, (GAUDY1), GAUDY2, JOY; ENJOY,REJOICE, from Latin gaudKre, to rejoice.
15. Form (with nasal infix) *gN-n-u-. GANOID, from Greek ganusthai,to rejoice.
[Pokorny g7u- 353.]
gel-Important derivatives are: chill, cold, cool, jelly, glacier.Cold; to freeze.
11. CHILL, from Old English c(i)ele, chill, from Germanic *kaliz,
coldness.
12. COLD, from Old English ceald, cold, from Germanic *kaldaz,cold.
a. COOL, from Old English col, cold, cool;
b. KEEL3, from Old English cKlan, to cool, from Germanic*koljan, to cool. Both a and b from Germanic *kol-,cool.
13. Suffixed form *gel-7-. GELATIN, GELATION, JELLY; CONGEAL, fromLatin gel7re, to freeze.
14. Suffixed form *gel-u-. GELID, from Latin gel7, frost, cold.
15. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *g_-k-. (GLACÈ), GLACIAL,GLACIATE, GLACIER, GLACIS, from Latin glaciKs, ice.
Suffixed zero-grade form *gcN- o-. GAMETE, GAMO-, -GAMOUS, -GAMY, from Greekgamos, marriage.
[Pokorny ´em(e)- 369.]
genN-Important derivatives are: kin, king, kind1, kind2, gentle, general, generate, genius,engine, genuine, germ, genital, pregnant, nation, native, nature.Also gen-To give birth, beget; with derivatives referring to aspects and results ofprocreation and to familial and tribal groups.
12. Suffixed zero-grade form *gi-yo-.
a. KIN; KINDRED, from Old English cyn(n), race, family, kin;
b. KING, from Old English cyning, king, from Germanic*kuningaz, king. Both a and b from Germanic *kunjam,family.
13. Suffixed zero-grade form *gi-t-.
a. KIND2, from Old English cynd, gecynd(e), origin, birth,race, family, kind, from Germanic *kundjaz, family,race;
b. KIND1, from Old English gecynde, natural, native, fitting(ge-, collective prefix; see kom), from Germanic*kundiz, natural, native;
c. Suffixed form *gi-ti-. GENS, (GENTEEL), (GENTILE), GENTLE;GENDARME, from Latin gKns (stem gent-), race, clan;
d. KINDERGARTEN, KRISS KRINGLE, from Old High Germankind, child, from Germanic secondary full-grade variant*kentham.
14. Suffixed full-grade form *gen-es-.
a. GENDER, GENERAL, GENERATE, (GENERATION), GENERIC,GENEROUS, GENRE, GENUS; CONGENER, DEGENERATE, (ENGENDER),MISCEGENATION, from Latin genus (stem gener-), race,kind;
b. GENE; ALLOGENEIC, GENEALOGY, GENOCIDE, GENOTYPE,HETEROGENEOUS, SYNGENEIC, from Greek genos and genea,race, family;
c. -GEN, -GENY; EPIGENE, from Greek suffix -genKs, “-born.”
15. Suffixed full-grade form *gen-yo-.
a. GENIAL1, GENIUS; (CONGENIAL), from Latin genius,procreative divinity, inborn tutelary spirit, innatequality;
b. ENGINE, INGENIOUS, from Latin ingenium, inborn character(in-, in; see en).
16. Suffixed full-grade form *gen-7-. INDIGEN, (INDIGENOUS), fromLatin indigena, born in (a place), indigenous (indu-, within; seeen).
17. Suffixed full-grade form *genN-wo-. (GENUINE), INGENUOUS, fromLatin ingenuus, born in (a place), native, natural, freeborn (in-,in; see en).
18. Suffixed full-grade form *gen-men-. GERM, GERMAN2, (GERMANE),GERMINAL, GERMINATE, from dissimilated Latin germen, shoot,bud, embryo, germ.
20. Reduplicated form *gi-gn-. GENITAL, GENITIVE, GENITOR, GENT1,(GINGERLY); CONGENITAL, PRIMOGENITOR, PRIMOGENITURE, PROGENITOR,(PROGENY), from Latin gignere (past participle genitus), to beget.
21. Suffixed zero-grade form *-gn-o-. BENIGN, MALIGN, from Latinbenignus, good-natured, kindly (bene, well; see deu-2), andmalignus, evil-natured, malevolent (male, ill; see mel-3).
22. Zero-grade form *giN- becoming *gn7-. PREGNANT1, from Latinpraegn7s, pregnant (prae-, before; see per1).
23. Suffixed zero-grade form *giN-sko- becoming *gn7-sko-. NAIVE,NASCENT, NATAL, NATION, NATIVE, NATURE, NÈE, NO”L; (ADNATE),AGNATE, COGNATE, CONNATE, ENATE, INNATE, NEONATE, PUISNE, (PUNY),RENAISSANCE, from Latin gn7scX, n7scX (present participle n7scKns,past participle gn7tus, n7tus), to be born.
24. Suffixed o-grade form *gon-o-. GONAD, GONO-, -GONY;ARCHEGONIUM, EPIGONE, from Greek gonos (combining form -gonos), child, procreation, seed.
25. Zero-grade form *gi-. (see kwymi-) Sanskrit kxmi-ja-,“produced by worms,” from ja-.
[Pokorny 1. ´en- 373.]
genu-1
Important derivatives are: knee, kneel, diagonal.Knee; also angle.
4. Variant form *gneu-.
a. KNEE, from Old English cnKo, knee, from Germanic*knewam;
b. KNEEL, from Old English cnKowlian, to kneel, fromGermanic *knewljan.
5. Basic form *genu-. GENICULATE, GENUFLECT, from Latin gen7, knee.
6. O-grade form *gonu. POLYGONUM, PYCNOGONID, from Greek gonu,knee.
7. Suffixed variant form *gonw-yN-. -GON, GONION; AMBLYGONITE,DIAGONAL, GONIOMETER, ORTHOGONAL, from Greek gonia, angle,corner.
[Pokorny 1. ´enu- 380.]
genu-2
An important derivative is: chin.Jawbone, chin.
17. Form *genw-. CHIN, from Old English cin(n), chin, fromGermanic *kinnuz.
18. Basic form *genu-. GENIAL2, from Greek genus, jaw, chin.
19. Suffixed variant form *gnN-dho-. GNATHAL, GNATHIC, -GNATHOUS;CHAETOGNATH, from Greek gnathos, jaw.
20. Variant form *g(h)enu-. HANUMAN, from Sanskrit hanu, jaw.
a. CHOOSE, from Old English cKosan, ceosan, to choose,from Germanic *keusan;
b. CHOICE, from a Germanic source akin to Gothic kausjan,to test, taste, from Germanic causative *kausjan.
16. Zero-grade *gus-. (see welN-) Old Norse Valkyrja, “chooser ofthe slain,” Valkyrie (valr, the slain), from Germanic *kur- from*kuz-.
17. Suffixed zero-grade form *gus-tu-.
a. (GUST2), GUSTO; RAGOUT, from Latin gustus, taste;
b. DEGUST, DISGUST, from Latin gust7re, to taste.
[Pokorny ´eus- 399.]
ghabh-Important derivatives are: give, forgive, gift, able, habit, exhibit, inhabit, malady,prohibit, debt, due, duty, endeavor.Also ghebh-To give or receive.
13. Form *ghebh-.
a. GIVE, from Old English giefan, to give, and Old Norsegefa, to give;
b. FORGIVE, from Old English forgi(e)fan, to give, give up,leave off (anger), remit, forgive, from Germaniccompound *far-geban, to give away (*far-, away; seeper1). Both a and b from Germanic *geban.
14. Suffixed form *ghebh-ti-, something given (or received). GIFT,from Old Norse gipt, gift, a gift, from Germanic *giftiz.
15. O-grade form *ghobh-. GAVEL2, from Old English gafol, tribute,tax, debt, from Germanic *gab-ulam, something paid (orreceived).
16. Form *ghabh-K-.
a. ABLE, BINNACLE, HABILE, HABIT, HABITABLE, (HABITANT),(HABITAT); (COHABIT), EXHIBIT, INHABIT, INHIBIT, MALADY,PREBEND, PROHIBIT, (PROVENDER), from Latin habKre, tohold, possess, have, handle ( habit7re, to dwell);
b. DEBENTURE, (DEBIT), DEBT, DEVOIR, DUE, (DUTY); (ENDEAVOR),from Latin dKbKre, to owe (dK-, away from; see de-).
c. GOOSE1; (GOSHAWK), from Old English gos (nominativeplural gKs), goose;
d. GOSLING, from Old Norse g7s, goose;
e. GUNSEL, from Old High German gans, goose;
f. GONZO, from Spanish ganso, goose, from a Germanicsource akin to Old High German gans, goose. a, b, c,and d all from Germanic *gans- (nominative plural*gansiz).
9. GANDER, from Old English ganra, gandra, gander, fromGermanic *gan(d)ron-.
10. GANNET, from Old English ganot, gannet, from Germanic*ganoton-.
11. Suffixed form *ghans-er-. ANSERINE; MERGANSER, from Latin 7nser(< *hanser), goose.
12. Basic form *ghans-. CHENOPOD, from Greek khKn, goose.
[Pokorny ´hans- 412.]
ghK-Important derivatives are: go, ago, heir, heritage, inherit, gait.To release, let go; (in the middle voice) to be released, go.
Contracted from *gheN-.
13. GO; AGO, FOREGO1, FORGO, from Old English g7n, to go, fromGermanic variant form *gaian.
14. Suffixed form *ghK-ro-. HEIR, HEREDITAMENT, HEREDITY, (HERITAGE);INHERIT, from Latin hKrKs, heir (? < “bereft”).
15. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *gho-ro-, “empty space.”
a. CHOROGRAPHY, from Greek khoros, place, country,particular spot;
b. -CHORE; ANCHORITE, from Greek denominative khorein, tomove, go, spread about, make room for;
c. CHORIPETALOUS, from Greek khoris, khori, apart, separate.
16. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghN-t(w)7-.
a. GAIT, GATE2; RUNAGATE, from Old Norse gata, path, street;
b. (GANTLET1), GAUNTLET2, from Old Swedish gata, lane. Botha and b from Germanic *gatwon-, a going.
17. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghN-no-. HINAYANA, from SanskrithXna-, inferior, verbal adjective of jah7ti, he leaves, lets go(*ghe-ghK-ti, *ghe-gheN-ti).
[Pokorny 1. ´hK- 418.]
ghebh-el-Derivatives are: gable, cephalic.Head.
23. GABLE, from Old Norse gafl, gable, from Germanic *gablaz, topof a pitched roof.
24. Form *kephal-, dissimilated from *khephal-. CEPHALIC, CEPHALO-,-CEPHALOUS; ENCEPHALO-, ENKEPHALIN, HYDROCEPHALUS, from GreekkephalK, head.
[Pokorny ghebh-el- 423.]
ghedh-Important derivatives are: good, together, gather.To unite, join, fit.
10. Lengthened o-grade form *ghodh-. GOOD, from Old English god,good, from Germanic *godaz, “fitting, suitable.”
11. TOGETHER, from Old English togædere, together (to, to; see de-),from Germanic *gadurX, “in a body.”
12. GATHER, from Old English gad(e)rian, to gather, from Germanic*gaduron, “to come or bring together.”
[Pokorny ghedh- 423.]
ghei-An important derivative is: hibernate.Theoretical base of *ghyem-, *ghiem-, winter.
19. Form *ghiem-. HIEMAL, from Latin hiems, winter.
20. Suffixed variant form *gheim-ri-no-. HIBERNACULUM, HIBERNATE,from Latin hXbernus, pertaining to winter.
21. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghim-y-yN, “female animal one year(winter) old.” CHIMERA, from Greek khimaira, she-goat.
[Pokorny 2. ´hei- 425.]
ghel-1
Important derivatives are: yell, yelp, nightingale.To call.
a. YELL, from Old English gellan, giellan, to sound, shout;
b. YELP, from Old English gielpan, to boast, exult;
c. NIGHTINGALE, from Old English galan, to sing. a, b, and call from Germanic *gel-, *gal-.
15. Reduplicated form *ghi-ghl-. CICHLID, from Greek kikhlK,thrush, later also the name for a kind of wrasse (a sea fish thathas bright colors and jagged waving fins, reminiscent of theplumage of a bird).
16. CELANDINE, from Greek khelidwon, khelidon, the swallow.
[Pokorny ghel- 428.]
ghel-2
Important derivatives are: yellow, gold, arsenic, gall1, melancholy, gleam, glimpse,glimmer, glitter, glass, glare1, glad, glee, glow, glide.To shine; with derivatives referring to colors, bright materials (probably “yellowmetal”), and bile or gall.
I. Words denoting colors.
1. Suffixed form *ghel-wo-. YELLOW, from Old English geolu,yellow, from Germanic *gelwaz.
2. Suffixed variant form *ghlo-ro-. CHLORO-; CHLORITE1, from Greekkhloros, green, greenish yellow.
3. Suffixed variant form *ghlo-wo-. CHLOASMA, from Greek khloos(< *khlo-wo-s), greenish color.
4. O-grade form *ghol-. PODZOL, from Russian zola, ashes (fromtheir color).
5. Suffixed form *ghel-i-. HARE KRISHNA, from Sanskrit hari-, tawnyyellow.
6. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *gh_-wo-. GRISEOFULVIN, fromLatin fulvus, tawny, perhaps from ghel-2 (with dialectal f- as infel, gall).
II. Words denoting gold.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *gh_-to-.
a. GOLD, from Old English gold, gold;
b. GILD1, from Old English gyldan, to gild, from Germanicdenominative verb *gulthjan;
c. GUILDER, GULDEN, from Middle Dutch gulden, golden;
d. GOWAN, from Middle English gollan, yellow flower,possibly from a source akin to Old Norse gullinn,golden. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *gultham,gold.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-to-. ZLOTY, from Polish zÁoto, gold.
3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-no-. ARSENIC, from SyriaczarnXk7, orpiment, from Middle Iranian *zarnik-, from OldIranian *zarna-, golden.
III. Words denoting bile.
1. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-no-. GALL1, from Old Englishgealla, gall, from Germanic *gallon-, bile.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-7. CHOLE-, CHOLER, (CHOLERA);ACHOLIA, MELANCHOLY, from Greek kholK, bile.
3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-n-. FELON2, from Latin fel, bile.
IV. A range of Germanic words (where no preforms are given, the wordsare late creations).
1. GLEAM, from Old English gl<m, bright light, gleam, fromGermanic *glaimiz.
2. GLIMPSE, from Middle English glimsen, to glimpse, from a sourceakin to Middle High German glimsen, to gleam.
3. GLANCE1, GLINT, from Middle English glent, a glint, and glenten, toshine, from a source akin to Swedish dialectal glinta, to shine.
4. GLIMMER, from Middle English glimeren, to glimmer, from asource akin to Swedish glimra, glimmer.
5. GLITTER, from Old Norse glitra, to shine.
6. GLITZ, from Old High German glXzan, to sparkle.
7. GLISTEN, from Old English glisnian, to shine.
8. GLISTER, from Middle Dutch glinsteren or Middle Low Germanglisteren, to shine.
9. GLASS, GLAZE, (GLAZIER), from Old English glæs, glass, fromGermanic *glasam, glass.
10. GLARE1, from Middle English glaren, to glitter, stare, from asource akin to Middle Low German glaren, to glisten, fromGermanic *glaz-.
11. GLOSS1, from a source perhaps akin to Icelandic glossi, a spark.
12. GLANCE2, from Old High German glanz, bright.
13. GLEG, from Old Norse glˆggr, clear-sighted.
14. GLAD, from Old English glæd, shining, joyful, from Germanic*gladaz.
15. GLEE, from Old English glKo, sport, merriment, from Germanic*gleujam.
a. GLEED, from Old English glKd, ember;
b. GLOGG, from Swedish glˆd, ember. Both a and b fromGermanic *glo-di-.
c. GLOW, from Old English glowan, to glow;
d. GLOWER, from Middle English gloren, to gleam, stare,probably from a source akin to Norwegian dialectalglora, to gleam, stare;
e. GLOAT, from a source perhaps akin to Old Norse glotta,to smile (scornfully). a, b, and c all from Germanic*glo-.
16. GLOAMING, from Old English glom, twilight, from Germanic*glo-m-.
a. GLIDE, from Old English glXdan, to slip, glide;
b. GLISSADE, from Old French glier, to glide;
c. GLITCH, from Old High German glXtan, to glide;
d. GLEDE, from Old English glida, kite (< “gliding, hoveringbird”), from derivative Germanic *glidon-. a, b, c, andd all from Germanic *glXdan, to glide, possibly distantlyrelated to ghel-2.
17. GLIB, from a source possibly akin to Middle Low Germanglibberich, slippery.
b. BEGET, from Old English beg(i)etan, to get, beget, fromGermanic compound *bigetan, to acquire (*bi-,intensive prefix; see ambhi);
c. FORGET, from Old English forg(i)etan, to forget, fromGermanic compound *fer-getan, “to lose one's hold,”forget (*fer-, prefix denoting rejection; see per1). a, b,and c all from Germanic *getan.
18. GUESS, from Middle English gessen, to guess, from aScandinavian source akin to Old Swedish gissa, to guess, fromGermanic *getison, “to try to get,” aim at.
19. Basic form *ghend-. PREHENSILE, PREHENSION, PRISON, PRIZE2, (PRIZE3),(PRY2); APPREHEND, (APPRENTICE), (APPRISE), COMPREHEND, (COMPRISE),EMPRISE, ENTERPRISE, (ENTREPRENEUR), MISPRISION1, PREGNABLE,REPREHEND, (REPRISAL), (REPRISE), SURPRISE, from Latin prendere,prehendere, to get hold of, seize, grasp (pre-, prae-, before; seeper1).
20. Form *ghed-. PREDATORY, PREY, SPREE; DEPREDATE, OSPREY, fromLatin praeda, booty (< *prai-heda, “something seized before”;prai-, prae-, before; see
per1). [Pokorny ghend- 437.]
gher-1
Important derivative are: girdle, yard2, orchard, kindergarten, garden, court,courteous, choir, choral.To grasp, enclose; with derivatives meaning “enclosure.”
13. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghy-dh-.
a. GIRD1, from Old English gyrdan, to gird, from Germanic*gurdjan;
b. GIRDLE, from Old English gyrdel, girdle;
c. GIRTH, from Old Norse gjˆrdh, girdle, girth.
14. Suffixed o-grade form *ghor-to- or (in Germanic) *ghor-dho-,an enclosure.
i. YARD2; ORCHARD, from Old English geard,enclosure, garden, yard;
ii. GARTH, from Old Norse gardhr, garden, yard;
iii. KINDERGARTEN, from Old High German garto,garden;
iv. GARDEN, from Old North French gart, garden;
v. HANGAR, from Old French hangard, shelter,possibly from Germanic *haimgardaz (*haimaz,home; see tkei-);
vi. (see medhyo-) Germanic compound *midja-gardaz, “middle zone,” earth. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv),(v), and (vi) all from Germanic *gardaz;
b. HORTICULTURE, ORTOLAN, from Latin hortus, garden.
15. Prefixed and suffiixed zero-grade form *ko(m)-ghy-ti-(*ko(m)-, collective prefix, “together”; see kom). COHORT,CORTEGE, COURT, (COURTEOUS), COURTESAN, (COURTESY), (COURTIER),(CURTILAGE), (CURTSY), from Latin cohors (stem cohort-), enclosedyard, company of soldiers, multitude.
16. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *ghor-o-. (CHOIR), (CHORAL),(CHORALE), CHORIC, (CHORISTER), CHORUS, HORA; CHORAGUS,TERPSICHORE, from Greek khoros, dancing ground (? perhapsoriginally a special enclosure for dancing), dance, dramaticchorus.
[Pokorny 4. ´her- 442, ´herdh- 444.]
gher-2
Important derivatives are: yearn, greedy, exhort, charisma.To like, want.
10. Suffixed form *gher-n-. YEARN, from Old English giernan,gyrnan, to strive, desire, yearn, from Germanic *gernjan.
11. Possibly extended form *ghrK-.
a. GREEDY, from Old English gr<dig, hungry, covetous,greedy, from Germanic *grKdigaz, hungry, formed from*grKduz, hunger;
b. CATACHRESIS, CHRESARD, CHRESTOMATHY, from Greek
khrKsthai, to lack, want, use, from khrK, it is necessary.
12. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghy-to-. HORTATIVE; EXHORT, fromLatin hort7rX, to urge on, encourage (
15. Suffixed form *gherN-no-. YARN, from Old English gearn, yarn,from Germanic *garno, string.
16. Suffixed form *gherN-n-. HERNIA, from Latin hernia, “protrudedviscus,” rupture, hernia.
17. Suffixed o-grade form *ghorN-d-. (CHORD2), CORD, (CORDON);HARPSICHORD, TETRACHORD, from Greek khordK, gut, string.
18. O-grade form *ghorN-. CHORION, from Greek khorion, intestinalmembrane, afterbirth.
19. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghyN-u-. HARUSPEX, fromLatin haruspex, “he who inspects entrails,” diviner (-spex, “hewho sees” < *spek-, “to see”; see spek-), but perhaps borrowedfrom Etruscan.
[Pokorny 5. ´her- 443.]
gheslo-Important derivatives are: kilo-, mile, million.Seen by some as a base for words meaning “thousand.”
8. Suffixed form *ghesl-yo-. CHILIAD, KILO-, from Greek khilioi,thousand.
9. MIL, MILE, MILLENARY, MILLESIMAL, MILLI-, MILLIARY, MILLIME, MILLION;MILFOIL, MILLENNIUM, MILLEPORE, MILLIPEDE, from Latin mXlle,thousand, which has been analyzed as *smX-, “one” + a form*ghslX-, but is of obscure origin.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ghu-to-, “the invoked,” god.
a. GOD, from Old English god, god;
b. GIDDY, from Old English gydig, gidig, possessed, insane,from Germanic *gud-igaz, possessed by a god;
c. GˆTTERD‰MMERUNG, from Old High German got, god. a,b, and c all from Germanic *gudam, god.
[Pokorny ´hau- 413.]
ghos-ti-Important derivatives are: guest, hostile, hospital, host1, hostage.Stranger, guest, host; properly “someone with whom one has reciprocal duties ofhospitality.”
6. Basic form *ghos-ti-.
a. GUEST, from Old Norse gestr, guest, from Germanic*gastiz;
b. HOST2, HOSTILE, from Latin hostis, enemy (< stranger).
7. Compound *ghos-pot-, *ghos-po(d)-, “guest-master,” one who
symbolizes the relationship of reciprocal obligation (*pot-,master; see poti-). HOSPICE, HOSPITABLE, HOSPITAL, (HOSPITALITY),HOST1, (HOSTAGE), (HOSTEL), (HOSTLER), from Latin hospes (stemhospit-), host, guest, stranger.
8. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghs-en-wo-. XENO-; EUXENITE,PYROXENE, from Greek xenos, guest, host, stranger.
[Pokorny ghosti-s 453.]
ghrK-Important derivatives are: grow, green, grass.To grow, become green.
Contracted from *ghreN-.
12. O-grade form *ghro-. GROW, from Old English growan, to grow,from Germanic *gro(w)an.
13. Suffixed o-grade form *ghro-n-yo-. GREEN, from Old EnglishgrKne, green, from Germanic *gronjaz, green.
14. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghrN-so-. GRASS, GRAZE1, from OldEnglish græs, grass, from Germanic *grasam, grass.
[Pokorny ghrK- 454.]
ghrebh-1
Important derivatives are: grasp, grab1.To seize, reach.
2. Zero-grade form *ghybh-. SATYAGRAHA, from Sanskrit gxbhh7ti,gxhh7ti, he seizes.
a. GRASP, from Middle English graspen, to grasp;
b. GRAB1, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low Germangrabben, to seize. Both a and b from parallel (imitative)Germanic creations with base *grab-, *grap-.
[Pokorny 1 ghrebh- 455.]
ghrebh-2
Important derivatives are: engrave, grave1, grub, groove.To dig, bury, scratch.
7. O-grade form *ghrobh-.
i. GRAVE3, (ENGRAVE), from Old English grafan, todig, engrave, scratch, carve;
ii. GRABEN, from Old High German graban, to dig;
iii. GRAVLAX, from Swedish grava, to bury;
iv. GRAVURE, from Old French graver, to engrave. (i),(ii), (iii), and (iv) all from Germanic *graban;
b. GRAVE1, from Old English græf, trench, grave, fromGermanic *grabam.
8. GRUB, from Old English *grybban, to dig, from Germanic*grub(b)jan (with secondary ablaut).
9. GROOVE, from Middle Dutch groeve, ditch, from Germanic*grobo.
4. GRIND, from Old English grindan, to grind, from Germanic*grindan.
5. GRIST, from Old English grXst, the action of grinding, fromGermanic *grinst-, a grinding.
6. (FRAISE), FRENULUM, FRENUM; REFRAIN1, from Latin frendere, togrind.
7. Variant form *ghrend-. CHONDRO-; HYPOCHONDRIA, MITOCHONDRION,from Greek khondros, granule, groats, hence cartilage,sometimes but improbably regarded as from ghrendh-.
1. CLEAVE1, from Old English clKofan, to split, cleave, fromGermanic *kleuban.
2. Probably o-grade *gloubh-. CLEVER, from Middle English cliver,nimble, skillful, perhaps akin to East Frisian kl¸fer, klifer,skillful, and Old Norse kleyfr, easy to split, from Germanic*klaubri-.
II. Zero-grade form *glubh-.
a. CLOVE2, from Old English clufu, clove (of garlic);
b. KLOOF, from Middle Dutch clove, a cleft;
c. CLEVIS, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norseklofi, a cleft. a, b, and c all from Germanic *klub-, asplitting.
2. CLEFT, from Old English geclyft, fissure, from Germanic *klufti-(*klub-ti-).
3. GLYPH, GLYPTIC; ANAGLYPH, HIEROGLYPHIC, from Greek gluphein, tocarve.
4. Suffixed zero-grade form *glubh-m7-. GLUME, from Latingl7ma, husk of grain.
5. Variant form *gnK-, contracted from *gnKN-. KNOW, from OldEnglish cn7wan, to know, from Germanic *knK(w)-.
6. Zero-grade form *giN-.
a. CAN1, CON2, CUNNING, from Old English cunnan, to know,know how to, be able to, from Germanic *kunnan (OldEnglish first and third singular can from Germanic*kann from o-grade *gonN-);
b. KEN, KENNING, from Old English cennan, to declare, andOld Norse kenna, to know, name (in a formal poeticmetaphor), from Germanic causative verb *kannjan, tomake known;
c. (COUTH); UNCOUTH, from Old English c7th, known, well-known, usual, excellent, familiar, from Germanic*kunthaz;
d. KITH AND KIN, from Old English c«th(the), c«ththu,knowledge, acquaintance, friendship, kinfolk, fromGermanic *kunthitho.
7. Suffixed form *gno-sko-. NOTICE, NOTIFY, NOTION, NOTORIOUS;(ACQUAINT), COGNITION, (COGNIZANCE), (CONNOISSEUR), (QUAINT),RECOGNIZE, from Latin (g)noscere, cognoscere, to get to know, getacquainted with.
8. Suffixed form *gno-ro-. IGNORANT, IGNORE, from Latin ignor7re,not to know, to disregard (i- for in-, not; see ne).
9. Suffixed form *gno-dhli-. NOBLE, from Latin nobilis, knowable,known, famous, noble.
10. Reduplicated and suffixed form *gi-gno-sko-. GNOME2, GNOMON,GNOSIS; AGNOSIA, DIAGNOSIS, PATHOGNOMONIC, PHYSIOGNOMY,PROGNOSIS, from Greek gignoskein, to know, think, judge, withgnosis (< *gno-ti-), knowledge, inquiry, and gnomon, judge,interpreter.
11. Suffixed zero-grade form *giN-ro-. NARRATE, from Latin narr7re(< *gnarr7re), to tell, relate, from gn7rus, knowing, expert.
12. Traditionally but improbably referred here are:
a. NOTE; ANNOTATE, CONNOTE, PROTHONOTARY, from Latin nota,a mark, note, sign, cipher, shorthand character;
b. NORM, NORMA, NORMAL; ABNORMAL, ENORMOUS, from Latinnorma, carpenter's square, rule, pattern, precept,possibly from an Etruscan borrowing of Greek gnomon,carpenter's square, rule.
b. WELCOME, from Old English wilcuma, a welcome guest,and wilcume, the greeting of welcome, from Germaniccompound *wil-kumon-, a desirable guest (*wil-,desirable; see wel-1), from *kumon-, he who comes, aguest;
c. BECOME, from Old English becuman, to become, fromGermanic compound *bi-kuman, to arrive, come to be(*bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi). a, b, and c all fromGermanic *kuman.
1. Suffixed form *gw(e)m-yo-. VENIRE, VENUE; ADVENT, (ADVENTITIOUS),(ADVENTURE), (AVENUE), CIRCUMVENT, CONTRAVENE, CONVENE,(CONVENIENT), (CONVENT), (CONVENTICLE), (CONVENTION), (COVEN),(COVENANT), EVENT, INTERVENE, INVENT, (MISADVENTURE), PARVENU,PREVENIENT, PREVENT, PROVENANCE, (PROVENIENCE), REVENANT, REVENUE,SOUVENIR, SUBVENTION, SUPERVENE, from Latin venXre, to come.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwc-yo-. BASE1, BASIS; ABASIA, ACROBAT,ADIABATIC, AMPHISBAENA, ANABAENA, BATOPHOBIA, (DIABASE), DIABETES,HYPERBATON, KATABATIC, STEREOBATE, STYLOBATE, from Greek bainein,to go, walk, step, with basis (< *gwc-ti-), a stepping, tread, base,-batos (< *gwc-to-), going, and -batKs (< *gwN-to-, zero-grade of*gw7-), agential suffix, “one that goes or treads, one that isbased.”
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *gw(N)-u- in compound form *pres-gwu-, “going before” (see per1).
4. Basic form *gw7-. BEMA, from Greek bKma, step, seat, raisedplatform.
I. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwi-wo-, *gwX-wo- (< *gwiN-wo-), living.
a. QUICK, QUICKSILVER, from Old English cwic, cwicu, living,alive;
b. (COUCH GRASS), QUITCH GRASS, from Old English cwice,couch grass (so named from its rapid growth). Both aand b from Germanic *kwi(k)waz.
c. VIVIFY, VIVIPAROUS, from Latin vXvus, living, alive;
d. VIAND, VICTUAL, VIVA, VIVACIOUS, VIVID; CONVIVIAL, REVIVE,SURVIVE, from Latin denominative vXvere, to live.
2. AZOTH, from Sanskrit jXva-, alive.
3. Further suffixed form *gwX-wo-t7. VIABLE, VITAL; VITAMIN, fromLatin vXta, life.
4. Further suffixed form *gwi-wo-t7t-. USQUEBAUGH, (WHISKEY),from Old Irish bethu, life.
II. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwiN-o-. BIO-, BIOTA, BIOTIC; AEROBE, AMPHIBIAN,ANABIOSIS, CENOBITE, DENDROBIUM, MICROBE, RHIZOBIUM, SAPROBE, SYMBIOSIS,from Greek bios, life ( biotK, way of life).
III. Variant form *gwyo- (< *gwyoN-).
1. AZO-, (DIAZO), from Greek zoK, life.
2. Suffixed form *gwyo-yo-. -ZOIC, ZOO-, ZOON1, -ZOON, from Greekzoon, zoion, living being, animal.
IV. Prefixed and suffixed form *su-gwiN-es-, “having good life” (*su-, well;see su-). HYGIENE, from Greek hugiKs, healthy.
V. QUIVER1, from Old English cwifer-, nimble, possibly from gwei-.
[Pokorny 3. g¯e˜- 467.]
gwelN-Important derivatives are: devil, emblem, metabolism, parable, parliament, parlor,problem, symbol, ball2, ballad, ballet, kill1.Also gwel-To throw, reach, with further meaning to pierce.
I. Words denoting to throw, reach. Variant *gwlK-, contracted from
*gwleN-.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *gw_-n-N-.
a. BALLISTA; AMPHIBOLE, ASTROBLEME, BOLIDE, DEVIL, (DIABOLIC),EMBLEM, EPIBOLY, (HYPERBOLA), HYPERBOLE, METABOLISM,(PALAVER), PARABLE, (PARABOLA), (PARLEY), (PARLIAMENT),(PARLOR), (PAROL), (PAROLE), PROBLEM, SYMBOL, from Greekballein, to throw (with o-grade *bol- and variant *blK-);
b. BALL2, (BALLAD), (BALLET), BAYADERE, from Greek ballizein,to dance.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *gwolN-7. BOLOMETER, from Greek bolK,beam, ray.
3. Possible suffixed o-grade form gwol(N)-s7. BOULE1, ABULIA, fromGreek boulK, determination, will (
a. QUELL, from Old English cwellan, to kill, destroy;
b. QUAIL2, from Middle Dutch quelen, to be ill, suffer. Botha and b from Germanic *kwaljan.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gw_-yo-. KILL1, from Middle Englishkillen, to kill, perhaps from Old English *cyllan, to kill, fromGermanic *kuljan.
3. Full-grade form *gwel-. BELONEPHOBIA, from Greek belonK, needle.
[Pokorny 2. g¯el- 471, 1. g¯el- 470.]
gwen-An important derivative is: queen.Woman.
1. Suffixed form *gwen-7-.
a. QUEAN, from Old English cwene, woman, prostitute,wife, from Germanic *kwenon-;
b. BANSHEE, from Old Irish ben, woman;
c. ZENANA, from Persian zan, woman.
2. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *gwKn-i-. QUEEN, from OldEnglish cwKn, woman, wife, queen, from Germanic *kwKniz,woman, wife, queen.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwi-7-. -GYNE, GYNO-, - GYNOUS, -GYNY;GYNECOCRACY, (GYNECOLOGY), GYNOECIUM, from Greek gunK,woman.
[Pokorny g¯en7 473.]
gwerN-1
Important derivatives are: grave2, grief, aggravate, baritone, guru, brute, blitzkrieg.Heavy.
I. Zero-grade form *gwyN-.
1. Suffixed form *gwyN-u-i-. GRAVE2, GRAVID, GRAVITY, (GRIEF), GRIEVE;AGGRAVATE, (AGGRIEVE), from Latin gravis, heavy, weighty.
2. Suffixed form *gwyN-u-.
a. BARITE, (BARIUM), BARYON, BARYTA; BARITONE, BARYCENTER,BARYSPHERE, CHARIVARI, from Greek barus, heavy;
b. GURU, from Sanskrit guru-, heavy, venerable.
3. Suffixed form *gwyN-es-. BAR2, BARO-; CENTROBARIC, ISALLOBAR,ISOBAR, from Greek baros, weight.
4. Possibly *gwrY-. (see ud-) Greek compound *u(d)-bri- from bri-.
II. Suffixed extended form *gwr7-to-. BRUT, BRUTE, from Latin br7tus,heavy, unwieldy, dull, stupid, brutish.
III. Suffixed extended form gwrX-g-.
a. BRIO, from Spanish brio or ProvenÁal briu, vigor, from
Celtic *brXg-o-, strength;
b. (BRIG), BRIGADE, (BRIGAND), (BRIGANTINE), from Old Italianbriga, strife, from Celtic *brXg-7-, strife;
c. BLITZKRIEG, SITZKRIEG, from Old High German krKg, chrKg,stubbornness, from Germanic *krXg-.
IV. Suffixed full-grade form *gwerN-n7-, millstone. QUERN, from OldEnglish cweorn, quern.
[Pokorny 2. g¯er- 476.]
gwerN-2
Important derivatives are: grace, grateful, gratitude, agree, congratulate, bard1.To favor.
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwyN-to-. GRACE, GRATEFUL, GRATIFY,GRATIS, GRATITUDE, GRATUITOUS, (GRATUITY); AGREE, CONGRATULATE,DISGRACE, INGRATE, INGRATIATE, MAUGRE, from Latin gr7tus, pleasing,beloved, agreeable, favorable, thankful, with related suffixedforms *gwyN-ti-, *gwyN-t-7-, *gwyN-t-olo-.
2. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *gwyN-d(h)o-, “he whopraises.” BARD1, from Welsh bardd and Scottish and Irish Gaelicbard, bard, from Celtic bardo-, bard (but this is possibly fromgwerN-1).
1. Suffixed form *gwhedh-yo-. BID, from Old English biddan, toask, pray, from Germanic *bidjan, to pray, entreat.
2. BEAD, from Old English bed(u), gebed, prayer (ge-, intensive andcollective prefix; see kom), from Germanic *bidam, entreaty.
3. Suffixed form *gwhedh-to-. INFEST, MANIFEST, from Latin -festus,probably in Xnfestus, hostile, (< *i-gwhedh-to-, “inexorable”; *i-, not; see ne), and perhaps in manifestus, caught in the act, red-handed (manus, hand; see man-2).
a. BANE, from Old English bana, slayer, cause of ruin ordestruction;
b. AUTOBAHN, from Middle High German ban, bane, way,road (? a and b from Germanic suffixed form *ban-on-.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwhi-ty7-.
a. GUN, from Old Norse gunnr, war;
b. GONFALON, from Italian gonfalone, standard, fromGermanic compound *gund-fanon-, “battle flag”(*fanon-, flag; see pan-). Both a and b from Germanic*gundjo, war, battle.
3. Suffixed form *gwhen-do-.
a. DEFEND, (DEFENSE), (FENCE), from Latin dKfendere, to ward
off (dK-, away; see de-);
b. OFFEND, (OFFENSE), from Latin offendere, to strike against,be offensive, offend (ob-, against; see epi).
4. Suffixed zero-grade form *gwhi-tro-. BEZOAR, from Persian zahr,poison, from Old Iranian *jathra-.
a. BURN1, from Old English beornan, byrnan (intransitive)and bærnan (transitive), to burn;
b. BRIMSTONE, from late Old English brynst7n, “burningmineral,” sulfur (st7n, stone; see stei-);
c. BRINDLED, from Old Norse brenna, to burn. a, b, and call from Germanic *brennan (intransitive) and brannjan(transitive), formed from *brenw- with nasal suffix andanalogical vocalism.
d. BRAND, from Old English brand, piece of burning wood,sword;
e. BRANDY, from Dutch branden, to burn, distill;
f. BRANDISH, from Old French brand, sword;
g. BRANDADE, from Old ProvenÁal brand, sword. a, b, c,
and d all from Germanic *brandaz, a burning, aflaming torch, hence also a sword.
2. Suffixed form *gwher-mo-. THERM, -THERM, THERMO-, -THERMY;HYPOTHERMIA, from Greek thermos, warm, hot, and thermK, heat.
3. O-grade form *gwhor-. FORCEPS, FORCIPATE, from Latin forceps,pincers, fire tongs (-ceps, agential suffix, “-taker”; see kap-).
4. Suffixed o-grade form *gwhor-no-.
a. FORNAX, FURNACE, HORNITO, from Latin furnus, fornus,forn7x, oven;
b. FORNICATE, FORNIX, from Latin fornix, arch, vault (gwher-.
ii. WHOREDOM, from Old Norse compound hordomr,whoredom (-domr, “condition”; see dhK-). Both(i) and (ii) from Germanic *horaz (feminine*horon-), “one who desires,” adulterer;
b. CARESS, CHARITY, CHERISH, from Latin c7rus, dear.
25. Suffixed form *k7-mo-. KAMA; KAMASUTRA, from Sanksrit k7maU,love, desire.
21. HEN, from Old English hen(n), hen, from Germanic *han(e)nX.
22. CANOROUS, CANT2, CANTABILE, CANTATA, CANTICLE, CANTILLATE, (CANTO),CANTOR, CANZONE, CHANT; ACCENT, DESCANT, ENCHANT, (INCANTATION),INCENTIVE, PRECENTOR, RECANT, from Latin canere, to sing ( cant7re,to sing, frequentative of canere).
23. OSCINE, from Latin oscen, a singing bird used in divination (<*obs-cen, “one that sings before the augurs”; ob-, before; seeepi-).
24. Suffixed form *kan-men-. CHARM, from Latin carmen, song,poem.
18. Lengthened-grade form *kKd-. CEASE, CEDE, CESSION; ABSCESS,ACCEDE, ACCESS, ANCESTOR, ANTECEDE, CONCEDE, (CONCESSION), DECEASE,EXCEED, INTERCEDE, PRECEDE, PREDECESSOR, PROCEED, RECEDE, RETROCEDE,SECEDE, SUCCEED, from Latin cKdere, to go, withdraw, yield.
19. Prefixed and suffixed form *ne-ked-ti-, “(there is) no drawingback” (*ne-, not; see ne). NECESSARY, from Latin necesse,inevitable, unavoidable.
[In Pokorny sed- 884.]
keg-
Important derivatives are: hook, heckle, hack1.Hook, tooth.
a. HAKE, from Old English haca, hook, akin to Old Norsehaki, hook;
b. HARQUEBUS, from Middle Dutch hake, hook. Both a andb from Germanic *hakan-.
c. HOOK, from Old English hoc, hook;
d. HOOKER1, from Middle Dutch hok, hoec, hook;
e. HA?EK, from Old High German h7ko, hook. a, b, and call from Germanic lengthened form *hoka-.
25. HECKLE, from Middle Dutch hekel, hatchel, a flax comb withlong metal hooklike teeth, from Germanic *hakila-.
26. HACK1, from Old English -haccian, to hack to pieces as with ahooked instrument, from Germanic *hakkijan.
[Pokorny keg- 537.]
kei-1
Important derivatives are: city, civic, civil, cemetery.To lie; bed, couch; beloved, dear.
V. Basic form *kei-.
1. Suffixed form *kei-wo-.
a. HIND3, from Old English hXwan, members of ahousehold, from Germanic *hXwa-;
b. HIDE3, from Old English hXgid, hXd, a measure of land (<“household”), from suffixed Germanic form *hXwido.
2. Suffixed form *kei-wi-. CITY, CIVIC, CIVIL, from Latin cXvis, citizen(
3. Suffixed form *kei-liyo-. CEILIDH, from Old Irish cKle,companion.
VI. O-grade form *koi-.
1. Suffixed form *koi-n7. INCUNABULUM, from Latin c7nae, a cradle.
2. Suffixed form *koi-m-7. CEMETERY, from Greek koiman, to putto sleep.
VII. Suffixed zero-grade form *ki-wo-. SHIVA, from Sanskrit {iva-,auspicious, dear.
[Pokorny 1. ˆei- 539.]
kei-2
Important derivatives are: cite, excite, incite, resuscitate, solicitous, kinetic.To set in motion.
I. Possibly extended o-grade from *koid-.
1. HIGHT, from Old English h7tan, to call, summon, order, fromGermanic *haitan.
2. Suffixed form *koid-ti-.
a. HEST, from Old English h<s, a command, a bidding;
b. BEHEST, from Old English compound beh<s, a vow,promise, command (be-, intensive prefix; see ambhi).Both a and b from Germanic *haissiz from *hait-ti-(but Germanic *hait- of 1 and 2 is perhaps to bereferred to a separate root *kaid-).
II. Zero-grade form *ki-. Suffixed iterative form *ki-eyo-. CITE; EXCITE,INCITE, OSCITANCY, RESUSCITATE, SOLICITOUS, from Latin ciKre (past participlecitus), with its frequentative cit7re, to set in motion, summon.
III. Extended root *kyeu-. Nasal infixed form *ki-n-eu-. KINEMATICS, KINESICS,-KINESIS, KINETIC; CINEMATOGRAPH, HYPERKINESIA, KINESIOLOGY, KINESTHESIA,KININ, (TELEKINESIS), from Greek kinein, to move.
[Pokorny kKi- 538.]
kekw-A derivative is: copro-.To excrete.
Suffixed o-grade form *kokw-ro-. COPRO-, from Greek kopros, dung.
1. LOW2, from Old English hlowan, to roar, low, from Germanic*hlo-.
2. Suffixed form *kl7-m7-. CLAIM, CLAMANT, CLAMOR; ACCLAIM,DECLAIM, EXCLAIM, PROCLAIM, RECLAIM, from Latin cl7m7re, to call,cry out.
II. O-grade form *kolN-.
a. KEELHAUL, from Middle Dutch halen, to haul, pull (?
b. HALE2, HAUL, from Old French haler, to haul. Both a andb from Germanic *halon, to call.
III. Zero-grade form *k_N- ( *kal-).
1. Suffixed form *kal-yo-. CONCILIATE, COUNCIL, from Latinconcilium, a meeting, gathering (con-, together; see kom).
2. Suffixed form *kal-end-. CALENDAR, CALENDS, from Latinkalendae, the calends, the first day of the month, when it waspublicly announced on which days the nones and ides of thatmonth would fall.
3. Suffixed form *kal-e-. ECCLESIA, PARACLETE, from Greek kalein(variant klK-), to call.
4. Suffixed form *kal-7-. INTERCALATE, NOMENCLATOR, from Latincal7re, to call, call out.
5. Suffixed form *k_N-ro- or suffixed variant form *klaN-ro-contracted to *kl7-ro-. CLEAR, GLAIR; CHIAROSCURO, CLAIRVOYANT,DECLARE, ÈCLAIR, (ECLAIRCISSEMENT), from Latin cl7rus, bright,clear.
IV. Possibly extended zero-grade form *k_d-, becoming *klad- in suffixedform *klad-ti-. CLASS, from Latin classis, summons, division of citizensfor military draft, hence army, fleet, also class in general.
[Pokorny 6. kel- 548.]
ken-An important derivative is: recent.Fresh, new, young.
15. Suffixed form *ken-t-. RECENT, from Latin recKns, young, fresh,new (re-, again; see re-).
16. Suffixed zero-grade form *ki-yo-. -CENE; CAINOTOPHOBIA,CENOZOIC, KAINITE, from Greek kainos, new, fresh.
1. Suffixed form *ker-es-. CEREAL, CERES, from Latin CerKs, goddessof agriculture, especially the growth of grain.
2. Extended form *krK- (< *kreN-).
a. suffixed form *krK-y7-. CREATE, CREOLE; PROCREATE, fromLatin cre7re, to bring forth, create, produce (
b. suffixed form *krK-sko-. CRESCENDO, CRESCENT, CREW1;ACCRUE, (CONCRESCENCE), CONCRETE, DECREASE, EXCRESCENCE,INCREASE, RECRUIT, from Latin crKscere, to grow, increase.
3. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-wo-, “growing,” adolescent.DIOSCURI, HYPOCORISM, from Greek kouros, koros, boy, son, andkorK, girl.
4. Compound *sc-kKro-, “of one growth” (*sc-, same, one; seesem-1). SINCERE, from Latin sincKrus, pure, clean.
[Pokorny 2. ˆer- 577.]
ker-3
Important derivatives are: hearth, carbon, cremate, ceramic.Heat, fire.
4. Suffixed form *ker-t7. HEARTH, from Old English heorth, hearth,from Germanic *hertho.
5. Zero-grade form *ky-.
a. CARBON, CARBUNCLE, from Latin carbo, charcoal, ember;
b. extended form *krem-. CREMATE, from Latin crem7re, toburn.
6. Possibly suffixed and extended form *kerN-mo-. CERAMIC, fromGreek keramos, potter's clay, earthenware.
7. Possibly variant extended form *kr7s-. CRASH2, from Russiankrasit', to color.
9. Suffixed form *kerd-en-. HEART, from Old English heorte, heart,from Germanic *herton-.
10. Zero-grade form *kyd-.
a. CORDATE, CORDIAL, COURAGE, QUARRY1; ACCORD, CONCORD,CORDIFORM, DISCORD, MISERICORD, RECORD, from Latin cor(stem cord-), heart;
b. suffixed form *kyd-y7-. CARDIA, CARDIAC, CARDIO-;ENDOCARDIUM, EPICARDIUM, MEGALOCARDIA, MYOCARDIUM,PERICARDIUM, from Greek kardia, heart, stomach, orifice.
11. Possibly *kred-dhN-, “to place trust” (an old religious term;*dhN-, to do, place; see dhK-). CREDENCE, CREDIBLE, CREDIT, CREDO,CREDULOUS, GRANT; MISCREANT, RECREANT, from Latin crKdere, tobelieve.
III. Extended form *kleus-. LEER, from Old English hlKor, cheek (< “ear”),from Germanic *hleuza-.
IV. Zero-grade form *klu-.
1. LIST4, from Old English hlystan, to listen, from Germanic*hlustjan.
2. LISTEN, from Old English hlysnan, to listen, from Germanic*hlusinon.
3. Suffixed lengthened form *kl7-to-.
a. LOUD, from Old English hl7d, loud;
b. ABLAUT, UMLAUT, from Old High German hl7t, sound.Both a and b from Germanic *hl7daz, “heard,” loud.
V. Full-grade form *kleu-.
1. Suffixed form *klew-yo-. CLIO, from Greek kleiein, to praise,tell.
2. Suffixed form *klew-es-. HERCULES, from Latin HerculKs, fromGreek HKraklKs, HKrakleKs.
3. Suffixed form *kleu-to-. SAROD, from Old Iranian srauta-.
[Pokorny 1. ˆleu- 605.]
ko-Important derivatives are: he1, him, his, her, it, here, hence, et cetera.Stem of demonstrative pronoun meaning “this.”
I. Variant form *ki-.
a. HE1, from Old English hK, he;
b. HIM, from Old English him, him (dative of hK);
c. HIS, from Old English his, his (genitive of hK);
d. HER, from Old English hire, her (dative and genitive ofheo, she);
e. IT, from Old English hit, it (neuter of hK);
f. HERE, from Old English hKr, here;
g. HENCE, from Old English heonane, heonon, from here. a,b, c, d, e, f, and g all from Germanic *hi-,
2. Suffixed form *ki-tro-. HITHER, from Old English hider, hither,from Germanic *hi-thra-.
3. Suffixed form *ki-s. CIS-, from Latin cis, on this side of.
II. Variant form *ke-.
1. Preposed in *ke-etero- (*e-tero-, a second time, again; see i-). ET
CETERA, from Latin cKterus (neuter plural cKtera), the other part,that which remains.
2. (see nu-) Postposed in Latin -ce.
3. BEHIND, HIND1, from Old English behindan, in the rear, behind(bi, at; see ambhi).
4. HINTERLAND, from Old High German hintar, behind.
5. HINDER1, from Old English hindrian, to check, hinder, fromGermanic derivative verb *hindron, to keep back. 1, 2, and 3 allfrom Germanic root *hind-, behind, attributed by some to this
root (but more likely of obscure origin).
[Pokorny 1. ko- 609.]
ko-An important derivative is: cone.To sharpen, whet.
Contracted from *koN-.
2. Suffixed extended form *koNi-no-. HONE1, from Old Englishh7n, stone, from Germanic *haino.
6. ENOUGH, GEMOT, HANDIWORK, YCLEPT; WITENAGEMOT, from OldEnglish ge-, with, also participial, collective, and intensiveprefix, from Germanic *ga-, together, with (collective andintensive prefix and marker of the past participle).
7. CUM; COONCAN, from Latin cum, co-, with.
8. (CO-), COM-, from Old Latin com, with (collective and intensiveprefix).
9. (see merg-) British Celtic *kombrogos, fellow countryman,from Celtic *kom-, collective prefix.
10. Suffixed form *kom-tr7. (CON1), CONTRA-, CONTRARY, (COUNTER1),COUNTER-, COUNTRY; ENCOUNTER, from Latin contr7, against,opposite.
b. HANKER, from Dutch (dialectal) hankeren, to long for;
c. HINGE, from Middle English he(e)ng, hinge, hinge,possibly related (ultimately from the base of OldEnglish hangian, to hang). a, b, and c all fromGermanic *hanhan (transitive), hangKn (intransitive),hang.
1. Suffixed form *konk-t-7-. CUNCTATION, from Latin c7nct7rX, todelay.
5. ARRIËRE-BAN, from Old French herban, a summoning to militaryservice (ban, proclamation, summons; see bh7-2).
a. HARBOR, from Old English herebeorg, lodging;
b. HARBINGER, from Old French herberge, lodging. Both aand b from Germanic compound *harja-bergaz, “armyhill,” hill-fort, later shelter, lodging, army quarters(*bergaz, hill; see bhergh-2).
6. HERALD, from Anglo-Norman herald, from Germaniccompound *harja-waldaz, “army commander” (*wald-, rule,power; see wal-).
7. HARNESS, from Old French harneis, harness, from Germaniccompound *harja-nestam, “army provisions” (*nestam, foodfor a journey; see nes- 1). 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 all from Germanic*harjaz, army.
III. HARRY, from Old English hergian, to ravage, plunder, raid, fromGermanic denominative *harjon.
IV. HARANGUE, from Old Italian aringo, arringa, public square, fromGermanic compound *harihring, assembly, “host-ring” (*hringaz, ring;see sker-2).
a. suffixed form *krei-tro-. RIDDLE1, from Old English
hridder, hriddel, sieve, from Germanic *hridra-, a sieve;
b. suffixed form *krei-dhro-. CRIBRIFORM, GARBLE, from LatincrXbrum, a sieve.
5. Suffixed form *krei-men-.
a. CRIME, (CRIMINAL); RECRIMINATE, from Latin crXmen,judgment, crime;
b. DISCRIMINATE, from Latin discrXmen, distinction (dis-,apart).
6. Suffixed zero-grade form *kri-no- (participial form *kri-to-).CERTAIN; CONCERN, DECREE, DISCERN, (EXCREMENT), EXCRETE,(INCERTITUDE), RECREMENT, SECERN, SECRET, from Latin cernere(perfect crKvX; past participle crKtus), to sift, separate, decide.
7. Suffixed zero-grade form *kri-n-yo-. CRISIS, CRITIC, CRITERION;APOCRINE, DIACRITIC, ECCRINE, ENDOCRINE, EPICRITIC, EXOCRINE,HEMATOCRIT, HYPOCRISY, from Greek krinein, to separate, decide,judge ( krinesthai, to explain).
Suffixed o- grade form *kwoi-n7. PAIN, PENAL, (PENALTY), PINE2, PUNISH; IMPUNITY,PENOLOGY, (PUNITORY), (REPINE), SUBPOENA, from Greek poinK, fine, penalty.
[Pokorny k¯ei-(t-) 636.]
kwei-2
Important derivatives are: cheetah, poem, poet.To pile up, build, make.
O-grade form *kwoi-.
a. CHEETAH, from Sanskrit k7yaU, body;
b. suffixed form *kwoi-wo-, making, in denominative verb*kwoiw-eyo-. POEM, POESY, POET, POETIC, -POIESIS, -POIETIC;EPOPEE, MYTHOPOEIC, ONOMATOPOEIA, PHARMACOPOEIA,PROSOPOPEIA, from Greek poiein, to make, create.
3. CHAKRA, CHUKKER, from Sanskrit cakram, circle, wheel.
4. Metathesized form *kwe-lkw-o-. CHARKHA, from Old Persian*carka-.
IV. O-grade form *kwol-.
1. Suffixed form *kwol-so-, “that on which the head turns,” neck.
i. HAWSE, from Old Norse h7ls, neck, ship's bow;
ii. RINGHALS, from Middle Dutch hals, neck;
iii. HAUBERK, from Old French hauberc, hauberk,from Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg-,“neck-protector,” gorget (*bergan, to protect;see bhergh-1). (i), (ii), and (iii) all fromGermanic *h(w)alsaz;
b. COL, COLLAR, COLLET, CULLET; ACCOLADE, DECOLLATE1,DÈCOLLETÈ, MACHICOLATE, (MACHICOLATION), TORTICOLLIS,from Latin collum, neck.
2. Suffixed form *kwol-7. -COLOUS; PRATINCOLE, from Latin -cola andincola, inhabitant (in-, in; see en).
3. Suffixed form *kwol-o-.
a. ANCILLARY, from Latin anculus, “he who bustles about,”servant (an-, short for ambi-, around, about; seeambhi);
b. POLE1, PULLEY, from Greek polos, axis of a sphere;
c. BUCOLIC, from Greek boukolos, cowherd, from -kolos,herdsman.
4. Suffixed form *kwol-es- (probably a blend of o-grade *kwol-o-and expected e-grade *kwel-es-). CALASH, KOLACKY, from Slavickolo, koles-, wheel.
5. Suffixed o-grade form *kwol-eno-. (see wes-3) Old Iranian*vah7-carana-, “sale-traffic,” from *carana-, trade, traffic.
6. Suffixed zero-grade form *kw_-i-. PALIMPSEST, PALINDROME,PALINGENESIS, PALINODE, from Greek palin, again (< “revolving”).
[Pokorny 1. k¯el- 639.]
kwel-2
Derivatives are: tele-, paleo-.Far (in space and time).
7. Lengthened-grade form *kwKl-. TELE-, from Greek tKle, far off.
8. Suffixed zero-grade form *kw_-ai. PALEO-, from Greek palai, longago.
a. CASCARA, SCUTCH, SQUASH2; CONCUSS, DISCUSS, PERCUSS, RESCUE,SUCCUSSION, from Latin quatere (past participle quassus,in composition -cussus), to shake, strike;
a. WHO, WHOSE, WHOM, from Old English hw7, hwæs, hw<m,who, whose, whom, from Germanic personal pronouns*hwas, *hwasa, *hwam;
b. WHAT, from Old English hwæt, what, from Germanicpronoun *hwat;
c. WHY, from Old English hw«, why, from Germanicadverb *hwX;
d. WHICH, from Old English hwilc, hwelc, which, fromGermanic relative pronoun *hwa-lXk- (*lXk-, body,form; see lXk-);
e. HOW, from Old English h7, how, from Germanic adverb*hwo;
i. WHEN, from Old English hwenne, hwanne, when;
ii. WHENCE, from Old English hwanon, whence.Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic adverb *hwan-;
f. WHITHER, from Old English hwider, whither, fromGermanic adverb *hwithrK;
g. WHERE, from Old English hw<r, where, from Germanicadverb *hwar-. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h all fromGermanic *hwa-, *hwi-.
h. WHETHER; NEITHER, from Old English hwæther, hwether,which of two, whether;
i. EITHER, from Old English <ghwæther, <ther, either, fromGermanic phrase *aiwo gihwatharaz, “ever each of two”(*aiwo, *aiwi, ever; see aiw-; *gi- from *ga-, collectiveprefix; see kom). Both a and b from Germanic
*hwatharaz.
1. QUA, QUIBBLE, QUORUM, from Latin quX (genitive plural quorum),who.
2. HIDALGO, QUIDDITY, QUIDNUNC, QUIP, from Latin quid, what,something.
3. QUASI, from Latin quasi, as if (quam + sX, if; see swo-), fromquam, as, than, how.
4. QUODLIBET, from Latin quod, what.
5. QUOTE, QUOTIDIAN, QUOTIENT; ALIQUOT, from Latin quot, how many.
6. QUONDAM, from Latin quom, when.
7. COONCAN, from Latin quem, whom.
8. QUANTITY, from Latin quantus, how great.
9. QUALITY, from Latin qu7lis, of what kind.
10. CUE2, from Latin quando, when (from *kw7m + -do, to, til; seede-).
11. NEUTER, from Latin uter, either of two.
12. ALIBI, UBIQUITY, from Latin ubi, where, and ibi, there.
13. CHEESE3, from Old Persian *ci≥-ciy, something (< *kwid-kwid).
Rhyme word to *wymi-, worm (see wer-2). (CRIMSON), KERMES, from Arabicqirmiz, kermes, borrowed from Sanskrit compound kxmi-ja-, “(red dye)produced by worms” (ja-, produced; see genN-), from kxmi-, worm.
[Pokorny k¯ymi- 649.]
laks-A derivative is: lox1.Salmon.
Suffixed form *laks-o-.
a. LOX1, from Old High German lahs, salmon;
b. GRAVLAX, from Swedish lax, salmon. Both a and b fromGermanic *lahsaz.
[Pokorny lak- 653.]
las-Important derivatives are: lust, wanderlust, lascivious.To be eager, wanton, or unruly.
a. LUST, from Old English lust, lust;
b. WANDERLUST, from Old High German lust, desire;
c. LIST5, from Old English lystan, to please, satisfy a desire,from Germanic denominative verb *lustjan. a, b, and call from suffixed Germanic zero-grade form *lustuz.
18. Suffixed form *las-ko-. LASCIVIOUS, from Latin lascXvus, wanton,lustful.
[Pokorny las- 654.]
lau-An important derivative is: lucrative.Gain, profit.
16. Suffixed form *lau-no-. GUERDON, from Old High German lon,reward from Germanic *launam.
17. Suffixed zero-grade form *lu-tlo-. LUCRATIVE, LUCRE, from Latinlucrum, gain, profit.
[Pokorny l7u- 655.]
lK-Important derivatives are: let1, liege, late, latter, last1, alas, lenient.To let go, slacken. Contracted from *leN-.
V. Extended form *lKd-.
a. LET1, from Old English l<tan, to allow, leave undone,from Germanic *lKtan;
b. LIEGE, from Late Latin laetus, semifree colonist, fromGermanic derivative *lKthigaz, freed.
2. Zero-grade form *lNd-.
a. LATE, LATTER, LAST1, from Old English læt, late, with itscomparative lætra, latter, and its superlative latost, last,from Germanic *lataz;
b. LET2, from Old English lettan, to hinder, impede (*latjan;
c. suffixed form *lNd-to-. LASSITUDE; ALAS, from Latin lassus,tired, weary.
VI. Suffixed basic form *lK-ni-. LENIENT, LENIS, LENITIVE, LENITY, from LatinlKnis, soft, gentle.
[Pokorny 3. lK(i)- 666.]
leb-Important derivatives are: lip, labial.Lip.
27. LIP, from Old English lippa, lip, from Germanic *lep-.
28. Variant form *lab-.
a. suffixed form *lab-yo-. LABIAL, LABIUM, from Latinlabium, lip;
b. suffixed form *lab-ro-. LABELLUM, LABRET, LABRUM, fromLatin labrum, lip.
Suffixed o-grade form *loid-o-. LUDIC, LUDICROUS; ALLUDE, COLLUDE, DELUDE, ELUDE,ILLUSION, INTERLUDE, PRELUDE, PROLUSION, from Latin l7dus, game, play, with itsderivative l7dere, to play (but both words may possibly be from Etruscan).
a. LORN, (LOSEL), from Old English -lKosan, to lose;
i. FORLORN, from Old English forlKosan, to forfeit,lose;
ii. FORLORN HOPE, from Dutch verliezen (pastparticiple verloren), to lose. Both (i) and (ii)from Germanic *fer-leusan, *far-leusan (*fer-,*far-, prefix denoting rejection or exclusion; seeper1). Both a and b from Germanic *leusan.
b. LEASING, -LESS, from Old English lKas, “loose,” free from,without, untrue, lacking;
c. LOSE, (LOSS), from Old English los, loss;
d. LOOSE, from Old Norse lauss, louss, loose;
e. LOESS, from German dialectal lˆsch, loose. a, b, c, and dall from Germanic *lausaz.
IX. Basic form *leu-.
1. LAG2, probably from a source akin to Swedish lagg, barrel stave(*lawwo.
2. Zero-grade form *lu-.
a. LYO-, LYSIS, LYSO-, -LYTE, (LYTIC), -LYTIC; ANALYSIS, CATALYSIS,DIALYSIS, LYASE, PARALYSIS, TACHYLYTE, from Greek luein, toloosen, release, untie;
b. LUES, from Latin luKs, plague, pestilence (< “dissolution,putrefaction”);
c. prefixed form *se-lu- (se-, apart; see s(w)e-). SOLUBLE,SOLUTE, SOLVE; ABSOLUTE, (ABSOLVE), ASSOIL, CONSOLUTE,DISSOLVE, RESOLVE, from Latin solvere, to loosen, untie.
IV. Suffixed form *leubh-o-. LIEF; LEMAN, LIVELONG, from Old English lKof,dear, beloved, from Germanic *leubaz.
V. O-grade form *loubh-.
a. LEAVE2, from Old English lKaf, permission (< “pleasure,approval”);
b. FURLOUGH, from Middle Dutch verlof, leave, permission(ver-, intensive prefix, from Germanic *fer-; see per1);
c. BELIEF, from Old English gelKafa, belief, faith (bi-, about;see ambhi), from Germanic *galaubo (*ga-, intensiveprefix; see kom). a, b, and c all from Germanic *laubo.
2. BELIEVE, from Old English gelKfan, belKfan, to believe, trust (be-,about; see ambhi), from Germanic *galaubjan, “to hold dear,”esteem, trust (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom).
VI. Zero-grade form *lubh-.
1. Suffixed form *lubh-7-. LOVE, from Old English lufu, love,from Germanic *lubo.
2. Suffixed (stative) form *lubh-K-. QUODLIBET, from Latin libKre, tobe dear, be pleasing.
1. Basic form *leudh-. LANDSLEIT, from Old High German liut,person, people, from Germanic *liud-i-.
2. Suffixed form *leudh-ero-. LIBERAL, LIBERATE, LIBERTINE, LIBERTY,LIVERY; DELIVER, from Latin lXber, free (the precise semanticdevelopment is obscure).
b. LIGHTNING, from Old English lXhtan, to shine, fromGermanic *leuht-jan, to make light. Both a and b fromGermanic *leuhtam.
2. Unsuffixed form *leuk-. LUCINA, LUCULENT, LUX; LUCIFER,(LUCIFERIN), from Latin l7x, light.
3. Suffixed form *leuk-smen-. LIMN, LUMEN, LUMINARY, LUMINOUS;ILLUMINATE, PHILLUMENIST, from Latin l7men, light, opening.
4. Suffixed form *leuk-sn7-. LUNA, LUNAR, LUNATE, LUNATIC, LUNE,LUNULA; SUBLUNARY, from Latin l7na, moon.
5. Suffixed form *leuk-stro-.
a. LUSTER, (LUSTRUM), from Latin l7strum, purification;
b. ILLUSTRATE, from Latin l7str7re, to purify, illuminate.
6. Suffixed form *leuko-dhro-. LUCUBRATE, from Latin l7cubr7re, towork by lamplight.
7. Suffixed form *leuk-o-. LEUKO-, from Greek leukos, clear, white.
VI. O-grade form *louk-.
1. Suffixed form *louk-o-.
a. LEA, from Old English lKah, meadow (*lauhaz;
b. LEVIN, from Middle English levin, lightning, fromGermanic *lauh-ubni-.
2. Suffixed (iterative) form *louk-eyo-. LUCENT, LUCID; ELUCIDATE,NOCTILUCA, PELLUCID, RELUCENT, TRANSLUCENT, from Latin l7cKre, toshine.
VII. Zero-grade form *luk-.
1. Suffixed form *luk-sno-. LINK2, LYCHNIS, from Greek lukhnos,lamp.
2. LYNX, OUNCE2, from Greek lunx, lynx (as if from its shining eyes),attributed by some to this root (but more likely of obscureorigin).
[Pokorny leuk- 687.]
lXk-The following entry is not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since it isrepresented in only one branch of the family. Important derivatives are: -ly1, -ly2,
iii. MAQUILLAGE, from Middle Dutch maken, to make.(i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic verb*makon, to fashion, fit;
b. MATCH1, from Old English gemæcca, mate, spouse, fromGermanic compound noun *ga-mak-(j)on-, “one whois fitted with (another)” (*ga-, with, together; see kom).Both a and b from Germanic *mak-.
a. MINGLE, from Old English mengan, to mix;
b. AMONG, MONGREL, from Old English gemang, mixture,crowd (ge-, together; see kom). Both a and b fromGermanic nasalized form *mangjan, to knead together.
1. Suffixed form *mak-yo-. MAGMA, from Greek magma, unguent,from massein (aorist stem mag-), to knead.
2. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *m7g-ya-. MASS; (AMASS),MAZAEDIUM, from Greek maza, a (kneaded) lump, barley cake.
3. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *m7k-ero-. MACERATE, fromLatin m7cer7re, to tenderize, to soften (food) by steeping.
[Pokorny ma´- 696, 2. m7k- 698, men(N)k- 730.]
magh-Important derivatives are: may1, dismay, might1, main, machine, mechanic, magic.To be able, have power.
a. MAY1, from Old English magan, to be able;
b. DISMAY, from Old French esmaier, to frighten. Both a
and b from Germanic *magan, to be able.
1. MIGHT1, from Old English miht, power, from Germanic suffixedform *mah-ti-, power.
2. MAIN, from Old English mægen, power, from Germanic suffixedform *mag-inam, power.
1. Zero-grade form *mNk- becoming *mak- in suffixed form*mak-ro-.
a. MEAGER; EMACIATE, from Latin macer, thin;
b. MACRO-, MACRON; AMPHIMACER, from Greek makros, long,large.
2. Suffixed form *m7k-es-. MECOPTERAN, PARAMECIUM, from GreekmKkos, length.
[Pokorny m7k- 699.]
man-1
Important derivatives are: man, Norman1, mannequin, ombudsman.Also mon-Man.
1. Extended forms *manu-, *manw-.
a. MAN; NORMAN, from Old English man(n) (plural menn),man;
b. FUGLEMAN, LANDSMAN2, from Old High German man, man;
c. MANIKIN, (MANNEQUIN), from Middle Dutch man, man;
d. NORMAN1, OMBUDSMAN, from Old Norse madhr, mannr,man;
e. ALEMANNI, possibly from Germanic *Ala-manniz, tribalname (< *“all men”: *ala-, all; see al-3). a, b, c, d, ande all from Germanic *manna- (plural *manniz).
2. MENSCH, from Old High German mennisco, human, fromGermanic adjective *manniska-, human.
3. MUZHIK, from Russian muzh, man, male, from Slavic suffixedform *mon-gyo-.
2. Suffixed form *man-ko-, maimed in the hand. MANQUÈ, fromLatin mancus, maimed, defective.
3. EMANCIPATE, from Latin compound manceps, “he who takes bythe hand,” purchaser (-ceps, agential suffix, “taker”; see kap-).
4. MANDAMUS, MANDATE; COMMAND, (COMMANDO), COMMEND,COUNTERMAND, DEMAND, (RECOMMEND), REMAND, from Latincompound mand7re, “to put into someone's hand,” entrust,order (-dere, to put; see dhK-).
[Pokorny mN-r 740.]
marko-An important derivative is: mare1.Horse.
MARE1, from Old English mere, miere, mare, from Germanic feminine*marhjon-.
Based ultimately on the baby-talk form m7-2, with the kinship term suffix*-ter-.
a. MOTHER1, from Old English modor, mother;
b. MOTHER2, from Middle Dutch moeder, mother. Both aand b from Germanic *modar-.
1. MATER, MATERNAL, MATERNITY, (MATRICULATE), MATRIX, MATRON;MADREPORE, MATRIMONY, from Latin m7ter, mother.
2. METRO-; METROPOLIS, from Greek mKtKr, mother.
3. MATERIAL, MATTER, from Latin m7teriKs, m7teria, tree trunk (<“matrix,” the tree's source of growth), hence hard timber usedin carpentry, hence (by a calque on Greek hulK, wood, matter)substance, stuff, matter.
4. DEMETER, from Greek compound DKmKtKr, name of the goddessof produce, especially cereal crops (dK-, possibly meaning“earth”).
[Pokorny m7ter- 700.]
me-1
Important derivatives are: me, myself, mine2, my.Oblique form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular.
For the nominative see eg.
1. ME, MYSELF, from Old English mL (dative and accusative), fromGermanic *mL-.
2. Possessive adjective *mei-no-.
a. MINE2, MY, from Old English mXn, my;
b. MYNHEER, from Middle Dutch mijn, my. Both a and bfrom Germanic *mXn-.
3. Possessive adjective *me-yo-. MADAME, MONSIEUR, from Latinmeus, mine.
4. Genitive form *me-wo. MAVOURNEEN, from Old Irish mo, my.
[Pokorny 1. me- 702.]
me-2
Derivatives are: midwife, meta-.In the middle of.
1. Suffixed form *me-dhi. MIDWIFE, from Old English mid, among,with, from Germanic *mid-.
2. Suffixed form *me-ta. META-, from Greek meta, between, with,beside, after.
[Pokorny 2. me- 702.] See also medhyo-.
mK-1
Important derivatives are: mood1, moral, morale, morose.Expressing certain qualities of mind.
Contracted from *meN-.
1. Suffixed o-grade form *mo-to-.
i. MOOD1, from Old English mod, mind,disposition;
ii. GEM¸TLICH, (GEM¸TLICHKEIT); BISMUTH, from OldHigh German muot, mind, spirit. Both (i) and(ii) from Germanic *mothaz.
2. MORAL, (MORALE), MORES, MOROSE, from Latin mos (< *mo-s-),wont, humor, manner, custom, perhaps from mK-1.
[Pokorny 5. mK- 704.]
mK-2
Important derivatives are: meal2, piecemeal, measure, dimension, immense, meter1,diameter, geometry, moon, Monday, month, menopause, menstruate, semester.To measure. Contracted from *meN-.
I. Basic form mK-.
1. Suffixed form *mK-lo-. MEAL2; PIECEMEAL, from Old English m<l,“measure, mark, appointed time, time for eating, meal,” fromGermanic *mKlaz.
2. Suffixed form *mK-ti-.
a. MEASURE, (MENSURAL); (COMMENSURATE), DIMENSION, IMMENSE,from Latin mKtXrX, to measure;
b. METIS, from Greek mKtis, wisdom, skill.
3. METER1, METER2, (METER3), -METER, METRICAL, -METRY; DIAMETER,GEOMETRY, ISOMETRIC, METROLOGY, METRONOME, SYMMETRY, fromGreek metron, measure, rule, length, proportion, poetic meter,possibly from mK-2 (but this is referred by some to med-).
II. Extended and suffixed forms *mKn-, *mKn-en-, *mKn-ot-, *mKn-s-,moon, month (an ancient and universal unit of time measured by themoon).
1. MOON; (MONDAY), from Old English mona, moon, fromGermanic *mKnon-.
2. MONTH, from Old English monath, month, from Germanic*mKnoth-.
4. Suffixed o-grade form *mod-yo-. MODIOLUS, MUTCHKIN, fromLatin modius, a measure of grain.
5. Possibly lengthened o-grade form *mod-.
a. MOTE2, MUST1, from Old English motan, to have occasion,to be permitted or obliged;
b. EMPTY, from Old English <metta, rest, leisure, fromGermanic compound *K-mot-ja- (prefix *K-, meaninguncertain, from Indo-European *K, *o, to). Both a andb from Germanic *mot-, ability, leisure.
[Pokorny 1. med- 705.]
medhu-Important derivatives are: mead1, amethyst.Honey; also mead.
1. MEAD1, from Old English meodu, mead, from Germanic *medu.
b. MIDDLE, from Old English middel, middle, from WestGermanic diminutive form *middila-;
c. MIDGARD, from Old Norse Midhgardhr, Midgard, fromGermanic compound *midja-gardaz, “middle zone,”name of the earth conceived as an intermediate zonelying between heaven and hell (*gardaz, enclosure, yard;see gher-1). a, b, and c all from Germanic *midja-.
1. MEAN3, MEDIAL, MEDIAN, MEDIASTINUM, MEDIATE, MEDIUM, MIZZEN,MOIETY, MULLION; INTERMEDIATE, MEDIEVAL, MEDIOCRE, MEDITERRANEAN,MERIDIAN, MILIEU, from Latin medius, middle, half.
a. MICKLE, MUCH, from Old English micel, mycel, great;
b. MICKLE, from Old Norse mikill. Both a and b fromGermanic suffixed form *mik-ila-.
1. Suffixed form *mag-no-. MAGNATE, MAGNITUDE, MAGNUM;MAGNANIMOUS, MAGNIFIC, (MAGNIFICENT), (MAGNIFICO), (MAGNIFY),MAGNILOQUENT, from Latin magnus, great.
2. Suffixed (comparative) form *mag-yos-.
a. MAJOR, MAJOR-DOMO, MAJORITY, MAJUSCULE, MAYOR, fromLatin m7ior, greater;
b. MAESTOSO, MAJESTY, from Latin m7iest7s, greatness,authority;
c. MAESTRO, MAGISTERIAL, MAGISTRAL, MAGISTRATE, MASTER,(MISTER), MISTRAL, (MISTRESS), from Latin magister, master,
high official (
3. Suffixed (superlative) form *mag-samo-. MAXIM, MAXIMUM, fromLatin maximus, greatest.
4. Suffixed (feminine) form *mag-ya-, “she who is great.” MAY,from Latin Maia, name of a goddess.
5. Suffixed form *meg-N-(l-). MEGA-, MEGALO-; ACROMEGALY,ALMAGEST, OMEGA, from Greek megas (stem megal-), great.
6. Variant form *megh- (< *meg-N-). MAHARAJAH, MAHARANI,MAHARISHI, MAHATMA, MAHAYANA, from Sanskrit mah7-, mahat-,great.
[Pokorny me´(h)- 708.]
mei-1
Important derivatives are: permeate, mad, molt, mutate, commute, mutual, mis-1,amiss, mistake, miss1, common, communicate, communism, municipal, remunerate,immune, amoeba, migrate, emigrate.To change, go, move; with derivatives referring to the exchange of goods andservices within a society as regulated by custom or law.
1. MEATUS; CONGÈ, IRREMEABLE, PERMEATE, from Latin me7re, to go,pass.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-to-.
a. MAD, from Old English *gem<dan, to make insane orfoolish, from Germanic *ga-maid-jan, denominativefrom *ga-maid-az, “changed (for the worse),”abnormal (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom);
b. MEW1, MOLT, MUTATE; COMMUTE, PERMUTE, REMUDA,TRANSMUTE, from Latin m7t7re, to change;
c. MUTUAL, from Latin m7tuus, “done in exchange,”borrowed, reciprocal, mutual.
3. Suffixed extended zero-grade form *mit-to-.
a. MIS-1, from Old English mis-, mis-, and Old French mes-(from Frankish *miss-);
b. AMISS, MISTAKE, from Old Norse mis(s), mis(s)-, miss,mis-;
c. MISS1, from Old English missan, to miss, from Germanic*missjan, to go wrong. a, b, and c all from Germanic*missa-, “in a changed manner,” abnormally, wrongly.
4. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-n- in compound adjective *ko-moin-i-, “held in common” (*ko-, together; see kom).
a. MEAN2, (DEMEAN2), from Old English gem<ne, common,public, general, from Germanic *gamainiz;
b. COMMON, (COMMUNE1), COMMUNE2, COMMUNICATE,(COMMUNISM), from Latin comm7nis, common, public,general.
5. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-n-es-.
a. MUNICIPAL, MUNIFICENT, REMUNERATE, from Latin m7nus,“service performed for the community,” duty, work,“public spectacle paid for by a magistrate,” gift;
b. IMMUNE, from Latin imm7nis, exempt from publicservice (in-, negative prefix; see ne).
6. Extended form *(N)meigw-.
a. AMOEBA, from Greek ameibein, to change;
b. MIGRATE; EMIGRATE, from Latin migr7re, to change one'splace of living.
b. MIZZLE1, from Middle English misellen, to drizzle, from asource perhaps akin to Dutch dialectal mieselen, todrizzle;
c. (MISSEL THRUSH), MISTLETOE, from Old English mistel,mistletoe, from Germanic diminutive form *mihst-ila-,mistletoe (which is propagated through the droppingsof the missel thrush). a, b, and c all from Germanicsuffixed form *mih-stu-, urine, hence mist, fine rain.
1. Suffixed form *migh-tu-. MICTURATE, from Latin micturXre, towant to urinate (desiderative of meiere, to urinate).
1. MOAN, from Old English *m7n, opinion, complaint, fromGermanic *main-.
2. MEAN1; BEMOAN, from Old English m<nan, to signify, tell,complain of, moan, from Germanic *mainjan.
[Pokorny mei-no- 714.]
mel-1
Important derivatives are: melt, malt, mollify, mollusk, bland, smelt1, enamel, mild,mulch.Soft; with derivatives referring to soft or softened materials of various kinds.
I. Extended form *meld-.
1. MELT, from Old English meltan, to melt, from Germanic*meltan.
2. MILT, from Old English milte, spleen, and Middle Dutch milte,milt, from Germanic *miltja-, possibly from mel-1.
3. MALT, from Old English mealt, malt, from Germanic *malta-,possibly from mel-1.
4. Suffixed variant form *mled-sno-. BLENNY, from Greek blennos,slime, also a name for the blenny.
5. Suffixed zero-grade form *m_d-wi-. MOIL, MOLLIFY, MOLLUSK,(MOUILLÈ); EMOLLIENT, from Latin mollis, soft.
a. SMELT1, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low Germansmelten, to smelt;
b. SCHMALTZ, from Old High German smalz, animal fat;
c. SMALT, from Italian smalto, enamel, glaze;
d. ENAMEL, from Old French esmail, enamel;
e. SMELT2, from Old English smelt, smylt, a marine fish,smelt, perhaps from mel-1. a, b, c, d, and e all fromGermanic *smelt-.
III. Extended form *meldh-.
1. MILD, from Old English milde, mild, from Germanic *mildja-.
2. MALTHA, from Greek maltha, a mixture of wax and pitch,possibly from mel-1.
IV. Suffixed form *mel-sko-. MULCH, from Old English mel(i)sc, mylsc,mild, mellow, from Germanic *mil-sk-.
V. Extended form *m_Nk-. BONANZA, CHONDROMALACIA, MALACOLOGY,OSTEOMALACIA, from Greek malakos, soft.
VI. MUTTON, from Old French moton, sheep, from Celtic *molto-, sheep,possibly from mel-1.
VII. Suffixed zero-grade form *(N)ml-u-. AMBLYGONITE, AMBLYOPIA, fromGreek amblus, blunt, dull, dim.
[Pokorny 1. mel- 716.]
mel-2
Important derivatives are: ameliorate, multi-, multitude.Strong, great.
1. Suffixed (comparative) form *mel-yos-. (AMELIORATE), MELIORATE,MELIORISM, from Latin melior, better.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *m_-to-. MOLTO, MULTI-, MULTITUDE,from Latin multus, much, many.
[Pokorny 4. mel- 720.]
mel-3
Important derivatives are: mal-, malice, malign, dismal, malady, malefactor,malevolent.Bad.
MAL-, MALICE, (MALIGN); DISMAL, MALADY, MALARIA, MALEDICT, MALEFACTOR, MALEFIC,MALENTENDU, MALEVOLENCE, MALVERSATION, from Latin malus, bad, and male, ill (malignus, harmful).
[Pokorny mKlo- 724.]
melN-Important derivatives are: maelstrom, meal1, mill1, immolate, millet, malleable,mallet, maul.Also mel-To crush, grind; with derivatives referring to various ground orcrumbling substances (such as flour) and to instruments for grinding or crushing(such as millstones).
1. O-grade form *mol-. MAELSTROM, from Middle Dutch malen, towhirl, from Germanic *mal-.
2. Full-grade form *mel-. MEAL1, from Old English melu, flour,meal, from Germanic suffixed form *mel-wa-.
3. Zero-grade form *m_-. MOLD3, (MOLDER), from Old Englishmolde, soil, from Germanic suffixed form *mul-do.
4. Full-grade form *mel-.
a. MILL1, MOLA2, MOLAR2, MOLE4, (MOULIN); EMOLUMENT,IMMOLATE, ORMOLU, from Latin molere, to grind (grain),and its derivative mola, a millstone, mill, coarse mealcustomarily sprinkled on sacrificial animals;
b. possible suffixed form *mel-iyo-. MEALIE, MILIUM, MILLET,from Latin milium, millet.
5. Suffixed variant form *mal-ni-. MALLEABLE, (MALLET), MALLEUS,MAUL; PALL-MALL, from Latin malleus, hammer, mallet.
6. Zero-grade form *m_-. AMYLUM, MYLONITE, from Greek mulK,mulos, millstone, mill.
7. Possibly extended form *mlX-. BLIN, BLINTZ, from Old Russianblinƒ, pancake.
[Pokorny 1. mel- 716.]
melg-Important derivatives are: emulsion, milk, galaxy, lacto-, lettuce.To rub off; also to milk.
1. Zero-grade form *m_g-. EMULSION, from Latin mulgKre, to milk.
2. Full-grade form *melg-.
a. MILK, from Old English meolc, milc, milk;
b. MILCH, from Old English -milce, milch, from Germanicsuffixed form *meluk-ja-, giving milk;
c. MILCHIG, from Old High German miluh, milk. a, b, andc all from Germanic *melkan, to milk, contaminatedwith an unrelated noun for milk, cognate with theGreek and Latin forms given in II below, to form theblend *meluk-.
II. Included here to mark the unexplained fact that no common Indo-European noun for milk can be reconstructed is another root *g(a)lag-, *g(a)lakt-, milk, found only in:
a. (GALACTIC), GALACTO-, GALAXY; AGALACTIA, POLYGALA, fromGreek gala (stem galakt-), milk;
b. (LACTATE), LACTEAL, LACTESCENT, LACTO-, LETTUCE, from Latinlac (stem lact-), milk;
c. the blended Germanic form cited in I. 2. above.
1. HYDROMEL, MARMALADE, MELILOT, OENOMEL, from Greek meli, honey.
a. MELLIFEROUS, MELLIFLUOUS, MOLASSES, from Latin mel (stemmell-), honey, from *meld-, syncopated from *melid-;
b. suffixed zero-grade form *m_d-to-, “honied.” MOUSSE,from Latin mulsus, honey-sweet.
2. MILDEW, from Old English mildKaw, honeydew, nectar, fromGermanic compound *melith-dauwaz, honeydew (a substancesecreted by aphids on leaves; it was formerly imagined to bedistilled from the air like dew; *dauwaz, dew; see dheu-1),from *melith-.
[Pokorny melit- 723.]
men-1
Important derivatives are: mind, mental, mention, automatic, memento, comment,reminiscent, mania, mandarin, mint1, money, monitor, monster, monument, muster,admonish, demonstrate, premonition, summon, mosaic, Muse, museum, music,amnesia, amnesty.To think; with derivatives referring to various qualities and states of mind andthought.
I. Zero-grade form *mi-.
1. Suffixed form *mi-ti-.
a. MIND, from Old English gemynd, memory, mind, fromGermanic *ga-mundi- (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom);
b. MENTAL1; AMENT2, DEMENT, from Latin mKns (stem ment-),mind;
c. MENTION, from Latin mentio, remembrance, mention.
2. Suffixed form *mi-to-. AUTOMATIC, from Greek -matos,“willing.”
3. Suffixed form *mi-yo-.
a. MAENAD, from Greek mainesthai, to be mad;
b. AHRIMAN, from Avestan mainiiu≥, spirit.
II. Full-grade form *men-.
1. Suffixed form *men-ti-.
a. MINNESINGER, from Old High German minna, love;
b. MINIKIN, from Middle Dutch minne, love. Both a and bfrom Germanic *minthjo.
a. MEMENTO, from Latin reduplicated form meminisse, toremember;
b. COMMENT, from Latin comminXscX, to contrive by thought(com-, intensive prefix; see kom);
c. REMINISCENT, from Latin reminXscX, to recall, recollect (re-,again, back; see re-);
d. MINERVA, from Latin Minerva, name of the goddess ofwisdom, possibly from men-1.
a. MENTOR, from Greek Mentor, Mentor, man's name(probably meaning “adviser”);
b. MANIA, MANIAC, MANIC, from Greek mania, madness;
c. -MANCY, MANTIC, MANTIS, from Greek mantis, seer.
2. MANDARIN, MANTRA, from Sanskrit mantraU, counsel, prayer,hymn.
III. O-grade form *mon-.
1. Suffixed (causative) form *mon-eyo-. MONISH, MONITION,MONITOR, MONSTER, MONUMENT, MUSTER; ADMONISH, DEMONSTRATE,PREMONITION, SUMMON, from Latin monKre, to remind, warn,advise.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-twN. MOSAIC, MUSE, MUSEUM, MUSIC,from Greek Mousa, a Muse.
IV. Extended form *mn7-, contracted from *mnaN-.
1. AMNESIA, AMNESTY, ANAMNESIS, from Greek reduplicated formmimnKskein, to remember.
2. MNEMONIC, from Greek mnKmon, mindful.
V. Indo-European verb phrase *mens dhK-, “to set mind” (see dhK-),underlying compound *mis-dhK-. AHURA MAZDA, (ORMAZD), fromAvestan mazd7-, wise.
3. EMINENT, IMMINENT, PROMINENT, (PROMONTORY), from Latin -minKre,to project, jut, threaten.
4. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-ti-. MONS, (MONTAGNARD), MONTANE,MONTE, MONTICULE, MOUNT1, MOUNT2, MOUNTAIN; AMOUNT,ULTRAMONTANE, from Latin mons (stem mont-), mountain.
[Pokorny 1. men- 726, 2. menth- 732.]
men-3
Important derivatives are: manor, mansion, mÈnage, permanent, remain.To remain.
Variant suffixed (stative) form *man-K-. MANOR, MANSE, MANSION, (MÈNAGE);IMMANENT, PERMANENT, REMAIN, from Latin manKre, to remain.
[Pokorny 5. men- 729.]
men-4
Important derivatives are: monastery, monk, mono-, minnow.Small, isolated.
1. MANOMETER, from Greek manos, rare, sparse.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-wo-. MONAD, MONASTERY, MONK,MONO-; PSEUDOMONAD, from Greek monos, alone, single, sole.
3. Possibly also suffixed form *men-i-, a small fish. MINNOW, fromMiddle English meneu, a small fish, from a source akin to OldEnglish myne, mynwe, minnow.
1. NIGHTMARE, from Old English mare, mære, goblin, incubus, fromGermanic *maron-, goblin.
2. MARASMUS; AMARANTH, from Greek marainein, to waste away,wither.
3. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *my- to-, “ground down.”MORTAR, from Latin mort7rium, mortar.
4. Possibly extended root *merd-. MORDACIOUS, MORDANT, MORDENT,MORSEL; PREMORSE, REMORSE, from Latin mordKre, to bite.
5. Possibly suffixed form *mor-bho-. MORBID, from Latin morbus,disease (but this is more likely of unknown origin).
II. Possibly the same root, but more likely distinct, is *mer-, “to die,” withderivatives referring to death and to human beings as subject to death.
1. Zero-grade form *my-.
a. suffixed form *my-tro-. MURDER, from Old Englishmorthor, murder, from Germanic suffixed form *mur-thra-;
b. suffixed form *my-ti-. MORT1, MORTAL; AMORTIZE, MORTIFY,POSTMORTEM, from Latin mors (stem mort-), death;
c. suffixed form *my-yo-. MORIBUND, MORTUARY, MURRAIN,MORTGAGE, (MORTMAIN), from Latin morX, to die, withirregular past participle mortuus (< *my-two-),replacing older *my-to- (for which see d);
d. prefixed and suffixed form *i-my-to-, “undying,immortal.” (*i-, negative prefix; see ne).
i. IMMORTAL, from Latin immort7lis;
ii. AMBROSIA, from Greek ambrotos, immortal,divine (a- + -mbrotos, brotos, mortal);
iii. AMRITA, from Sanskrit amxtam, immortality (a- +mxta-, dead).
2. Suffixed o-grade form *mor-t-yo-. MANTICORE, from Greekmantikhoras (corrupted from martiokhoras), manticore,probably from Iranian compound *martiya-khv7ra-, “man-eater” (*khv7ra-, eating; see swel-), from Old Persian martiya-, a mortal man.
a. MARK1, from Old English mearc, boundary, landmark,sign, trace;
b. MARGRAVE, from Middle Dutch marc, border;
c. MARCH2, (MARQUEE), MARQUIS, (MARQUISE), from Old Frenchmarc, marche, border country;
d. MARCHESE, MARCHIONESS, from Medieval Latin marca,boundary, border;
e. DEMARCATION, from Old Italian marcare, to mark out;
f. MARK2, from Old English marc, a mark of weight ormoney;
g. MARKKA, from Swedish mark, a mark of money. a, b, c,
d, e, f, and g all from Germanic *mark-, boundary,border territory; also to mark out a boundary bywalking around it (ceremonially “beating the bounds”);also a landmark, boundary marker, and a mark ingeneral (and in particular a mark on a metal currency
bar, hence a unit of currency); these various meaningsare widely represented in Germanic descendants and inRomance borrowings.
1. MARQUETRY; REMARK, from Old Norse merki, a mark, fromGermanic *markja-, mark, border.
2. MARC, MARCH1, from Frankish *markon, to mark out, fromGermanic denominative verb *markon.
3. MARGIN; EMARGINATE, from Latin margo, border, edge.
4. Celtic variant form *mrog-, territory, land. CYMRY, from WelshCymro, Wales, from British Celtic *kombrogos, fellowcountryman (*kom-, collective prefix; see kom), from -brogos,district.
I. Suffixed form *mregh-w-i-. BRIEF, BRUMAL; ABBREVIATE, (ABRIDGE), fromLatin brevis, short.
II. Zero-grade form *myghu-.
a. MERRY, from Old English myrge, mirige, pleasant;
b. MIRTH, from Old English myrgth, pleasure, joy, fromGermanic *murgitho, pleasantness. Both a and b fromGermanic *murgja-, short, also pleasant, joyful.
2. BRACHY-; AMPHIBRACH, TRIBRACH, from Greek brakhus, short.
3. BRACE, BRACERO, BRACHIUM, BRASSARD, BRASSIERE, PRETZEL; (EMBRACE),from Greek comparative brakhion, shorter, hence also “upperarm” (as opposed to the longer forearm).
[Pokorny mreghu- 750.]
m7s-Important derivatives are: mouse, muscle.A mouse; also a muscle (from the resemblance of a flexing muscle to themovements of a mouse).
1. MOUSE, from Old English m7s (plural m«s), mouse, from
Germanic *m7s- (plural *m7siz).
1. MURINE, MUSCLE, MUSTELINE, from Latin m7s, mouse.
a. NAUGHT, (NAUGHTY), NEITHER, NEVER, NILL, NO1, NO2, NONE,(NOR1), (NOT), (NOTHING), from Old English ne, not, andn7, no;
b. NAY, from Old Norse ne, not;
c. NIX2, from Old High German ne, ni, not. a, b, and c allfrom Germanic *ne-, *na-.
5. ANNUL, NEFARIOUS, NESCIENCE, NEUTER, (NICE), NULL, NULLIFY,NULLIPARA, from Latin ne-, not, and n7llus, none (ne- + 7llus,any; see oi-no-).
6. NIMIETY, from Latin nimis, too much, excessively, very (< *ne-
mi-s, “not little”; *mi-, little; see mei-2).
7. NIHILISM, (NIHILITY), NIL; ANNIHILATE, from Latin nihil, nXl, nothing,contracted from nihilum, nothing (< *ne-hXlum, “not a whit,nothing at all”; hXlum, a thing, trifle; origin unknown).
8. NON-, from Latin non, not (< *ne-oinom, “not one thing”;*oino-, one; see oi-no-).
9. NISI, from Latin nXsX, unless (nX, not, from *nei + sX, if; see swo-).
a. NEGLECT, (NEGLIGEE), NEGOTIATE, from Latin prefix neg-,not;
b. NEGATE; ABNEGATE, DENY, RENEGADE, (RENEGE), from Latinneg7re, to deny. Both a and b from Italic *nek, not.
10. NEPENTHE, from Greek nK-, not.
11. Zero-grade combining form *i-.
i. UN-1, from Old English un-, not;
ii. ZUGUNRUHE, from Old High German un-, not.Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *un-;
a. NET1, from Old English net(t), a net, from Germanic*nati-;
b. NETTLE, from Old English netel(e), netle, nettle, fromGermanic *nat-ilo, a nettle (nettles or plants of closelyrelated genera such as hemp were used as a source offiber);
c. OUCH2, from Anglo- Norman nouch, brooch, fromGermanic *nat-sk-.
4. Lengthened o-grade form *nodo-. NODE, NODULE, NODUS;DÈNOUEMENT, from Latin nodus, a knot.
5. With re-formation of the root. NEXUS; (ADNEXA), ANNEX, CONNECT,from Latin nectere (past participle nexus), to tie, bind, connect.
[Pokorny 1. ned- 758.]
nKhw-iz
The following entry is not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since it isrepresented in only one branch of the family. Important derivatives are: near,neighbor, next, nigh. [Not, strictly speaking, Indo-European.Near.
Germanic root. NEAR, NEIGHBOR, NEXT, NIGH, from Old English nKah, near.
8. NECTAR, (NECTARINE), from Greek nektar, the drink of the gods,“overcoming death” (*tar-, overcoming; see terN-2).
[Pokorny neˆ- 762.]
nek-2
Important derivatives are: enough, oncology.To reach, attain.
I. O-grade form *nok-. ENOUGH, from Old English genog, enough, fromGermanic *ganoga-, sufficient, from *ga-nah, “suffices” (*ga-,intensive prefix; see kom).
II. Variant form *enk-.
1. ONCOGENESIS, ONCOLOGY, from Greek onkos, a burden, mass, hencea tumor, from reduplicated enenkein, to carry.
NEPHEW, NEPOTISM, NIECE, from Latin nepos, grandson, nephew, and neptis,granddaughter, niece.
[Pokorny nepot- 764.]
ner-1
Important derivatives are: Nordic, north, Norman1, northern, Norse.Under, also on the left; hence, with an eastward orientation, north.
Suffixed zero-grade form *ny-t(r)o-.
a. NORDIC, NORTH, from Old English north, north;
b. NORTHERN, from Old English northerne, northern;
c. NORSE, from Middle Dutch nort, north;
d. NORMAN1, NORWEGIAN, from Old Norse nordhr, north.
[Pokorny 2. ner- 765.]
ner-2
A derivative is: andro-.Also Nner-Man; basic sense “vigorous, vital, strong.” Oldest root form *Nner-.
ANDRO-, -ANDROUS, -ANDRY; PHILANDER, from Greek anKr (stem andr-, from zero-grade *Nnr-), man.
[Pokorny 1. ner-(t)- 765.]
nes-1
Important derivatives are: harness, nostalgia.To return safely home.
3. HARNESS, from Old French harneis, harness, possibly from aGermanic source akin to Old English, Old High German (incomposition), and Old Norse nest, food for a journey, fromGermanic *nes-tam.
4. Suffixed o-grade form *nos-to-. NOSTALGIA, from Greek nostos, areturn home.
[Pokorny nes- 766.]
nes-2
Important derivatives are: us, our, ours.Oblique cases of the personal pronoun of the first person plural.
For the nominative see we-.
1. Zero-grade form *is-. US, from Old English 7s, us (accusative),from Germanic *uns.
2. Suffixed (possessive) zero-grade form *is-ero-. OUR, OURS, fromOld English 7ser, 7re, our, from Germanic *unsara-.
3. O-grade form *nos-, with suffixed (possessive) form nos-t(e)ro-. NOSTRUM; PATERNOSTER, from Latin nos, we, and noster,our.
[Pokorny 3. ne- 758.]
neu-
Important derivatives are: announce, denounce, enunciate, pronounce, renounce.To shout.
Suffixed (participial) o-grade form *now-ent-(yo-), “shouting.” NUNCIO;ANNOUNCE, DENOUNCE, ENUNCIATE, PRONOUNCE, RENOUNCE, from Latin n7ntius,“announcing,” hence a messenger, also a message, and n7ntium, message.
5. NINE, NINETEEN, NINETY, NINTH, from Old English nigon, nine, withderivatives nigontig, ninety, and nigontKne, nineteen (-tKne, ten;see dekc), from Germanic *nigun, variant of *niwun.
6. NOVEMBER, NOVENA; (NONAGENARIAN), from Latin novem, nine (<*noven, with m for n by analogy with the m of septem, seven,and decem, ten).
7. Ordinal form *neweno-. NONA-, NONES, NOON; (NONAGON),(NONANOIC ACID), from Latin nonus, ninth.
8. Prothetic or prefixed forms *enewi, *enwi. ENNEAD, from Greekennea, nine (< *ennewa, *enwa-).
b. SPAN-NEW, from Old Norse n«r, new. Both a and b fromGermanic *neuja-.
5. Basic form *newo-. NEO-, NEON, NEOTERIC; MISONEISM, from Greeknewos, neos, new.
6. Suffixed form *new-aro-. ANEROID, from Greek nKron, water,from nKros, fresh (used of fish and of water), contracted fromnearos, young, fresh.
7. Basic form *newo-. NOVA, NOVATION, NOVEL1, NOVEL2, (NOVELTY),NOVICE; INNOVATE, RENOVATE, from Latin novus, new.
8. Suffixed form *new-er-ko-. NOVERCAL, from Latin noverca,stepmother (
[Pokorny ne¯os 709.]
nobh-Important derivatives are: nave2, navel, umbilicus.Also ombh-Navel; later also “central knob,” boss of a shield, hub of a wheel.
c. NAVE2, from Old English nafu, nafa, hub of a wheel;
d. AUGER, from Old English nafog7r, auger, from Germaniccompound *nabo-gaizaz, tool for piercing wheel hubs(*gaizaz, spear, piercing tool). Both a and b fromGermanic *nabo.
6. Variant form *ombh-. UMBO, from Latin umbo, boss of a shield.
7. Suffixed form *nobh-alo-. NAVEL, from Old English nafela,navel, from Germanic *nabalo.
8. Suffixed variant form *ombh-alo-.
a. UMBILICUS; NOMBRIL, from Latin umbilXcus, navel;
b. OMPHALOS, from Greek omphalos, navel.
[Pokorny 1. (enebh-) 314.]
nogh-An important derivative is: nail.Also Nnogh-, ongh-Nail, claw.
3. Suffixed (diminutive) form *nogh-ela-. NAIL, from Old Englishnægl, nail, from Germanic *nagla-.
16. Suffixed form *okw-7. METOPE, from Greek opK, opening.
17. Suffixed form *okw-mi. OMMATIDIUM, OMMATOPHORE, from Greekomma (< *opma), eye.
18. Suffixed form *okw-tro-. CATOPTRIC, from Greek katoptron,“back-looker,” mirror (kata-, down, back; see kat-).
19. OPHTHALMO-; EXOPHTHALMOS, from Greek ophthalmos, eye (withtaboo deformation).
20. Zero-grade form *Nkw- (of oldest full-grade form *Nokw-).
a. (see ant-) Latin antXquus, “appearing before, havingprior aspect,” former (*anti-, before);
b. (see 7ter-) Latin 8trox, “black-looking,” frightful(*atro-, black);
c. (see ghwer-) ferox, “wild-looking,” fierce (*ghwero-,wild).
[Pokorny ok¯- 775.]
op-Important derivatives are: opera1, operate, opus, cooperate, inure, maneuver,manure, opulent, omni-, optimum, copious, copy, cornucopia.To work, produce in abundance.
5. Suffixed form *op-es-. OPERA1, OPERATE, OPEROSE, OPUS; COOPERATE,INURE, MANEUVER, MANURE, OFFICINAL, from Latin opus (stem oper-),work, with its denominative verb oper7rX, to work, andsecondary noun opera, work.
6. (see dhK-) Latin officium, service, duty, business (< *opi-fici-om, “performance of work”; *-fici-, doing).
7. Suffixed form *op-en-ent-. OPULENT, from Latin dissimilatedopulentus, rich, wealthy.
8. Suffixed form *op-ni-. OMNI-, OMNIBUS; OMNIUM-GATHERUM, fromLatin omnis, all (< “abundant”).
9. Suffixed (superlative) form *op-tamo-. OPTIMUM, from Latinoptimus, best (< “wealthiest”).
10. COPIOUS, COPY; CORNUCOPIA, from Latin copia, profusion, plenty,from prefixed form *co-op- (co-, collective and intensiveprefix; see kom).
[Pokorny 1. op- 780.]
or-Derivatives are: erne, ornitho-.Large bird.
6. Suffixed form *or-n-. ERNE, from Old English earn, eagle, fromGermanic *arnuz, eagle.
7. Suffixed form *or-n-Xth-. ORNITHO-; AEPYORNIS, ICHTHYORNIS,NOTORNIS, from Greek ornis (stem ornith-), bird.
[Pokorny 1. er- 325.]
orbh-Important derivatives are: orphan, robot.To put asunder, separate.
Suffixed form *orbh-o-, “bereft of father,” also “deprived of free status.”
a. ORPHAN, from Greek orphanos, orphaned;
b. ROBOT, from Czech robota, compulsory labor, drudgery,from Old Church Slavonic rabota, servitude, from rabƒ,slave, from Old Slavic *orbƒ.
10. AURIGA, from Latin aurXga, charioteer (< *or-ig-, “he whomanages the (horse's) bit”; -Xg-, lengthened from ig-, driving,from *ag-; see ag-), possibly from os-.
c. FUR, from Old French forre, fuerre, trimming madefrom animal skin, fur (< “sheath, case, lining”). a, b,and c all from Germanic *fodram.
2. Suffixed form *p7-dhlom (doublet of *p7-trom). PABULUM, fromLatin p7bulum, food, fodder.
3. Extended form *p7t-.
a. FOOD, from Old English foda, food, from Germanic*fod-, food;
b. FEED, from Old English fKdan, to feed, from Germanicdenominative *fodjan, to give food to;
c. suffixed form *p7t-tro-. FOSTER, from Old English fostor,food, nourishment, from Germanic *fostra-.
4. Extended form *p7s-.
a. suffixed form *p7s-sko-. PASTURE; ANTIPASTO, REPAST, fromLatin p7scere, to feed;
b. suffixed form *p7s-tor-. PASTOR, PESTER, from Latinp7stor, shepherd;
c. suffixed form *p7s-t-ni-. PANADA, PANATELA, PANNIER,(PANOCHA), PANTRY, PASTILLE, (PENUCHE); APPANAGE,COMPANION1, (COMPANY), from Latin p7nis, bread.
5. Suffixed form *p7-tor-. BEZOAR, from Persian p7d, protectingagainst, from Iranian *p7tar- (Avestan p7tar-).
6. Suffixed form *p7-won-, protector. SATRAP, from Old Persiankhshathra-p7v7, protector of the province.
8. Lengthened-grade form *p7k-. FAY1, from Old English fKgan, tofit closely, from Germanic *fogjan, to join, fit.
9. Nasalized form *pa-n-g-, also *pa-n-k-.
i. FANG, from Old English fang, feng, plunder,booty, from Germanic *fangam, *fangiz;
ii. VANG, from Dutch vangen, to catch, fromremade Germanic verb *fangan;
iii. NEWFANGLED, from Middle English *-fangel,taken, akin to Old High German -fangolon, toclose, from Germanic *fanglon, to grasp. (i), (ii),and (iii) all derivatives of Germanic *fanhan, toseize;
b. COMPACT1, IMPINGE, from Latin pangere, to fasten.
10. Root form *p8k-.
a. PACE2, PAY1, PEACE; APPEASE, PACIFIC, PACIFY, from Latin p7x,peace (
b. PACT, from Latin pacXscX, to agree.
11. Suffixed form *pak-slo-.
a. PALE1, PALISADE, PAWL, PEEL3, POLE2; IMPALE, TRAVAIL, (TRAVEL),from Latin p7lus, stake (fixed in the ground);
b. PALETTE, PEEL2, from Latin p7la, spade, probably frompag-.
12. Lengthened-grade form *p7g-.
a. PAGAN, PEASANT, from Latin p7gus, “boundary staked outon the ground,” district, village, country;
b. PAGE1, PAGEANT, from Latin p7gina, “trellis to which a rowof vines is fixed,” hence (by metaphor) column ofwriting, page;
c. PROPAGATE, from Latin prop7g7re, to propagate (pro-,before, in front; see per1);
d. PECTIN, PEGMATITE; AREOPAGUS, from Greek pKgnunai, tofasten, coagulate, with derivative pagos (< *pag-o-),mass, hill.
1. FEW, from Old English fKawe, few, from Germanic *fawaz.
2. Suffixed form *pau-ko-. PAUCITY, POCO, from Latin paucus, little,few.
3. Suffixed form *pau-ro- in metathetical form *par-wo-.PARAFFIN, PARVOVIRUS, from Latin parvus, little, small, neuterparvum, becoming parum, little, rarely.
4. Compound *pau-paros, producing little, poor (*par-os,producing; see perN-1). PAUPER, POOR, POVERTY, from Latinpauper, poor.
II. Suffixed reduced variant form *pu-lo-, young of an animal.
1. FOAL, from Old English fola, young horse, colt, from Germanic*fulon-.
2. FILLY, from Old Norse fylja, young female horse, fromGermanic derivative *fuljo.
III. Basic form *pau- and variant form *p'-, boy, child.
1. Suffixed form *pu-ero-. PUERILE, PUERPERAL, from Latin puer,child.
2. Extended form *put-.
a. POLTROON, PONY, POOL2, POULARD, PULLET; CATCHPOLE, fromLatin pullus (< *putslo-), young of an animal, chicken;
b. PUSILLANIMOUS, from Latin pusillus (< *putslo-lo), olddiminutive of pullus.
3. Suffixed form *paw-id-. PEDO-2; ENCYCLOPEDIA, ORTHOPEDICS, fromGreek pais (stem paid-), child ( paideia, education).
1. Lengthened o-grade form *pod-. FOOT, from Old English fot,foot, from Germanic *fot-.
2. Suffixed form *ped-ero-. FETTER, from Old English fetor, feter,leg iron, fetter, from Germanic *fetero.
3. Suffixed form *ped-el-. FETLOCK, from Middle English fitlock,fetlock, fetlock, from a Germanic source akin to Old HighGerman vizzelach, fetlock, from Germanic *fetel-.
4. Basic form *ped-. PAWN2, -PED, PEDAL, PEDATE, PEDESTRIAN, PEDI-,PEDICEL, PEDUNCLE, (PEON), PES, PIONEER; MILLIPEDE, SESQUIPEDAL,(TRIPEDAL), TRIVET, VAMP1, from Latin pKs (stem ped-), foot.
5. Form *ped-yo-.
a. EXPEDITE, from Latin expedXre, to free from a snare (ex-,out of; see eghs);
b. IMPEDE, from Latin impedXre, “to put in fetters, hobble,shackle,” entangle, hinder (in-, in; see en).
6. Suffixed form *ped-ik7. IMPEACH, from Latin pedica, fetter,snare.
7. Assimilated form (in Italic and Celtic) *kwekw-.
a. COOK, CUISINE, KITCHEN, QUITTOR; APRICOT, BISCUIT, CONCOCT,DECOCT, PRECOCIOUS, RICOTTA, TERRA COTTA, from Latincoquere, to cook;
b. CULINARY, KILN, from Latin culXna, kitchen, deformedfrom coquXna.
8. PEPO; PUMPKIN, from Greek pepon, ripe.
9. PEPTIC, PEPTIZE; DRUPE, EUPEPTIC, PEPSIN, PEPTONE, from Greekpeptein, to cook, ripen, digest ( peptos, cooked).
10. DYSPEPSIA, from Greek -pepsia, digestion.
11. PUKKA, from Sanskrit pakva-, ripe.
[Pokorny pek¯- 798.]
pel-1
Important derivatives are: pale1, pallid, pallor, appall, palomino, falcon,poliomyelitis.Pale.
4. Suffixed variant form *pal-wo-.
i. FALLOW DEER, from Old English fealu, fealo,reddish yellow;
ii. FAUVISM, from Frankish falw-, reddish-yellow.Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *falwaz;
b. PALE2, PALLID, PALLOR; APPALL, from Latin pallKre, to be pale;
c. PALOMINO, from Latin palumbKs (influenced in form byLatin columbus, dove), ringdove, “gray-bird.”
5. Probably suffixed form *pel-ko-. FALCON; (GYRFALCON), from LateLatin falco, falcon, from Germanic *falkon-, falcon (
6. Suffixed extended form *peli-wo-.
a. PELOPS, from Greek pelios, dark;
b. o-grade form *poli-wo-. POLIOMYELITIS, from Greekpolios, gray.
7. PELARGONIUM, from Greek pelargos (< *pelawo-argos), stork(argos, white; see arg-), perhaps from pel-1.
[Pokorny 6. pel- 804.]
pel-2
Important derivatives are: fold1, -fold, multiple, triple.To fold.
9. Extended o-grade form *polt-.
a. FOLD1, from Old English fealdan, faldan, to fold;
b. FALTBOAT, from Old High German faldan, to fold;
c. FURBELOW, from Italian falda, fold, flap, pleat;
i. FALDSTOOL, from Medieval Latin compoundfaldistolium, folding chair;
ii. FAUTEUIL, from Old French faldestoel, faldstool.Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound*faldistolaz, “folding stool” (*stolaz, stool; seest7-);
d. -FOLD, from Old English -feald, -fald, -fold, fromGermanic combining form *-falthaz, *-faldaz. a, b, c,d, and e all from Germanic *falthan, *faldan.
10. Combining form *-plo-.
a. DECUPLE, MULTIPLE, OCTUPLE, QUADRUPLE, QUINTUPLE, SEPTUPLE,(SEXTUPLE), TRIPLE, from Latin -plus, -fold (as in triplus,threefold);
b. (-PLOID); TRIPLOBLASTIC, from Greek -plos, -ploos, -fold (asin haploos, haplous, single, and triploos, triple).
[Pokorny 3. a. pel- 802.]
pel-3
Important derivatives are: film, pelt1, surplice.Skin, hide.
9. Suffixed form *pel-no-. FELL3, from Old English fell, skin, hide,from Germanic *felnam.
10. FILM, from Old English filmen, membrane, from Germanicsuffixed form *fel-man-ja-.
11. Suffixed form *pel-ni-. PELISSE, PELLICLE, (PELT1), PELTRY, PILLION;PELLAGRA, SURPLICE, from Latin pellis, skin.
12. ERYSIPELAS, from Greek -pelas, skin.
13. Suffixed form *pel-to-. PELTATE, from Greek peltK, a shield(made of hide).
[Pokorny 3. b. pel- 803.]
pel-4
An important derivative is: monopoly.To sell.
Lengthened o-grade form *pol-. BIBLIOPOLE, MONOPOLY, from Greek polein, tosell.
a. ANVIL, from Old English anfilt(e), anfealt, anvil(“something beaten on”);
i. FELT1, from Old English felt, felt;
ii. FILTER, from Medieval Latin filtrum, filter, pieceof felt. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *feltaz,*filtiz, compressed wool. Both a and b fromGermanic *felt-, *falt-, to beat.
2. PELT2, POUSSETTE, PULSATE, PULSE1, PUSH; COMPEL, DISPEL, EXPEL, IMPEL,PROPEL, REPEL, from Latin pellere (past participle pulsus), to push,drive, strike.
a. Suffixed o-grade form *pol-o-, fuller of cloth. POLISH,from Latin polXre, to make smooth, polish (
b. suffixed o-grade form *pol-o- (with differentaccentuation from the preceding), fulled (of cloth).INTERPOLATE, from Latin compound adjective inter-polis(also interpolus), refurbished (inter-, between; see en).
II. Extended form *pelN-.
1. Present stem *peln7-.
a. APPEAL, from Latin appell7re, “to drive to,” address,entreat, appeal, call (ad-, to; see ad-);
b. COMPELLATION, from Latin compell7re, to accost, address(com-, intensive prefix; see kom).
2. Possible suffixed zero-grade extended adverbial form *plN-ti-,or locative plural *plN-si. PLESIOSAUR, from Greek plKsios, near(*pl7ti or *pl7si.
[Pokorny 2. a. pel- 801.]
pelN-1
Important derivatives are: full1, fill, plenitude, plenty, replenish, folk, plural, plus,surplus, poly-, accomplish, complete, compliment, comply, deplete, expletive,implement, supply, plebeian, plethora.To fill; with derivatives referring to abundance and multitude. Variant *plK-,contracted from *pleN-.
I. Zero-grade form *p_N-.
1. Suffixed form *p_N-no- FULL1, from Old English full, full, fromGermanic *fulnaz, *fullaz, full.
2. FILL, from Old English fyllan, to fill (from Germanic derivativeverb *fulljan, to fill), and fyllu, full amount (from Germanicabstract noun *full-Xno-, fullness).
3. PLENARY, PLENITUDE, PLENTY, PLENUM; PLENIPOTENTIARY, REPLENISH,TERREPLEIN, from Latin plKnus, full, from Latin stem *plKno-,replacing *pl7no- (influenced by Latin verb plKre, to fill; see III.1. below).
4. Suffixed form *p_N-go-.
a. FOLK, from Old English folc, people;
b. VOLKSLIED, from Old High German folc, people. Both aand b from Germanic *folkam.
II. Suffixed form *p(e)lN-u-.
1. Obscure comparative form. PI˘, PLURAL, PLUS; NONPLUS, PLUPERFECT,SURPLUS, from Latin pl7s, more (Old Latin plous). See also III. 4.
below.
2. O-grade form *pol(N)-u-. POLY-; HOI POLLOI, from Greek polus,much, many.
3. PALUDAL, PALUDISM, from Latin pal7s, marsh, possibly from pelN-1 (? < “inundated”; but probably rather from pel-1).
III. Variant form *plK-.
1. (ACCOMPLISH), COMPLETE, COMPLIMENT, (COMPLY), DEPLETE, EXPLETIVE,IMPLEMENT, REPLETE, SUPPLY, from Latin plKre, to fill.
2. Possibly suffixed form *plK-dhw-. (PLEBE), PLEBEIAN, PLEBS;PLEBISCITE, from Latin plKbs, plKbKs, the people, multitude.
3. Suffixed form *plK-dhwo-. PLETHORA; PLETHYSMOGRAPH, fromGreek derivative verb plKthein, to be full.
4. Suffixed adjective (positive) form *plK-ro-. PLEROCERCOID, fromGreek plKrKs, full.
5. Suffixed (comparative) form *plK-i(s)on-. PLEO-, PLEONASM;PLEIOTAXY, PLEIOTROPISM, PLIOCENE, from Greek pleon, pleion, more.
6. Suffixed (superlative) form *plK-isto-. PLEISTOCENE, from Greekpleistos, most.
IV. POORI, from Sanskrit p7raU, cake (pelN-1.
[Pokorny 1. pel- 798.]
pelN-2
Important derivatives are: field, floor, plain, plane1, plane2, explain, palm1, palm2,planet, plasma, plaster, plastic, polka.Flat; to spread.
Variant *pl7-, contracted from *plaN-.
6. Suffixed form *pel(N)-tu-. FIELD, from Old English feld, openfield, from Germanic *felthuz, flat land.
7. Suffixed form *pel(N)-t-es- (by-form of *pel(N)-tu-).
a. FELDSPAR, from Old High German feld, field;
b. VELDT, from Middle Dutch veld, velt, field. Both a and bfrom Germanic *feltha-, flat land.
8. Variant form *pl7-.
a. suffixed form *pl7-ru-. FLOOR, from Old English flor,floor, from Germanic *floruz, floor;
b. suffixed form *pl7-no-. LLANO, PIANO2, PLAIN, PLANARIAN,PLANE1, PLANE2, PLANE3, PLANISH, PLANO-, PLANULA; EXPLAIN,(PIANOFORTE), from Latin pl7nus, flat, level, even, plain,clear.
9. Suffixed zero-grade form *p_N-m7. PALM1, PALM2, from Latinpalma (< *palama), palm of the hand.
10. Possibly extended variant form *plan-.
a. PLANET; APLANATIC, from Greek planasthai, to wander (
b. FL‚NEUR, from French fl‚ner, to walk the streets idly, froma Germanic source akin to Old Norse flana, to wanderaimlessly, from Germanic *flan-, possibly from pelN-2.
11. Suffixed zero-grade form *plN-dh-. -PLASIA, PLASMA, -PLAST,PLASTER, PLASTIC, (PLASTID), -PLASTY; (DYSPLASIA), METAPLASM,(TOXOPLASMA), from Greek plassein (< *plath-yein), to mold,“spread out.”
12. O-grade form *polN-.
a. POLYNYA, from Russian polyV, open;
b. POLACK, POLKA, from Slavic polje, broad flat land, field.
[Pokorny pelN- 805.] See also extensions pl7k-1, plat-
pelN-3
Important derivatives are: police, policy1, politic, metropolis.Citadel, fortified high place.
9. FIND, from Old English findan, to find, from Germanic*finthan, to come upon, discover.
10. Suffixed o-grade form *pont-i-.
a. PONS, PONTIFEX, PONTIFF, PONTINE, PONTOON, PUNT1;(TRANSPONTINE), from Latin pons (stem pont-), bridge(earliest meaning, “way, passage,” preserved in thepriestly title pontifex, “he who prepares the way”; -fex,maker; see dhK-);
b. SPUTNIK, from Russian sputnik, fellow traveler, sputnik,from put', path, way.
11. Zero-grade form *pit-. PERIPATETIC, from Greek patein, to tread,walk.
12. Suffixed zero-grade form *pit-N-.
a. PATH, from Old English pæth, path;
b. FOOTPAD, from Middle Dutch pad, way, path. Both a andb from Germanic *patha-, way, path, probablyborrowed (? via Scythian) from Iranian *path-.
[Pokorny pent- 808.]
per1
Important derivatives are: far, paramount, paradise, for, forth, afford, further,foremost, former2, first, prow, protein, proton, fore, forefather, before, from, furnish,veneer, purchase, prone, reciprocal, approach, reproach, approximate, probable,probe, proof, prove, approve, improve, pre-, private, privilege, privy, deprive, proper,property, appropriate, premier, primal, primary, primate, prime, primitive, prince,principal, principle, pristine, priest.Base of prepositions and preverbs with the basic meanings of “forward,”“through,” and a wide range of extended senses such as “in front of,” “before,”“early,” “first,” “chief,” “toward,” “against,” “near,” “at,” “around.”
I. Basic form *per and extended form *peri.
a. TURNVEREIN, from Middle High German vereinen, tounite, from Old High German far-;
b. VEER2, from Middle Dutch vieren, to let out, slacken;
c. (see ghend-) Germanic compound *fer-getan, “to loseone's hold,” forget.
d. FRUMP, from Middle Dutch verrompelen, to wrinkle. a,
b, c, and d all from Germanic *fer-, *far-, used chieflyas an intensive prefix denoting destruction, reversal, orcompletion.
2. Suffixed (comparative) form *per-ero-, farther away. FAR, fromOld English feor(r), far, from Germanic *fer(e)ra.
3. PER, PER-; PARAMOUNT, PARAMOUR, PARGET, PARVENU, from Latin per,through, for, by.
4. PERI-; PERISSODACTYL, from Greek peri, around, near, beyond.
a. PARADISE, from Avestan pairi-, around;
b. PURDAH, from Old Persian pari, around, over;
c. (see wer-) Old Iranian *pari-v7raka-, protective. a, b,and c all from Old Iranian *pari-, around.
5. PERESTROIKA, from Old Russian pere-, around, again, from Slavic*per-.
II. Zero-grade form *py-.
a. FOR, from Old English for, before, instead of, onaccount of;
b. FOR-, from Old English for-, prefix denotingdestruction, pejoration, exclusion, or completion. Botha and b from Germanic *fur, before, in.
2. Extended form *pyt-. FORTH; AFFORD, from Old English forth,from Germanic *furth-, forward.
3. Suffixed (comparative) form *py-tero-. FURTHER, from OldEnglish furthra, furthor, farther away, from Germanic*furthera-.
a. Compound *py-st-i- (or *por-st-i-, with o-grade form*por-), “that which stands before,” stake, post (see st7-);
b. PORRECT, from Latin por-, forth, forward. Both a and bfrom Latin por- from *py-.
4. Suffixed form *py-sod. PARGET, from Latin porro, forward.
III. Extended zero-grade form *pyN-.
1. Suffixed (superlative) form *pyN-mo-.
a. FOREMOST, FORMER2, from Old English forma, first,foremost, from Germanic *fruma-, *furma-;
b. (see ed-) Latin compound prandium, “first meal,” latebreakfast, lunch (probably < *pr7m-d-ium < *pyNm-(e)d-yo-; second element *-(e)d-, to eat).
2. Suffixed (superlative) form *pyN-isto-. FIRST, from Old Englishfyrst, fyrest, first, from Germanic *furista-, foremost.
3. Suffixed form *pyN-wo-.
a. PROW, from Greek proira, forward part of a ship, fromanalogically suffixed form *prow-arya;
b. PROTEIN, PROTIST, PROTO-, PROTON, from Greek protos, first,foremost, from suffixed (superlative) form *prow-ato-.Both a and b from Greek *prowo-, first, foremost.
4. Suffixed form *pyN-i. ARPENT, from Latin arepennis, half-acre(second element obscure), from Gaulish ari (combining formare-), before, from Celtic *(p)ari, *are.
IV. Extended form *pyN8.
a. FORE, FORE-; (FOREFATHER), from Old English fore, for,before;
b. VORLAGE, from Old High German fora, before;
c. BEFORE, from Old English beforan, before, fromGermanic prefixed and suffixed form *bi-fora-na, inthe front (*bi-, at, by; see ambhi). a, b, and c all fromGermanic *fura, before.
2. PARA-1; PALFREY, from Greek para, beside, alongside of, beyond.
V. Extended form *prp.
a. FRO; (FROWARD), from Old Norse fr7, from, fromGermanic *fra, forward, away from;
b. (see ed-, Kik-) Germanic *fra-, completely.
2. Suffixed form *prp-mo-.
a. FROM, from Old English from, from, from Germanic*fram, from;
b. FURNISH, VENEER, from Old French f(o)urnir, to supply,provide, from Germanic derivative verb *frumjan, tofurther, from Germanic *frum, forward;
c. PRAM2, from Czech pr·m, raft.
3. Suffixed form *pro-wo-. FRAU, (FR‰ULEIN), from Old HighGerman frouwa, lady, from Germanic *frowo-, lady,lengthened-grade feminine of *frawan-, lord.
4. Suffixed form *pro-wo-. NAPRAPATHY, from Slavic pravƒ, right.
5. PRO1, PRO-1, (PROUD); (IMPROVE), PURCHASE, from Latin pro, prp-,before, for, instead of.
6. Suffixed form *pro-no-. PRONE, from Latin pronus, leaningforward.
7. Possible suffixed form *pro-ko-. RECIPROCAL, from Latincompound reciprocus, alternating, “backward and forward”(*re-ko-, backward; see re-).
8. Suffixed adverb *pro-kwe.
a. APPROACH, (RAPPROCHEMENT), REPROACH, from Latin prope,near;
b. suffixed form *prokw-inkwo-. PROPINQUITY, from Latinpropinquus, near;
c. suffixed (superlative) form *prokw-samo-. PROXIMATE;APPROXIMATE, from Latin proximus, nearest.
9. Compound *pro-bhw-o-, growing well or straightforward(*bhw-o-, to grow; see bheuN-). (PROBABLE), PROBE, PROBITY,(PROOF), PROVE; APPROVE, IMPROBITY, (REPROVE), from Latin probus,upright, good, virtuous.
10. PRO-2, from Greek pro, before, in front, forward.
11. Suffixed (comparative) form *pro-tero-. HYSTERON PROTERON,PROTEROZOIC, from Greek proteros, before, former.
12. PRAKRIT, from Sanskrit pra-, before, forth.
13. (see wKro-) Celtic *ro-, intensive prefix, in *ro-wero-,sufficiency.
VI. Extended forms *prai-, *prei-.
1. PRE-; PRETERIT, from Latin prae, before.
2. Suffixed (comparative) form *prei-yos-. PRIOR2, from Latinprior, former, higher, superior.
3. Suffixed form *prei-wo-.
a. PRIVATE, PRIVILEGE, PRIVITY, PRIVY; DEPRIVE, from LatinprXvus, single, alone (
b. PROPER, PROPERTY; APPROPRIATE, PROPRIOCEPTION,PROPRIOCEPTOR, from Latin proprius, one's own,particular (< pro prXvo, in particular, from the ablativeof prXvus, single; pro, for; see V. 5.).
ii. PRINCE, PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE, from Latin compoundprXnceps, “he who takes first place,” leader, chief,emperor (-ceps, “-taker”; see kap-);
b. suffixed form *preis-tano-. PRISTINE, from LatinprXstinus, former, earlier, original.
VII. Extended form *pres- in compound *pres-gwu-, “going before”(*gw-u-, going; see gw7-). PRESBYTER, (PRIEST); PRESBYOPIA, from Greekpresbus, old, old man, elder.
VIII. Extended form *proti. PROS-, from Greek pros, against, toward,near, at.
[Pokorny 2. A. per 810.] Other possibly related forms are grouped under per-2,per-3, per-4, per-5
per-2
Important derivatives are: firth, fjord, fare, wayfarer, welfare, pore2, emporium,ferry, fern, ford, port1, opportune, porch, portal, portable, portage, porter1, export,import, important, portfolio, rapport, report, sport, support, transport.To lead, pass over. A verbal root belonging to the group of per1.
I. Full-grade form *per-.
1. Suffixed form *per-tu-. FIRTH, FJORD, from Old Norse fjˆrdhr, an
inlet, estuary, from Germanic *ferthuz, place for crossing over,ford.
2. Suffixed form *per-on7. PERONEAL, from Greek peronK, pin of abrooch, buckle (
3. Suffixed form *per-yo-. DIAPIR, from Greek peirein, to pierce.
II. O-grade form *por-.
i. FARE; WAYFARER, WAYFARING, (WELFARE), from OldEnglish faran, to go on a journey, get along;
ii. FIELDFARE, from Old English faran, possiblyaltered by folk etymology in Old English, froman uncertain original;
b. GABERDINE, from Old High German faran, to go, travel.Both a and b from Germanic *faran, to go.
2. Suffixed form *por-o-, passage, journey. PORE2; EMPORIUM,POROMERIC, from Greek poros, journey, passage.
3. Suffixed (causative) form *por-eyo-, to cause to go, lead,conduct. FERRY, from Old English ferian, to transport, fromGermanic *farjan, to ferry.
4. Lengthened-grade form *por-.
a. FERE, from Old English (ge)fKra, “fellow-traveler,”companion (ge-, together, with; see kom), fromGermanic suffixed form *for-ja-;
b. F¸HRER, from Old High German fuoren, to lead, fromGermanic suffixed (causative) form *for-jan.
5. Possibly suffixed form *por-no-, feather, wing (
a. FERN, from Old English fearn, fern (having featheryfronds), from Germanic *farno, feather, leaf;
b. PAN2, from Sanskrit parham, leaf, feather.
III. Zero-grade form *py-.
1. Suffixed form *py-tu-, passage.
a. FORD, from Old English ford, shallow place where onemay cross a river, from Germanic *furdu-;
b. PORT1; IMPORTUNE, OPPORTUNE, from Latin portus, harbor(< “passage”).
2. Suffixed form *py-t7. PORCH, PORT3, PORTAL, PORTCULLIS, PORTER2,PORTICO, PORTIËRE, PORTULACA, from Latin porta, gate.
3. Suffixed (denominative) form *py-to-. PORT5, PORTABLE, PORTAGE,PORTAMENTO, PORTATIVE, PORTER1; COMPORT, DEPORT, EXPORT, IMPORT,(IMPORTANT), PORTFOLIO, PURPORT, RAPPORT, REPORT, (SPORT), SUPPORT,TRANSPORT, from Latin port7re, to carry.
A verbal root possibly belonging to the group of per1. Extended forms *prem-
, *pres-. PREGNANT2, PRESS1, PRESSURE, PRINT; APPRESSED, COMPRESS, DEPRESS, EXPRESS,IMPRESS1, (IMPRINT), OPPRESS, REPRESS, (REPRIMAND), SUPPRESS, from Latin premere(past participle pressus), to press.
[Pokorny 3. per- 818.]
per-5
Important derivatives are: interpret, praise, precious, price, appraise, appreciate,depreciate, pornography.To traffic in, sell (per1. Base of two distinct extended roots.
I. Root form *pret-.
1. INTERPRET, from Latin compound inter-pres (stem inter-pret-),go-between, negotiator (inter-, between; see en).
2. Suffixed form *pret-yo-. PRAISE, PRECIOUS, PRICE; APPRAISE,(APPRECIATE), DEPRECIATE, from Latin pretium, price.
II. Root form *perN-. Suffixed form *p(e)r-n-N-, with o-grade *por(N)-n7.PORNOGRAPHY, from Greek pornK, prostitute, from pernanai, to sell.
Possibly the same root as perN-2. See also per-5 II. Zero-grade form *pyN-(becoming *par- in Latin).
a. root form *par-7-. PARADE, PARE, (PARLAY), PARRY, (PARURE);APPARATUS, (APPAREL), COMPRADOR, DISPARATE, EMPEROR,(IMPERATIVE), (IMPERIAL), (PARACHUTE), PARASOL, PREPARE,RAMPART, REPAIR1, SEPARATE, (SEVER), (SEVERAL), from Latinpar7re, to try to get, prepare, equip;
b. suffixed form *par-yo-. -PARA, PARENT, PARITY2, -PAROUS,PARTURIENT, POSTPARTUM, REPERTORY, from Latin parere,parXre, to get, beget, give birth;
c. suffixed form *par-o-, producing, in compound *pau-paros, producing little, poor (see pau-);
d. suffixed form *par-ik7. PARCAE, from Latin Parcae, theFates (who assign one's destiny).
[Pokorny 2. D. per 818.]
perN-2
Important derivatives are: parcel, parse, part, impart, repartee, portion, proportion,pair, par, parlay, peer2, compare, nonpareil.To grant, allot (reciprocally, to get in return). Possibly the same root as perN-1.See also per-5 II. Zero-grade form *pyN- (becoming *par- in Latin).
a. suffixed form *par-ti-. PARCEL, (PARCENER), PARSE, PART;BIPARTITE, COMPART, IMPART, REPARTEE, from Latin pars(stem part-), a share, part;
b. possibly suffixed form *par-tio. PORTION, PROPORTION,from Latin portio, a part (first attested in the phrase proportione, in proportion, according to each part, perhapsassimilated from *pro partione);
c. PAIR, PAR, (PARITY1), PEER2; COMPARE, IMPARITY, NONPAREIL,PARI-MUTUEL, from Latin p7r, equal, perhaps from perN-2.
[Pokorny 2. per, Section C. 817.]
perkwu-Important derivatives are: fir, cork.Oak.
1. Zero-grade form *pykw-. FIR, probably from a Scandinaviansource akin to Old Icelandic f«ri, fir, from Germanic *furh-jon-.
2. Assimilated form *kwerkwu-. CORK, QUERCETIN; QUERCITRON, fromLatin quercus, oak.
7. Suffixed form *pet-yo-. PROPITIOUS, from Latin propitius,
favorable, gracious, orginially a religious term meaning “fallingor rushing forward,” hence “eager,” “well-disposed” (said ofthe gods; pro-, forward; see per1).
8. Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ero-. -PTER; ACANTHOPTERYGIAN,APTERYX, ARCHAEOPTERYX, COLEOPTERAN, MECOPTERAN, ORTHOPTERAN,PERIPTERAL, PLECOPTERAN, PTERIDOLOGY, PTERYGOID, from Greekpteron, feather, wing, and pterux, wing.
9. Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ilo-. COLEOPTILE, from Greekptilon, soft feathers, down, plume.
10. Suffixed variant form *ptK-no-. STEAROPTENE, from Greek ptKnos,winged, flying.
11. Reduplicated form *pi-pt-. PTOMAINE, PTOSIS; ASYMPTOTE, PERIPETEIA,PROPTOSIS, SYMPTOM, from Greek piptein, to fall, with nominalderivatives pto-to-, pto-ti-, pto-ma.
12. O-grade form *pot-. HIPPOPOTAMUS, from Greek potamos“rushing water,” river (-amo-, Greek suffix).
13. Suffixed form *pet-tro-. TALIPOT, from Sanskrit pattram,feather, leaf.
Suffixed zero-grade form *p7-ro- (< *puN-ro). POUR, PURE, PURGE, PURITAN;COMPURGATION, DEPURATE, EXPURGATE, (SPURGE), from Latin p7rus, pure, and
p7rg7re, to purify (< *p7r-ig7re; second element agere, to drive; see ag-).
[Pokorny 1. peu- 827.]
peuk-Important derivatives are: pugilism, pugnacious, impugn, poignant, point, pounce1,punctuate, puncture, pungent, expunge, pygmy.Also peug-To prick. Zero-grade form *pug-.
4. Suffixed form *pug-no-. PONIARD, PUGILISM, PUGIL STICK,PUGNACIOUS; IMPUGN, OPPUGN, REPUGN, from Latin pugil, pugilist,and pugnus, fist, with denominative pugn7re, to fight with thefist.
5. Nasalized zero-grade form *pu-n-g-. BUNG, POIGNANT, POINT,POINTILLISM, PONTIL, (POUNCE1), (POUNCE3), PUNCHEON1, PUNCTUATE,PUNCTURE, PUNGENT; COMPUNCTION, EXPUNGE, SPONTOON, TRAPUNTO,from Latin pungere, to prick.
6. (PYGMAEAN), PYGMY, from Greek pugmK, fist.
[Pokorny peuˆ- 828.]
pezd-Derivatives are: fizzle, petard.To fart.
1. Suffixed form *pezd-i-. FEIST, FIZZLE, from Middle English fisten,to fart, from Germanic *fistiz, a fart.
2. PETARD, from Latin pKdere, to fart.
3. PEDICULAR, from Latin pKdis, louse (? pezd-.
[Pokorny pezd- 829, 2. peis- 796.] See also perd-.
Important derivatives are: fluke1, flake1, flaw1, placebo, placid, plea, plead, pleasant,please, complacent, placate, plank, placenta, archipelago.Also plak-To be flat. Extension of pelN-2.
2. FLOE, from Old Norse flo, layer, coating, from Germanic *floho.
3. Variant form *pl7g-.
a. FLUKE1, from Old English floc, flatfish, from Germanic*flok-;
b. FLAKE1, from Middle English flake, flake, from aScandinavian source probably akin to Norwegian flak,flat piece, flake, from Germanic *flakaz;
c. FLAKE2, from Old Norse flaki, fleki, hurdle, fromGermanic *flak-.
4. Extended form *plak7. FLAG4, FLAW1, from Old Norse flaga, layerof stone, from Germanic *flago.
5. Possibly suffixed (stative) form *plak-K-, to be calm (as of theflat sea). PLACEBO, PLACID, PLEA, (PLEAD), PLEASANT, PLEASE;COMPLACENT, from Latin placKre, to please, be agreeable.
6. Root noun *plak-. (SUPPLICATE), SUPPLE, from Latin supplex,suppliant (whence denominative supplic7re, to beg humbly,first attested in Archaic Latin as sub vos placo, I entreat you; sub,under; see upo.)
7. Lengthened suffixed form *pl7k-7-. PLACABLE, PLACATE, fromLatin pl7c7re, to calm (causative of placKre).
8. Nasalized form *pla-n-k-. PLANCHET, PLANK, from Latin plancus,flat, flat-footed.
9. Variant form *plag-.
a. PLAGIARY, from Latin plaga, net (? pl7k-1;
b. PLAGAL, PLAGIO-, PLAYA, from Greek plagos, side.
10. Root form *plak-. PLACENTA, PLACOID; LEUKOPLAKIA, from Greekplax, flat, flat land, surface.
11. Possible variant form *pelag-. PELAGIC; ARCHIPELAGO, from Greekpelagos, sea.
[Pokorny 1. pl7-k- 831.]
pl7k-2
Important derivatives are: fling, plaint, complain, plankton, plague, apoplexy,paraplegia.To strike.
1. Nasalized variant forms *pla-n-k-, *pla-n-g-.
a. FLING, from Middle English flingen to fling, from aScandinavian source akin to Old Norse flengja, to flog,whip, from Germanic *flang-;
b. PLAINT, PLANGENT; COMPLAIN, from Latin plangere, to strike(one's own breast), lament;
c. suffixed form *plang-yo-. PLANKTON, from Greek plazein,to drive away, turn aside.
2. Variant form *pl7g-. PLAGUE, from Latin pl7ga, a blow, stroke.
3. Suffixed form *pl7k-yo-. PLECTRUM, -PLEGIA, PLEXOR; APLOPLEXY,CATAPLEXY, PARAPLEGIA, from Greek plKssein, to beat, strike.
b. FLATTER1, from Old French flater, to flatter. Both a and bfrom Germanic *flataz, flat.
3. Suffixed variant form *plad-yo-. FLAT2, from Old English flet(t),floor, dwelling, from Germanic *flatjam.
4. Basic form *plat-. FLAN, from Late Latin flado, flat cake,pancake, from Germanic *flatho(n), flat cake.
5. FLOUNDER2, from Anglo-Norman floundre, flounder, from aScandinavian source probably akin to Old Swedish flundra,flatfish, flounder, from Germanic nasalized suffixed form*flu-n-th-r-jo-.
6. Nasalized form *pla-n-t-. CLAN, PLAN, PLANT, PLANTAIN1, PLANTAR;PLANTIGRADE, SUPPLANT, TRANSPLANT, from Latin planta, sole of thefoot, and denominative plant7re, to drive in with the sole of thefoot, plant, whence planta, a plant.
1. Suffixed o-grade form *plok-so-. FLAX, from Old English fleax,flax, from Germanic *flahsam, flax.
2. Full-grade form *plek-. MULTIPLEX, from Latin -plex, -fold (incompounds such as duplex, twofold; see dwo-).
3. PLAIT, PLIANT, PLICA, PLICATE, PLIGHT1, PLISSÈ, PLY1; APPLY, COMPLICATE,COMPLICE, DEPLOY, DISPLAY, EMPLOY, EXPLICATE, IMPLICATE, REPLICATE,(REPLY), from Latin plic7re, to fold (also in compounds used asdenominatives of words in -plex, genitive -plicis).
4. Suffixed forms *plek-to- and *plek-t-to-. PLEACH, PLEXUS;AMPLEXICAUL, COMPLECT, (COMPLEX), PERPLEXED, from Latin plectere(past participle plexus), to weave, plait, entwine.
5. PLECOPTERAN, PLECTOGNATH, from Greek plekein, to plait, twine,and plektos, twisted.
ii. FLUE2, from Middle Dutch vluwe, fishnet,perhaps from pleu-. Both (i) and (ii) fromGermanic *flowan, to flow;
b. suffixed form *plo-tu-. FLOOD, from Old English flod,flood, from Germanic *floduz, flowing water, deluge.
II. Extended form *pleuk-.
1. FLY1, from Old English flKogan, to fly, from Germanic *fleugan,to fly.
2. FLY2, from Old English flKoge, a fly, from Germanic *fleugon-,flying insect, fly.
3. FLEE, from Old English flKon, to flee, from Germanic *fleuhan,to run away, probably from pleu-.
4. FLEY, from Old English fl«gan, flKgan, to put to flight, fromGermanic causative *flaugjan.
5. FLËCHE, FLETCHER, from Old French fleche, arrow, fromGermanic suffixed form *fleug-ika.
6. Zero-grade form *pluk-.
a. FLEDGE, from Old English *flycge, with feathers (only inunfligge, featherless), from Germanic *flugja-, feather;
b. FLIGHT1, FLIGHT2, from Old English flyht, act of flying, and*flyht, act of fleeing, escape, from Germanic suffixedform *flug-ti-;
c. FOWL, from Old English fugol, bird, from Germanic*fuglaz, bird, dissimilated from possible (but unlikely)suffixed form *flug-laz;
d. FL¸GELHORN, FUGLEMAN, from Middle High German vl¸gel,wing, from Germanic suffixed form *flug-ila.
III. Extended form *pleud-.
1. FLEET1, FLEET2, from Old English flKotan, to float, swim (fromGermanic *fleutan), and Old Norse fliotr, fleet, swift (from
Germanic *fleutaz).
2. Zero-grade form *plud-.
i. FLOAT, from Old English flotian, to float;
ii. FLOTSAM, from Old French floter, to float. Both(i) and (ii) from Germanic derivative *floton, tofloat;
b. FLOTILLA, from Old Norse floti, raft, fleet;
c. FLUTTER, from Old English floterian, flotorian, to floatback and forth (-erian, iterative and frequentativesuffix);
d. FLIT, from Old Norse flytja, to further, convey, fromGermanic *flutjan, to float. a, b, c, and d all fromGermanic *flut-, *flot-.
3. FLUSTER, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Icelandicflaustr, hurry, and flaustra, to bustle, from Germanic *flausta-,contracted from suffixed form *flaut-st7-, probably from*pleud-, o-grade *ploud-.
1. SNEEZE, from Old English fnKosan, to sneeze, from Germanic*fneu-s-.
2. SNORE, (SNORT), from Old English fnora, sneezing, fromGermanic *fnu-s-.
3. APNEA, DIPNOAN, DYSPNEA, EUPNEA, HYPERPNEA, HYPOPNEA, POLYPNEA,TACHYPNEA, from Greek pnein, to breathe, with o-grade nounspnoia, breathing, and pnoK, breath.
4. Suffixed form *pneu-mi. PNEUMA, PNEUMATIC, PNEUMATO-, PNEUMO-
, from Greek pneuma, breath, wind, spirit.
5. Germanic variant root *fnes-. SNEER, from Old English fn<ran,to snort, gnash one's teeth.
1. Basic form *prek-. PRAY, PRAYER1, PRECARIOUS; DEPRECATE, IMPRECATE,from *prex, prayer (attested only in the plural precKs), withLatin denominative prec7rX, to entreat, pray.
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *pyk-sk- becoming *pork-sk-,contracted into *posk- in suffixed form *posk-to, contractedinto *posto-. POSTULATE; EXPOSTULATE, from Latin postul7re, to ask,request.
a. FREE, from Old English frKo, free, and frKon, freogan, tolove, set free;
b. (FILIBUSTER), FREEBOOTER, from Dutch vrij, free. Both aand b from Germanic *frijaz, beloved, belonging to theloved ones, not in bondage, free, and *frijon, to love.
2. Suffixed (participial) form *priy-ont-, loving. FRIEND, from OldEnglish frXond, frKond, friend, from Germanic *frijand-, lover,friend.
3. Suffixed shortened form *pri-tu-.
a. SIEGFRIED, from Old High German fridu, peace;
b. AFFRAY, AFRAID, from Old French esfreer, to disturb, fromVulgar Latin *exfred7re, to break the peace, from ex-,out, away (see eghs) + *frid7re, to make peace, fromGermanic *frithu-, peace;
c. (see bhergh-2) Germanic compound *berg-frij-, “highplace of safety,” from *frij-, peace, safety. a, b, and c allfrom Germanic *frithuz, peace.
4. Suffixed feminine form *priy-7, beloved.
a. FRIGG, from Old Norse Frigg, goddess of the heavens,wife of Odin;
b. FRIDAY, from Old English FrXgedæg, Friday, fromGermanic compound *frije-dagaz, “day of Frigg”(translation of Latin Veneris diKs, “Venus's day”). Botha and b from Germanic *frijjo, beloved, wife.
c. FILTH, from Old English f«lth, foulness, from Germanicabstract noun *f7litho;
d. FILE3; DEFILE1, from Old English f«lan, to sully, fromGermanic denominative *f7ljan, to soil, dirty. a, b, c,
and d all from Germanic *f7laz, rotten, filthy.
2. Extended form *pug-. FOG2, from Middle English fog, fogge,aftermath grass, from a Scandinavian source probably akin toIcelandic f7ki, rotten sea grass, and Norwegian fogg, rank grass,from Germanic *fuk-.
3. Extended variant form *pous-. FUZZY, from Low German fussig,spongy, from Germanic *fausa-.
4. Suffixed form *pu-tri-. PUTRESCENT, PUTRID; (OLLA PODRIDA),(POTPOURRI), PUTREFY, from Latin puter (stem putri-), rotten.
5. Suffixed form *puw-os-.
a. PURULENT, PUS; SUPPURATE, from Latin p7s, pus;
b. PYO-, from Greek puon, puos, pus.
6. EMPYEMA, from Greek compound empuein, to suppurate (en-, in; seeen).
[Pokorny 2. p'- 848.]
p7r-Important derivatives are: fire, pyre.Fire.
Contracted from *puNr-, zero-grade form of *paNwy.
1. FIRE, from Old English f«r, fire, from Germanic suffixed form *f7r-i-.
re-The following entry is not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since it isrepresented in only one branch of the family. It is included because of the manyEnglish words among its descendants. Important derivatives are: re-, retro-,arrears.Also red-Backward. Latin combining form conceivably from Indo-European*wret-, metathetical variant of *wert-, to turn (wer-2.
7. RE-, from Latin re-, red-, backward, again.
8. Suffixed form *re(d)-tro-. RETRAL, RETRO-; ARREARS, REAR GUARD,REARWARD2, REREDOS, from Latin retro, backward, back, behind.
9. Suffixed form *re-ko-. (see per1) Latin reciprocus, “backwardand forward.”
3. ANORECTIC, ANOREXIA, from Greek oregein, to stretch out, reachout for (with prothetic vowel from oldest root form *Nreg-).
II. Lengthened-grade form *rKg-, Indo-European word for a tribal king.
a. BISHOPRIC, ELDRITCH, from Old English rXce, realm;
b. RIKSMÂL, from Old Norse rXki, realm;
c. REICHSMARK, from Old High German rXchi, realm;
d. RICH, from Old English rXce, strong, powerful, and OldFrench riche, wealthy. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic*rXkja-, from Celtic suffixed form *rXg-yo-.
2. REAL2, REGAL, REGULUS, REIGN, ROYAL; REGICIDE, REGIUS PROFESSOR,VICEREINE, VICEROY, from Latin rKx, king (royal and priestly title).
3. Suffixed form *rKg-en-. RAJ, RAJAH, (RANI), (RYE2); MAHARAJAH,MAHARANI, from Sanskrit r7j7, r7jan-, king, rajah (femininer7jÒX, queen, rani), and r7jati, he rules.
III. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *rKg-ol7. RAIL1, REGLET, REGULAR,REGULATE, RULE, from Latin rKgula, straight piece of wood, rod.
IV. O-grade form *rog-.
1. RAKE1, from Old English raca, racu, rake (implement withstraight pieces of wood), from Germanic *rako.
2. RACK1, from Middle Dutch rec, framework, from Germanic*rak-.
3. RANK2, from Old English ranc, straight, strong, hence haughty,overbearing, from Germanic *rankaz (with nasal infix),possibly from reg-.
4. RECKON, from Old English gerecenian, to arrange in order,recount (ge-, collective prefix; see kom), from Germanic*rakinaz, ready, straightforward.
5. Suffixed form *rog-7-. ROGATION, ROGATORY; ABROGATE, ARROGATE,CORVÈE, DEROGATE, INTERROGATE, PREROGATIVE, PROROGUE, SUBROGATE,SUPEREROGATE, from Latin rog7re, to ask (
6. Suffixed form *rog-o-. ERGO, from Latin ergo, therefore, inconsequence of, perhaps contracted from a Latin phrase *Krogo, “from the direction of” (K < ex, out of; see eghs), from apossible Latin noun *rogus, “extension, direction.”
V. Lengthened o-grade form *rog-.
1. RECK, Old English rec(c)an, to pay attention to, take care(formally influenced by Old English reccan, to extend, stretchout, from Germanic *rakjan), from Germanic *rokjan.
2. RECKLESS, from Old English rKcelKas, careless (-lKas, lacking; seeleu-), from Germanic rokja-.
a. RUN, RUNNEL, from Old English rinnan, to run, and OldNorse rinna, to run (from Germanic *rinnan, to run,from *ri-nw-an), and from Old English causativeærnan, eornan, to run (from secondary Germaniccausative *rannjan);
b. EMBER DAY, from Old English ryne, a running, fromsecondary Germanic derivative *runiz;
c. RENNET, from Old English *rynet, from secondaryGermanic derivative *runita-.
24. Suffixed zero-grade form *ri-l-. RILL, from Dutch ril or LowGerman rille, running stream, from Germanic *ril-.
25. Suffixed form *rei-wo-. RIVAL, RIVULET; DERIVE, from Latin rXvus,stream.
Suffixed zero-grade form *rap-yo-. RAPACIOUS, RAPE1, RAPID, RAPINE, RAPT, (RAVEN2),RAVIN, RAVISH; EREPSIN, (SUBREPTION), SURREPTITIOUS, from Latin rapere, to seize.
I. Basic form *reub-. RIP1, from Flemish rippen, to rip, from Germanic*rupjan.
II. O-grade form *roup-.
a. REAVE1, from Old English rKafian, to plunder;
b. BEREAVE, from Old English berKafian, to take away (be-,bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi);
c. ROVER2, from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German
roven, to rob. a, b, and c all from Germanic *(bi-)raubon.
d. ROB, from Old French rober, to rob;
e. RUBATO, from Italian rubare, to rob. Both a and b from aRomance borrowing from Germanic *raubon, to rob.
2. ROBE, from Old French robe, robe (*raubo, booty.
3. Suffixed form *roup-tro-. LOOT, from Sanskrit loptram, booty.
4. RUBLE, from Old Russian rubiti, to chop, hew, from Slavic*rubje/a-.
III. Zero-grade form *rup-.
1. USURP, from Latin 7s7rp7re (< *7su-rup-; 7sus, use, usage, from7tX, to use), originally “to interrrupt the orderly acquisition ofsomething by the act of using,” whence to take into use, usurp.
2. Nasalized form *ru-m-p-. ROUT1, RUPTURE; ABRUPT, BANKRUPT,CORRUPT, DISRUPT, ERUPT, INTERRUPT, IRRUPT, RUPICOLOUS, from Latinrumpere, to break.
a. suffixed form *sald-o-. SALT, from Old English sealt, salt,from Germanic *saltam;
i. SOUSE1, from Old French sous, pickled meat;
ii. SILT, from Middle English cylte, fine sand, from asource probably akin to Danish and Norwegiansylt, salt marsh. Both (i) and (ii) from Germaniczero-grade suffixed extended form *sult-jo;
b. (SALSA), SAUCE, from Latin sallere (past participle salsus <*sald-to-), to salt.
b. SITZ BATH, SITZKRIEG, SITZMARK, from Old High Germansizzen, to sit. Both a and b from Germanic *sitjan.
6. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *sod-eyo-.
a. SET1, from Old English settan, to place;
b. BESET, from Old English besettan, to set near;
c. ERSATZ, from Old High German irsezzan, to replace,from sezzan, to set. a, b, and c all from Germanic *(bi-)satjan, to cause to sit, set.
7. Suffixed form *sed-lo-, seat. SETTLE, from Old English setl, seat,from Germanic *setlaz.
8. O-grade form *sod-. SADDLE, from Old English sadol, saddle,from Germanic *sadulaz, seat, saddle (perhaps from *sod-dhlo-).
9. Suffixed lengthened o-grade form *sod-o-. SOOT, from OldEnglish sot, soot (*sotam.
10. Suffixed lengthened-grade form sKd-i-, settler. COSSET, possiblyfrom Old English s<ta, -s<te, inhabitant(s), from Germanic*s7ti-.
11. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *sKd-yo-. SEAT, from Old Norsesæti, seat, from Germanic *(ge)sKtjam, seat (*ge-, *ga-,collective prefix; see kom).
12. Form *sed-K-. SÈANCE, SEDENTARY, SEDERUNT, SEDILE, SEDIMENT, SESSILE,SESSION, SEWER2, SIEGE; ASSESS, ASSIDUOUS, DISSIDENT, (INSESSORIAL),INSIDIOUS, OBSESS, POSSESS, PRESIDE, RESIDE, SUBSIDY, SUPERSEDE, fromLatin sedKre, to sit.
13. Reduplicated form *si-zd-.
a. SUBSIDE, from Latin sXdere, to sit down, settle;
b. SYNIZESIS, from Greek hizein, to sit down, settle down.
14. Lengthened-grade form *sKd-. SEE2, from Latin sKdKs, seat,residence.
15. Lengthened-grade form *sKd-7-. SEDATE1, from Latin sKd7re, tosettle, calm down.
16. Suffixed o-grade form *sod-yo-. SOIL1, from Latin solium,throne, seat.
17. Suffixed form *sed-r7-. -HEDRON; CATHEDRA, (CHAIR), EPHEDRINE,EXEDRA, SANHEDRIN, TETRAHEDRON, from Greek hedra, seat, chair,face of a geometric solid.
18. Prefixed and suffixed form *pi-sed-yo-, to sit upon (*pi, on; seeepi). PIEZO-; ISOPIESTIC, from Greek piezein, to press tight.
19. Basic form *sed-.
a. EDAPHIC, from Greek edaphos, ground, foundation (withGreek suffix -aphos);
b. UPANISHAD, from Sanskrit upani}ad, Upanishad, fromsad-;
c. TANIST, from Old Irish t7naise, designated successor,from Celtic *t7nihessio-, “one who is waited for,” from*to-ad-ni-sed-tio, from *to-ad-ni-sed-, to wait for.
20. Suffixed form *sed-o-, sitting. EISTEDDFOD, from Welsh eistedd,sitting, from Celtic *eks-dX-sedo- (see eghs, de-).
9. Suffixed form *segh-es-. SIEGFRIED, from Old High German sigu,sigo, victory, from Germanic *sigiz-, victory (
10. HECTIC; CACHEXIA, CATHEXIS, ECHARD, ENTELECHY, EUNUCH, OPHIUCHUS,from Greek ekhein, to hold, possess, be in a certain condition,and hexis, habit, condition.
11. O-grade form *sogh-. EPOCH, from Greek epokhK, “a holdingback,” pause, cessation, position in time (epi-, on, at; see epi).
12. Zero-grade form *sgh-.
a. SCHEME, from Greek skhKma, “a holding,” form, figure;
b. (SCHOLAR), SCHOLASTIC, SCHOLIUM, SCHOOL1, from GreekskholK, “a holding back,” stop, rest, leisure, employmentof leisure in disputation, school.
13. Reduplicated form *si-sgh-. ISCHEMIA, from Greek iskhein, tokeep back.
18. SCYTHE, from Old English sXthe, sigthe, sickle, from Germanic*segitho, sickle.
19. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-7-. SAW1, from Old English sagu,sage, saw, from Germanic *sago, a cutting tool, saw.
20. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-yo-. SEDGE, from Old English secg,sedge, from Germanic *sagjaz, “sword,” plant with a cuttingedge.
21. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-so-. SAXON, from Late Latin Saxo,(plural SaxonKs), a Saxon, from West Germanic tribal name*Saxon-, Saxon, traditionally (but doubtfully) regarded as fromGermanic *sahsam, knife, sword (as if “warrior with knives”).
22. Extended root *skend-, to peel off, flay. SKIN, from Old Norseskinn, skin, from Germanic *skinth-.
23. Basic form *sek-. SECANT, -SECT, SECTILE, SECTION, SECTOR, SEGMENT;DISSECT, INSECT, INTERSECT, RESECT, (TRANSECT), from Latin sec7re, tocut.
24. Lengthened-grade form *sKk-. SICKLE, from Latin sKcula, sickle.
25. Possible suffixed variant form *sak-so-.
a. ZAX, from Old English seax, knife;
b. SAXATILE; SAXICOLOUS, SAXIFRAGE, from Latin saxum, stone (
[Pokorny 2. sLk- 895, sken-(d-) 929.] See also extended roots skei-, sker-1, sker-3
21. Suffixed form *sekw-no-. SEAL1, SEGNO, SIGN; ASSIGN, CONSIGN,DESIGNATE, INSIGNIA, RESIGN, from Latin signum, identifying mark,sign (
22. Suffixed o-grade form *sokw-yo-. SOCIABLE, SOCIAL, SOCIETY, SOCIO-;ASSOCIATE, CONSOCIATE, DISSOCIATE, from Latin socius, ally,companion (< “follower”).
[Pokorny 1. sek¯- 896.]
sekw-2
Important derivatives are: see1, sight.To perceive, see.
3. SEE1, from Old English sKon, to see, from Germanic *sehwan, tosee.
4. SIGHT, from Old English sihth, gesiht, vision, spectacle, fromGermanic abstract noun *sih-tiz.
[Pokorny 2. sek¯- 897.]
sekw-3
Important derivatives are: say, saw2, saga, scold.To say, utter.
14. O-grade form *sokw-.
a. suffixed form *sokw-yo-. SAY, from Old English secgan,to say, from Germanic *sagjan;
b. suffixed form *sokw-7-.
i. SAW2, from Old English sagu, a saying, speech;
ii. SAGA, from Old Norse saga, a saying, narrative.Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sago, a saying.
15. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *skw-e-tlo-, narration. SCOLD,SKALD, from Middle English scolde, an abusive person, and OldNorse sk7ld, poet, “satirist” (to which the probableScandinavian source of Middle English scolde is perhaps akin),from North Germanic *skathla.
13. SEVEN; SEVENTEEN, SEVENTY, from Old English seofon, seven, withderivatives (hund)seofontig, seventy, and seofontXne, seventeen(-tXne, ten; see dekc), from Germanic *sebum.
14. SEPTEMBER, SEPTENNIAL, SEPTET, SEPTUAGINT, SEPTUPLE; SEPTENTRION,from Latin septem, seven.
15. HEBDOMAD, HEPTA-, HEPTAD, from Greek hepta, seven.
[Pokorny septc 909.]
ser-1
Important derivatives are: conserve, observe, preserve, reserve, reservoir, hero.To protect.
2. Extended form *serw-. CONSERVE, OBSERVE, PRESERVE, RESERVE,(RESERVOIR), from Latin serv7re, to keep, preserve.
Important derivatives are: series, assert, exert, insert, sermon, sorcerer, sort, assort,consort.To line up.
13. SERIES, SERTULARIAN; ASSERT, DESERT3, DISSERTATE, EXERT, INSERT, fromLatin serere, to arrange, attach, join (in speech), discuss.
14. Suffixed form *ser-mon-. SERMON, from Latin sermo (stemsermon-), speech, discourse.
15. Perhaps suffixed form *ser-7-. SEAR2, (SERRIED), from Latin sera,a lock, bolt, bar (?
16. Suffixed zero-grade form *sy-ti-. SORCERER, SORT; ASSORT, CONSORT,SORTILEGE, from Latin sors (stem sort-), lot, fortune (probablyfrom the lining up of lots before drawing).
17. Suffixed o-grade form *sor-mo-. HORMOGONIUM, from Greekhormos, chain, necklace.
[Pokorny 4. ser- 911.]
seuN-1
An important derivative is: son.To give birth.
Suffixed zero-grade form in derivative noun *su(N)-nu-, son. SON, from OldEnglish sunu, son, from Germanic *sunuz.
[Pokorny 2. seu- 913.] See also s7-.
seuN-2
Important derivatives are: soup, sup2, sop, sip, suck, soak, suction, succulent.To take liquid.
IX. Suffixed zero-grade form *suN-yo-, contracted to *s7-yo. HYETAL;ISOHYET, from Greek huetos, rain, from huein, to rain.
X. Possible extended zero-grade form *s7b-.
a. SUP1, from Old English s7pan, s7pian, to drink, sip;
b. SOUP, (SUP2), from Old French soup(e), soup. Both a andb from Germanic *s7p-.
c. SOP, from Old English sopp- in soppcuppe, cup fordipping bread in;
d. SIP, from Middle English sippen, to sip, from a sourceprobably akin to Low German sippen, to sip, possiblyfrom seuN-2. Both a and b from Germanic *supp-.
XI. Possible extended zero-grade form *s7g-.
1. SUCK, from Old English s7can, to suck, from Germanic *s7k-.
2. SOAK, from Old English socian, to steep, from Germanicshortened form *sukon.
3. SUCTION, SUCTORIAL, from Latin s7gere, to suck.
4. Variant form *s7k-. SUCCULENT, from Latin s7cus, succus, juice.
a. SHIN1, from Old English scinu, shin, shinbone (
b. CHINE, from Old French eschine, backbone, piece ofmeat with part of the backbone. Both a and b fromGermanic suffixed form *ski-no-.
8. SCIENCE, SCILICET, SCIOLISM; ADSCITITIOUS, CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUS,NESCIENCE, (NICE), OMNISCIENT, PLEBISCITE, PRESCIENT, from LatinscXre, to know (
9. Suffixed zero-grade form *skiy-en7. SKEAN, from Old Irish scXan,knife.
10. Extended root *skeid-.
i. SHIT, from Old English *scXtan, to defecate;
ii. SKATE3, from Old Norse skXta, to defecate;
iii. SHYSTER, from Old High German skXzzan, todefecate. (i), (ii), and (iii) all from Germanic*skXtan, to separate, defecate;
b. suffixed zero-grade form *sk(h)id-yo-. SCHISM, SCHIST,SCHIZO-, from Greek skhizein, to split;
c. nasalized zero-grade form *ski-n-d-. SCISSION; EXSCIND,PRESCIND, RESCIND, from Latin scindere, to split.
11. Extended root *skeit-.
i. SHED1, from Old English scKadan, to separate;
ii. SHEATH, from Old English scKath, sheath (skei-.
Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *skaith-,
*skaidan;
b. SKI, from Old Norse skXdh, log, stick, snowshoe, fromGermanic *skXdam;
c. o-grade form *skoit-. ÈCU, ESCUDO, ESCUTCHEON, ESQUIRE,SCUDO, SCUTUM, (SQUIRE), from Latin sc7tum, shield (<“board”).
12. Extended root *skeip-.
a. SHEAVE2, from Middle English sheve, pulley (
b. SKIVE, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old NorseskXfa, to slice, split;
c. SHIVER2, from Middle English shivere, scivre, splinter,possibly from a Low German source akin to MiddleLow German schever, splinter. a, b, and c all fromGermanic *skif-.
b. SCAGLIOLA, from Italian scaglia, chip. Both a and b fromGermanic *skaljo, piece cut off, shell, scale.
c. SHALE, from Old English sc(e)alu, husk, shell;
d. SCALE1, from Old French escale, husk, shell. Both a and bfrom Germanic *skalo.
e. SCALL, from Old Norse skalli, bald head (
f. SCALP, from Middle English scalp, top of the head, froma source akin to Old Norse skalpr, sheath, shell. Both aand b from Germanic *skal-.
2. SCALE3, SKOAL, from Old Norse sk7l, bowl, drinking vessel (madefrom a shell), from Germanic *skKlo.
3. SHIELD, from Old English scield, shield (< “board”), fromGermanic *skelduz.
a. SKILL, from Old Norse skil, reason, discernment,knowledge (< “incisiveness”);
b. SHELDRAKE, from Middle English scheld, variegated, froma Low German source akin to Middle Dutch schillen, todiversify, with past participle schillede, separated,variegated. Both a and b from Germanic *skeli-.
4. SCHOOL2, SHOAL2, from Middle Low German schole, troop, orMiddle Dutch scole, both from Germanic *skulo, a division.
6. Suffixed zero-grade form *sk_-yo-. SCALENE, from Greek skallein,to stir up, hoe ( skalenos, uneven).
7. Extended root *skelp-.
a. SHELF, from Middle Low German schelf, shelf (*skelf-;
b. HALF, from Old English healf, half, from Germanic*halbaz (*kelp-), divided possibly from skel-1;
c. perhaps variant *skalp-. SCALPEL, SCULPTURE, from Latinscalpere, to cut, scrape, with derivative sculpere(originally as the combining form of scalpere), to carve
[Pokorny 1. (s)kel- 923.]
skel-2
An important derivative is: shall.To be under an obligation.
O-grade (perfect) form *skol-. SHALL, from Old English sceal (used with thefirst and third person singular pronouns), shall, from Germanic *skal, I owe,hence I ought.
a. SHEAR, from Old English scieran, sceran, to cut;
b. SHEER1, from Low German scheren, to move to and fro,and Dutch scheren, to withdraw, depart. Both a and bfrom Germanic *skeran.
c. SHARE2, from Old English scKar, plowshare;
d. SHARE1, from Old English scearu, scaru, portion, division(but recorded only in the sense of “fork of the body,”“tonsure”). Both a and b from Germanic *skeraz.
e. SHEAR, from Old English scKar, scissors, from Germanic*skKr-o- and *sker-ez-;
f. compound *skKr-berg-, “sword protector,” scabbard(see bhergh-1). SCABBARD, from Old French escauberc,scabbard, possibly from a Germanic source akin to OldHigh German scarberc, scabbard. Both a and b fromGermanic *skKr-.
2. SCORE, from Old Norse skor, notch, tally, twenty, fromGermanic *skur-.
3. SCAR2, SKERRY, from Old Norse sker, low reef (*skar-jam.
4. Suffixed o-grade extended form *skorp-o-. SCARF2, from OldNorse skarfr, diagonally-cut end of a board, from Germanic*skarfaz.
5. Suffixed o-grade extended form *skord-o-. SHARD, from OldEnglish sceard, a cut, notch, from Germanic *skardaz.
6. Extended form *skerd- in suffixed zero-grade form *skyd-o-.
a. SHORT, from Old English scort, sceort, “cut,” short;
b. SHIRT, from Old English scyrte, skirt (
c. SKIRT, from Old Norse skyrta, shirt. a, b, and c all fromGermanic *skurtaz.
d. SKIRMISH, from Old French eskermir, to fight with asword, fence, and Old Italian scaramuccia, skirmish,from a source akin to Old High German skirmen, toprotect;
e. SCREEN, from Middle Dutch scherm, shield. Both a and bfrom Germanic extended form *skerm-.
7. Variant form *kar-. CARNAGE, CARNAL, CARNASSIAL, CARNATION,CARNIVAL, CARRION, CARUNCLE, CHARNEL, CRONE; CARNIVOROUS,INCARNATE, from Latin caro (stem carn-), flesh.
8. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-yo. CORIACEOUS, CORIUM, CUIRASS,CURRIER; EXCORIATE, from Latin corium, leather (originally “pieceof hide”).
10. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-mo-. CORM, from Greek kormos, atrimmed tree trunk.
11. Suffixed o-grade form *kor-i-. COREOPSIS, from Greek koris,bedbug (< “cutter”).
12. Suffixed zero-grade form. SHORE1, from Old English scora,shore, from Germanic *skur-o.
IX. Extended roots *skert-, *kert-.
1. Zero-grade form *kyt- or o-grade form *kort-. CORTEX;DECORTICATE, from Latin cortex, bark (
2. Suffixed form *kert-sn7-. CENACLE, from Latin cKna, meal (
X. Extended root *skerp-. SCURF, probably from a Scandinavian sourceakin to Old English sceorf, scab, scurf, from Germanic *skerf-.
XI. Extended root *skerb(h)-, *skreb(h)-.
a. SHARP, from Old English scearp, slope;
b. SCARP, from Italian scarpa, embankment, possibly from aGermanic source akin to Gothic skarpo, pointed object.Both a and b from Germanic *skarpaz, cutting, sharp.
c. SCRAP1, from Old Norse skrap, “pieces,” remains;
d. SCRAPE, from Old Norse skrapa, to scratch. Both a and bfrom Germanic *skrap-.
e. SCRABBLE, from Middle Dutch schrabben, to scrape;
f. SCRUB1, from Middle Dutch schrobben, to scrape. Both aand b from Germanic *skrab-.
2. SHRUB1, from Old English scrybb, shrub (*skrub-.
3. SCROBICULATE, from Latin scrobis, trench, ditch.
4. SCREW, SCROFULA, from Latin scrofa, a sow (< “rooter, digger”).
[Pokorny 4. sker-, Section I. 938.]
sker-2
Important derivatives are: shrink, ring1, ranch, range, rank1, rink, arrange, ridge,curb, curve, crest, crepe, crisp, circle, search, crown.Also ker-To turn, bend. Presumed base of a number of distantly relatedderivatives.
3. Extended form *(s)kreg- in nasalized form *(s)kre-n-g-.
a. SHRINK, from Old English scrincan, to wither, shrivel up,from Germanic *skrink-;
b. variant *kre-n-g-.
i. RUCK2, from Old Norse hrukka, a crease, fold;
ii. FLOUNCE1, from Old French fronce, pleat, fromFrankish *hrunkjan, to wrinkle. Both (i) and (ii)from Germanic *hrunk-.
4. Extended form *(s)kregh- in nasalized form *skre-n-gh-.
a. RING1, from Old English hring, a ring;
b. RANCH, RANGE, RANK1, RINK; ARRANGE, DERANGE, from OldFrench renc, reng, line, row;
c. RINGHALS, from Middle Dutch rinc (combining formring-), a ring. a, b, and c all from Germanic *hringaz,something curved, circle.
5. Extended form *kreuk-.
a. RIDGE, from Old English hrycg, spine, ridge;
b. RUCKSACK, from Old High German hrukki, back. Both aand b from Germanic hrugjaz.
6. Suffixed variant form *kur-wo-. CURB, CURVATURE, CURVE, CURVET,from Latin curvus, bent, curved.
7. Suffixed extended form *kris-ni-. CRINOLINE, from Latin crXnis(< *crisnis), hair.
7. SCRIBBLE, SCRIBE, SCRIPT, SCRIPTORIUM, SCRIPTURE, SERIF, SHRIVE; ASCRIBE,CIRCUMSCRIBE, CONSCRIPT, DESCRIBE, FESTSCHRIFT, INSCRIBE, MANUSCRIPT,POSTSCRIPT, PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE, RESCRIPT, SUBSCRIBE, SUPERSCRIBE,TRANSCRIBE, from Latin scrXbere, to scratch, incise, write.
8. SCARIFY1, from Greek skariphos, scratching, sketch, pencil.
[Pokorny 4. sker-, Section II. 945.]
slKb-An important derivative is: sleep.To be weak, sleep.
Possibly related to slKg- through a hypothetical base *slK- (< *sleN-). SLEEP,from Old English sl<pan, to sleep, and sl<p, sleep, from Germanic *slKpan,*slKpaz.
[In Pokorny 1. leb- 655.]
slKg-Important derivatives are: slack1, lax, relax, languish.To be slack, be languid.
Possibly related to slKb- through a hypothetical base *slK- (< *sleN-). Zero-grade form *slNg-, becoming *slag-.
7. SLACK1, from Old English slæc, “loose,” indolent, careless, fromGermanic *slak-.
8. Suffixed form *lag-so-. LAX; RELAX, from Latin laxus, loose, slack.
9. Suffixed nasalized form *la-n-g-u-. LANGUISH, from LatinlanguKre, to be languid.
6. Suffixed basic form *n7w-yo-. NAIAD, from Greek Naias,fountain nymph, probably from naein, to flow.
7. Variant root form *(s)neu(N)-. NEUSTON, from Greek nein, toswim.
8. Zero-grade form *(s)n7- (< *snuN-) in suffixed form *n7-trX(with feminine agent suffix). NOURISH, NURSE, NURTURE, NUTRIENT,NUTRIMENT, NUTRITION, NUTRITIOUS, NUTRITIVE, from Latin n7trXx,nurse, and n7trXre, to suckle, nourish.
[In Pokorny sn7- 971.]
(s)nK-An important derivative is: needle.Also nK-To spin, sew. Contracted from *(s)neN-.
1. Suffixed form *nK-tl7. NEEDLE, from Old English n<dl, needle,from Germanic *nKthlo.
2. Suffixed form *snK-mi. NEMATO-; AXONEME, CHROMONEMA,PROTONEMA, SYNAPTINEMAL COMPLEX, TREPONEMA, from Greek nKma,thread.
3. Suffixed o-grade form *sno-t7-. SNOOD, from Old English snod,headband, from Germanic *snodo.
2. Suffixed o-grade form *spo-ti-. SPEED, from Old English spKd,success, from Germanic *spodiz.
3. Suffixed form *spK-s-. DESPAIR, ESPERANCE, from Latin spKr7re, tohope, denominative of spKs (plural spKrKs), hope.
4. Suffixed zero-grade form *spN-ro-. PROSPER, from Latinprosperus, favorable, prosperous (traditionally regarded as frompro spKrK, according to one's hope; pro-, according to; see per1).
b. ESPIONAGE, from Old Italian spione, spy, from Germanicderivative *speh-on-, watcher. Both a and b fromGermanic *spehon.
2. Suffixed form *spek-yo-. SPECIMEN, SPECIOUS, SPECTACLE, SPECTRUM,SPECULATE, SPECULUM; ASPECT, CIRCUMSPECT, CONSPICUOUS, DESPISE,EXPECT, FRONTISPIECE, INSPECT, INTROSPECT, PERSPECTIVE, PROSPECT,RESPECT, (RESPITE), RETROSPECT, SUSPECT, TRANSPICUOUS, from Latinspecere, to look at.
3. SPECIES; ESPECIAL, from Latin speciKs, a seeing, sight, form.
a. (see gherN-) Latin haruspex, diviner;
b. (see awi-) Latin auspex, augur. Both a and b fromLatin -spex (< *-spek-), “he who sees.”
4. Suffixed form *spek-7-. DESPICABLE, from Latin (denominative)dKspic7rX, to despise, look down on (dK-, down; see de-).
5. Suffixed metathetical form *skep-yo-. SKEPTIC, from Greekskeptesthai, to examine, consider.
II. Extended o-grade form *spoko-. SCOPE, -SCOPE, -SCOPY; BISHOP, EPISCOPAL,HOROSCOPE, TELESCOPE, from metathesized Greek skopos, one whowatches, also object of attention, goal, and its denominative skopein (<*skop-eyo-), to see.
a. SPIDER, SPIN, from Old English spinnan, to spin, andspXthra, spider, contracted from Germanic derivative*spin-thron-, “the spinner”;
b. SPINDLE, from Old English spinel, spindle, fromGermanic derivative *spin-ilon-. Both a and b fromGermanic *spinnan, to spin.
2. Extended form *pend-. PAINTER2, (PANSY), PENCHANT, PENDANT1,PENDENTIVE, PENDULOUS, PENSILE, PENSION1, PENSIVE, PESO, POISE1;ANTEPENDIUM, APPEND, (APPENDIX), AVOIRDUPOIS, COMPENDIUM,COMPENSATE, DEPEND, DISPENSE, EXPEND, IMPEND, (PENTHOUSE), PERPEND,PERPENDICULAR, PREPENSE, PROPEND, SUSPEND, VILIPEND, from LatinpendKre, to hang (intransitive), and pendere, to cause to hang,weigh, with its frequentative pKns7re, to weigh, consider.
3. Perhaps suffixed form *pen-ya-. -PENIA, from Greek penia, lack,poverty (
4. GEOPONIC, LITHOPONE, from Greek ponos, toil, and ponein, to toil,o-grade derivatives of penesthai, to toil.
II. O-grade forms *spon-, *pon-.
a. SPAN2, from Middle Dutch spannen, to bind;
b. SPANNER, from Old High German spannan, to stretch.Both a and b from Germanic *spannan.
2. SPAN1, from Old English span(n), distance, from Germanic*spanno-.
3. SPANGLE, from Middle Dutch spange, clasp, from Germanic*spango, perhaps from (s)pen-.
4. Suffixed and extended form *pond-o-. POUND1, from Latinpondo, by weight.
5. Suffixed and extended form *pond-es-. PONDER, PONDEROUS;EQUIPONDERATE, PREPONDERATE, from Latin pondus (stem ponder-),weight, and its denominative ponder7re, to weigh, ponder.
6. Suffixed o-grade form *spon-t-. SPONTANEOUS, from Latin sponte,of one's own accord, spontaneously, possibly from (s)pen-,but more likely to a homophonous Germanic verb *spanan, toentice.
a. DESTINE, from Latin dKstin7re, to make firm, establish(dK-, thoroughly; see de-);
b. OBSTINATE, from Latin obstin7re, to set one's mind on,persist (ob-, on; see epi).
8. Suffixed form *stN-tu-. STATE, STATISTICS, (STATUE), STATURE, STATUS,STATUTE; CONSTITUTE, DESTITUTE, INSTITUTE, PROSTITUTE, RESTITUTE,SUBSTITUTE, SUPERSTITION, from Latin status, manner, position,condition, attitude, with derivatives stat7ra, height, stature,statuere, to set up, erect, cause to stand, and superstes (< *-stN-t-), witness (“who stands beyond”).
9. Suffixed form *stN-dhlo-. STABLE2; CONSTABLE, from Latinstabulum, “standing place,” stable.
10. Suffixed form *stN-dhli-. ESTABLISH, STABLE1, from Latin stabilis,standing firm.
11. Suffixed form *stN-t7. -STAT; ENSTATITE, from Greek -statKs, onethat causes to stand, a standing.
III. Zero-grade form *st-, *st(N)- (before vowels).
1. Reduplicated form *si-st(N)-.
a. ASSIST, CONSIST, DESIST, EXIST, INSIST, INTERSTICE, PERSIST, RESIST,SUBSIST, from Latin sistere, to set, place, stop, stand;
b. APOSTASY, CATASTASIS, DIASTASIS, ECSTASY, EPISTASIS,EPISTEMOLOGY, HYPOSTASIS, ICONOSTASIS, ISOSTASY, METASTASIS,
PROSTATE, SYSTEM, from Greek histanai (aorist stanai), toset, place, with stasis (*stN-ti-), a standing (see II. 5. e.);
c. HISTO-; HISTIOCYTE, from Greek histos, web, tissue (
2. Compound form *tri-st-i-, “third person standing by” (seetrei-).
3. Compound form *por-st-i-, “that which stands before” (*por-,before, forth; see per1). POST1, from Latin postis, post.
4. Suffixed form *st-o- in compound *upo-st-o-, “one who standsunder” (see upo).
IV. Extended root *st7u- (< *staNu-), becoming *stau- before consonants,*st7w- before vowels; basic meaning “stout-standing, strong.”
1. Suffixed extended form *st7w-7. STOW, from Old English stow,place, from Germanic *stowo.
i. STORE; INSTAURATION, from Latin Xnstaur7re, torestore, set upright again (in-, on; see en);
ii. RESTORE, from Latin restaur7re, to restore, rebuild(re-, anew, again; see re-);
b. STAUROLITE, from Greek stauros, cross, post, stake.
4. Variant *tau-ro-, bull (see tauro-).
V. Zero-grade extended root *st7- (< *stuN-). Suffixed form *st7-lo-.STYLITE; AMPHISTYLAR, ASTYLAR, EPISTYLE, HYPOSTYLE, PERISTYLE, PROSTYLE,STYLOBATE, from Greek stulos, pillar.
VI. Secondary full-grade form *steuN-. Suffixed form *steuN-ro-.THERAVADA, from Sanskrit sthavira-, thick, stout, old.
VII. Variant zero-grade extended root *stu-. Suffixed form *stu-t-.STUD1, from Old English stuthu, studu, post, prop.
VIII. Secondary full-grade form *steu-.
1. Suffixed form *steu-r7. STARBOARD, from Old English stKor-, asteering, from Germanic *steuro, “a steering.”
a. STEER1, from Old English stXeran, stKran, to steer;
b. STERN2, from Middle English sterne, stern of a boat,possibly from a source akin to Old Norse stjorn, arudder, a steering, derivative of st«ra, to steer. Both aand b from Germanic denominative *steurjan.
2. Suffixed form *steu-ro-, a larger domestic animal. STEER2, fromOld English stKor, steer, from Germanic *steuraz, ox.
3. STIRK, from Old English stXrc, stierc, calf, from Germanicdiminutive *steur-ika-, probably from st7-.
1. STICKLEBACK, from Old English sticel, a prick, sting, fromGermanic suffixed form *stik-ilaz.
2. Suffixed form *stig-i-. STITCH, from Old English stice, a sting,prick, from Germanic *stikiz.
3. STICK, from Old English sticca, stick, from Germanic expressiveform *stikkon-.
4. (ETIQUETTE), TICKET, from Old French estiquier, to stick, fromGermanic stative *stikkKn, “to be stuck.”
5. SNICKERSNEE, from Middle Dutch steken, to stick, stab, fromGermanic blended variant *stekan.
6. Nasalized form *sti-n-g-. DISTINGUISH, EXTINGUISH, INSTINCT, fromLatin stinguere, to quench, perhaps originally to prick, and itsapparent derivative distinguere, to separate (phonological andsemantic transitions obscure).
7. Suffixed form *stig-yo-. STIGMA; ASTIGMATISM, from Greek stizein,to prick, tattoo.
8. Suffixed reduced form *tig-ro-. TIGER, from Greek tigris, tiger(from its stripes), from the same Iranian source as Old Persiantigra-, sharp, pointed, and Avestan tighri-, arrow.
II. Basic form *steig-. INSTIGATE, from Latin XnstXg7re, to urge, from -stXg7re,to spur on, prod.
III. Suffixed o-grade form *stoig-7-. STEAK, from Old Norse steik, roast,steak, and steikja, to roast (on a spit), from Germanic *staiko.
I. Basic form *steigh-. STY2; STIRRUP, from Old English stXgan, to go up, rise,from Germanic *stXgan.
II. Zero-grade form *stigh-.
1. STILE1, from Old English stigel, series of steps, from Germanic*stigila-.
2. Suffixed form *stigh-to-. STICKLE, from Old English stiht(i)an, tosettle, arrange, from Germanic *stihtan, “to place on a step orbase.”
3. Suffixed form *stigh-o-. STICH; ACROSTIC, CADASTRE, DISTICH,HEMISTICH, PENTASTICH, STICHOMETRY, STICHOMYTHIA, from Greekstikhos, row, line, line of verse.
III. O-grade form *stoigh-.
1. Suffixed form *stoigh-ri-. STAIR, from Old English st<ger, stair,step, from Germanic *staigrX.
2. STOICHIOMETRY, from Greek stoikheion, shadow line, element.
[Pokorny steigh- 1017.]
stel-Important derivatives are: still1, apostle, epistle, stall1, installment1, stallion, pedestal,install, gestalt, stole1, stalk1, stilt, stout.To put, stand; with derivatives referring to a standing object or place.
I. Basic form *stel-.
1. Suffixed form *stel-ni-. STILL1, from Old English stille, quiet,fixed, from Germanic *stilli-.
2. Suffixed form *stel-yo-. APOSTLE, DIASTOLE, EPISTLE, PERISTALSIS,SYSTALTIC, from Greek stellein, to put in order, prepare, send,
make compact (with o-grade and zero-grade forms stol- andstal-).
II. O-grade form *stol-.
1. Suffixed form *stol-no-.
a. STALL1; FORESTALL, from Old English steall, standing place,stable;
b. STALE1; INSTALLMENT1, from Old French estal, place;
c. STALLION, from Anglo-Norman estaloun, stallion;
d. PEDESTAL, from Old Italian stallo, stall;
e. INSTALL, from Medieval Latin stallum, stall;
f. GESTALT, from Old High German stellen, to set, place,from Germanic denominative *stalljan. a, b, c, d, e,and f all from Germanic *stalla-.
2. Suffixed form *stol-on-. STOLON, from Latin stolo, branch,shoot.
3. Suffixed form *stol-ido-. STOLID, from Latin stolidus, “firm-standing,” stupid.
4. Suffixed form *stol-7-.
a. STALK1, from Old English stalu, upright piece, stalk, fromGermanic *stalo-;
b. STOLE1, from Greek stolK, garment, array, equipment.
III. Zero-grade form *st_-.
1. Suffixed form *st_-to-. STULTIFY, from Latin stultus, foolish (<“unmovable, uneducated”).
2. Suffixed zero-grade form *st_-no-. STULL, (STOLLEN), from OldHigh German stollo, post, support, from Germanic *stullon-.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *stal-n7-. STELE, from Greek stKlK,pillar.
IV. Extended form *steld-.
a. STILT, from Middle English stilte, crutch, stilt, from asource akin to Low German and Flemish stilte, stick,from Germanic *stiltjon-;
b. zero-grade form *st_d-. STOUT, from Old French estout,stout, from Germanic *stult-, “walking on stilts,”strutting.
1. STRAIN2, from Old English strKon, something gained, offspring,from Germanic suffixed form *streu-nam.
2. STRUCTURE; CONSTRUCT, DESTROY, INSTRUCT, OBSTRUCT, SUBSTRUCTION,from Latin struere, to pile up, construct.
3. Zero-grade form *stru-. INDUSTRY, from Latin industrius,diligent, from Old Latin indostruus (endo-, within; see en).
4. BREMSSTRAHLUNG, from Old High German str7la, arrow, lightningbolt, from Germanic *strKlo.
II. O-grade extended form *strou-.
1. Suffixed form *strou-eyo-.
a. STREW, from Old English strK(o)wian, to strew;
b. STREUSEL, from Old High German strouwen, strowwen, tosprinkle, strew. Both a and b from Germanic *strawjan.
2. Suffixed form *strow-o. STRAW, from Old English strKaw, straw,from Germanic *strawam, “that which is scattered.”
III. O-grade extended form *stroi-. PERESTROIKA, from Old Russian strojV,order.
IV. Basic forms *ster-, *sterN-.
1. Nasalized form *ster-n-N-. STRATUS, STREET; CONSTERNATE,PROSTRATE, SUBSTRATUM, from Latin sternere (past participle str7tusfrom zero-grade *strN-to-), to stretch, extend.
2. Suffixed form *ster-no-. STERNUM, from Greek sternon, breast,breastbone.
V. Zero-grade form *sty-, *styN-.
1. Suffixed form *sty-to-. STRATAGEM; STRATOCRACY, from Greekstratos, multitude, army, expedition.
2. Suffixed form *styN-to-. STRATH, from Old Irish srath, a wide
Important derivatives are: star, stellar, constellation, aster, asterisk, asteroid, disaster.Star.
1. Suffixed form *ster-s-. STAR, from Old English steorra, star,from Germanic *sterzon-.
2. Suffixed form *stKr-l7-. STELLAR, STELLATE; CONSTELLATION, fromLatin stKlla, star.
3. Oldest root form *Nster-. ASTER, ASTERIATED, ASTERISK, ASTERISM,ASTEROID, ASTRAL, ASTRO-; ASTRAPHOBIA, DISASTER, from Greek astKr,star, with its derivative astron, star, and possible compoundastrapK, asteropK, lightning, twinkling (ops, stem op-, eye,appearance; see okw-).
4. ESTHER, from Persian sitareh, star, from Iranian stem *st8r-.
1. SWEET, from Old English swKte, sweet, from Germanic *swotja-.
2. Suffixed form *sw7d-K-. SUASION; (ASSUASIVE), DISSUADE, PERSUADE,from Latin su7dKre, to advise, urge (
3. Suffixed form *sw7d-w-i-. SOAVE, SUAVE; ASSUAGE, from Latinsu7vis, delightful.
4. Suffixed form *sw7d-es-. AEDES, from Greek Kdos, pleasure.
5. Suffixed form *sw7d-on7. HEDONIC, HEDONISM, from GreekhKdonK, pleasure.
[Pokorny s¯7d- 1039.]
s(w)e-Important derivatives are: self, gossip, bustle1, suicide, secede, seclude, secret, secure,sedition, seduce, segregate, select, separate, sure, sober, sole2, solitary, solitude, solo,sullen, desolate, soliloquy, custom, ethic, ethnic, idiom, idiot, idiosyncrasy..Pronoun of the third person and reflexive (referring back to the subject of thesentence); further appearing in various forms referring to the social group as anentity, “(we our-)selves.”
1. Suffixed extended form *sel-bho-. SELF, from Old English self,sylf, self, same, from Germanic *selbaz, self.
2. Suffixed form *s(w)e-bh(o)-. SIB; GOSSIP, from Old English sibb,relative, from Germanic *sibja-, “one's own,” blood relation,relative.
3. Suffixed form *se-ge. BUSTLE1, from Old Norse -sk, reflexivesuffix, as in b7ask, to make oneself ready, from sik, oneself(reflexive pronoun), from Germanic *sik, self.
4. Suffixed form *swoi-no-. SWAIN; (BOATSWAIN), from Old Norsesveinn, herdsman, boy, from Germanic *swainaz, “one's own(man),” attendant, servant.
5. Suffixed form *s(u)w-o-, one's own.
a. SUICIDE, from Latin suX (genitive), of oneself;
b. SWAMI, from Sanskrit sv7min, “one's own master,”owner, prince, from sva- (< *swo-), one's own.
a. SOBER, from Latin compound sobrius, not drunk (Kbrius,drunk; see Kgwh-).
7. Possibly suffixed lengthened o-grade form *so-lo. SOLE2,SOLITARY, SOLITUDE, SOLO, SULLEN; DESOLATE, SOLILOQUY, SOLIPSISM,from Latin solus, by oneself alone.
8. Extended root *swLdh-, “that which is one's own,” peculiarity,custom.
a. SODALITY, from Latin sod7lis, companion (< “one's own,”“relative”);
b. suffixed form *swKdh-sko-. (CONSUETUDE), CUSTOM,DESUETUDE, MANSUETUDE, MASTIFF, from Latin suKscere, toaccustom, get accustomed;
c. ETHIC, ETHOS; CACOETHES, from Greek Kthos, custom,disposition, trait;
d. suffixed form *swedh-no-. ETHNIC, ETHNO-, from Greekethnos, band of people living together, nation, people (
9. Suffixed extended form *swet-aro-. HETAERA, from Greekhetairos, comrade, companion, earlier hetaros.
10. Suffixed extended form *swed-yo-. IDIO-, IDIOM, IDIOT;(IDIOPATHY), (IDIOSYNCRASY), from Greek idios, personal, private(“particular to oneself”).
11. Suffixed form *swei-no-. SINN FEIN, from Old Irish fKin, self.
12. Suffixed (ablatival) form *swe-tos, from oneself. KHEDIVE, fromOld Iranian khvad7ta-, lord, by haplology from compoundform *khvato-d7ta-, created from oneself (d7ta-, created; seedhK-).
[Pokorny se- 882.]
sweid-
An important derivative is: sweat.Sweat; to sweat.
I. O-grade form *swoid-.
1. SWEAT, from Old English sw<tan, to sweat, from Germanic*swaitaz, sweat, with its denominative *swaitjan, to sweat.
2. Suffixed form *swoid-os-. SUDORIFIC; SUDORIFEROUS, from Latins7dor, sweat.
3. O-grade form *swoid-7-. SUDATORIUM, SUINT; EXUDE, TRANSUDE,from Latin s7d7re, to sweat.
II. Suffixed zero-grade form *swid-r-os-. HIDROSIS, from Greek hidros,sweat.
14. Nasalized form *ta-n-g-. TACT, TANGENT, TANGIBLE, TASTE, TAX;ATTAIN, CONTACT, INTACT, TACTORECEPTOR, TANGORECEPTOR, fromLatin tangere, to touch, with derivatives tax7re, to touch, assess(possibly a frequentative of tangere, but probably influenced byGreek tassein, taxai, to arrange, assess), and t7ctus, touch.
15. Compound form *i-tag-ro-, “untouched, intact” (*i-, negative
prefix; see ne). ENTIRE, INTEGER, INTEGRATE, INTEGRITY, from Latininteger, intact, whole, complete, perfect, honest.
16. Suffixed form *tag-smen-. CONTAMINATE, from Latincont7min7re, to corrupt by mixing or contact (< *con-t7men-,“bringing into contact with”; con-, com-, with; see kom).
Derivative of st7-, but an independent word in Indo-European.
21. TAURINE1, TAURUS, TOREADOR, TORERO; BITTERN1, from Latin taurus,bull.
22. TAURINE2; TAUROCHOLIC ACID, from Greek tauros, bull.
[In Pokorny tKu- 1083.]
tegu-An important derivative is: thick.Thick.
THICK, from Old English thicce, thick, from Germanic *thiku-.
[Pokorny tegu- 1057.]
tek-A derivative is: thane.To beget, give birth to.
5. Suffixed form *tek-no-, child. THANE, from Old English thegn,freeman, nobleman, military vassal, warrior, from Germanic*thegnaz, boy, man, servant, warrior.
teks-Important derivatives are: text, tissue, context, pretext, subtle, architect, technical,technology.To weave; also to fabricate, especially with an ax; also to make wicker or wattlefabric for (mud-covered) house walls.
29. TEXT, TISSUE; CONTEXT, PRETEXT, from Latin texere, to weave,fabricate.
30. Suffixed form *teks-l7.
a. TILLER2, TOIL2, from Latin tKla, web, net, warp of a fabric,also weaver's beam (to which the warp threads are tied);
b. SUBTLE, from Latin subtXlis, thin, fine, precise, subtle (<*sub-tKla, “thread passing under the warp,” the finestthread; sub, under; see upo).
31. Suffixed form *teks-on, weaver, maker of wattle for housewalls, builder (possibly contaminated with *teks-tor, builder).TECTONIC; ARCHITECT, from Greek tekton, carpenter, builder.
32. Suffixed form *teks-n7-, craft (of weaving or fabricating).TECHNICAL, (POLYTECHNIC), TECHNOLOGY, from Greek tekhnK, art,craft, skill.
a. DACHSHUND, from Old High German dahs, badger;
b. DASSIE, from Middle Dutch das, badger. Both a and bfrom Germanic *thahsu-, badger, possibly from teks-(“the animal that builds,” referring to its burrowingskill) but more likely borrowed from the same pre-Indo-European source as the Celtic totemic nameTazgo-, Gaelic Tadhg, originally “badger.”
To lift, support, weigh; with derivatives referring to measured weights and thenceto money and payment.
7. Suffixed form *telN-mon-. TELAMON, from Greek telamon,supporter, bearer.
8. Suffixed form *tel(N)-es-.
a. TOLL1; PHILATELY, from Greek telos, tax, charge;
b. TOLERATE, from Latin toler7re, to bear, endure.
9. Suffixed zero-grade form *t_N-i-. TALION; RETALIATE, from Latint7lio, reciprocal punishment in kind, possibly “something paidout,” from *tali- (influenced by t7lis, such).
10. Suffixed variant zero-grade form *tala-nt-. TALENT, from Greektalanton, balance, weight, any of several specific weights of goldor silver, hence the sum of money represented by such aweight.
11. Perhaps (but unlikely) intensive reduplicated form *tantal-.(TANTALIZE), TANTALUS, from Greek Tantalos, name of alegendary king, “the sufferer.”
12. Perhaps (but unlikely) zero-grade form *t_N-. ATLANTIC, ATLAS,from Greek Atlas (stem Atlant-), name of the Titan supportingthe world.
13. Suffixed zero-grade form *t_N-to-. ABLATION, COLLATE, DILATORY,ELATE, ILLATION, LEGISLATOR, OBLATE1, PRELATE, PROLATE, RELATE,SUBLATE, SUPERLATIVE, TRANSLATE, from Latin l7tus, “carried,borne,” used as the suppletive past participle of ferre, to bear(see bher-1), with its compounds.
14. Suffixed zero-grade form *t_N-7-. TOLA, from Sanskrit tul7,scales, balance, weight.
15. Nasalized zero-grade form *t_-n-N-. EXTOL, from Latin tollere, tolift.
[Pokorny 1. tel- 1060.]
tem-
Important derivatives are: tome, anatomy, atom, diatom, epitome, temple1,contemplate.Also temN-To cut.
IV. Form *temN-. Nasalized form *t(e)m-n-N-. TMESIS, TOME, (-TOME), -TOMY;ANATOMY, ATOM, DIATOM, DICHOTOMY, ENTOMO-, EPITOME, from Greektemnein, to cut, with o-grade forms tomos, cutting, a cut, section,volume, and tomK, a cutting.
V. Form *tem-.
1. Suffixed form *tem-lo-. TEMPLE1, TEMPLE3; CONTEMPLATE, fromLatin templum, temple, shrine, open place for observation(augury term
2. Extended root *tem-d- becoming *tend- in o-grade suffixed(iterative) form *tond-eyo-. TONSORIAL, TONSURE, from LatintondKre, to shear, shave.
a. TEND1, TENDER2, TENSE1, TENT1; ATTEND, CONTEND, DETENT,DISTEND, EXTEND, INTEND, OSTENSIBLE, PRETEND, SUBTEND, fromLatin tendere, to stretch, extend;
b. PORTEND, from Latin portendere, “to stretch out before”(por-, variant of pro-, before; see per1), a technical termin augury, “to indicate, presage, foretell.”
2. Suffixed form *ten-yo-. TENESMUS; ANATASE, BRONCHIECTASIS,CATATONIA, EPITASIS, HYPOTENUSE, PERITONEUM, PROTASIS, SYNTONIC,TELANGIECTASIA, from Greek teinein, to stretch, with o-grade
form ton- and zero-grade noun tasis (< *ti-ti-), a stretching,tension, intensity.
3. Reduplicated zero-grade form *te-tan-o-. TETANUS, from Greektetanos, stiff, rigid.
4. Suffixed full-grade form *ten-tro-.
a. TANTRA, from Sanskrit tantram, loom;
b. SITAR, from Persian t7r, string.
5. Basic form (with stative suffix) *ten-K-. TENABLE, TENACIOUS,TENACULUM, TENANT, TENEMENT, TENET, TENON, TENOR, TENURE, TENUTO;ABSTAIN, CONTAIN, (CONTINUE), DETAIN, ENTERTAIN, LIEUTENANT,MAINTAIN, OBTAIN, PERTAIN, PERTINACIOUS, RETAIN, (RETINACULUM),SUSTAIN, from Latin tenKre, to hold, keep, maintain (
IV. Derivatives meaning “stretched,” hence “thin.”
1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ti-u-. THIN, from Old Englishthynne, thin, from Germanic *thunniz, from *thunw-.
2. Suffixed full-grade form *ten-u-. TENUOUS; ATTENUATE, EXTENUATE,from Latin tenuis, thin, rare, fine.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ti-ya-. TAENIA; POLYTENE, from Greektainia, band, ribbon.
[Pokorny 1. ten- 1065.]
terN-1
Important derivatives are: trite, detriment, thrash, thresh, threshold, turn, contour,return, drill1, throw, thread, trauma, truant.To rub, turn; with some derivatives referring to twisting, boring, drilling, andpiercing; and others referring to the rubbing of cereal grain to remove the husks,and thence to the process of threshing either by the trampling of oxen or byflailing with flails. Variant *trK-, contracted from *treN-.
V. Full-grade form *ter(N)-.
a. TRITE, TRITURATE; ATTRITION, CONTRITE, DETRIMENT, fromLatin terere (past participle trXtus), to rub away, thresh,tread, wear out;
b. TEREDO, from Greek terKdon, a kind of biting worm.
2. Suffixed form *ter-et-. TERETE, from Latin teres (stem teret-),rounded, smooth.
3. Suffixed form *ter-sko-.
a. (THRASH), THRESH, from Old English therscan, to thresh;
b. THRESHOLD, from Old English therscold, threscold, sill of adoor (over which one treads; second element obscure).Both a and b from Germanic *therskan, *threskan, tothresh, tread.
VI. O-grade form *tor(N)-.
1. TOREUTICS, from Greek toreus, a boring tool.
2. Suffixed form *tor(N)-mo-, hole. DERMA2, from Old HighGerman darm, gut, from Germanic *tharma-.
3. Suffixed form *tor(N)-no-. TURN; (ATTORN), CONTOUR, (DETOUR),(RETURN), from Greek tornos, tool for drawing a circle, circle,lathe.
VII. Zero-grade form *tr-. DRILL1, from Middle Dutch drillen, to drill,from Germanic *thr-.
VIII. Variant form *trK- (< *treN-).
1. THROW, from Old English thr7wan, to turn, twist, fromGermanic *thrKw-.
2. Suffixed form *trK-tu-. THREAD, from Old English thr<d, thread,from Germanic *thrKdu-, twisted yarn.
3. Suffixed form *trK-mi (< *treN- or *tyN-). MONOTREME,TREMATODE, from Greek trKma, perforation.
4. Suffixed form *trK-ti- (< *treN- or *tyN-). ATRESIA, from GreektrKsis, perforation.
IX. Extended form *trX- (< *triN-).
1. Probably suffixed form *trX-on-. SEPTENTRION, from Latin trio,plow ox.
2. Suffixed form *trX-dhlo-. TRIBULATION, from Latin trXbulum, athreshing sledge.
X. Various extended forms
1. Forms *tro-, *trau-. TRAUMA, from Greek trauma, hurt, wound.
2. Form *trXb-. DIATRIBE, TRIBOELECTRICITY, TRIBOLOGY, TRYPSIN, fromGreek tribein, to rub, thresh, pound, wear out.
3. Form *trog-, *trag-.
a. TROGON, TROUT, from Greek trogein, to gnaw;
b. DREDGE2, from Greek tragKma, sweetmeat.
4. Form *trup-. TREPAN1; TRYPANOSOME, from Greek trupK, hole.
5. Possible form *tr7g-. TRUANT, from Old French truant, beggar.
[Pokorny 3. ter- 1071.]
terN-2
Important derivatives are: thrill, nostril, thorough, through, trans-, transient, trench,trunk.To cross over, pass through, overcome. Variant *tr7-, contracted from *traN-.
I. Zero-grade form *ty(N)-.
1. THRILL; NOSTRIL, from Old English thyr(e)l, th«rel, a hole (*thur-ila-.
2. Suffixed form *tyN-kwe. THOROUGH, THROUGH, from Old Englishthurh, thuruh, through, from Germanic *thurh.
3. (see nek-1) Greek nek-tar, overcoming death.
4. Zero-grade form *tyN- and full-grade form *ter(N)-. AVATAR,from Sanskrit tirati, tarati, he crosses over.
II. Variant form *tr7- (< *traN-).
1. TRANS-, TRANSIENT, (TRANSOM), from Latin tr7ns, across, over,beyond, through (perhaps originally the present participle of averb *tr7re, to cross over).
2. Suffixed form *tr7-yo-. CARAVANSARY, from Persian sar7y, inn,from Middle Persian sr7yXdhan, to protect, from Iranianthr7ya-, to protect.
III. Possible extended form *tru-.
1. Suffixed form *tru-k-. TRUCULENT, from Latin trux (stem truc-),savage, fierce, grim (< “overcoming,” “powerful,”“penetrating”).
2. Suffixed nasalized form *tru-n-k-o-. TRENCH, TRUNCATE, TRUNK,from Latin truncus, deprived of branches or limbs, mutilated,hence trunk (? < “overcome, maimed”).
7. Suffixed o-grade form *tors-eyo-. TOAST1, TORRENT, TORRID, fromLatin torrKre, to dry, parch, burn.
8. Suffixed zero-grade form *tys-o-. TARSUS, from Greek tarsos,frame of wickerwork (originally for drying cheese), hence a flatsurface, sole of the foot, ankle.
16. Extended form *teuk-. THIGH, from Old English thKoh, thigh,from Germanic *theuham, “the swollen or fat part of the leg,”
thigh.
17. Extended form *t7s-. THOUSAND, from Old English th7send,thousand, from Germanic compound *th7s-hundi-, “swollenhundred,” thousand (*hundi-, hundred; see dekc).
18. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *tu-l-.
a. THOLE PIN, from Old English thol(l), oar pin, oarlock(*thul-;
b. TYLECTOMY, TYLOSIS1, from Greek tulos, callus, lump.
19. Extended zero-grade form *t7m-.
a. THIMBLE, THUMB, from Old English th7ma, thumb(*th7mon-;
b. suffixed (stative) form *tum-K-. TUMESCENT, TUMID,TUMOR; DETUMESCENCE, INTUMESCE, TUMEFACIENT, (TUMEFY),from Latin tumKre, to swell, be swollen, be proud;
c. suffixed form *tum-olo-. TUMULUS, from Latin tumulus,raised heap of earth, mound.
20. Extended zero-grade form *t7bh-. TRUFFLE, TUBER; PROTUBERATE,from Latin t7ber, lump, swelling.
21. Suffixed zero-grade form *t7-ro- (< *tuN-ro-).
a. BUTTER, TYROSINE, TYROTHRICIN, from Greek turos, cheese (
b. OBTURATE, from Latin -t7r7re, to stop up, possibly from*t7ros, swollen, coagulated, stopped up.
22. Suffixed variant form *two-ro-. SORITES, SORUS, from Greek soros,heap, pile.
23. Suffixed variant form *two-mi. SOMA, SOMATO-, -SOME3; PROSOMA,from Greek soma, body (
24. Suffixed zero-grade form *twN-wo-. CREOSOTE, SOTERIOLOGY, fromGreek sozein, to save, rescue, derivative of saos, sos, safe, healthy(< “swollen,” “strong”).
25. Perhaps nasalized extended form *tu-m-b(h)- (or extended
zero-grade form *tum-). TOMB, from Greek tumbos, barrow,tomb.
d. HAME, from Middle Dutch hame, hame (< “covering”);
e. HAMLET, from Old French ham, village, home;
f. HAUNT, from Old French hanter, to frequent, haunt,from Germanic *haimatjan, to go or bring home;
g. HANGAR, from Old French hangard, shelter, possiblyfrom Germanic *haimgardaz (*gardaz, enclosure; seegher-1). a, b, c, d, e, f, and g all from Germanic*haimaz, home.
11. Zero-grade form *tki-.
a. AMPHICTYONY, from Greek ktizein, to found, settle, frommetathesized kti-;
b. SITUATE, SITUS, from Latin situs, location, from suffixedform *si-tu- from si-, probably from *tki-.
Metathesized form *tlokw-. LOCUTION, LOQUACIOUS; ALLOCUTION, CIRCUMLOCUTION,COLLOQUIUM, (COLLOQUY), ELOCUTION, GRANDILOQUENCE, INTERLOCUTION,MAGNILOQUENT, OBLOQUY, SOLILOQUY, VENTRILOQUISM, from Latin loquX, to speak.
a. THREE, THRICE; THIRTEEN, THIRTY, from Old English thrXe,thrKo, thrX, three, with its derivatives thrXga, thrXwa,thrice, thrXtig, thirty, and thrKotXne, thirteen (-tXne, ten;see dekc);
b. TRILLIUM, from Old Swedish thrXr, three. Both a and bfrom Germanic *thrijiz,
2. TREY; TRAMMEL, TRECENTO, TREPHINE, TRIUMVIR, TROCAR, from LatintrKs, three.
3. TRISKAIDEKAPHOBIA, from Greek treis, tris, three.
II. Zero-grade form *tri-.
1. Suffixed form *tri-tyo-.
i. THIRD, from Old English thrid(d)a, thirdda, third;
ii. RIDING2, from Old Norse thridhi, third. Both (i)and (ii) from Germanic *thridjaz, third;
b. TERCEL, TERCET, TERTIAN, TERTIARY, TIERCE; SESTERCE, fromLatin tertius (neuter tertium), third.
2. Combining form *tri-.
a. TRI-, TRIBE, TRIO, TRIPLE, from Latin tri-, three;
b. TRI-; TRICLINIUM, TRICROTIC, TRIDACTYL, TRIGLYPH, TRITONE,from Greek tri-, three;
c. TRIMURTI, from Sanskrit tri-, three.
3. TRIAD, from Greek trias, the number three.
4. TRICHOTOMY, from Greek trikha, in three parts.
5. TRIERARCH, from Greek compound triKrKs, galley with threebanks of oars, trireme (-KrKs, oar; see erN-).
6. Suffixed form *tri-to-. TRITIUM; TRITANOPIA, from Greek tritos,third.
7. Compound form *tri-pl-, “threefold” (*-pl- *-plo-; see pel-2).TRIPLOBLASTIC, from Greek triploos, triple.
8. Compound form *tri-plek-, “threefold” (*-plek-, -fold; seeplek-). TRIPLEX, from Latin triplex, triple.
9. Compound form *tri-st-i-, “third person standing by” (see st7-
). TESTAMENT, (TESTIMONY); ATTEST, CONTEST, DETEST, OBTEST, PROTEST,TESTIFY, from Latin testis, a witness.
10. SITAR, from Persian si, three.
III. Extended zero-grade form *tris, “thrice.”
1. TERN2; TERPOLYMER, from Latin ter, thrice.
2. TRISOCTAHEDRON, from Greek tris, thrice.
3. Suffixed form *tris-no-. TRINE, (TRINITY), from Latin trXnX, threeeach.
IV. Suffixed o-grade form *troy-o-. TROIKA, from Russian troje, group ofthree.
b. CAROUSE; AUSLANDER, from Old High German 7z, out;
c. OUTLAW, from Old Norse 7t, out;
d. UITLANDER, from Middle Dutch ute, uut, out;
e. UTTER1, from Middle Low German 7t, out;
f. UTTER2, from Old English 7tera, outer, from Germanicsuffixed (comparative) form *7t-era-;
g. BUT; ABOUT, from Old English b7tan, b7te, outside(adverb), from Germanic compound *bi-7tana, “at theoutside” (*bi-, by, at; see ambhi). a, b, c, d, e, f, andg all from Germanic *7t-, out.
17. Extended form *uds.
a. ERSATZ, from Old High German irsezzan, to replace,from ir-, out;
b. ORT, from Middle Dutch oor, out;
c. (see dail-) Germanic *uz-dailjam, “a portioning out,”judgment;
d. URSPRACHE, from Old High German ur-, out of, original.a, b, c, and d all from Germanic *uz, *uz-, out.
18. Suffixed (comparative) form *ud-tero-. HYSTERESIS, HYSTERON
PROTERON, from Greek husteros, later, second, after.
19. HUBRIS, from Greek compound hubris, violence, outrage,insolence (bri-, perhaps “heavy,” “violent”; see gwerN-1), fromhu-.
b. ORLOP, from Middle Low German over, over. Both a andb from Germanic *uberi.
24. Variant form *(s)uper.
a. SOUBRETTE, SOVEREIGN, SUPER-, SUPERABLE, SUPERIOR, SUPREME,(SUPREMO), SUR-; SIRLOIN, from Latin super, super-, above,over;
b. suffixed form *(s)uper-no-. SUPERNAL, from Latinsupernus, above, upper, top;
c. suffixed form *super-bhw-o-, “being above” (*bhw-o-,being; see bheuN-). SUPERB, from Latin superbus,superior, excellent, arrogant;
d. suffixed (superlative) reduced form *sup-mo-. SUM,SUMMIT, from Latin summus, highest, topmost;
e. suffixed form *super-o-. (SOPRANINO), SOPRANO, SUPRA-;SOMERSAULT, from Latin supr7 (feminine ablativesingular), above, beyond.
25. Basic form *uper. HYPER-, from Greek huper, over.
[Pokorny uper 1105.]
upoImportant derivatives are: up, uproar, open, above, often, eaves, eavesdrop, sub-,supine1, supple, hypo-, valet, vassal, opal.Under, up from under, over.
a. UP, from Old English up, uppe, up;
b. UP-, from Old English 7p-, upp-, up;
c. UPROAR, from Middle Low German up, up;
d. AUFKL‰RUNG, from Old High German 7f, up. a, b, c,and d all from Germanic *upp-, up.
7. OPEN, from Old English open, open, from Germanic *upanaz,“put or set up,” open.
8. ABOVE, from Old English b7fan, above, over, from Germaniccompound *bi-ufana, “on, above” (*bi-, by, at; see ambhi).
9. Possibly suffixed form *up-t-. OFT, OFTEN, from Old English oft,often, from Germanic *ufta, frequently.
10. Extended form *upes-.
a. EAVES, from Old English efes, eaves;
b. EAVESDROP, from Old English yfesdrype, water from theeaves, from Germanic *obisdrup-, dripping water fromthe eaves (*drup-, to drip, from *dhrub-; see dhreu-).Both a and b from Germanic *ubaswo, *ubizwo,vestibule, porch, eaves (
11. Variant form *(s)up-.
a. SOUTANE, SUB-, from Latin sub, under;
b. SUPINE, from Latin supXnus, lying on the back (
c. suffixed form *sup-ter. SUBTERFUGE, from Latin subter,secretly;
d. (see pl7k-1) Latin supplex, suppliant, from sub, under.
12. Basic form *upo. HYPO-, from Greek hupo, under.
13. Suffixed variant form *ups-o-. HYPSO-, from Greek hupsos,height, top.
14. Basic form *upo-. (see reidh-) Latin verKdus, post horse, fromCeltic *wo-, under.
15. Probably compound *upo-st-o-. (VALET), (VARLET), VASSAL, fromVulgar Latin *vassus, vassal, from Celtic *wasso-, “one whostands under,” servant, young man (*sto-, standing; see st7-).
16. OPAL, UPANISHAD, from Sanskrit upa, near to, under (in upani}ad,Upanishad).
Contracted from *weN-; oldest basic form *NwK- (< *NweN-).
26. Suffixed irregular shortened form *we-dhro-. WEATHER, fromOld English weder, weather, storm, wind, from Germanic*wedram wind, weather.
27. Suffixed (participial) form *wK-nt-o-, blowing.
i. WIND1, from Old English wind, wind;
ii. WINDOW, from Old Norse vindr, wind. Both (i)and (ii) from Germanic *windaz;
b. VENT1, VENTAIL, VENTILATE, from Latin ventus, wind.
28. WING, from Middle English wenge, wing, from a Scandinaviansource akin to Old Norse vængr, wing, from suffixed Germanicform *wK-ingjaz.
29. Basic form *wK-. NIRVANA, from Sanskrit v7ti (stem *v7-), itblows.
[Pokorny 10. a¯(K)- 81.]
webh-Important derivatives are: weave, web, weevil, wafer, waffle1, wave, wobble.To weave, also to move quickly.
17. WEAVE, WOOF1, from Old English wefan, to weave, fromGermanic *weban.
18. WEFT, from Old English wefta, weft, cross thread, fromGermanic *wefta-.
19. Suffixed o-grade form *wobh-yo-. WEB, WEBSTER, from OldEnglish web(b), web, from Germanic *wabjam, fabric, web.
20. WEEVIL, from Old English wifel, weevil (*webila-.
i. GOFFER, from Old French gaufre, honeycomb,waffle;
ii. WAFER, from Old North French waufre, wafer.Both (i) and (ii) from a source akin to MiddleLow German w7fel, honeycomb;
b. WAFFLE1, from Middle Dutch w7fel, waffle. Both a and bfrom suffixed Germanic form *wabila-, web,honeycomb.
c. WAVE, from Old English wafian, to move (the hand) upand down;
d. WAVER, from Middle English waveren, to waver;
e. WOBBLE, from Low German wabbeln, to move from sideto side, sway. a, b, and c all from Germanic *wab-, tomove back and forth as in weaving, possibly fromwebh-.
21. Suffixed zero-grade form *ubh-7-. HYPHA, from Greek huphK,web.
38. Suffixed nasalized zero-grade form *u-n-d-7-. UNDINE,UNDULATE; ABOUND, INUNDATE, (REDOUND), REDUNDANT, SURROUND,from Latin unda, wave.
39. Suffixed zero-grade form *ud-ro-, *ud-r7-, water animal.
a. OTTER, from Old English otor, otter, from Germanic*otraz, otter;
b. NUTRIA, from Latin lutra, otter (with obscure l-);
c. HYDRUS, from Greek hudros, a water snake;
d. HYDRA, from Greek hudra, a water serpent, Hydra.
40. Suffixed zero-grade form *ud-skio-. USQUEBAUGH, (WHISKEY),from Old Irish uisce, water.
41. Suffixed o-grade form *wod-7-. VODKA, from Russian voda,water.
[Pokorny 9. a¯(e)- 78.]
wed-2
Important derivatives are: ode, comedy, melody, parody, rhapsody, tragedy.To speak.
16. Oldest root form *Nwed- becoming *awed- in possiblereduplicated form *awe-ud-, dissimilated to *aweid-, withsuffixed o-grade form *awoid-o- (but more likely a separateroot *Nweid- becoming Greek *aweid-, to sing). ODE; COMEDY,EPODE, HYMNODY, MELODY, MONODY, PARODY, RHAPSODY, TRAGEDY, fromGreek aeidein (Attic aidein), to sing, and aoidK (Attic oidK),song, ode, with aoidos (Attic oidos), a singer, singing.
17. THERAVADA, from Sanskrit v7daU, sound, statement.
[Pokorny 6. au- 76.]
weg-Important derivatives are: wake1, waken, watch, bivouac, wait, vegetable, vigor, vigil,vigilante, reveille, velocity.To be strong, be lively.
3. Suffixed o-grade form *wog-K-. WAKE1, from Old English wacan,to wake up, arise, and wacian, to be awake, from Germanic*wakKn.
4. Suffixed o-grade form *wog-no-. WAKEN, from Old Englishwæcnan, wæcnian, to awake, from Germanic *waknan.
5. WATCH, from Old English wæccan, to be awake, from Germanic*wakjan.
6. Suffixed form *weg-yo-. (WICCA), (WICKED), WITCH; (BEWITCH),from Old English wicca, sorcerer, wizard (feminine wicce,witch), from Germanic *wikkjaz, necromancer (
7. BIVOUAC, from Old High German wahta, watch, vigil, fromGermanic *wahtwo.
a. WAIT, from Old North French waitier, to watch;
b. WAFT, from Middle Dutch and Middle Low Germanwachten, to watch, guard. Both a and b from Germanic
*waht-.
8. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *wog-eyo-. VEGETABLE, fromLatin vegKre, to be lively.
9. Suffixed (stative) form *weg-K-. VIGOR, from Latin vigKre, to belively.
10. Suffixed form *weg-(e)li-. VEDETTE, VIGIL, (VIGILANT), VIGILANTE;REVEILLE, SURVEILLANT, from Latin vigil, watchful, awake.
11. Suffixed form *weg-slo-. VELOCITY, from Latin vKlox, fast,“lively.”
d. WITE, from Old English wXte, fine, penalty, fromGermanic derivative noun *wXti-. a, b, c, and d allfrom Germanic *wXtan, to look after, guard, ascribe to,reproach.
2. Suffixed form *weid-to-.
a. WISE1, from Old English wXs, wise;
b. WISDOM, from Old English wXsdom, learning, wisdom (-dom, abstract suffix; see dhK-);
c. WISEACRE, from Old High German wXssago, seer, prophet;
i. WISE2, from Old English wXse, wXs, manner;
ii. GUISE, from Old French guise, manner. Both (i)and (ii) from Germanic *wXsson-, appearance,form, manner. a, b, c, and d all from Germanic*wXssaz.
3. Suffixed form *weid-es-. EIDETIC, EIDOLON, IDOL, IDYLL, -OID;IDOCRASE, KALEIDOSCOPE, from Greek eidos, form, shape.
V. Zero-grade form *wid-.
a. WIT1, from Old English wit, witt, knowledge,intelligence;
b. WITENAGEMOT, from Old English wita, wise man,councilor. Both a and b from Germanic *wit-.
2. WIT2; UNWITTING, from Old English witan, to know, fromGermanic *witan.
3. Suffixed form *wid-to-. IWIS, from Old English gewis, gewiss,
certain, sure, from Germanic *wissaz, known.
4. Form *wid-K- (with participial form *weid-to-). VIDE, VIEW, VISA,VISAGE, VISION, VISTA, VOYEUR; ADVICE, (ADVISE), BELVEDERE, BLACK-A-
VISED, CLAIRVOYANT, ENVY, EVIDENT, INTERVIEW, PREVISE, PROVIDE,REVIEW, SUPERVISE, SURVEY, from Latin vidKre, to see, look.
5. Suffixed form *wid-es-ya. IDEA, IDEO-, from Greek idea,appearance, form, idea.
7. HADAL, HADES, from Greek HaidKs (also AidKs), the underworld,perhaps “the invisible” and from *wid-.
8. Suffixed nasalized form *wi-n-d-o-.
a. COLCANNON, from Old Irish find, white (
b. PENGUIN, from Welsh gwyn, gwynn, white.
9. (see deru-) Celtic compound *dru-wid-, “strong seer” (*dru-,strong).
VI. Suffixed o-grade form *woid-o-. VEDA; RIG-VEDA, from Sanskrit vedaU,knowledge.
[Pokorny 2. ¯(e)di- 1125.]
weiN-Important derivatives are: vim, violate, violent.Vital force. Related to wX-ro-.
Zero-grade form *wX- (< *wiN-). VIM, VIOLATE, VIOLENT, from Latin vXs, force,with irregular derivatives viol7re, to treat with force, and violentus, vehement.
[In Pokorny 3. ¯ei- 1123.]
weik-1
Important derivatives are: village, villain, vicinity, diocese, ecology, economy, parish.Clan (social unit above the household).
25. Suffixed form *weik-sl7. VILLA, VILLAGE, VILLAIN, VILLANELLE,(VILLEIN); (BIDONVILLE), from Latin vXlla, country house, farm.
26. Suffixed o-grade form *woik-o-.
a. (VICINAGE), VICINITY; (BAILIWICK), from Latin vXcus, quarteror district of a town, neighborhood;
b. ANDROECIUM, AUTOECIOUS, DIOCESE, DIOECIOUS, DIOICOUS,ECESIS, ECOLOGY, ECONOMY, ECUMENICAL, HETEROECIOUS,MONOECIOUS, PARISH, from Greek oikos, house, and itsderivatives oikia, a dwelling, and oikKsis, dwelling,administration.
27. Zero-grade form *wik-. VAISYA, from Sanskrit vi{aU, dwelling,house.
9. WEAL1, WEALTH, from Old English wela, weola, well-being, riches,from Germanic *welon-.
10. WILL1, from Old English willa, desire, will power, fromGermanic *wiljon-.
11. WILL2; NILL, from Old English willan, to desire, from Germanic*wil(l)jan.
12. (see gw7-) Germanic compound *wil-kumon-.
13. O-grade form *wol-.
a. GALLOP, from Old French galoper, to gallop;
b. WALLOP, from Old North French *waloper, to gallop;
c. GALLANT, from Old French galer, to rejoice, fromFrankish Latin *wal7re, to take it easy, from Frankish*wala, good, well. a, b, and c all from Germanic *wal-.
14. Basic form *wel-. VELLEITY, VOLITION, VOLUNTARY; BENEVOLENT,MALEVOLENCE, from Latin velle (present stem vol-), to wish, will.
15. Suffixed form *wel-up-. VOLUPTUARY, VOLUPTUOUS, from Latinvolupt7s, pleasure.
[Pokorny 2. ¯el- 1137.]
wel-2
Important derivatives are: waltz, willow, walk, well1, wallow, vault1, vault2, volume,evolve, involve, revolve, vulva, valve, valley, helix.To turn, roll; with derivatives referring to curved, enclosing objects.
a. WALTZ, from Old High German walzan, to roll, waltz;
b. WELTER, from Middle Low German or Middle Dutchwelteren, to roll. Both a and b from Germanic *walt-.
7. WHELK1, from Old English weoluc, weoloc, mollusk (having aspiral shell), whelk, from Germanic *weluka-.
8. WILLOW, from Old English welig, willow (with flexible twigs),from Germanic *wel-, perhaps from wel-2.
9. WALK, from Old English wealcan, to roll, toss, and wealcian, tomuffle up, from Germanic *welk-, perhaps from wel-2.
10. O-grade form *wol-.
a. WELL1, from Old English wiella, wælla, welle, a well (
b. GABERDINE, from Old High German wallon, to roam;
c. WALLET, possibly from Old North French *walet, roll,knapsack. a, b, and c all from Germanic *wall-.
11. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *wol-7-.
a. WALE, from Old English walu, streak on the skin, weal,welt;
b. (see wr7d-) Old High German *wurzwalu, rootstock,from *-walu, a roll, round stem. Both a and b fromGermanic *walo.
12. Extended form *welw-.
a. WALLOW, from Old English wealwian, to roll (in mud),from Germanic *walwon;
b. VAULT1, VAULT2, (VOLT2), VOLUBLE, VOLUME, VOLUTE, VOLUTIN,VOLVOX, VOUSSOIR; CIRCUMVOLVE, CONVOLVE, DEVOLVE, EVOLVE,INVOLVE, REVOLVE, from Latin volvere, to roll;
c. suffixed o-grade form *wolw-7-. VOLVA, VULVA, fromLatin vulva, volva, covering, womb;
d. suffixed zero-grade form *w_w-7-. VALVE, from Latinvalva, leaf of a door (
e. Suffixed zero-grade form *w_u-ti-. ALYCE CLOVER, fromGreek halusis, chain;
f. suffixed form *welu-tro-. ELYTRON, from Greek elutron,sheath, cover.
13. Suffixed form wel-n-. ILEUS; NEURILEMMA, from Greek eilein (<*welnein), to turn, squeeze.
14. Perhaps variant *wall-. VAIL1, VALE1, VALLEY, from Latin vallKs,vallis, valley (
15. Possibly suffixed form *wel-en7. ELECAMPANE, INULIN, from Greekhelenion, elecampane, from the Greek name HelenK (earliestform Welen7), Helen.
16. Suffixed form *wel-ik-. HELIX, from Greek helix, spiral object.
17. Suffixed form *wel-mi-nth-. HELMINTH; ANTHELMINTIC,PLATYHELMINTH, from Greek helmis, helmins (stem helminth-),parasitic worm.
[Pokorny 7. ¯el- 1140.]
welN-An important derivative is: vulnerable.To strike, wound.
1. Suffixed o-grade form *wol(N)-o-.
a. VALHALLA, from Old Norse Valhˆll, Valhalla;
b. VALKYRIE, from Old Norse Valkyrja, “chooser of theslain,” name of one of the twelve war goddesses (-kyrja,chooser; see geus-). Both a and b from Old Norse valr,the slain in battle, from Germanic *walaz.
2. Suffixed basic form *welN-nes-. VULNERABLE, from Latin vulnus(stem vulner-), a wound.
3. Suffixed zero-grade form *wlN-to-. BERDACHE, from Old Iranian*varta- (Avestan varNta-), seized, prisoner.
6. WAMBLE, from Middle English wam(e)len, to feel nausea, stagger,from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Norse vamla,qualm, and Danish vamle, to become sick, from Germanic*wam-.
7. NUX VOMICA, VOMIT, from Latin vomere, to vomit.
21. Suffixed form *wen-w-. WIN, from Old English winnan, to win,from Germanic *winn(w)an, to seek to gain.
22. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-y7. WYNN, WINSOME, from OldEnglish wynn, wen, pleasure, joy, from Germanic *wunjo.
23. Suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *wi-K-, to be contented.WON1, (WONT), from Old English wunian, to become accustomedto, dwell, from Germanic *wunKn.
24. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *won-eyo-. WEAN, from OldEnglish wenian, to accustom, train, wean, from Germanic*wanjan.
25. WEEN, from Old English wKnan, to expect, imagine, think, fromGermanic denominative *wKnjan, to hope, from *wKniz, hope.
26. Suffixed zero-grade form *wi-sko-. WISH, from Old Englishw«scan, to desire, wish, from Germanic *wunsk-.
27. Perhaps o-grade *won-.
a. VANIR, from Old Norse Vanir, the Vanir;
b. VANADIUM, from Old Norse VanadXs, name of thegoddess Freya. Both a and b from Germanic *wana-.
28. Suffixed form *wen-es-.
a. VENERATE, VENEREAL, VENERY1, VENUS, from Latin venus,love;
b. suffixed form *wen-es-no-. VENOM, from Latin venKnum,love potion, poison.
29. Possibly suffixed form *wen-eto-, “beloved.” WEND, from OldHigh German Winid, Wend, from Germanic *Weneda-, aSlavic people.
30. Suffixed form *wen-y7. VENIAL, from Latin venia, favor,forgiveness.
31. Lengthened-grade form *wKn-7-. VENATIC, VENERY2, VENISON, fromLatin vKn7rX, to hunt.
32. Suffixed basic form *wen-o-. WANDEROO, from Sanskrit vanam,forest.
10. WARLOCK, from Old English w<r, faith, pledge, from Germanic*wKra-.
11. VERACIOUS, VERISM, VERITY, VERY; AVER, VERDICT, VERIDICAL, VERIFY,VERISIMILAR, VOIR DIRE, from Latin vKrus, true.
12. SEVERE; ASSEVERATE, PERSEVERE, from Latin sevKrus, grave, serious;regarded by some as a compound of se-, sed, without (sees(w)e-), and vKrus, true, but the semantic difficulties make thisexplanation improbable.
13. Normal grade *wero-, from *werN-o-. GALORE, from Old Irishroar, enough, from *ro-wero-, sufficiency (*ro-, intensiveprefix, from *pro-; see per1).
c. WESTERLY, from Old English westra, more westerly. a, b,and c all from Germanic *west-.
2. VISIGOTH, from Late Latin VisigothX, “West Goths” (GothX, theGoths), from Germanic *wis-, possibly from wes-pero-.
IV. Basic form *wespero-.
1. VESPER, VESPERTILIONID, from Latin vesper, evening.
2. HESPERIAN, from Greek hesperos, evening.
[Pokorny ¯esperos 1173.]
wesyAn important derivative is: vernal.Spring.
VERNAL; PRIMAVERA1, from Latin vKr, spring (phonologically irregular).
[Pokorny ¯es-y 1174.]
wet-1
Important derivatives are: Wednesday, fan1, atmosphere.To blow, inspire, spiritually arouse.
Related to wK-.
12. Lengthened-grade form *wot-.
a. WODEN, from Old English Woden, Woden;
b. WEDNESDAY, from Old English Wodnesdæg, “Woden'sday”;
c. ODIN, from Old Norse odhinn, Odin;
d. WOTAN, from Old High German Wuotan. a, b, c, and dall from Germanic suffixed form *wod-eno-, *wod-ono-, “raging,” “mad,” “inspired,” hence “spirit,” name ofthe chief Teutonic god *Wod-enaz;
e. WOOD2, from Old English wod, mad, insane, fromGermanic *wodaz.
13. Lengthened variant form *w7t-. VATIC, from Latin v7tKs,prophet, poet.
14. Variant form *wat-. WEDELN, from Old High German wedil, fan,from Germanic suffixed form *wath-ila-.
15. Suffixed variant form *wat-no-. FAN1, VAN3, from Latin vannus, awinnowing fan.
16. Oldest basic form *Nwet- becoming *awet- in suffixed form*awet-mo-. ATMOSPHERE, from Greek atmos (< *aetmos), breath,vapor.
[Pokorny ¯7t- 1113.]
wet-2
Important derivatives are: wether, veteran, inveterate, veterinary, veal.Year.
14. Suffixed form *wet-ru-. WETHER, from Old English wether,wether, from Germanic *wethruz, perhaps “yearling.”
15. Suffixed form *wet-es-.
a. VETERAN; INVETERATE, from Latin vetus, old (
b. VETERINARY, from Latin veterXnus, of beasts of burden, ofcattle (perhaps chiefly old cattle);
c. ETESIAN, from Greek etos, year.
16. Suffixed form *wet-olo-. VEAL, VITELLUS, from Latin vitulus, calf,yearling.
[Pokorny ¯et- 1175.]
wi-Important derivatives are: wide, with.Apart, in half.
6. Suffixed form *wi-itos. WIDE, from Old English wXd, wide(*wXdaz.
7. Suffixed (comparative) form *wi-tero-.
a. WITH, WITHERS, from Old English wither, against, with itsderivative with, with, against;
b. GUERDON; WIDDERSHINS, from Old High German widar,
against. Both a and b from Germanic *withro, against.
[Pokorny 1. ¯Y- 1175.]
wXkctXA derivative is: vigesimal.Twenty.
Compound of wi-, in half, hence two, and *(d)kct-X (nominative dual),decade, reduced zero-grade form of dekc.
11. VICENARY, VIGESIMAL, from Latin vXgintX, twenty.
ii. WELTANSCHAUUNG, from Old High German weralt,world. Both (i) and (ii) from Germaniccompound *wer-ald-, “life or age of man” (*-ald-, age; see al-2);
b. LOUP-GAROU, from Old French garoul, werewolf, fromFrankish *wer-wulf, “man-wolf” (*wulf, wolf; seew_kwo-). Both a and b from Germanic *weraz, fromshortened form *wiraz.
9. VIRAGO, VIRILE, VIRTUE, (VIRTUOSA), (VIRTUOSO); DECEMVIR, DUUMVIR,TRIUMVIR, from Latin vir, man.
10. CURIA, from Latin c7ria, curia, court, possibly from wX-ro-, if
regarded as from *co-vir, “men together” (*co-, together; seekom).
[Pokorny ¯Xro- s 1177.]
w_kwo-An important derivative is: wolf.Wolf.
a. WOLF, from Old English wulf, wolf;
b. AARDWOLF, from Middle Dutch wolf, wulf, wolf;
c. WOLFRAM, from Old High German wolf, wolf;
d. (see wX-ro-) Frankish *wulf, wolf. a, b, c, and d allfrom Germanic *wulfaz.
a. YOKE, from Old English geoc, yoke, from Germanic*yukam;
b. JUGATE, JUGULAR, JUGUM; CONJUGATE, SUBJUGATE, from Latiniugum, yoke;
c. ZYGO- ZYGOMA, ZYGOTE, -ZYGOUS; (AZYGOUS), SYZYGY, fromGreek zugon, yoke, and zugoun, to join;
d. YUGA, from Sanskrit yugam, yoke.
2. Suffixed (superlative) form *yug-istos. JOUST; ADJUST, JUXTAPOSE,(JUXTAPOSITION), from Latin iuxt7, close by, from *iugist7 (vi7),“on a nearby (road).”
3. Nasalized form *yu-n-g-. JOIN, JUNCTION, JUNCTURE, JUNTA; ADJOIN,CONJOIN, (CONJUGAL), (CONJUNCT), ENJOIN, INJUNCTION, SUBJOIN, fromLatin iungere, to join.
VII. Suffixed form *yeug-mi. ZEUGMA, from Greek zeugma, a bond.
VIII. Suffixed o-grade form *youg-o-. YOGA, from Sanskrit yogaU, union.