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Hyundai Motor Company (Korean: 현대 자동차 주식회사, Hanja: 現代自動車株式會社 Hyŏndae Chadōngch'a Chusik-hoesa) (KRX: 005380), a division of the Hyundai Kia Automotive Group, is the world’s fourth largest automaker in terms of units sold[2] and one of the Big Asian Four

Hyundai Motor Company

Hyundai Motor Company (Korean: 현대자동차주식회사, Hanja: 現代自動車株式會 社 Hyŏndae Chadōngch'a Chusik-hoesa) (KRX: 005380), a division of the Hyundai Kia

Automotive Group, is the world’s fourth largest automaker in terms of units sold[2] and one of the Big Asian Four (with Toyota, Honda and Nissan).[3] Headquartered in Seoul, South Korea, Hyundai operates the world’s largest integrated automobile manufacturing facility in Ulsan, which is capable of producing 1.6 million units annually. The Hyundai logo, a slanted, stylized 'H', is said to be symbolic of two people (the company and customer) shaking hands. Hyundai means "modernity" in Korean. Hyundai Motor Company serves with more than 75,000 employees in other assembly plants, Hyundai vehicles are sold in 193 countries through some 6,000 dealerships and showrooms worldwide.

Hyundai Motor Company

Hyeondae Jadoncha Jushik-hwisa

현대자동차주식회사

TypePublic (KRX: 005380,

LSE: HYUD)

Founded 1967

Founder(s) Chung Ju-Yung

Headquarters Seoul, South Korea

Area served International

Key people Chung Mong-Koo, Chairman and CEO

Industry Automobile manufacturer

Products Automobiles

Revenue ▲ ₩32.1 trillion (2008)[1]

Net income ▲ ₩1.4 trillion (2008)[1]

Employees 75,000 (as of March 31, 2009)

Parent Hyundai Kia Automotive Group

Website Hyundai-Motor.com

HistoryChung Ju-Yung founded the Hyundai Engineering and Construction Company in 1947. Hyundai Motor Company was later established in 1967. The company’s first model, the Cortina, was released in cooperation with Ford Motor Company in 1968. In 1975, the Pony, the first Korean car, was released, with styling by Giorgio Giugiaro of ItalDesign and powertrain technology provided by Japan’s Mitsubishi Motors. Exports began in the following year to Ecuador and soon thereafter to the Benelux countries. In 1991, the company succeeded in developing its first proprietary gasoline engine, the four-cylinder Alpha, and transmission, thus paving the way for technological independence.

In 1986, Hyundai began to sell cars in the United States, and the Excel was nominated as "Best Product #10" by Fortune magazine, largely because of its affordability. The company began to produce models with its own technology in 1988, beginning with the midsize Sonata.

In 1996, Hyundai Motors India Limited was established with a production plant in Irrungattukatoi near Chennai, India.[4]

In 1998, Hyundai began to overhaul its image in an attempt to establish itself as a world-class brand. Chung Ju Yung transferred leadership of Hyundai Motor to his son, Chung Mong Koo, in 1999.[5] Hyundai's parent company, Hyundai Motor Group, invested heavily in the quality, design, manufacturing, and long-term research of its vehicles. It added a 10-year or 100,000-mile (160,000 km) warranty to cars sold in the United States and launched an aggressive marketing campaign.

In 2004, Hyundai was ranked second in "initial quality" in a survey/study by J.D. Power and Associates. Hyundai is now one of the top 100 most valuable brands worldwide.

Since 2002, Hyundai has also been one of the worldwide official sponsors of the FIFA World Cup.

In 2006, the South Korean government initiated an investigation of Chung Mong Koo's practices as head of Hyundai, suspecting him of corruption. On April 28, 2006, Chung was arrested, and charged for embezzlement of 100 billion won (US$106 million),[6] with Hyundai Vice Chairman and CEO, Kim Dong-jin, taking over as head of the company.

Business

Assembly line at Hyundai Motor Company’s car factory in Ulsan, South KoreaSee also: Hyundai

In 1998, after a shake-up in the Korean auto industry caused by overambitious expansion and the Asian financial crisis, Hyundai acquired rival Kia Motors. In 2000, the company established a strategic alliance with DaimlerChrysler and severed its partnership with the Hyundai Group. In 2001, the Daimler-Hyundai Truck Corporation was formed. In 2004, however, DaimlerChrysler divested its interest in the company by selling its 10.5% stake for $900 million.

Hyundai has invested in manufacturing plants in the North America, China, Pakistan, India, and Turkey as well as research and development centers in Europe, North America, and Japan. In 2004, Hyundai Motor Company had $57.2 billion in sales in South Korea making it the country’s second largest corporation, or chaebol. Worldwide sales in 2005 reached 2,533,695 units, an 11 percent increase over the previous year. Hyundai has set as its 2006 target worldwide sales of 2.7 million units (excluding exports of CKD kits).

Hyundai motor vehicles are sold in 193 countries through some 5,000 dealerships and showrooms. After a recent survey of global automotive sales by Automotive News, Hyundai is now the tenth largest automaker in the world in 2007.[7]

Hyundai Motor Company’s brand power continues to rise as it was ranked 72nd in the 2007 Best Global Brands by Interbrand and BusinessWeek survey. brand value estimated at $4.5 billion. Public perception of the Hyundai brand has been transformed as a result of dramatic improvements in the quality of Hyundai vehicles.[8] [9]

(Hyundai in the United States)

Hyundai Genesis

Hyundai entered the United States market in 1986 with a single model, the Hyundai Excel. The Excel was offered in a variety of trims and body styles. That year, Hyundai set a record of selling the most automobiles in its first year of business in the United States compared to any other car brand (c. 126,000 vehicles).

Initially well received, the Excel’s faults soon became apparent; cost-cutting measures caused reliability to suffer. With an increasingly poor reputation for quality, Hyundai sales plummeted, and many dealerships either earned their profits on repairs or abandoned the product. At one point, Hyundai became the butt of many jokes (i.e. Hyundai stands for "Hope you understand nothing's driveable and inexpensive") and even made David Letterman's Top Ten Hilarious Mischief Night Pranks To Play In Space: #8 - Paste a "Hyundai" logo on the main control panel.[10]

In response, the parent company of Hyundai began investing heavily in the quality, design, manufacturing, and long-term research of its vehicles. It added a 10-year or 100,000-mile (160,000 km) powertrain warranty (known as the Hyundai challenge) to its vehicles sold in the United States. By 2004, sales had dramatically increased, and the

reputation of Hyundai cars improved. In 2004, Hyundai tied with Honda for initial brand quality in a survey/study from J.D. Power and Associates, for having 102 problems per 100 vehicles. This made Hyundai second in the industry, only behind Toyota, for initial vehicle quality. The company continued this tradition by placing third overall in J.D. Power's 2006 Initial Quality Survey, behind only Porsche and Lexus.[11]

Hyundai continues to invest heavily in its American operations as its cars grow in popularity. In 1990, Hyundai established the Hyundai Design Center in Fountain Valley, California. The center moved to a new $30 million facility in Irvine, California in 2003, and was renamed the Hyundai Kia Motors Design and Technical Center. Besides the design studio, the facility also housed Hyundai America Technical Center, Inc. (HATCI, established in 1986), a subsidiary responsible for all engineering activities in the U.S. for Hyundai. Hyundai America Technical Center moved to its new 200,000-square-foot (19,000 m2), $117 million headquarters in Superior Township, Michigan (near Ann Arbor) in 2005. Later that same year, HATCI announced that it would be expanding its technical operations in Michigan and hiring 600 additional engineers and other technical employees over a period of five years. The center also has employees in California and Alabama.

Hyundai America Technical Center completed construction of its Hyundai/Kia proving ground in California City, California in 2004. The 4,300-acre (17 km2) facility is located in the Mojave Desert and features a 6.4-mile (10.3 km) oval track, a Vehicle Dynamics Area, a vehicle-handling course inside the oval track, a paved hill road, and several special surface roads. A 30,000-square-foot (2,800 m2) complex featuring offices and indoor testing areas is located on the premises as well. The facility was built at a cost of $50 million. An aerial view can be found here.[12] Hyundai completed an assembly plant just outside Montgomery, Alabama in 2004, with a grand opening on May 20, 2005, at a cost of $1.1 billion. At full capacity, the plant will employ 2,000 workers. Currently, the plant assembles the Hyundai Sonata and the Hyundai Santa Fe. It is Hyundai's second attempt at producing cars in North America since Hyundai Auto Canada Inc.'s plant in Quebec closed in 1993.

In 2003, according to Consumer Reports, Hyundai’s reliability rankings tied Honda's.[13]

In 2005, Hyundai authorized Ed Voyles' Hyundai dealership in Smyrna, Georgia to become the first "deaf friendly" dealership in the entire world. The staff in this dealership are able to accommodate deaf customers with the use of American Sign Language and video conferencing phones.

In 2006, J.D. Power and Associates' quality ranking, overall the Hyundai brand ranked 3rd, just behind Porsche and Lexus, and beating long time rival Toyota.[14] The brand overall is ranked much higher than the average industry and resale value continues to improve; a comparable 2003 Hyundai Sonata sedan ranks just $2200 below a similarly equipped Honda Accord, according to Kelley Blue Book Pricing 2006.

In 2006, the Hyundai Entourage minivan earned a five-star safety rating  – the highest honor the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration bestows – for all seating positions in frontal and side-impact crashes. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety also rates “Good” – its highest rating – in front, side and rear impacts. The IIHS (Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, United States), in fact, named the 2006 Hyundai Entourage and Kia Sedona a “Gold Top Safety Pick,” making the safest minivan ever tested. [15][16][17]

In 2006, Hyundai was awarded 'Top-rated 2006 Ideal Vehicle' by Autopacific, Marketing research and consultancy firm for the automobile industry.[18]

In 2007 Strategic Vision Total Quality Awards, Hyundai Motors leads the most vehicle segments in Strategic Vision’s Total Quality Index, measuring the ownership experience. They attempt to measure more than just the number of problems per vehicle. Hyundai tops in Strategic Vision Total Quality Awards. For the first time ever, Hyundai has risen to share the position of having the most models leading a segment. three models with the top Total Quality Index (TQI) score in their segments, including the Hyundai Azera, Entourage, Santa Fe.[19][20]

In 2007, Hyundai's midsize SUV Santa Fe earns 2007 TOP SAFETY PICK award by IIHS. [21][22]

In 2007 at the New York International Auto Show, Hyundai unveiled its V8 rear-drive luxury sedan called Concept Genesis to be slotted above the Azera in the Hyundai line-up. This concept will make its American debut in mid 2008. The Genesis reintroduced rear-wheel drive to the Hyundai range following a long period of only producing front-wheel drive cars.[23]

In 2007 at the Los Angeles International Auto Show, Hyundai unveiled its second rear-drive concept car, this car, called Concept Genesis Coupe, will be Hyundai’s first sports car due to make its debut in early 2009.[24]

In 2008, Hyundai Santa Fe and Hyundai Elantra were awarded 2008 Consumer Reports "top picks". The magazine's annual ratings, based on road tests and predicted safety and reliability are considered highly influential among consumers. [25] Hyundai Elantra was Consumer Reports' top-ranked 2008 vehicle among 19 other compacts and small family cars, beating out Honda Civic, Toyota Corolla and Toyota Prius.[26]

In 2008, at the North American International Auto Show, the production version of the luxury & performance-oriented Hyundai Genesis sedan made its debut, dealerships will have the Genesis as soon as Summer 2008. In 2008, at the New York International Auto Show, Hyundai debuted its production version of the performance-oriented rear-drive Hyundai Genesis Coupe, slated to hit dealerships in early 2009.

In 2009 Hyundai announced the five-door hatchback variant of the Elantra compact sedan will carry the name Elantra Touring when it goes on sale in the spring as a 2009 model. [27]

In 2009, The Hyundai Genesis, Luxury Sedan, has been named 2009 North American Car of the Year, the first for Hyundai.[28] The Genesis has received a number of well-recognized automobile awards worldwide. It also won the 2009 Canadian Car of the Year after winning its category of Best New Luxury Car under $50,000.[29] The Hyundai's V8 Tau engine in the Genesis, which develops 375 hp (280 kW) on premium fuel and 368 hp (274 kW) on regular fuel, received 2009 Ward's 10 Best Engines award.[30]

In 2009, 6 models of Hyundai/Kia cars earned Top Safety Award by IIHS, better than Nissan/Infiniti. [31]

In 2009, Hyundai/Kia vehicles were named as “least expensive vehicles to insure”. Hyundai/Kia vehicles were the least expensive to insure and occupied the 'top five' least expensive slots, said Insure.com. Low rates tend to reflect a vehicle’s safety.[32]

US sales

Calendar Year Sales

2000[33] 244,391

2001 346,235

2002[34] 375,119

2003 400,221

2004[35] 418,615

2005 455,012

2006 455,520

2007[36] 467,009

2008 401,742

Hyundai In IndiaHyundai is currently the second largest carmaker and largest auto exporter in India.[37] It is making India the global manufacturing base for small cars. Hyundai sells several models in India as of the 2009 model year, one of the most popular being the Hyundai i10 and the Hyundai i20. Other models include Hyundai Santro, Hyundai Getz, Hyundai Accent, second generation Hyundai Verna, Hyundai Tucson, Hyundai Elantra, and the Hyundai Sonata.

Electric vehicles

Main article: Electric vehicle

Hyundai plans to begin producing hybrid electric vehicles in 2009. The Avante will be the first vehicle to be produced.[38]

Since 2004, Hyundai has supplied about 3,000 hybrid versions of its Getz and Accent small cars to government fleets as part of a testing program. The automaker cites a lack of local tax benefits for purchasing hybrids as a barrier to its hybrid development program. But Hyundai expects the tax situation to change in 2009.[38]

The new hybrid electric Sonata will make its debut at the Los Angeles International Auto Show in November 2008. Hyundai expects to release it in the U.S. market in 2010, featuring lithium-ion battery technology.[39]

Environmental record

On April 23, 2008 Hyundai Motor announced the beginning of a five-year project to turn 50 km² of infertile land into grassland by 2012. Hyundai is doing so with the help of the Korean Federation for Environmental Movement (KFEM). The project, named Hyundai Green Zone, is located 660 km north of Beijing. The goal of the project is to end the recurring dust storms in Beijing, block desertification and protect the local ecosystem. Local weeds will be planted in the region that have the ability to endure sterile alkaline soil. This is the first environmental project of the company’s social contribution program.[40][41]

Hyundai Motor plans to aid Chevron Corporation in the construction of up to six hydrogen fueling stations that will be located in California, including locations at the University of California-Davis and the Hyundai America Technical Center in Chino. Hyundai is going to provide a collection of 32 Tucson fuel cell vehicles, which are powered by UTC Fuel Cell power plants.[42]

Motorsport

Alister McRae driving an Accent WRC at the 2001 Rally Finland.

Hyundai entered motorsport by competing in the F2 class of the World Rally Championship in 1998 and 1999. In September 1999, Hyundai unveiled the Accent WRC, a World Rally Car based on the Hyundai Accent. The Hyundai World Rally Team debuted the car at the 2000 Swedish Rally and achieved their first top-ten result at that year's Rally Argentina, when Alister McRae and Kenneth Eriksson finished seventh and eighth, respectively. Eriksson later drove the car to fifth place in New Zealand and fourth in Australia. In 2001, Hyundai debuted a new evolution of the Accent WRC, which was intended to improve reliability, but the performance of the car was still not good enough to challenge the four big teams (Ford World Rally Team, Mitsubishi, Peugeot and Subaru). However, at the season-ending Rally GB, the team achieved their best result with McRae finishing fourth and Eriksson sixth.

For the 2002 season, Hyundai hired the four-time world champion Juha Kankkunen, along with Freddy Loix and Armin Schwarz. Kankkunen's fifth place in New Zealand

was the team's best result, but they managed to edge out Škoda and Mitsubishi by one point in the battle for fourth place in the manufacturers' world championship. In September 2003, after a season hampered by budget constraints, Hyundai announced withdrawal from the WRC and planned to return in 2006, this has never happened though.[43]

In 2006, following the announcement that Korea was scheduled to earn a Formula 1 Grand Prix race, Hyundai announced that they plan to enter the sport. Development has since been ongoing and it hopes to appear for the first time in 2010, the same season in which Korea plans to make its grand prix calendar debut, this though will depend on the situation of the recent global financial slowdown of the Asian car industry.

Electric propulsion

Hyundai plans begin producing hybrid electric vehicles in 2009. They are going to use Hybrid Blue Drive, that includes lithium polymer batteries, instead of lithium-ion.[44][45]

[46] The Avante will be the first vehicle to be produced. Other are the Santa Fe Hybrid, the Elantra, Sonata Hybrid (to the U.S. market in 2010) and the Hyundai i20, which will replace the Hyundai Getz. Hyundai BLUE-WILL is a plug-in hybrid.[47]

Model lineup

Excel Accent Atos/Santro Azera Dynasty Elantra Equus/Centennial (joint project of Hyundai and Mitsubishi)[48] Genesis Genesis Coupe Click/Getz Grandeur (joint project of Hyundai and Mitsubishi) Grandeur XG/XG300/XG350 Grandeur/Azera Matrix/Lavita Santamo (Rebadged Mitsubishi Chariot) (Originally produced by

Hyundai Precision Industry) Sonata/i40 Tiburon/Coupé/Tuscani

i30 i20 i10

SUVs and Vans

Entourage (Similar to the Kia Sedona) Galloper (Rebadged Mitsubishi Pajero) (Originally produced by

Hyundai Precision Industry) Grace (1st generation was a rebadged Mitsubishi Delica) H-1/Satellite/Starex/Libero/H-200 Hyundai H-1/iMax/i800 Hyundai H-100 Grace / Porter HD1000 (Minibus/Porter) Porter (1st generation was a rebadged Mitsubishi Delica) Santa Fe Starex Terracan Trajet Tucson Veracruz

Commercial vehicles

Ford D Series Ford DK Series Ford R Series O303 Benz Bus HM 1620 urban bus HM 1630 suburban bus Hyundai 4.5 to 5-ton truck (Rebadged Mitsubishi Fuso Fighter) Hyundai 8 to 25-ton truck (Rebadged Mitsubishi Fuso Super Great) Aero (Rebadged Mitsubishi Fuso Aero Bus) Aero City Aero Town (e-Aero Town) Hyundai DQ-7 Bison & 3ton Truck Chorus County (e-County) e-Mighty Hyundai FB

HD160 HD170 Mega Truck New Power Truck Mighty (Rebadged Mitsubishi Fuso Canter) Mighty II Hyundai RB Super Truck Medium Super Truck Trago Universe

H.M.I.L.Hyundai Motors India Limited (HIML) was established in 1996. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Hyundai Motor Company, South Korean multi-national.

Hyundai Motors India Limited is the fastest growing car manufacturer in India. Hyundai Santro is the most preferred car in the section of small passenger cars. The 26 variants of passenger car in 6 segments caters to the need of a large section of Indian population.

HIML has a fully integrated state-of-art manufacturing plant at Irrungattukatoi near Chennai. It is also setting up its second production unit adjacent to the existing one to meet the growing demand.

The Hyundai i20 made its debut at the Paris Motor Show in October 2008 and went on sale in December 2008 in India to fit between the i10 and i30. Three and five door versions are available. The i20 replaces the Getz in most markets but in the UK, Australia and India, the Getz will still be available for the time being. The i20 is manufactured solely in India for sale worldwide .[1]

Hyundai i20

Manufacturer Hyundai Motors India Limited

Production 2008–present

Assembly Chennai, India

Predecessor Hyundai Getz

Class Subcompact/Supermini

RelatedKia Soul

Kia Venga

Platform

The Hyundai i20 uses a completely new platform that was created at Hyundai's European technical centre in Rüsselsheim to allow Hyundai to move into Europe's highly competitive supermini segment. A 2,525 mm (99.4 in) wheelbase helps endow the i20 with a generous passenger cabin. Suspension follows the supermini norm of MacPherson struts at the front and a torsion beam rear end with rack and pinion steering.

Engines

The i20 will debut in Europe with a total of seven engine options, all with four cylinders. Three are petrol, including the recently designed 1.2litre dohc 16 valve "Kappa" engine, while the rest are diesel engines. Two of the diesel engines are 1396 cc units, one with 75 PS (55 kW; 74 hp) and 220 N·m (160 lb·ft) and the other a 90 PS (66 kW; 89 hp) and 220 N·m (160 lb·ft) high power unit. They are joined by two 1582 cc engines having the same dohc and 16-valve top end architecture but delivering either 115 PS (85 kW; 113 hp) and 260 N·m (190 lb·ft) of torque or 128 PS (94 kW; 126 hp) and 260 N·m (190 lb·ft) of torque.

Hyundai claims that 115 PS (85 kW; 113 hp) diesel unit can return a class leading 115g/km of CO2 while sipping just one litre of HSD[clarification needed] to go 23.25 km/L (65.7 mpg-imp; 54.7 mpg-US) (4.3L/100 km) in the European combined driving cycle.[citation

needed] All engines come mated to five-speed manual transmissions though there are also four-speed automatics as options for the petrol engined models and the top end 1.6 is mated to a six-speed manual.

Safety

The Hyundai i20 earned Euro NCAP a maximum 5 star safety rating [2] and scored an impressive six out of a maximum seven points in the "safety assist" category, receiving top marks for its belt reminder and electronic stability programme which minimises the risk of skidding by braking individual wheels.[3]

The Hyundai i10 (called the Inokom i10 in Malaysia [1] ) is a city car (hatchback) produced by the Hyundai Motor Company, launched on 31 October 2007, manufactured only in India, at Hyundai's Chennai Plant — and sold globally. Replacing the Atos/Atos Prime/Amica/Santro (except in India, where the lower-priced Santro Xing is still being sold below it), it is marketed below the Getz and i20 (which replaces the Getz in most countries).

Hyundai i10

Manufacturer Hyundai Motor India Limited

Also called Inokom i10

Production 2007–present

Assembly Chennai, India

Predecessor Hyundai Atos

Class City car

Body style(s) 5-door hatchback

Layout FF layout

Engine(s) 1,248 cc (1.2 L) I4

Transmission(s)5-speed manual

4-speed automatic

Wheelbase 2,380 mm (93.7 in)

Length 3,565 mm (140.4 in)

Width 1,595 mm (62.8 in)

Height 1,550 mm (61.0 in)

Curb weight 1000-1030 kg (M/T)

Fuel capacity 35 L (9 US gal; 8 imp gal)

Related Kia Picanto

Hyundai i10 rear view

Background

After the Santro/Atos Prime, Hyundai needed a model to replace it and started a hatchback project codenamed Hyundai PA. The car was to be manufactured in a new facility at Chennai, India.

Styling

The i10 has large gaping air-dam, pulled-back headlamps, chrome-lined grills, integrated clear lens fog lamps, the bonnet that has a clam shell hint and the rear window line has an upswept kink.

The tailgate has a chrome-lined boot-release handle and an integrated roof spoiler on the top end versions.

Overall length (3565 mm) and wheelbase (2380 mm) are identical to the Santro with slightly more interior space; Ergonomic design was intended to accommodate tall drivers and increasing rear knee room. The width has been increased (and front and rear track) by 70 mm (2.8 in) for more shoulder room. The height has been reduced by 40 mm (1.6 in). Boot space at 225 litres (7.9 cu ft) is significantly lower than that of Getz.

Interiors

The interior has a plastic dash housing with an optional integrated stereo. The instrument binnacle has a large white-faced speedometer flanked by the tachometer and fuel and temperature gauges.

The gear lever built into the central console leaving space between the front seats for a couple of cup holders.

Engines

The i10 was launched with a 1.1 litre (called the IRdE engine) 65 bhp (48 kW; 66 PS) I4 engine - the same motor used in the Kia Picanto/Hyundai Atos Prime/Santro Xing. However, it produces less CO2 emissions than the Picanto[citation needed]. The i10 also comes with a 1.2 litre petrol Euro-5 compliant engine (called the Kappa engine), with the same CO2 emissions as the 1.1 litre version. A 1.1 litre diesel variant is available but has not yet been introduced into the UK market.

Accolades and Feats

Hyundai i10 was widely recognized as "Car of the Year 2008" by various automotive magazines and TV channels in India like BS Motoring, CNBC-TV18 AutoCar[2], NDTV Profit Car & Bike India[3] and Overdrive magazine. The car was conferred with the Indian Car of the Year (ICOTY) by automotive media of the country.[4]

In 2008, Hyundai commemorated 10 years of operations in India by initiating a trans-continental drive from Delhi to Paris in two of its i10 Kappa cars. The drive covered a distance of 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) in just 17 days after which the i10s were showcased at the Paris Motor Show in October.[5] At the Paris Motor Show Hyundai unveiled the Hyundai i20.

Safety

The i10 features ABS, EBD and other safety features, which earned it high scores on the Euro NCAP crash tests.[6]

Adult Occupant: , score 26 Child Occupant: , score 37 Pedestrian: , score 21

The amount of safety features varies from market to market. While most countries have the i10 equipped with airbags for all passengers, the entry-level 1.1 manual transmission model in the Philippines can be sold without airbags.

Since launch and as of August 2009, electronic stability control (ESC) is still a special-order option for UK spec cars which prevents a full 5-star EuroNCAP score.

ITEMS1.1 iRDE 1.2 Kappa

DIMENSIONS

Overall Length (mm)

Overall Width (mm)

Overall Height (mm)

Wheelbase (mm)

Ground Clearance (mm)

Front Track (mm)

Rear Track (mm)

Fuel Tank capacity (l)

3565

1595

1550

2380

165

1400

1385

35

ENGINE  

No.of cylinders

No. of valves

Valvetrain (type) (SOHC / DOHC)

Displacement (cc)

Maximum Power (ps/rpm)

Maximum Torque (Kgm/rpm)

4

12 16

SOHC DOHC

1086 1197

66.6/5500 80/5200

10.1/2800 11.4/4000

TRANSMISSION  

Type Manual

Automatic S S

- O*

SUSPENSION  

Front Suspension

Rear Suspension Mc Pherson Strut with Stabilizer bar Coupled Torsion Beam Axle with Coil

Spring

BRAKES  

Front

Rear Ventilated Disc

Drum

TYRE  

Size155/80 R13

Ttttt

 EXTERIOR

 INTERIOR INSTRUMENT PANEL

 COMFORT & CONVENIENCE

 SAFETY & SECURITY

    1.1 iRDE 1.1/1.2 1.2 Kappa

    D-Lite Era Magna Sportz Asta

EXTERIOR

 Clear Headlamps & Rear Combination Lamp

S S S S S

  Outside Rear View Mirror S S S S S

  Tinted Glass S S S S S

  Body Colored ORVM - - S S S

  Body Coloured Bumper - S S S S

  Body Coloured Side Door Handles - - S S S

  Body Coloured Tail Gate Handle - - S S S

  Waistline Moulding - - S S S

  Radiator GrilleSilver Finish

Chrome Chrome Chrome Chrome

  Rear Spoiler with HMSL - - - S S

  Full Wheel Cover - - S S S

  Sunroof - - - - O

S - Standard, O - Optional

 *Available only with body colors - Electric Red and Stone Black **With Sunroof only.

 ***Available only with 1.2 Kappa. 

Hyundai Kappa engineHyundai's Kappa engine is a small straight-4 automobile engine.

1.2L

The 1.2L Variant is currently the only Kappa engine produced. This engine is gasoline powered, has DOHC, and uses an all-aluminum design. It delivers 84 BHP(59kW) @ 5,200 RPM, and 82 ft.-lb (112 Nm) of torque @ 4,000 RPM. It has a fuel economy rating (city/highway combined) of 5.0L/100km (47 MPG).Applications:

Hyundai i10 Hyundai i20

Overhead camshaft

A cylinder head sliced in half shows two overhead camshafts—one above each of the two valves.

Overhead camshaft, commonly abbreviated to OHC, valvetrain configurations place the engine camshaft within the cylinder heads, above the combustion chambers, and drive the valves or lifters in a more direct manner compared to overhead valves (OHV) and pushrods.

Compared to OHV pushrod (or I-Head) systems with the same number of valves the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower total mass. Though the system that drives the cams may become more complex, most engine manufacturers easily accept that added complexity in trade for better engine performance and greater design flexibility. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimized port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs. With no intrusive pushrods the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous crossection and length.

The OHC system can be driven using the same methods as an OHV system, which include using a rubber/kevlar toothed timing belt, chain, or in less common cases, gears.

In conjunction with multiple (3 or 4) valves per cylinder, many OHC engines today employ variable valve timing to improve efficiency and power. OHC also inherently allows for greater engine speeds over comparable cam-in-block designs, as a result of having lower valvetrain mass.

There are two overhead camshaft layouts:

Single overhead camshaft - or SOHC Double overhead camshaft - or DOHC

Single overhead camshaft

A single overhead camshaft cylinder head from a 1987 Honda CRX Si.

Single overhead camshaft (SOHC) is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head. In an inline engine this means there is one camshaft in the head, while in a V engine or a horizontally-opposed engine (boxer; flat engine) there are two camshafts: one per cylinder bank.

The SOHC design has less reciprocating mass than a comparable pushrod design. This allows for higher engine speeds, which in turn will increase power output for a given torque. The cam operates the valves directly or through a rocker arm, as opposed to overhead valve pushrod engines which have tappets, long pushrods, and rocker arms to transfer the movement of the lobes on the camshaft in the engine block to the valves in the cylinder head.

SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to pushrod designs when used for multi-valve heads in which each cylinder has more than two valves. An example of an SOHC design using shim and bucket valve adjustment was the engine installed in the Hillman Imp (4 cylinder, 8 valve); a small, early 1960s 2-door saloon car with a rear mounted alloy engine based on the Coventry Climax FWMA race engines. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the same side of the engine block (thus not a crossflow cylinder head design). This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs.

In the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets while the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve lash adjustment. Of all valvetrain systems, this is the least complex configuration possible.

Double overhead camshaft

Overhead view of Suzuki GS550 head showing dual camshafts and drive sprockets.

A double overhead camshaft valve train layout is characterized by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the inlet valves and one operating the exhaust valves. Some engines have more than one bank of cylinder heads (V8 and flat-four being two well-known examples) and these have more than two camshafts in total, but they remain DOHC. The term "twin cam" is imprecise, but will normally refer to a DOHC engine. Some manufacturers still managed to use a SOHC in 4-valve layouts. Honda for instance with the later half of the D16 family, this is usually done to reduce overall costs.

Also not all DOHC engines are multivalve engines—DOHC was common in two valve per cylinder heads for decades before multivalve heads appeared. Today, however, DOHC is synonymous with multi-valve heads since almost all DOHC engines have between three and five valves per cylinder.

History

DOHC straight-8 in a 1933 Bugatti Type 59 Grand Prix racer

Among the early pioneers of DOHC were Isotta Fraschini's Giustino Cattaneo, Austro-Daimler's Ferdinand Porsche Stephen Tomczak (in the Prinz Heinrich), and W. O. Bentley (in 1919); Sunbeam built small numbers between 1921 and 1923.[2] The first DOHC engines were either two- or four-valve per cylinder racing car designs from companies like Fiat (1912), Peugeot Grand Prix (1913, 4 valve), Alfa Romeo Grand Prix (1914, 4 valve)[3] and 6C (1928), Maserati Tipo 26 (1926), Bugatti Type 51 (1931).

When DOHC technology was introduced in mainstream vehicles, it was common for it to be heavily advertised. While used at first in limited production and sports cars, Alfa Romeo is one of the twin cam's greatest proponents, 6C Sport the first Alfa Romeo road car using DOHC engine was introduced in 1928, ever since this has been trademark of all Alfa Romeo engines.[3]

Fiat was one of the first car companies to use a belt-driven DOHC engines across their complete product line, in the mid-1960s.[citation needed], Jaguar's XK6 DOHC engine was displayed in the Jaguar XK120 at the London Motor Show in 1948 and used across the entire Jaguar range through the late 1940s, 1950 and 1960s.

More than two overhead camshafts are not known to have been tried in a production engine. However MotoCzysz has designed a motorcycle engine with a triple overhead camshaft configuration with the intake ports descending through the head to two central intake ports between two outside exhaust camshafts

"HDi" redirects here. For the interactive format, see HDi (interactivity)."DCi" redirects here. For other uses, see DCI.

C.R.D.I.Common rail direct fuel injection is a modern variant of direct fuel injection system for petrol and diesel engines.

On diesel engines, it features a high-pressure (over 1,000 bar/15,000 psi) fuel rail feeding individual solenoid valves, as opposed to low-pressure fuel pump feeding unit injectors (Pumpe Düse or pump nozzles). Third-generation common rail diesels now feature piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to 1,800 bars (26,000 psi).

In petrol engines, it is utilised in gasoline direct injection engine technology.

History

The common rail system prototype was developed in the late 1960s by Robert Huber of Switzerland and the technology further developed by Dr. Marco Ganser at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, later of Ganser-Hydromag AG (est.1995) in Oberägeri. In the mid-1990s Dr. Shohei Itoh and Masahiko Miyaki of the Denso Corporation, a Japanese automotive parts manufacturer, developed the common rail fuel system for heavy duty vehicles and turned it into practical use on their ECD-U2 common-rail system mounted on the Hino Rising Ranger truck and sold for general use in 1995.[1] Denso claims the first commercial high pressure common rail system in 1995.[2]

Modern common rail systems, whilst working on the same principle, are governed by an engine control unit (ECU) which opens each injector electronically rather than mechanically. This was extensively prototyped in the 1990s with collaboration between Magneti Marelli, Centro Ricerche Fiat and Elasis. After research and development by the Fiat Group the design was acquired by the German company Robert Bosch GmbH for completion of development and refinement for mass-production. In hindsight the sale appeared to be a tactical error for Fiat as the new technology proved to be highly profitable. The company had little choice but to sell, however, as it was in a poor financial state at the time and lacked the resources to complete development on its own.[3]

In 1997 they extended its use for passenger cars. The first passenger car that used the common rail system was the 1997 model Alfa Romeo 156 1.9 JTD,[4] and later on that same year Mercedes-Benz C 220 CDI.

Common rail engines have been used in marine and locomotive applications for some time. The Cooper-Bessemer GN-8 (circa 1942) is an example of a hydraulically operated common rail diesel engine, also known as a modified common rail.

Vickers used common rail systems in submarine engines circa 1916. Doxford Engines Ltd.[5] (opposed piston heavy marine engines) used a common rail system (from 1921 to 1980) whereby a multi-cylinder reciprocating fuel pump generated a pressure of approximately 600bar with the fuel being stored in accumulator bottles. Pressure control was achieved by means of an adjustable pump discharge stroke and a "spill valve". Camshaft operated mechanical timing valves were used to supply the spring loaded Brice/CAV/Lucas injectors which injected through the side of the cylinder into the chamber formed between the pistons. Early engines had a pair of injectors, one for ahead running and one for astern.[citation needed] Later engines had two injectors per cylinder and the final series of constant pressure turbocharged engines were fitted with four injectors per cylinder. This system was used for the injection of both diesel oil and heavy fuel oil (600cSt heated to a temperature of approximately 130°C).

The engines are suitable for all types of road cars with diesel engines, ranging from city cars such as the Fiat Nuova Panda to executive cars such as the Volvo S80.

Common rail today

Today the common rail system has brought about a revolution in diesel engine technology. Robert Bosch GmbH, Delphi Automotive Systems, Denso Corporation, and Siemens VDO (now owned by Continental AG) are the main suppliers of modern common rail systems. The car makers refer to their common rail engines by their own brand names:

BMW 's D-engines (also used in the Land Rover Freelander TD4) Cummins and Scania's XPI (Developed under joint venture) Cummins CCR (Cummins pump with Bosch Injectors) Daimler 's CDI (and on Chrysler's Jeep vehicles simply as CRD) Fiat Group 's (Fiat, Alfa Romeo and Lancia) JTD (also branded as MultiJet,

JTDm, Ecotec CDTi, TiD, TTiD , DDiS, Quadra-Jet) Ford Motor Company 's TDCi Duratorq and Powerstroke General Motors Opel/Vauxhall CDTi (manufactured by Fiat and GM Daewoo)

and DTi (Isuzu) General Motors Daewoo/Chevrolet VCDi (licensed from VM Motori; also

branded as Ecotec CDTi) Honda 's i-CTDi Hyundai-Kia 's CRDi Land Rover 's "Storm" TD5 derived from the Rover L-Series engine Mahindra 's CRDe Mazda 's CiTD (1.4 MZ-CD, 1.6 MZ-CD manufactured by Ford) Mitsubishi 's DI-D (recently developed 4N1 engine family uses next generation

200 MPa (2000 bar) injection system))

Nissan 's dCi PSA Peugeot Citroën 's HDI or HDi (1.4HDI, 1.6 HDI, 2.0 HDI, 2.2 HDI and V6

HDI developed under joint venture with Ford) Renault 's 'dCi SsangYong 's XDi (most of these engines are manufactured by Daimler AG) Subaru 's Legacy TD (as of Jan 2008) Tata 's DICOR Toyota 's D-4D Volkswagen Group : The 4.2 V8 TDI and the latest 2.7 and 3.0 TDI (V6) engines

featured on current Audi models use common rail, as opposed to the earlier unit injector engines. The 2.0 TDI in the Volkswagen Tiguan SUV uses common rail, as does the 2008 model Audi A4. Volkswagen Group has announced that the 2.0 TDI (common rail) engine will be available for Volkswagen Passat as well as the 2009 Volkswagen Jetta.[6]

Volvo 2.4D and D5 engines (1.6D, 2.0D manufactured by Ford and PSA Peugeot Citroen)

Principles

Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic control over the fuel injection time and quantity, and the higher pressure that the common rail technology makes available provides better fuel atomisation. In order to lower engine noise the engine's electronic control unit can inject a small amount of diesel just before the main injection event ("pilot" injection), thus reducing its explosiveness and vibration, as well as optimising injection timing and quantity for variations in fuel quality, cold starting, and so on. Some advanced common rail fuel systems perform as many as five injections per stroke.[7]

Common rail engines require no heating up time[citation needed] and produce lower engine noise and emissions than older systems.

Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection. Two common types include the unit injection system and the distributor/inline pump systems (See diesel engine and unit injector for more information). While these older systems provided accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control they were limited by several factors:

They were cam driven and injection pressure was proportional to engine speed. This typically meant that the highest injection pressure could only be achieved at the highest engine speed and the maximum achievable injection pressure decreased as engine speed decreased. This relationship is true with all pumps, even those used on common rail systems; with the unit or distributor systems, however, the injection pressure is tied to the instantaneous pressure of a single pumping event with no accumulator and thus the relationship is more prominent and troublesome.

They were limited on the number of and timing of injection events that could be commanded during a single combustion event. While multiple injection events is possible with these older systems, it is much more difficult and costly to achieve.

For the typical distributor/inline system the start of injection occurred at a pre-determined pressure (often referred to as: pop pressure) and ended at a pre-determined pressure. This characteristic results from "dummy" injectors in the cylinder head which opened and closed at pressures determined by the spring preload applied to the plunger in the injector. Once the pressure in the injector reached a pre-determined level, the plunger would lift and injection would start.

In common rail systems a high pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure — up to and above 2,000 bars (29,000 psi). The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high pressure pump in that it only has to maintain a commanded pressure at a target (either mechanically or electronically controlled). The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically activated a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically actuated the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate. If the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.

SENSORS

1.MAP Sensor manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP) is one of the sensors used in an internal combustion engine's electronic control system. Engines that use a MAP sensor are typically fuel injected. The manifold absolute pressure sensor provides instantaneous manifold pressure information to the engine's electronic control unit (ECU). The data is used to calculate air density and determine the engine's air mass flow rate, which in turn determines the required fuel metering for optimum combustion (see stoichiometry). A fuel-injected engine may alternately use a MAF (mass air flow) sensor to detect the intake airflow. A typical configuration employs one or the other, but seldom both.

MAP sensor data can be converted to air mass data using the speed-density method. Engine speed (RPM) and air temperature are also necessary to complete the speed-density calculation. The MAP sensor can also be used in OBD II (on-board diagnostics) applications to test the EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) valve for functionality, an application typical in OBD II equipped General Motors engines.

How the MAP value is used

The manifold absolute pressure measurement is used to meter fuel. The amount of fuel required is directly related to the mass of air entering the engine. The mass of air is proportional to the air density, which is proportional to the absolute pressure and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. (See ideal gas law.) Engine speed determines the frequency, or rate, at which air mass is leaving the intake manifold and entering the cylinders.

(Engine Mass Airflow Rate) ≈ RPM × (Air Density) or equivalently (Engine Mass Airflow Rate) ≈ RPM × Volume x MAP x M / (2 x R x absolute temperature)

Where Volume is the displacement of the engine, M is the molar mass of air, and R is the ideal gas constant. The two in the denominator is needed for 4 stroke engines because half the engine's displacement is swept during one revolution.

Example

The following example assumes the same engine speed and air temperature.

Condition 1:

An engine operating at WOT (wide open throttle) on top of a very high mountain has a MAP of about 15" Hg or 50 kPa (essentially equal to the barometer at that high altitude).

Condition 2:

The same engine at sea level will achieve 15" Hg of MAP at less than WOT due to the higher barometric pressure.

The engine requires the same mass of fuel in both conditions because the mass of air entering the cylinders is the same.

If the throttle is opened all the way in condition 2, the manifold absolute pressure will increase from 15" Hg to nearly 30" Hg (~100 kPa), about equal to the local barometer, which in condition 2 is sea level. The higher absolute pressure in the intake manifold increases the air's density, and in turn more fuel can be burned resulting in higher output.

Anyone who has driven up a high mountain is familiar with the reduction in engine output as altitude increases.

Vacuum comparison

Vacuum is the difference between the absolute pressures of the intake manifold and atmosphere. Vacuum is a "gauge" pressure, since gauges by nature measure a pressure difference, not an absolute pressure. The engine fundamentally responds to air mass, not vacuum, and absolute pressure is necessary to calculate mass. The mass of air entering the engine is directly proportional to the air density, which is proportional to the absolute pressure, and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.

Note: Carburetors are largely dependent on air volume flow and vacuum, and neither directly infers mass. Consequently, carburetors are precise, but not accurate fuel metering devices. Carburetors were replaced by more accurate fuel metering methods, such as fuel injection.

Barometer and vacuum calculations based on MAP

The MAP sensor can be used to directly measure the BAP (barometric absolute pressure).

BAP = MAP (When either of the following conditions are true.)

o When the engine is not turning. o When operating at WOT (nearly equal to the barometric pressure)

Once the BAP is known, the MAP sensor can be used to calculate intake manifold vacuum.

BAP - MAP = Manifold Vacuum or BAP = MAP + Manifold Vacuum or MAP = BAP - Manifold Vacuum

o When the engine is running, the difference between the BAP and the MAP is known as intake manifold vacuum. The ECU learns the BAP just before cranking the engine, i.e., when MAP equals BAP.

As atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, vacuum must also decrease to maintain the same MAP in order to maintain the same torque output. This is accomplished by opening the engine's throttle more as altitude increases. However, the BAP learned at the beginning of the trip becomes obsolete as altitude changes.

Sometimes an engine control system will use both a BAP sensor and a MAP sensor to continuously maintain an accurate barometer and manifold vacuum. However, neither vacuum nor barometer are necessary for fuel determination, although they are helpful for

other engine functions. The critical information is the air's density in the intake manifold, and the speed of the engine, i.e., the speed-density method.

The BAP sensor is often located within the ECU, and the MAP sensor is usually located near the intake manifold.

(See Earth's atmosphere.)

EGR Testing

With OBD II standards, vehicle manufacturers were required to test the EGR valve for functionality during driving. Some manufacturers use the MAP sensor to accomplish this. In these vehicles, they have a MAF sensor for their primary load sensor. The MAP sensor is then used for rationality checks and to test the EGR valve. The way they do this is during a deceleration of the vehicle when there is low absolute pressure in the intake manifold (i.e., a high vacuum present in the intake manifold relative to the outside air). During this low absolute pressure (i.e., high vacuum) the PCM will open the EGR valve and then monitor the MAP sensor's values. If the EGR is functioning properly, the manifold absolute pressure will increase as exhaust gases enter.

T.P.S. Sensor

Throttle body showing throttle position sensor on the right

A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a sensor used to monitor the position of the throttle in an internal combustion engine. The sensor is usually located on the butterfly spindle so that it can directly monitor the position of the throttle valve butterfly.

The sensor is usually a potentiometer, and therefore provides a variable resistance dependent upon the position of the valve (and hence throttle position).

The sensor signal is used by the engine control unit (ECU) as an input to its control system. The ignition timing and fuel injection timing (and potentially other parameters) are altered depending upon the position of the throttle, and also depending on the rate of change of that position. For example, in fuel injected engines, in order to avoid stalling, extra fuel may be injected if the throttle is opened rapidly (mimicking the accelerator pump of carburetor systems).

More advanced forms of the sensor are also used, for example an extra closed throttle position sensor (CTPS) may be employed to indicate that the throttle is completely closed.

Some ECUs also control the throttle position and if that is done the position sensor is utilised in a feedback loop to enable that control.

Related to the TPS are accelerator pedal sensors, which often include a wide open throttle (WOT) sensor. The accelerator pedal sensors are used in "drive by wire" systems, and the most common use of a wide open throttle sensor is for the kickdown function on automatic transmissions.

Modern day sensors are Non Contact type, wherein a Magnet and a Hall Sensor is used. In the potentiometric type sensors, two metal parts are in contact with each other, while the butterfly valve is turned from zero to WOT, there is a change in the resistance and this change in resistance is given as the input to the ECU.

Non Contact type TPS work on the principle of Hall Effect, wherein the magnet is the dynamic part which mounted on the butterfly valve spindle and the hall sensor is mounted with the body and is stationary. When the magnet mounted on the spindle which is rotated from zero to WOT, there is a change in the magnetic field for the hall sensor. The change in the magnetic field is sensed by the hall sensor and the hall voltage generated is given as the input to the ECU. Normally a two pole magnet is used for TPS and the magnet may be of Diametrical type or Ring type or segment type, however the magnet is defined to have a certain magnetic field.

O2 SensorAn oxygen sensor, or lambda sensor, is an electronic device that measures the proportion of oxygen (O2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed. It was developed by Robert Bosch GmbH during the late 1960s under supervision by Dr. Günter Bauman. The original sensing element is made with a thimble-shaped zirconia ceramic coated on both the exhaust and reference sides with a thin layer of platinum and comes in both heated and unheated forms. The planar-style sensor entered the market in 1998 (also pioneered by Robert Bosch GmbH) and significantly reduced the mass of the ceramic sensing element as well as incorporating the heater within the ceramic structure. This resulted in a sensor

that both started operating sooner and responded faster. The most common application is to measure the exhaust gas concentration of oxygen for internal combustion engines in automobiles and other vehicles. Divers also use a similar device to measure the partial pressure of oxygen in their breathing gas.

Scientists use oxygen sensors to measure respiration or production of oxygen and use a different approach. Oxygen sensors are used in oxygen analyzers which find a lot of use in medical applications such as anesthesia monitors, respirators and oxygen concentrators.

There are many different ways of measuring oxygen and these include technologies such as zirconia, electrochemical (also known as Galvanic), infrared, ultrasonic and very recently laser. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Automotive applications

A three-wire oxygen sensor suitable for use in a Volvo 240 or similar.

Automotive oxygen sensors, colloquially known as O2 sensors, make modern electronic fuel injection and emission control possible. They help determine, in real time, if the air fuel ratio of a combustion engine is rich or lean. Since oxygen sensors are located in the exhaust stream, they do not directly measure the air or the fuel entering the engine. But when information from oxygen sensors is coupled with information from other sources, it can be used to indirectly determine the air-to-fuel ratio. Closed-loop feedback-controlled fuel injection varies the fuel injector output according to real-time sensor data rather than operating with a predetermined (open-loop) fuel map. In addition to enabling electronic fuel injection to work efficiently, this emissions control technique can reduce the amounts of both unburnt fuel and oxides of nitrogen from entering the atmosphere. Unburnt fuel is pollution in the form of air-borne hydrocarbons, while oxides of nitrogen (NOx gases) are a result of combustion chamber tempuratures exceeding 1300 Kelvin due to excess air in the fuel mixture and contribute to smog and acid rain. Volvo was the first automobile manufacturer to employ this technology in the late 1970s, along with the 3-way catalyst used in the catalytic converter.

The sensor does not actually measure oxygen concentration, but rather the amount of oxygen needed to completely oxidize any remaining combustibles in the exhaust gas. Rich mixture causes an oxygen demand. This demand causes a voltage to build up, due to

transportation of oxygen ions through the sensor layer. Lean mixture causes low voltage, since there is an oxygen excess.

Modern spark-ignited combustion engines use oxygen sensors and catalytic converters as part of an attempt by governments working with automakers to reduce exhaust emissions. Information on oxygen concentration is sent to the engine management computer or ECU, which adjusts the amount of fuel injected into the engine to compensate for excess air or excess fuel. The ECU attempts to maintain, on average, a certain air-fuel ratio by interpreting the information it gains from the oxygen sensor. The primary goal is a compromise between power, fuel economy, and emissions, and in most cases is achieved by an air-fuel-ratio close to stoichiometric. For spark-ignition engines (such as those that burn gasoline, as opposed to diesel), the three types of emissions modern systems are concerned with are: hydrocarbons (which are released when the fuel is not burnt completely, such as when misfiring or running rich), carbon monoxide (which is the result of running slightly rich) and NOx (which dominate when the mixture is lean). Failure of these sensors, either through normal aging, the use of leaded fuels, or fuel contaminated with silicones or silicates, for example, can lead to damage of an automobile's catalytic converter and expensive repairs.

Tampering with or modifying the signal that the oxygen sensor sends to the engine computer can be detrimental to emissions control and can even damage the vehicle. When the engine is under low-load conditions (such as when accelerating very gently, or maintaining a constant speed), it is operating in "closed-loop mode." This refers to a feedback loop between the ECU and the oxygen sensor(s) in which the ECU adjusts the quantity of fuel and expects to see a resulting change in the response of the oxygen sensor. This loop forces the engine to operate both slightly lean and slightly rich on successive loops, as it attempts to maintain a mostly stoichiometric ratio on average. If modifications cause the engine to run moderately lean, there will be a slight increase in fuel economy, sometimes at the expense of increased NOx emissions, much higher exhaust gas temperatures, and sometimes a slight increase in power that can quickly turn into misfires and a drastic loss of power, as well as potential engine damage, at ultra-lean air-to-fuel ratios. If modifications cause the engine to run rich, then there will be a slight increase in power to a point (after which the engine starts flooding from too much unburned fuel), but at the cost of decreased fuel economy, and an increase in unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust which causes overheating of the catalytic converter. Prolonged operation at rich mixtures can cause catastrophic failure of the catalytic converter (see backfire). The ECU also controls the spark engine timing along with the fuel injector pulse width, so modifications which alter the engine to operate either too lean or too rich may result in inefficient fuel consumption whenever fuel is ignited too soon or too late in the combustion cycle.

When an internal combustion engine is under high load (e.g. wide open throttle), the output of the oxygen sensor is ignored, and the ECU automatically enriches the mixture to protect the engine, as misfires under load are much more likely to cause damage. This is referred to an engine running in 'open-loop mode'. Any changes in the sensor output will be ignored in this state. In many cars (excepting some turbocharged ones), inputs

from the air flow meter are also ignored, as they might otherwise lower engine performance due to the mixture being too rich or too lean, and increase the risk of engine damage due to detonation if the mixture is too lean.

Function of a lambda probe

Lambda probes are used to reduce vehicle emissions by ensuring that engines burn their fuel efficiently and cleanly. Robert Bosch GmbH introduced the first automotive lambda probe in 1976[1], and it was first used by Volvo and Saab in that year. The sensors were introduced in the US from about 1980, and were required on all models of cars in many countries in Europe in 1993.

By measuring the proportion of oxygen in the remaining exhaust gas, and by knowing the volume and temperature of the air entering the cylinders amongst other things, an ECU can use look-up tables to determine the amount of fuel required to burn at the stoichiometric ratio (14.7:1 air:fuel by mass for gasoline) to ensure complete combustion.

The probe

The sensor element is a ceramic cylinder plated inside and out with porous platinum electrodes; the whole assembly is protected by a metal gauze. It operates by measuring the difference in oxygen between the exhaust gas and the external air, and generates a voltage or changes its resistance depending on the difference between the two.

The sensors only work effectively when heated to approximately 316 °C (600 °F), so most newer lambda probes have heating elements encased in the ceramic that bring the ceramic tip up to temperature quickly. Older probes, without heating elements, would eventually be heated by the exhaust, but there is a time lag between when the engine is started and when the components in the exhaust system come to a thermal equilibrium. This lag is due to the engine, oil, coolant, and other components' absorption of heat from the exhaust gases. The exhaust gases heat these other components, causing the gases to drop below the probe's operating temperature and therefore heat the probe slowly. The length of time required for the exhaust gases to bring the probe to temperature depend on the temperature of the ambient air and the geometry of the exhaust system. Without a heater, the process may take several minutes. There are pollution problems that are attributed to this slow start-up process, including a similar problem with the working temperature of a catalytic converter.

The probe typically has four wires attached to it: two for the lambda output, and two for the heater power, although some automakers use a common ground for the sensor element and heaters, resulting in three wires. Earlier non-electrically-heated sensors had one or two wires.

Operation of the probe

Zirconia sensor

The zirconium dioxide, or zirconia, lambda sensor is based on a solid-state electrochemical fuel cell called the Nernst cell. Its two electrodes provide an output voltage corresponding to the quantity of oxygen in the exhaust relative to that in the atmosphere. An output voltage of 0.2 V (200 mV) DC represents a "lean mixture" of fuel and oxygen, where the amount of oxygen entering the cylinder is sufficient to fully oxidize the carbon monoxide (CO), produced in burning the air and fuel, into carbon dioxide (CO2). An output voltage of 0.8 V (800 mV) DC represents a "rich mixture", one which is high in unburned fuel and low in remaining oxygen. The ideal setpoint is approximately 0.45 V (450 mV) DC. This is where the quantities of air and fuel are in the optimum ratio, which is ~0.5% lean of the stoichiometric point, such that the exhaust output contains minimal carbon monoxide.

The voltage produced by the sensor is nonlinear with respect to oxygen concentration. The sensor is most sensitive near the stoichiometric point and less sensitive when either very lean or very rich.

The engine control unit (ECU) is a control system that uses feedback from the sensor to adjust the fuel/air mixture. As in all control systems, the time constant of the sensor is important; the ability of the ECU to control the fuel-air-ratio depends upon the response time of the sensor. An aging or fouled sensor tends to have a slower response time, which can degrade system performance. The shorter the time period, the higher the so-called "cross count" [2] and the more responsive the system.

The zirconia sensor is of the "narrow band" type, referring to the narrow range of fuel/air ratios to which it responds.

Wideband zirconia sensor

A variation on the zirconia sensor, called the "wideband" sensor, was introduced by Robert Bosch in 1994 but is (as of 2006) used in only a few vehicles. It is based on a planar zirconia element, but also incorporates an electrochemical gas pump. An electronic circuit containing a feedback loop controls the gas pump current to keep the output of the electrochemical cell constant, so that the pump current directly indicates the oxygen content of the exhaust gas. This sensor eliminates the lean-rich cycling inherent in narrow-band sensors, allowing the control unit to adjust the fuel delivery and ignition timing of the engine much more rapidly. In the automotive industry this sensor is also called a UEGO (for Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen) sensor. UEGO sensors are also commonly used in aftermarket dyno tuning and high-performance driver air-fuel display equipment. The wideband zirconia sensor is used in stratified fuel injection systems, and can now also be used in diesel engines to satisfy the forthcoming EURO and ULEV emission limits.

Wideband sensors have three elements:

Ion Oxygen pump Narrowband zirconia sensor Heating element

The wiring diagram for the wideband sensor typically has 6 wires:

resistive heating element (2 wires) sensor pump calibration resisitor common

Titania sensor

A less common type of narrow-band lambda sensor has a ceramic element made of titanium dioxide (titania). This type does not generate its own voltage, but changes its electrical resistance in response to the oxygen concentration. The resistance of the titania is a function of the oxygen partial pressure and the temperature. Therefore, some sensors are used with a gas temperature sensor to compensate for the resistance change due to temperature. The resistance value at any temperature is about 1/1000th the change in oxygen concentration. Luckily, at lambda = 1, there is a large change of oxygen, so the resistance change is typically 1000 times between rich and lean, depending on the temperature.

As titania is an N-type semiconductor with a structure TiO2-x, the x defects in the crystal lattice conduct the charge. So, for fuel-rich exhaust the resistance is low, and for fuel-lean exhaust the resistance is high. The control unit feeds the sensor with a small electrical current and measures the resulting voltage across the sensor, which varies from near 0 volts to about 5 volts. Like the zirconia sensor, this type is nonlinear, such that it is sometimes simplistically described as a binary indicator, reading either "rich" or "lean". Titania sensors are more expensive than zirconia sensors, but they also respond faster.

In automotive applications the titania sensor, unlike the zirconia sensor, does not require a reference sample of atmospheric air to operate properly. This makes the sensor assembly easier to design against water contamination. While most automotive sensors are submersible, zirconia-based sensors require a very small supply of reference air from the atmosphere. In theory, the sensor wire harness and connector are sealed. Air that leaches through the wire harness to the sensor is assumed to come from an open point in the harness - usually the ECU which is housed in an enclosed space like the trunk or vehicle interior.

Location of the probe in a system

The probe is typically screwed into a threaded hole in the exhaust system, located after the branch manifold of the exhaust system combines, and before the catalytic converter. New vehicles are required to have a sensor before and after the exhaust catalyst to meet

U.S. regulations requiring that all emissions components be monitored for failure. Pre and post-catalyst signals are monitored to determine catalyst efficiency. Additionally, some catalyst systems require brief cycles of lean (oxygen-containing) gas to load the catalyst and promote additional oxidation reduction of undesirable exhaust components.

Sensor surveillance

The air-fuel ratio and naturally, the status of the sensor, can be monitored by means of using an air-fuel ratio meter that displays the read output voltage of the sensor.

Sensor failures

Normally, the lifetime of an unheated sensor is about 30,000 to 50,000 miles (50,000 to 80,000 km). Heated sensor lifetime is typically 100,000 miles (160,000 km). Failure of an unheated sensor is usually caused by the buildup of soot on the ceramic element, which lengthens its response time and may cause total loss of ability to sense oxygen. For heated sensors, normal deposits are burned off during operation and failure occurs due to catalyst depletion, similar to the reason a battery stops producing current. The probe then tends to report lean mixture, the ECU enriches the mixture, the exhaust gets rich with carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, and the mileage worsens.

Leaded gasoline contaminates the oxygen sensors and catalytic converters. Most oxygen sensors are rated for some service life in the presence of leaded gasoline but sensor life will be shortened to as little as 15,000 miles depending on the lead concentration. Lead-damaged sensors typically have their tips discolored light rusty.

Another common cause of premature failure of lambda probes is contamination of fuel with silicones (used in some sealings and greases) or silicates (used as corrosion inhibitors in some antifreezes). In this case, the deposits on the sensor are colored between shiny white and grainy light gray.

Leaks of oil into the engine may cover the probe tip with an oily black deposit, with associated loss of response.

An overly rich mixture causes buildup of black powdery deposit on the probe. This may be caused by failure of the probe itself, or by a problem elsewhere in the fuel rationing system.

Applying an external voltage to the zirconia sensors, e.g. by checking them with some types of ohmmeter, may damage them.

Symptoms of a failing oxygen sensor includes:

Sensor Light on dash indicates problem Increased tailpipe emissions Increased fuel consumption

Hesitation on acceleration Stalling Rough idling